Component-I (A) – Personal Details

Home , Deula, Eastern Ganga dynasty, Ekamra Kshetra, Kalinga architecture, Odissi, Pancharatha

Component-I (A) – Personal details:

Prof. P. Bhaskar Reddy Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.

Dr. Ravi Korisettar, UGC Emeritus Fellow Karnatak University, Dharwad.

Jitu Mishra and Zehra Chhapiwala Virasat E Hind Foundation. Bombay.

Dr. Ravi Korisettar Karnatak University, Dharwad.

Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Art and Architecture of India

Module Name/Title Kalinga School of Temple Architecture

Module Id IC / AAI / 20

Pre requisites

Understanding the evolution and silent features of Kalinga Objectives School of Temple Architecture with special reference to Bhubaneswar and Konark in Odisha.

Nagara School of temple architecture, Kalinga, Rekha Keywords Deula, Pidha Deula, Khakhara Deula, Bhubaneswar, Konark

E-text (Quadrant-I) :

1. Introduction

Odisha or the ancient Kalinga situated along the eastern seaboard of India has been a major centre of Hindu religious architecture from the 7th century AD. Bhubaneshwar, the capital of Odisha, literally means the Bhuban (abode) of Ishwar (Shiva). The city was at the heart of temple building activity of Kalingan order. The temples of Bhubaneshwar display exquisite craftsmanship and artisanship in the sculptures, carvings, ornamentation and architecture. The city was originally known as Ekamra Kshetra due to a popular legend as described in the EkamraPurana, a 13th century Sanskrit treatise that the swayambhu lingam of Lingaraja was discovered under a single mango (Ek Amra) tree.

Ekamra Kshetra spreads over 1.6 km with the Lingaraj Temple and the adjoining Bindusagar lake at its centre. According to the Ekamra Purana, 7000 temples existed in the vicinity of Bindusagar of which only a few hundred are extant.

From the 12th century AD, the focus of temple building shifted from Bhubaneswar to Puri (the great temple of Lord Jagannath, 12th century AD) and Konark (the Sun Temple, 13th century AD).

2. Kalinga

Kalinga refers to the eastern coastal belt of India between the Mahanadi and the Godavari Rivers (Odisha and Andhra Pradesh). In the 3rd century BC, Kalinga was annexed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka after the Kalinga War. It was subsequently ruled by several dynasties including Mahameghavahana, Sailodhbhava, Bhaumakara, Somavanshis and Eastern Gangas.

Between the periods of 11thto 15th Centuries AD, Kalinga was ruled by the Eastern Gangas, who also bore the title Kalingadhipati. Some of Odisha’s greatest temples, such as the

Jagannath Temple at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konrak were built during the Eastern Ganga rule. Their capital was originally located at Kalinganagar (present day Mukhalingam on Andhra – Odisha border) and was later shifted to Katak (present day Cuttack) in the 12th century AD.

3. The Kalinga School

The temples of Odisha followed a local style of Nagara or North India School of Temple architecture called Kalinga School of architecture. The temples of Lingaraj in Bhubaneswar, Jagannath in Puri and Surya in Konark represent the best examples of Kalinga School of Architecture.

The temples of Kalinga order followed a common structural and elevation plan. The elevation plan is based on certain fundamental principles of stability and is named after parts of the human body. The superstructure is basically divided into three parts, the Bāḍa (lower limb), the Ganḍi (body) and the Mastaka (head).

picture courtesy – wikimedia commons

Bada is the vertical section of pilasters from the Pithha (plinth) up to the base of the Kalasa. The enclosure created by this Bada is the Garbhagruha or the sanctum sanctorum. The different vertical sections of Bada from the bottom are

 (i) Paabhaga or Paada.  sacred foot

 (ii) TaalaJangha.  lower leg

 (iii) Bandhanni.  knee

 (iv) UpparaJangha.  upper leg

 (v) Barandi.  Waistline

Gandi is the body segment of temple above the Bada, where in the Rekhas or Paagas are prominent. These Rathakas or Paagas (Are the curvilinear pilasters like structures) rising above the Bada level, gradually curve inward and, form a horizontal surface called the Ghodachakadda. It is named as Ghoodachakadda because Chakaddameans a slab of stone and Ghooda means cover.

Gandi (Body)

In improvised temples, towards the lower middle portion of Gandi, Bajra Mastaka motifs are seen.

In larger temples more than one Ghoodachakadda are used, which means that many levels or closed chambers are created. As per rituals, various things were kept in these chambers. For aeration, small openings through UdayataSingha are kept. And these Udayata Singha are located above the level of Ghoodachakadda.Udayata Singhas are lions standing atop an elephant, a variation of the Gaja Simha Vidala (another commonly seen sculpture on Kalingan temple walls).

The Mastaka of temple generally divided into six parts:

1. Beki :The neck

2. Tripatta Dhara: Three thin line on upper portion of Beki and just under Amalakasila.

3. Amlakasila: It is also called the Amlakashree. A goose berry structured ribbed stone

4. Khapuri: Cap like structure on the Amlakasila.

5. Kalasa: Is the sacred pot with 8 subparts like Pada, Dori, Handi, Patti, Handi, Beki, Khapuri and Gaddi thus also called the Astanga Kalasa.

6. Ayudha: The sacred weapon atop the Astanga Kalasa on which the Dhwaja (flag) is tied

The floor plan has two apartments - The ‘deula’ is the cubical inner sanctum or apartment that enshrines the deity and is surmounted by a tall tower. In front of this is the porch, called the Jagamohana which is usually square shaped and has a stacked pyramidal roof. Later, two more mandapas or assembly halls, such as the natya-mandapa (dance hall) and the bhoga-mandapa(hall of offerings) were added in front of the Jagamohana.

In Odiya, a shrine is called Deula. In contrast to the North Indian temples, which are enriched with lavishly carved inner chambers and projected balconies, the temples of Bhubaneswar have dark compact interiors devoid of pillars and artistic decorations.

Kalinga Temples are typically of three types.

1. The Rekha Deula (those with a curvilinear roof above the inner sanctum resembling a peak called shikhara)

2. The Pidha Deula (the stacked pyramidal roof over an assembly hall)

3. The Khakhara Deula (the barrel vaulted roof with an inner sanctum)

RekhaDeula

 Rekha in Odiya means a straight line. The typical Rekha Deula complex has a shrine with different parts of the temple which align along the same (east-west) line or axis

 It is a tall building with a prominent curvilinear roof (shikhara or vimana) resembling the peak of a mountain which covers and typically protects the rectilinear sanctum sanctorum (garbagriha – shrine which houses the deity).

 These temples may have other structures as a part of a larger temple plan, or house a singular deity as a complete small temple.

 These are typically dedicated to Vishnu, Surya and Shiva

The most distinct examples of Rekha Deula type of temples is the Jagannath Temple at Puri or the Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar.

Pidha Deula

 Pidha Deula refers to the square building with a pyramidal shaped roof which consists of Pidhas (horizontal platforms) that are layered upon each other to form the roof, arranged into three tiers.

 Typically these structures are seen as supportive structures to a Rekha Deula style of temple with a Jagamohan (assembly or congregation hall), and often a Natyamandir (dance hall) and a Bhogamandapa (hall of offerings) are built in this style.

 A Pidha Deula is used to house the deity on very rare occasions.

 This structure is seen in Shiva, Vishnu and Surya Temples.

 The assembly hall of the Konark Sun Temple is an outstanding example

Khakhara Deula

 The Khakhra Deula is a different type of structure quiet similar to the DravidaGopuram design.

 The word is derived from Khakharu (pumpkin, gourd) as the crown looks like a barrel vaulted elongated roof.

 It is a rectangular building with a truncated pyramid shaped roof, like the gopuras.

 These temple complexes will have a Khakharadeula and a Pidhadeula, but no Rekhadeula.

 The temples of the feminine deities such as Shakti are of the Khakhara style

 Varahi Temple at Chaurasi and Vaital Deula of Bhubaneswar are examples of Khakhara order.

4. The Evolution of Kalinga School of Temple Architecture

The temples of Odisha portray a picture of organic evolution from Parasurameswar to Lingaraj in Bhubaneswar, eventually culminating in Puri and the gigantic Konark.

Phases of evolution

1. The Formative Phase – 6th to 9th centuries AD

Dominant Dynasty–Bhaumakaras

Finest example – Vaital Deula

 During this phase Rekhadeula style temples are seen with flat roofed Jagamohan.

2. The Transitional Phase – 9th to 11th centuries AD

Dominant Dynasty – Somvansis

Finest examples – Mukteshwar Temple, Rajarani Temple and Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar

 The Pidhadeula was developed and surmounted with a stacked conical roof. It became an inseparable part of the Orissa temple

 Ornamentation like Rathakas and agnishikharas were introduced on the Gandi

 Udayata Singhas embellished the Mastaka along with Amalakashila with khapuri, Ayudha and Dhwaja

3. The Mature Phase – 11th to 13th centuries AD

Dominant Dynasty – Eastern Gangas

Finest examples – Konark Sun Temple, Jagannath Temple, Puri

 The temples were built on raised platforms. As a result the pistha became clearly visible.

 The natyamandapa and bhogamandapa were added in front of the Pidha Deula, each structure ascending in height to the previous one.

 There was distinct development of the design in Saptaratha plan.

 Provisions are made for porches and subsidiary temples for accomodting the Parsvadevata

 One of the most dominant features of the Jagamohana was the Siksadana motif of a guru imparting instructions or related motifs of a royal figure surrounded by courtiers or riding in a procession. This became a standard decoration of the Gavaksamandana (panel on transept), a placement prescribed in the Silpaprakash. From this was developed the concept of Muktimandapa during 15th century.

4. The Decline Phase – 14th to 16th centuries AD

Dominant Dynasty - Gajapatis

5. Art

The sculptural art of Kalingan Temples may broadly be classified into

1. Deities

2. Celestial figures or apsaras/musician nymphs

3. Secular sculptures

4. Architectural motifs

5. Decorative patterns woven out floral and geometric motifs

Examples

Salabhanjikas or Yakshinis

Among the female divinities that adorn the temple walls of Odisha the most noteworthy depictions are those of Salabhanjikas, the woman embracing a tree, a fertility rite.

Fertility is seen in both the flowering trees and the voluptuous forms of women, and also sometime in the child accompanying a woman. Salabhanjikas are also Yakshis, forest

dryads, fertilizing deities who have the power to bring trees to flower by the mere touch of a foot. They were manifestation of Shakti, Lord Shiva’s female principle. After he divided himself into male and female parts, the male further split into eleven Rudras while the female divided into a multitude of Shaktis.

Hirapur, a village on the outskirts of Bhubaneswar has preserved a beautiful Yogini temple where Shakti is manifested in 64 forms. This temple is a part of a unique temple group that did not follow any temple architectural style prevalent at the time. These circular temples were built in hypaethral style (open roofed). One such Yogini temple is an inspiration for the design of the building that houses the Indian Parliament.

Yakshinis surrounding the temple are manifestations of Shakti. Through their glamour and power, these goddesses pull the devotee inward to the presence of central divinity. There are also beautiful alasakanyas (indolent damsels) vaunting their voluptuous beauty in seductive poses, musicians and dancers, figures of love, both sublime and sensual, in greatly moving forms.

Nagas and Naginis (Serpent Deities)

Nagas and Naginis coexist with Yakshis on the temple walls. These serpent deities are associated with the subterranean realm and are guardians of earth’s treasures. They reside in Patala, a more splendid city than Indra’s Heaven. Nagas and Naginis boast of many riches visible in their heavy necklaces, arm bands, crowns and by the jewel-offerings they hold in their hands.

On the walls of temples, the Nagas take on a worshipful role, offering both garlands as well as jewels.

Musicians and Dancers

Some of Odishan temples display musicians and dancers on their exterior walls. They are slender and handsome in appearance, some holding the lute, drums and other musical instruments.

Odisha has a rich tradition of music and dance. Odissi, the classical dance of Odisha is one of the oldest in India and its evolution can be traced in the temples of Bhubaneswar.

Ascetics

Several panels in Lingaraj and Brahmeswar temples show male and female ascetics preaching their disciples who stand in front of them with folded hands. They represent religious instructions. Odisha was under the grip of various cults such as the Pashupata cult and Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism for a long period. Adi Shankara established a mutt in Puri popularising the cult of Shri Vidya wherein the worship of Trinity was stressed upon. Later, Vaishnavism and the cult of Jagannath took over and is still going strong becoming an integral part of Odisha’s spiritual and cultural life.

Erotic Sculptures

Erotic sculptures are a noteworthy feature among later temples of Bhubaneswar and Konark. They mark their presence even in temples which are poor in decoration.

According to Prof K.C Panigrahi, depictions of erotic sculptures are influences of Mahayana/Vajrayana Buddhism over Pashupata cult. These cults/sects had permitted free indulgence in the sexual act as a method of attaining religious merit.

6. Important Temples

6.1. Parasurameswara Temple

Parasurameswara temple is considered the best preserved specimen of an early Kalinga Temple dated to the Shailodbhava period between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. The temple is dedicated to Shiva.

Parasurameswara temple has a vimana, the sanctum, and a bada, the curvilinear spire over its roof, rising to a height 12.27 m. It is the first temple to have an additional structure called jagamohan, compared to the earlier temples that had only the vimana. Though the temple is dedicated to Shiva, it contains sculpted images of Shakta deities, which are otherwise normally part of Shakta temples. The temple is the first in Bhubaneswar to contain depiction of Saptamatrikas, namely, Chamunda, Varahi, Indrani, Vaishnavi, Kaumari, Shivani and Brahmi.

6.2. Vaital Deula

This beautiful temple built in the 8th century AD is dedicated to goddess Chamunda. Locally known as Tinimundia Mandira, Vaitala Deula’s striking semi-cylindrical roof above the main shrine is an excellent example of Khakhara Deula style of temples.

The outer walls are encrusted with panels of Hindu deities, mostly Shiva and his consort Parvati in her Shakti form, hunting processions, capturing of wild elephants and the occasional erotic couples.

The facade of the deuḷa above the left of the Jagamohana is dominated by two Chaitya windows—the lower one having a beautifully carved figure of Surya the Sun god noted for its facial expression, with Usha (Dawn) and Pratyusha shooting arrows on either side and with Aruna in front, driving a chariot of seven horses.

The medallion in the upper Chaitya window houses a 10-armed Nataraja or dancing Shiva. In front of the flat roofed Jagamohana is a stone post with Lakulisha images.

6.3. Mukteswara Temple

The temple is an important monument to study the evolution of Kalinga School of Temple Architecture. Built in 950 AD, Mukteswara marks the culmination of all earlier developments. It has a decorative torana or arched gateway. It consists of thick pillars that have a string of beads and other ornaments carved on statues of smiling women in languorous repose. The temple has two structures namely, the rekhadeula or vimana (structure above the sanctum)

and a jagamohana or congregation hall, both of which are built on a raised platform. The temple is earliest to be built with a Pidha Deula type of structure. It is the only Odishan temple with rich carvings on its interior walls.

This is one of the basic reasons why Mukteswara Temple is also known as the "Gem of Kalinga Architecture”

6.4. Rajarani Temple

This magnificent temple is believed to have been built in the 11th century and was initially known as Indreswara and has a profusion of astadikpalas and apsara carvings adorning its exteriors. The sculptures are said to have a depth that was lacking in Mukteswara temple. The most notable is the image of Varuna that is intact and notable for its body ornamentation, coiffure and facial expression. Other sculptures include tall, slender, sophisticated apsaras in various roles and moods such as turning her head from an emaciated ascetic, fondling her child, holding a branch of tree, looking into a mirror, taking off her anklet, caressing her pet bird or playing a musical instrument.

Rajarani temple is built in the pancharatha style on a raised platform with two structures - the vimana (sanctum) with a bada (curvilinear spire) over its roof rising to a height of 18 m, and the jagamohana with a pyramidal roof. The vimana is surrounded by a cluster of miniature towers with double crowning elements and appears round much like the towers of Khajuraho temples.

6.5. Brahmeswara Temple

The temple is classified as a panchayatana temple, where apart from the main shrine, there are four subsidiary shrines in the four corners around the temple. On account of its later origin, Brahmeswara temple is a perfectly developed structure compared to Muktesawara temple. It has a wealth of sculptures including a great number of musicians and dancers, some holding lutes on the exterior walls. Iron beams find their first use in temple architectural history with this temple.

6.6. Lingaraj Temple

Lingaraj temple in Bhubaneswar dedicated to Harihara, a form of Shiva and Vishnu, was built around the time the cult of Jagannath was establishing itself in the 11th century AD. It is the largest temple of Bhubaneswar and one of the wonders of Medieval architecture in India. It represents the quintessence of the Kalinga School of Architecture culminating its developmental process. It has a distinct rekhadeula, pidhadeula, natya-mandapa and bhoga- mandapa. The temple complex has 50 other shrines and is enclosed by a large compound wall.

6.7. Jagannath Temple in Puri

Jagannath Temple in Puri is one of the highest achievements in the Kalinga School of Architecture. It is also an important pilgrimage destination for the Hindus. The huge temple complex covers an area of 37, 000 square meter and is surrounded by a high fortified wall. Within it are 120 temples and shrines.

The temple has four distinct sectional structures, namely - Vimana in Rekha Deula style, mukhashala (frontal porch), natya-mandapa, and bhoga-mandapa.

The temple tower was built on a raised platform of stone and, rising to 65 m above the inner sanctum where the deities reside, dominates the surrounding landscape. The pyramidal roofs of the surrounding temples and adjoining halls, or mandapas, rise in steps toward the tower like a ridge of mountain peaks.

6.8. Sun Temple in Konark

Among all the Kalinga temples, the one that stands unparalleled in terms of both architectural conception and sculptural brilliance is the great Sun temple at Konark. At present only the jagamohan remains (its soaring vimana lost long ago). The sheer size of the perfectly proportioned structure is matched by the endless wealth of decoration on its body – from minute patterns in bas-relief, executed with a jeweller’s precision, to boldly modelled, free-standing sculptures of an exceptionally large size.

It is a monument of epic imagination, is the realization of the creative upsurge of Kalinga architects who continuously built temples after temples for 7 centuries. The main temple was conceived as a colossal chariot with 12 pairs of wheels and drawn by 7 horses. The whole edifice seems to symbolize the Sun God emerging from the depth of the blue expanse. The lavishly ornamented wheels of the divine chariot are carved against the sides of the high platform and also on two sides of the east staircase immediately in front of the main entrance to the porch.

The height of the extant jagamohan is 39 m. The vimana, which was supposedly (70 m) tall, part of it was existed up until 1837. Among the structures, which have survived to the current day, are the natya-mandapa and the bhoga-mandapa.

The current temple is attributed to Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. His reign spanned from 1238 to 1264 AD. The temple may have been a monument to his victory against TughralTughan Khan. In 1984, UNESCO bestowed it with the honour of being a World Heritage Site.

7. Summary

With the decline of the Eastern Ganga dynasty came the decline in the Kalinga School of temple architecture. The Suryavamsi Gajapatis were more focused toward culture and literature rather than grand constructions. The rise of Jagannath cult also had a major influence and the Shaiva and Tantra dominated Orissa slowly turned Vaishnava.