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Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880–1974

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Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880–1974 Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880–1974 <UN> African Social Studies Series Editorial Board Preben Kaarsholm, Roskilde University Carola Lentz, University of Mainz John Lonsdale, University of Cambridge VOLUME 32 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/afss <UN> Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880–1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo By Abbas H. Gnamo LEIDEN | BOSTON <UN> Cover illustration: Portrait of a Gadaa leader, Abbaa Bokkuu, taken by Dr. Tuma Nademmo, September 20, 2013, from the Gallery of Artist Captain Lemma Guya, in Bishooftuu City, Oromiya, Ethiopia, and repro- duced with thanks and appreciation to the artist and the owner. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Gnamo, Abbas H. (Abbas Haji), author. Conquest and resistance in the Ethiopian empire, 1880-1974 : the case of the Arsi Oromo / by Abbas H. Gnamo. page cm. -- (African social studies series ; v. 32) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-90-04-25813-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-90-04-26548-6 (e-book) 1. Ethiopia-- History--1889-1974. 2. Ethiopia--Politics and government--1889-1974. 3. Central-local government relations-- Ethiopia. 4. Social structure--Ethiopia. 5. Oromo (African people)--Politics and government. 6. Arsi (African people)--History--20th century. 7. Arsi (African people)--History--19th century. 8. Ethiopia--Ethnic relations. 9. Imperialism. I. Title. II. Series: African social studies series ; v. 32. DT386.G63 2014 963.05--dc23 2013047240 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 1568-1203 ISBN 978-90-04-25813-6 (paperback) ISBN 978-90-04-26548-6 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Global Oriental and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. <UN> For my parents ∵ <UN> Contents List of Illustrations x Preface xi General Introduction 1 Context of the Study 1 Sources, Methods and Organization of the Book 14 Part 1 Oromo’s Socio-Political Culture and Institutions 1 Democracy without State: Egalitarianism, Justice, and Leadership in an Oromo Polity 23 Introduction 23 The Ideological and Philosophical Basis of Oromo Egalitarianism 27 The Gadaa-Qaalluu System: A Model of Social Organization 34 Democracy and Consensus Building in Oromo Political Culture: Tchaffee and Qixxee 41 The Tchaffee System 42 The Qixxee System 47 Conclusion 51 2 The Making of Oromo Kinship Identity and Structure: An Anthropological Analysis 55 Introduction 55 Gosa and Its Salient Characteristics 59 Exogamy 60 Patrifiliation and Territoriality 62 Patrilocality and Patrilineal Residence 63 Autonomy and Cooperation 65 The Socio-Political Functions of Dual Organization 70 Gosa, the Myth of “Tribe” and “Tribalism”: A Critical Insight 87 Conclusion 90 <UN> contents vii Part 2 The Empire-State, Conquest and Resistance 3 The Concept of Empire: What Makes Ethiopia an Empire? 95 Defining an Empire: A Conceptual Framework 95 The Ethiopian Imperial Conquest 111 The Salient Features of Imperial Domination 118 Conclusion 136 4 The Arsi Oromo Resistance against Ethiopian Imperial Conquest (1880–1900) 138 Introduction 138 The Critical Role of Firearms: Guns vs. Spears 142 The Beginning and Escalation of the War (1882–1885) 147 The Extermination Phase (1886): The Case of Azule and Anole 151 Conclusion 162 Part 3 The Cultural, Economic, and Political Consequences of the Imperial Conquest 5 The Introduction, Expansion, and Impact of Islam among the Arsi Oromo 167 Introduction 167 The Historical and Political Contexts of the Introduction of Islam 169 The Phases of the Spread and Consolidation of Islam 185 The Impacts of Islam on Oromo Social Organization and Culture 192 Islam and the Gadaa–Qaalluu System 192 Islam and Oromo Kinship Organization 196 Islam and Matrimonial Strategies 198 Islam and the Quest of Oromo Identity: Reflections on Current Developments 203 Conclusion 207 6 Dar Ager: The Making of a Periphery and the Features of Ethiopian Feudal Colonialism in Arsiland (1886–1935) 209 The Concept of Center-Periphery Relations 209 The Aftermath of Defeat: Establishing the Feudal Colonial Order 213 <UN>  viii contents The Naftagna and the Process of Land Alienation 221 Conclusion 241 Part 4 Governing the Empire: Politics, Economy and Society 7 The Nature of Political Administration and the Structure of Domination in Arsiland (1941–1974) 245 Introduction 245 The Aqni: The First Generation of Military Rulers, 1900–1935 246 Governing the Periphery: The Political Administration of Arsi Region (1941–1974) 249 The Ethno-Political Backgrounds of Governors 251 Taxation without Representation 255 The Forms of Corruption and Embezzlement 258 The Informal Structures of Domination 264 Conclusion 271 8 The Socio-Economic Condition of the Peasantry in Arsiland (1941–1974) 273 Introduction 273 The Socio-Economic Structure in the Post-Italian Period, 1941–1974 275 Development and Displacement: The Impacts of Mechanization on Farmers 290 Conclusion 297 Part 5 From Empire-State to Nation? Dilemmas of Change and Identity Politics 9 The Politics of Transforming the Empire-State: Ethnic Identity vs. National Identity in Ethiopia 301 Imperial Nation-Building 301 The Limits of National Integration through Assimilation 315 The Triple Crises of the Ethiopian State 322 The Crisis of State Legitimacy 322 The Demise of the Concept of “Ethnic Core” 328 The Collapse of “Nation-Building” Rhetoric 330 <UN> contents  ix The Paradoxes of Ethnic Federalism 331 Conclusion 337 Bibliography 339 Index 361 <UN> List of Illustrations Maps 0.1 Oromia Regional Map 5 1.1 Arsi Oromo traditional habitat 26 2.1 The distribution of Arsi Gosa 74 2.2 Arsi Oromo moiety system 80 4.1 Menelik’s conquest of Arsi Oromo 146 5.1 Islam in the Northeast Africa, Sudan and Ethiopia 169 7.1 Imperial political map, 1941–1974 250 9.1 Administrative regions and zones of Ethiopia 324 Figures 2.1 Close and distant agnates 58 2.2 Oromo kinship nomenclature 67 2.3 Oromo’s alleged genealogical structure 71 7.1 Imperial government and the structures of regional governance 246 Tables 2.1 Arsi Oromo kinship terms 66 6.1 The Balabbats of Chilalo Province, Arsi 220 6.2 The Balabbats of Fasil Province, Bale 222 6.3 The distribution of land to soldiers in Arsi 236 6.4 Types of land and tax (in Ethiopian Birr) 239 7.1 List of provincial governors before 1935 248 7.2 List of provincial governors, 1941–1974 249 <UN> Preface The journey to write this book commenced many years ago with research undertaken among the Arsi Oromo, the largest single group of the Oromo soci- ety inhabiting the vast territory in Southern and Southeastern Ethiopia proper, including most of the Rift Valley, Arsi-Bale massifs, and the adjacent lowlands stretching to Hararghe, Somali territory, Sidama, and Borana, etc. I went to all provinces and major districts of this cultural area. It would have been very difficult and even impossible to undertake such an ambitious endeavor without active support and cooperation from numerous people. I owe a great debt to my informants and elders who made themselves available for hours and days, even weeks for some, to share their encyclopedic knowledge about their culture and history. Their cooperation helped me to overcome many administrative and bureaucratic obstacles to collect original data. The data turned out to be critical given the paucity and poverty of written sources and enabled me to produce original dissertations both at undergradu- ate and graduate levels. Thus, without singling out one of them, I would like to express my appreciation and gratitude to all of them for making my fieldwork a success. However, this does not suggest that the quality of oral data gathered both in Amharic and Oromo languages was enough in itself; it was crosschecked with available sources in foreign languages to place the arguments and narratives in a coherent scholarly perspective. The current book is based on diachronic and synchronic approaches and, as such, I used both rich oral tradition and a wide range of literature in history, anthropology, political sociology, chronicles, travelers’ accounts and testimonies, and numerous unpublished dissertations. In fact, the list of my references grew longer with the breadth of my scholar- ship and the issues I have addressed in the different chapters of the book by blending neighboring disciplines, notably history, anthropology, and political science. In this research conducted over a long period of time in different continents (Africa, Europe, North America (Canada)) and in a variety of languages, I have benefited from the support and encouragement of many people including my teachers, supervisors, colleagues, friends, and students. I am thankful to all of them; particularly to those who instilled in me research methods and theories of the social sciences. Professor Tessema Ta’a of Addis Ababa University was the first in shaping my interest in history and encouraged me to dig deep for original sources and provided me with necessary guidance. In France, where I did graduate studies for numerous years, I was fortunate to have wonderful <UN> xii preface advisors and supervisors. Professors Jean Guiart and Pierre Bonte, whose scholarly guidance and assistance created a very positive learning and research environment.
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