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gna ora fMngmn n ulcPlc tde Volume 11 Number 1 November 2016 e Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies Volume 11 Number 1 November 2016 ISSN 2078 - 7 049

THE UGANDAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC POLICY STUDIES ARTICLES:

A Comparative Analysis of the Uganda Public Service across time since Independence: Hilda Musubira

Drivers of Recentralization in Uganda and Effect on Service Delivery: Martin M. Lwanga

Institutional Capacity Critical for Effective Record Management towards enhanced Transparency and Accountability in Public Procurements: Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa

Using Baseline Studies as a Basis for Monitoring and Evaluation: a Review of the Literature: David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello

Performance of Non-African foreign Commercial Banks in Uganda: Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Reward Policy as Distributive Justice: the Case of Primary School Teachers in Uganda: Wilson Muyinda Mande

Community Service Functions of Higher Education Institutions and Socio-economic Development in Uganda: Maria K. Barifaijo, Sebastian Bigabwenkya, Rose B. Namara, Felix A. Andama and Wilfred L. Bongomin.

Research Funding at Makerere University and its Implications on Human Resource and Institutional Development: Does gender matter?: Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa

Accelerating the Fight Against Corruption in Uganda: Strengthening the Coalition between Anti-corruption Agencies and the Media: Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija

The Controversies of Social Media Surveillance: When Privacy and Exposure are at War: Hawa Kasule

Can Social Media Enhance Service Delivery? Lessons and best practices: Flavia Kyeyago Ouma

THE UGANDAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT AND PUBLIC POLICY STUDIES Volume 11 No.1, November 2016.

http://www.umi.ac.ug

i The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Editors and Members of the Editorial Advisory Board Editors • Chief Editor: Dr. Proscovia Ssentamu Namubiru, Uganda Management Institute • Deputy Chief Editor Dr. Sebastian Bigabwenkya, Uganda Management Institute • Managing Editor: Dr. Rose B. Namara, Uganda Management Institute Editorial Advisory Board • Prof. Gelase Mutahaba, Department of Public Administration, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania • Prof. Joy Kwesiga, Kabale University, Uganda • Prof. Grace Bantebya, School of Gender Studies, Makerere University, Uganda • Prof. Yasin Olum, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Makerere University, Uganda • Prof. Mande W. Muyinda, Nkumba University, Uganda • Prof. Pamela Mbabazi, Mbarara University of Science & Technology • Prof. Samson Opolot, Centre for Basic Research, Kampala, Uganda • Prof. William Kaberuka, Makerere University Business School, Uganda • Dr. James Nkata, Director General, Uganda Management Institute, Uganda • Dr. Martyn Davies, Gordon Frontier of Advisory, South Africa • Dr. John Mary Kauzya, UNDESA/DPADM, United States • Dr. Randhir Auluck, Conventry University, United Kingdom • Prof. Muhamed Salih, Institute of Social Studies, Erasmus University • Prof. Paul Jackson, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Editorial Address: Uganda Management Institute (UMI), P.O.Box 20131, Kampala; Tel, 256-414-259722, Fax 256,414-259581; email: [email protected], journal@ umi.ac.ug, web: www.umi.ac.ug Printed and bound by: Uganda Management Institute First Published 2010 ISSN: 2078-7049 Copyright: Uganda Management Institute (UMI). All rights reserved. With exception of fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission in writing from the copyright holder. Authorization for photocopying items for internal and personal use is granted by the copyright holder for libraries in Uganda. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying such as for advertising or promotional purposes and for resale. Institutions for paid up subscription to this journal may make photocopies for teaching purposes free of charge provided such copies are not resold. Printed by Graphic Centre Ltd, Tel: 0701 446 340/0772 446 324 ii Introduction

Introduction

The Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies is a multidisciplinary Journal publishing a wide range of articles relating to public administration, management, leadership and public policy, from empirical studies and theoretical orientations to practical application. The Journal reviews books, essays, and research notes that are relevant to both scholars and practitioners involved at all levels of administration and management from various organizational forms including business fi rms, non-governmental organizations, public institutions and individual networks. Aim and scope

The Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies is a scholarly Journal published to scientifi cally address the problems, interests and concerns of managers and intellectuals concerned with management science profession. It aims at improving the understanding and practice of management. The Journal is an essential reading, publishing articles from a wide range of authors, both well-established scholars and young scholars. Thus the Journal is an important resource for: • Management Development Institutions • Social Science Faculties and Research Institutions • Graduate students, teachers and other researchers • Civil service practitioners • All those people interested in the practice of management and administration

The Scope of the Journal covers fi elds of management, administration, and public policy. Empirical and practitioners oriented papers and reviews are welcome for the Journal.

iii The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Editorial note

As is characteristic of journals of management and public policy studies, the central theme of the 11th Issue is service delivery in various sectors and fi elds from the lenses of both seasoned and upcoming practitioners, researchers and scholars. Therefore, this Issue provides a rich and interesting blend of perspectives on service delivery based on the authors’ disciplines, experience and research interest.

Musubira takes a comparative analysis of the Uganda Public Service sector since independence. She traces the three phases of public sector reforms and using relevant literature critically analyses their impact on public service delivery in Uganda. The author observes that although the current phase of reforms are intended to facilitate national development, improve service delivery and eradicate poverty, it is diffi cult to translate these into positive outcomes for successful public service delivery. She recommends the need to address the critical gaps identifi ed in the design and implementation of the initiatives towards the improvement of service delivery under the reform programme, with special focus on building institutional capacity, addressing corruption, implementing a motivational pay to Public Servants and ensuring the enforcement of auditing systems and the enforcement of the Standing Orders in the Public Service.

While decentralization is considered one of the successful public sector reforms in Uganda in terms of scale and scope, Lwanga analyses the shift in government policy to recentralize previously decentralized functions over a decade later. Using primary and secondary sources, he refl ects on three critical research questions, i.e., what are the drivers of recentralization in Uganda? To what extent does recentralization improve service delivery? What are the prospects of continued recentralization in Uganda? Underlying his analysis is a refl ection on whether recentralization is a threat to decentralization. The drivers of recentralization the author identifi es simulate a local and central character, and pivot on a struggle for political power and resources. Based on identifi ed parameters, the author notes that recentralization has improved service delivery, but acknowledges diffi culty in ascertaining its impact based on its phased approach and the underlying political intentions. Lwanga unveils pitfalls in recentralizing some functions, and recommends a re-examination of the successes and failures of the decentralized program in order to improve rather than abandon it.

Enhancing transparency and accountability is one of the indicators for improving governance, service delivery and development. Alinda and Mugisa explore institutional capacity critical for effective record management towards enhanced transparence and accountability in public procurement. They note that whereas Uganda’s Public Procurement system, through the Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Act and the PPDA authority is committed to ensure that all public procurement entities keep records of public procurements to desired regulatory standards, there is persistent poor record keeping in public procurements. Using an empirical study and through a variety of theoretical lenses, the authors report critical capacity gaps, institutional and technological challenges as barriers to record keeping and management in selected local governments. These factors compromise transparency and accountability in public procurement and disposing entities, and ultimately affect service delivery in local government. Based on the fi ndings, the authors provide recommendations to address the

iv Editorial note identifi ed barriers, including automating and strengthening monitoring and evaluation of the records management function.

Ssekamatte and Okello provide a practical example of how the monitoring and evaluation function can be institutionalized and sustained in an organization using baseline studies, not only as a donor requirement, but more so as part and parcel of the standard practice in monitoring and evaluation. Through a critical review of the literature, the authors provide an overview of a baseline study as a monitoring and evaluation tool, its applicability in various sectors, rationale and theoretical explanations underpinning a baseline, and utilization of baseline data in monitoring and evaluation. When well conducted, the authors postulate that baselines can inform the monitoring and evaluation processes and outcomes, and consequently enhance transparency, accountability and good governance.

In another empirical study, Nsambu Kijjambu and Ddumba-Ssentamu analyze the key factors accountable for the performance of the fi ve licensed non-African foreign commercial banks arising out of the recent reforms of the commercial banking sector in Uganda. Using multiple linear regression analysis and through the lenses of the global advantage theory augmented by structure–conduct performance and effi ciency hypotheses, the authors establish that apart from credit risk, management effi ciency, capital adequacy and reputation/goodwill are key internal ingredients in the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. Infl ation is the single external factor with a signifi cant impact on performance. According to their analysis, the internal ingredients fl ourish in an environment characterized by diversifi cation, investment in securities and correct prediction of infl ation. Based on the study fi ndings, the authors suggest policy implications aimed to improve the performance of commercial banks and abate the exploitation of customers.

In his study on reward policy as distributive justice, Muyinda Mande analyzes the effect of reward policy on distributive justice with particular reference to primary school teachers in Uganda. Based on a cross-sectional research design, the author found a close relationship between reward policy and teachers’ union leadership, and between teachers’ union leadership and distributive justice. Using a hypothetical model, the total causal effect of reward policy on distributive justice was statistically high. The author argues that based on the high cost of living, increasing teachers’ salary would not be sustainable by the government. He recommends that government should review the reward policy to include non-fi nancial rewards, since these increase teachers’ perception of distributive justice.

Barifaijo, Bigabwenkya, Namara, Andama and Bongomin examine the relationship between the community service function and socio-economic development in Uganda. Using the interpretive approach and the general collaborative theory, the authors explore the forms and strategies used in promoting the community service function, the contribution of community service to local socio-economic development endeavors, and the linkage of HEIs research and teaching to community service in three selected higher education institutions (HEIs). The fi ndings indicate that although there is a link between the HEIs and the community, this link is not strategic and deliberate. Additional, the community service function is intertwined with research and education, making it diffi cult to assess its single contribution to socio-economic development in comparison to its deliberate link to staff promotion and students’ learning.

v The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The authors identify the challenges HEIs face in undertaking community service and suggest recommendations.

Kaase-Bwanga and Kabonesa appraised the research funding patterns at Makerere University and its implications on human resource and institutional development from a gender viewpoint. Gender mainstreaming is one of the strategic crosscutting areas in the University’s Strategic Plan. Reviewing secondary data and guided by three theories, the authors establish that the University has various funding sources, which are fairly gender-responsive in terms of programming and organizational processes. However, beneath these processes is a gendered sub-structure that is reproduced daily in practical work activities. This sub-structure negatively impacts on female staff research productivity, and feminizes some academic disciplines, colleges, schools and administrative positions within the University structures. The authors recommend the rethinking of the research funding pattern by restructuring the organizational logic of the University, widening the sources of research funds, ensuring gender parity in the distribution and use of research funds, and building the skills of the existing female staff into role models for the female students. This way, Makerere University will achieve the dual agenda of effi ciency and effectiveness and remain relevant to national and international agenda.

The media is often referred to as the fourth estate in a democracy polity, playing a critical role as a watchdog, agenda setter and gatekeeper, and framing the discussion about corruption as a public problem, thereby empowering citizens to fi ght corruption. This basis forms a basis for Karyeija’s motivation to examine how the fi ght against corruption in Uganda can be accelerated through strengthening the coalition between anti-corruption agencies and the media. Using a qualitative exploratory study design, the author argues that the media has a big role to play in the fi ght against corruption, by fi rst and foremost overcoming corruption within its own ranks. The author contends that since the fi ght against corruption is a collective responsibility, the media should partner with anti-corruption agencies to accelerate the fi ght against corruption in Uganda. Drawing from the literature, the author suggests a four step- by-step approach toward forming and strengthening the coalition between anti-corruption agencies and the media.

Kasule analyses social media surveillance process from a privacy and exposure viewpoint within the surveillance society. This is against the backdrop that social media is characterized by a self-regulatory privacy policy regime that puts capital interests fi rst and surveillance normally occurs in political and economic forms and to a small extent, in social media. The author argues that although social media is used for e-management, there is inadequate knowledge by users about its surveillance affordances and technologies, as well as its link to self-exposure and privacy. This is the gist of the article. She fi nds out that from the exposure viewpoint, surveillance creates an unbalanced relationship between social media service providers and users, while from a privacy viewpoint the anonymity enjoyed by users is jeopardized by pervasive social media surveillance. This renders surveillance over social media a controversial issue. Moreover, the author makes suggestions to resolve this controversy, especially in the area of regulation and edu cation using an interdisciplinary approach.

Ouma argues that governments are increasingly leveraging social media to deliver better services to the public. Although this is considered a good example of open government that

vi Editorial note builds on principles of citizen centrality and information transparency, it is not clear whether social media enhances service delivery. The author uses the exploratory case study research design to examine this otherwise grey area, particularly in a developing nation, Uganda. She compares the drivers to the use of social media in government, the benefi ts, lessons learned, and best practices in managing social media for service delivery in two geographical cases, i.e. the UK Metropolitan Police and Uganda Bureau of Statistics. Findings show that social media has enabled citizen participation, increased transparency, collaboration and improved accountability in service delivery. However, in order to realize the full benefi ts accruing social media, the Uganda government should develop a social media policy to guide its integration in work processes.

vii The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Contents

Introduction ...... iii

Aim and Scope ...... iii

Editorial Note ...... v

A Comparative Analysis of the Uganda Public Service across time since independence Hilda Musubira ...... 1

Drivers of Recentralization in Uganda and Effect on Service Delivery Martin M. Lwanga ...... 12

Institutional Capacity Critical for Effective Record Management towards enhanced Transparency and Accountability in Public Procurements Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa ...... 22

Using Baseline Studies as A Basis for Monitoring and Evaluation: A Review of the literature David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello ...... 31

Performance of Non-African Foreign Commercial banks in Uganda Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu ...... 43

Reward Policy as Distributive Justice: the case of Primary School Teachers in Uganda Wilson Muyinda Mande ...... 62

Community Service Functions of Higher Education Institutions and Socio-Economic Development in Uganda Maria K. Barifaijo, Sebastian Bigabwenkya, Rose B. Namara, Felix A. Andama and Wilfred L. Bongomin...... 85

Research Funding at Makerere University and its Implications on Human Resource and Institutional Development: Does gender matter? Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa ...... 104

Accelerating the Fight Against Corruption in Uganda: Strengthening the Coalition Between Anti-Corruption Agencies and the Media Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija ...... 122

The Controversies of Social Media Surveillance: When Privacy and Exposure are at War Hawa Kasule ...... 133

Can Social Media enhance Service Delivery? Lessons and Best Practices Flavia Kyeyago Ouma ...... 143

viii Hilda Musubira

A Comparative Analysis of the Uganda Public Service Across Time Since Independence

Hilda Musubira, Uganda Management Institute Abstract

Uganda attained independence on 9 October, 1962. Since independence, the Uganda Public Service sector has undergone three phases of reforms. The Public Service is the administrative machinery through which the government effects and delivers public services. These reforms have had far-reaching impacts on public service delivery in Uganda. Nonetheless, the common focus on service delivery improvement has not critically analysed these reforms and their impact on the same. There is therefore a need to understand the reforms, their implementation and impact on the Uganda Public Service. This article therefore brings out a comparative analysis of the different phases of the Uganda Public Service since independence, and analyses the reforms and resultant impact. Specifi cally, the status of the Uganda Public Service is identifi ed, while critically refl ecting on the administrative bureaucracies and the respective Public Service regulatory regimes. This analysis is based upon a critical review of the existing literature on Uganda’s administrative bureaucracies, with a focus on reforms in the Public Service. The article establishes that before the reforms, specifi cally during the period of autocratic and corrupt regimes, the Public Service remained highly centralized and politicized. Further, it was characterised by poor remuneration, rampant corruption, non- performance and very poor delivery of public services. In response to these inadequacies and shortcomings, the Civil Service Reform Programme (CSRP) was initiated in the 1900s. In its initial stages, the CSRP recorded considerable success. Nonetheless, the reforms stalled in the mid-1990s and, in some instances and areas the reform efforts reversed. This reversal led to the initiation of the third and current phase of reforms which are focusing on human resource policies, institutional environment and public management systems that facilitate national development, improved service delivery and poverty eradication. To date (2016), there are signifi cant achievements in terms of outputs. Nonetheless, it is diffi cult to translate these achievements into positive outcomes for successful public service delivery.

Key words: Civil Service Reform Programme (CSRP), Uganda Public Service sector, Public service delivery, Reforms, Performance, Results-Oriented Management.

Introduction

Uganda attained independence in 1962. Since independence, the Uganda Public Service sector has undergone different phases of reforms. The Public Service is the administrative machinery through which government effects public service delivery. These reforms were mainly initiated from 1986, after the National Resistant Movement (NRM) took over government power. Prior to the reforms, the Uganda Public Service remained highly centralized and politicized, with poor remuneration, rampant corruption and non-performance. These shortcomings prevailed following the succession of autocratic and corrupt regimes. In response, a Public Service

1 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Review and Reorganization Commission (CSRRC) was formed with the aim of analysing the performance of the Public Service and proposing remedial measures for improving public service delivery. It identifi ed several key problems and inadequacies, including inadequate pay and benefi ts, poor management, dysfunctional Public Service organization, and inadequate personnel management and training. The CSRRC articulated a new vision of the Public Service thus: “a smaller, better paid, more effi cient and effective body, guided by fair, simple and consistent rules and procedures to foster discipline and accountability, while promoting personal initiative in the achievement of assigned duties and objectives” (Mutibwa, 1992). It is upon this new vision that in 1990, the Civil Service Reform Programme (CSRP) was introduced by the Government. The CSRP programme paved way for the current Public Service reforms that have been characterized by a variety of management initiatives to improve service delivery.

Despite the common focus on service delivery improvement across the different administrative regimes since independence, it is also imperative to understand the milestones and impact realized on service delivery. This article brings out a comparative analysis of the Uganda Public Service across time since independence (1962 to-date). Specifi cally the status of Public Service is identifi ed in refl ection of the administrative bureaucracies and respective public sector regulatory regimes. The analysis is based on a critical review of the existing literature of the Uganda administrative bureaucracies with a focus on reforms in the Public Service.

The article is divided into fi ve sections; with section one as the introduction. Section two of the article provides background information. It presents a review of the pertinent literature in respect to the post independence developments in relation to the Public Service reforms. It presents a critical analysis of the Uganda Public Service before and after the implementation of the Public Sector Reform Programme. Section three deals with the research question in respect to the topic presented. This research question is informed by the literature on public service as well as over 30 years experience that the author has had in respect to public service delivery in Uganda. Section four presents the observations and together with a discussion. The section also looks at the implementation of the reform programme, achievements and challenges. Section fi ve concludes the article with the major contributions that the Civil Service Reform Programme (CSRP) has achieved. It also points out the challenges that the reform programme is still facing.

Background information to the Reforms in the Public Service before the Implementation of the Civil Service Reform Programme (1962-1985)

When Uganda attained independence in 1962, she inherited the Westminster model in the Public Service that was originally set up and nurtured by the British colonial rulers. This model was premised on political neutrality in an environment of competitive party politics. The model emphasized the principle of meritocracy or the career of open talent. To this end, public servants were recruited on non-discriminatory basis by open competition regardless of class, ethnicity, race, sex, or religion. Promotions were based on merit and performance. The principles of honesty, integrity patriotism, incorruptibility and dedication to duty were emphasized. Public servants enjoyed attractive terms in reward for their royalty (Langseth and

2 Hilda Musubira

Mugaju, 1996). They were protected from open criticisms by the political leadership. According to Karugire (1996), independent Uganda had a strong, viable, and reasonably impartial and corruption-free Public Service which was reputedly one of the best in sub-Saharan Africa. It was lean, effi cient, well-paid and highly motivated. At independence, the Public Service was dominated by the British expatriates. Management of Public Service was vested in the Public Service Commission. The Obote I Government/ Regime:

Soon after independence, the principles of the Westminster model were eroded. During the early years of then Prime Minister Obote’s political regime (1962-1966), the Uganda Public Service was characterized by political intrusion at the expense of meritocracy or generally the principles of the Westminster model. The regime pursued a policy of “Africanization” without regard for performance, integrity, effectiveness and good governance in Public Service. Further, the regime promoted ethnic, religious and regional considerations in the recruitment and promotions of public servants at the expense of meritocracy. As a result senior positions in the Public Service lost professional expertise as the skilled and experienced white expatriates were replaced by fresh Ugandan graduates. In addition, the Public Service lacked the culture of learning, further training and upgrading for professional development which constrained performance (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). The powers of the Public Service Commission were reduced to an advisory and the management of the Public Service was gradually taken up by politicians of the ruling Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) party. This political intrusion further extended into the districts, where the UPC politicians took positions in the district appointment boards and also took positions as district commissioners and chiefs. The party card began to be a substitute of academic qualifi cations. Political intrusion meant a loss in discipline, morale, confi dence and institutional cohesion as the public servants who enjoyed political protection misbehaved and misappropriated funds with impunity while those who had no political protection suffered severe penalties, dismissals and arbitrary transfers on grounds of mere suspicion, contrary to the Public Service regulations. Consequently the Public Service institutional solidarity collapsed. The Public Service operated under duplication of services, poor coordination and low service performance standards (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996).

The quality of Public Service was further undermined by the 1966 political (Buganda) crisis and the subsequent drift to a one-party dictatorship between 1966 and 1971 (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). The 1967 Constitution put at stake the credibility of the Public Service with the centralization and concentration of power in the hands of the President. Further, the President was vested with the powers to appoint and dismiss public servants without reference to the Public Service Commission and the Public Service regulations. Hence, the Public Service was left at the mercy of the politicians both at the national and district levels. Public servants at the districts were answerable to central ministries which were remote and insensitive to the local circumstances. Thus constitutionalism and democratic governance in respect to Public Service accountability to the local authorities collapsed (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). The appointment of UPC functionaries undermined the credibility, legitimacy and respectability of the Public Service. Karugire (1996) observes that school drop outs, drivers and hawkers fi lled vacant posts in Public Service which undermined performance and morale in the service. Public servants became more and more demoralized and mediocrity, incompetence and the 3 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies abuse of power were pronounced. Highly experienced public servants quit Public Service jobs and joined the private sector while those who remained in service became too scared to perform their duties. Public servants who enjoyed political patronage and protection were rude, arrogant and often demanded bribes to obstruct service delivery for personal gains. The needs of politicians ruled over the delivery of services to the public (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). Hence the initial collapse of the Westminster model was attributed to lack of a viable Public Service culture, administrative inexperience, political interference and sectarianism. Public Service was an artifi cial institution which did not have solid social foundations. It had no strong traditions of royalty, cohesion and dedication to duty. The Ugandan public servants were more interested in benefi ts and sought personal privileges without hard work and sacrifi ce. This problem of absence of a deep-rooted Public Service culture was thus compounded by the problem of administrative inexperience. The (Amin) Military Regime

When Idi Amin seized power in 1971, Uganda fell under a military dictatorship. President Amin promised to end the abuses, injustices and sectarianism of the Obote 1 government. His areas of focus included the revitalization of the Public Service. He assured Ugandans that the military regime would restore the moral and political neutrality of the Public Service and enhance its capacity to deliver public services (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996).

However, this was not to be the case. Public administration was shifted from the traditional Public Service to the Army. The traditional methods of recruitment, promotions and discipline in the Public Service were discarded. Public servants were appointed and dismissed by Amin’s permanent secretaries without reference to the Public Service Commission, contrary to the Public Service Regulations, a scenario similar to the Obote I Government. The Public Service Commission was rendered completely redundant in the management of the Public Service. This compounded the issues of favouritism, nepotism and ethnicity. Army personnel were also recruited into the public service. The uncontrolled recruitment process gave rise to a new problem of “ghost” public servants. Public servants operated under the command of the illiterate soldiers. The Public Service was converted into a tool for the pursuit of private interests of the military personnel and the privileged few. Human rights violations fear and intimidation of the public servants persisted. Hundreds of public servants were killed while those who survived fl ed the Public Service and the country. They were replaced by unqualifi ed persons.

The military regime did not only destroy the security of tenure in the Public Service but it also sunk the morale and performance of public servants. Ultimately, the Public Service ceased to be a viable, confi dent, secure and effective public institution. Performance standards, morale and the integrity system collapsed almost beyond repair. Offi ces were converted into business premises and points of contact rather than places of offi cial work. Diversions, embezzlement, false claims and outright plunder of public resources were institutionalized. Record-keeping and accountability ceased to exist while corruption became an open and pervasive integral practice in virtually all offi cial transactions. In offi cial circles, accountability, integrity and honesty were replaced by greed and predation (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996).

4 Hilda Musubira

The National Liberation Front (Liberators) and the Obote II Regime (1979-1985)

In 1979 following the fall of the dictatorial regime, the Public Service continued to be characterised by corruption, ineffi ciency and incompetence. The Uganda National Liberation Front “Liberators” who took over power from the military regime engaged in corruption, misappropriation of public resources and embezzlement (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). They used their political power to maximize personal gains.

National elections were held in 1980 in which Obote’s political party, the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) emerged victorious, and Obote once again became president (Obote II regime). Thus even with the restoration of Milton Obote in 1980 (the Obote II Government), the regime had no chance of reversing the decay in the Public Service. A lot of time and resources were spent in fi ghting off the guerrilla warfare of the National Resistance Army (NRA) that was led by Yoweri Museveni. The evils of corruption, sectarianism and poor performance continued with renewed vigour. The informal culture of absenteeism, malingering, moonlighting became more entrenched in the Public Service. UPC functionaries were again appointed and deployed as public servants in the central and the local administrations. These put party above public interests and remained instruments of terror in the Public Service. Public funds and property were stolen and incriminating documents were destroyed as records keeping had ceased to exist. The Uganda Public Service was characterized by lawlessness, abuse of power, indiscipline and the fatal collapse of accountability systems. By 1985, the Public Service was in a state of complete immobility and institutional disintegration. The paralyzed Public Service was no longer a credible and legitimate public institution (Langseth and Mugaju, 1996). At that time, there were virtually no public services being rendered to the people.

In 1985, there was a lot of political uncertainty which culminated into a military junta led by General Tito Okello Lutwa. The soldiers ruled Uganda for about six months before the then rebels of the National Resistance Army (NRA) led by Yoweri Kaguta Museveni took over the reins of power.

It can, therefore, be summarised that from 1979 to 1985, all the governments that came into power had no positive effect on the public service and service delivery was virtually non- existent. The Public Service after the implementation of the Civil Service Reform Programme

In 1986, The National Resistance Movement (NRM) assumed power and formed a Public Service Review and Reorganization Commission (CSRRC). The commission was tasked to review the Public Service and propose ways of recovering the institution for improved public service delivery. The CSRRC unleashed several key problems, including inadequate pay and benefi ts, poor management, a dysfunctional Public Service organization, and inadequate personnel management and training. The CSRRC articulated a new vision of the Public Service: a smaller, better paid, more effi cient and effective body, guided by fair, simple and consistent rules and procedures to foster discipline and accountability, while promoting personal initiative in the achievement of assigned duties and objectives for improved Public Service delivery. Cascading from the recommendations of the CSRRC, the Civil Service Reform Programme 5 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

(CSRP) was introduced by the Government in 1990 (Opio-Lukone, 2004; MoPS, 2012). The new vision of the Public Service was|: “by the year 2000, to have smaller, result-oriented, transparent and better paid Public Service personnel with proper management and training, having shared values, supported by regulations that would ensure savings and eliminate waste through competitive approaches to contracting for goods and services towards realizing a more effi cient and effective Public Service”. The fi rst phase of reforms (1989-1996) focused on downsizing the bloated public service, while the second phase of reforms (1997-2002) involved the introduction of Results-Oriented Management, and continued restructuring and salary enhancement. In 1997 the CSRP was renamed the Public Service Reform Programme (PSRP) to refl ect the increasing importance of managerial practices of the private sector in government work. It comprised six components: (1) management of reform; (2) enhancing effi ciency and effectiveness; (3) management information and control system; (4) developing the human resources; (5) time management and organizational discipline; and (6) good governance and private sector development (MoPS, 2012). The third phase of reforms (2005-2011) focused on building the institutional environment and public service management systems that would facilitate national development, improve public service delivery and eradicate poverty.

Despite early successes, reform stalled in the mid-1990s while in some areas the achievements that had been made were reversed. For example, the number of public servants that had been reduced increased signifi cantly; there was a decline in the levels of performance and service delivery; and no progress was made on the pay reform. In response to these challenges, a Third Phase of reforms was launched in 2005. It was meant to run up to 2009 but was extended up to 2011. It placed emphasis on results and outcomes to create and maintain human resource policies, an institutional environment and public management systems that would facilitate national development, improved service delivery and promote poverty eradication. Implementation of the programme got underway with support from international donors, including the World Bank, UNDP and three bilateral donors (the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Sweden). Signifi cant results were realized but with critical challenges that triggered the change of focus as refl ected in the three programme phases (MoPS, 2012). Research Questions and Methodology

The major research question is whether the post-NRM reforms in the Public Service have enhanced public service delivery in Uganda. While public service reforms bear huge potential to contribute to improved public service delivery in Uganda, this article identifi es that this potential is yet to be realised mainly due to the critical gaps in the design and implementation of the initiatives towards the improvement of service delivery under the reform programme. Strategic measures to address the errors and improve the effectiveness of the reforms should target to address the critical gaps that have been identifi ed in the design and implementation of the Civil Service Reform Programmes. Special attention should be paid to building institutional capacity, addressing corruption, implementing a motivational pay to Public Servants as well as ensuring the enforcement of auditing systems and the enforcement of the Standing Orders in the Public Service. There is need for a clear comprehensive conceptualization of the reform change process. The reform programme should be informed by a clear understanding of the problems to be resolved by the reform, as well as having an agreement on the vision of the reforms and the implementation strategies. 6 Hilda Musubira

Observations, Discussions and Validation Implementation of the Reform Programme and Achievements

The First Phase of the Reforms (1989-1996)

The fi rst phase of the reforms that focused on downsizing the Public Service were implemented through the restructuring of the ministries and districts. These were rationalized with the aim of; producing smaller and more accountable organizations performing only core functions, eliminating duplication and enhancing coordination among institutions. Down-sizing meant that more funds could be released towards improving the remuneration of public servants and offering opportunities for the privatization of non-core activities, thus eliminating duplications and offering coordination among ministries (MoPS, 2012).

Restructuring took course in the aspects of the role of government at the district level, set objectives and priorities, performance indicators, elimination of redundant staff, and focused specifi cally on capacity-building plans. The focus here was to decentralize functions from the central ministries to the local governments according to the Decentralization Act of 1993, and to decide to transfer operational responsibility for the delivery of public services and the necessary staff, plus funds and assets previously controlled by the central government to the local governments.

In 1992, the restructuring process showed the number of ministries to have reduced from 38 to 21, as recommended by the Public Service Review and Re-organization Commission. The process led to the removal of “overdue levels” of staff (approximately 6,339 offi cials and 7,421 teachers) were removed from the payrolls, removal of ghost workers (about 42,000), the abolition of the group employee scheme (temporary short-term employees, about 30,000), the removal of redundancies arising from ministerial reviews, and the application of a voluntary retirement scheme in which about 4,500 public servants participated. In addition, 11of the 32 permanent secretaries in the central government were laid off. Overall, the downsizing exercise realized a 50% reduction (60,000 workers laid off within ministries and districts) was realized. The rationalization process led to a proposal to increase the wage bill from 21 (1994/95) to 31 per cent (1996/97) of the recurrent expenditures of government over a three-year-period so as to achieve the payment of the minimum living wage to the reduced establishment (MoPS, 2012). The Second Phase of the Reforms (1997- 2002)

The Second Phase of Reforms focused on Results-Oriented Management. The restructuring process continued and an initial step in the salary enhancement that was introduced in 1992 was undertaken, responding to the issues of slow implementation, with the assistance of an advisory service to focus and simplify the report of the Civil Service Review and Reorganisation Commission’s broad recommendations. This was in a bid to accelerate the reform process to the actual realization of benefi ts given the circumstances in Uganda at the time (MOPS, 2010). The objectives under this phase were; introduction of a minimum living wage payment and the introduction of results-oriented management, leading to improved public service delivery.

7 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The world over, the minimum living wage is a cornerstone for creating a motivated, result-oriented public service. It sets the minimum acceptable salary for the most junior grade of public servant. The living wage concept incorporates a base salary where all allowances, including housing, transport and health are consolidated into the pay package and refl ects full monetization and non-cash benefi ts.

The Result-Oriented Management (ROM) process was instituted, launched and disseminated in 1993. It was intended to provide practical guidelines for defi ning objectives with measurable performance standards and suggesting how and when the reform components should be implemented by ministries, districts and individual public servants. ROM was introduced with a detailed action programme. It would be evaluated based on data from baseline service indicators that would be established with the help of the World Bank. The revised action plan for implementing the minimum wage payment and ROM were packaged with six major components; (i) further rationalization of ministries and districts; (ii) strengthening the capability of the Ministry of Public Service (MPS) to manage and champion the reform; (iii) Monetization of benefi ts; (iv) Job grading; (v) Code of conduct and discipline and (vi) Information programme and communication strategy for reform (MoPS, 2009; 2011; 2012).

The Third Phase of the Reforms (2005- 2011)

The Third Phase of Reforms focused on building an institutional environment and public management systems that would facilitate national development, improved public service delivery and poverty eradication. To that end, a decentralization process was initiated, led by the Decentralization Secretariat in the Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) supported by an inter-ministerial committee that was responsible for monitoring the decentralization programme with other reform efforts. Working within the legal framework provided by the Decentralization Act of 1993 and Local Government Act of 1997, the decentralization process showed a transfer of real powers from the overburdened and under-fi nanced central government offi cials to the local authorities. Decentralization was meant to bring political and administrative control over services to the point where they are actually delivered, and in the process, promoting people’s participation and ownership of programmes and enhancing administrative accountability and effectiveness (Decentralization Statute, 1999). The District Service Commissions took over the selection, promotion and other personnel matters of staff under the District Services. The decentralization process came along with capacity building initiatives to enhance implementation. These included the following, among others: a. Development and dissemination of the Local Government Act and A Councillor’s Handbook and increasing fi nancial fl ows from the centre to local bodies amounting to some 30 per cent of national total revenues; b. Training local bodies in the aspects of fi nancial management including the budgeting process, budget implementation and monitoring, and cash fl ow management; c. Continued orientation workshops for all new councillors, District Tender Boards, accounts offi cers, and administrative offi cers; d. Training in decentralized planning, development of district plans, and preparation of annual budget of local bodies, in tandem with the national budget, assisted and advised by the support of the Local Government Finance Commission.

8 Hilda Musubira

Critical challenges

Throughout the implementation process, the CSRP and thereafter the Public Service Reform Programme (PSRP) faced critical challenges that constrained its effectiveness and effi ciency in public service delivery.

The programme lacked specifi city on the implementation areas and the respective implementers. The recommendations to be implemented were dispersed over too many areas without indicating key ideas or themes that would inform and bind them into some coherent plan of work.

Further, the programme did not properly articulate the roles of the government organizations that were to embed the reform systems that would be introduced by the Ministry of Public Service. In addition, the programme set unrealistic targets, faced management issues such as procurement delays and had little analysis of how different programme components might interact. The programme further faced the challenge of the increasingly growing number of districts leading to the growing numbers of public servants, which developments led to an increase in administrative costs.

Lastly, corruption has prevailed despite efforts of the general campaign in the reforms to combat it. Partly, this is due to the costs of political campaigning, in which the rising expenses for the candidates contending at all levels foster corrupt practices, a very low level of Public Service pay and a laxity enforcement of the auditing systems; plus the manifest failure to implement the Public Service Standing Orders and the weak laws or punitive action against corruption (Olum, n.d; Nkata, 2010). All these weaknesses have increased the element of corruption in the Uganda Public Service, thereby negatively impacting on public service delivery.

From the foregoing, it can be discerned that the public service and public service delivery largely depends on the type of political environment within which it operates. When the political leadership is not stable, there is an environment of uncertainty and instability which inhibits the performance of public servants, thus negatively affecting the delivery of public services. Conclusion

As noted from the above discussion, this article sought to compare the Uganda Public Service across time since independence.

Based on a critical review of the existing literature on Uganda’s administrative bureaucracies and the performance of the Public Service, the article has undertaken a systematic comparison of the post independence Public Service in Uganda. It has established the status of the Public Service in the refl ection of the administrative bureaucracies and respective Public Service regulatory regimes.

The article has established that prior to the reforms, the Public Service remained highly centralized and politicized, with poor remuneration, rampant corruption and non-performance

9 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies which led to poor service delivery. These shortcomings prevailed following the succession of autocratic and corrupt regimes. To address the errors and improve service delivery, the Civil Service Reform Programme was introduced by the NRM government. The fi rst phase of reforms focused on downsizing while the second phase involved the introduction of results- oriented management, continued restructuring and salary enhancement and the third phase of reforms focused on institutional enrolment and public management systems for improved public service delivery. These, to some extent, improved public service delivery in Uganda.

Despite the early successes, reform stalled in the mid-1990s while in some areas the successes attained were reversed. For instance the number of districts and the public servants increased signifi cantly; there were declining levels of fi nancial and human resources, which impacted negatively on performance and public service delivery; and no progress was made on pay reform. In response to the challenges, a third and current phase of the Public Sector Reform Programme was launched with an emphasis on results and outcomes ‘to create and maintain human resource policies, maintain an institutional environment and public management systems that facilitate national development, improved Service delivery and poverty eradication. Till today, the reform programme leaves a lot to be desired and is constrained by critical gaps in its design and the implementation of the reforms that are compounded by the failure to curb corruption. Besides, there are crucial institutional capacity gaps in the management and implementation of service delivery. Other than corruption, there is very low level of Public service pay, laxity in the enforcement of auditing systems and the failure to implement Public Service Standing Orders.

In addition to this, if government has to take charge of the Reform Programme, government has to set aside adequate funds for designing and implementing the reforms, other than relying on funding from the donors and development partners, who may have their own priorities and dictates. References Byarugaba F. (1994). Uganda: Thirty years of independence 1962-1992. In E.K Makubuya et al., (eds). Kampala: Makerere Publications pp.177-359. Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995) Karugire, S. R. (1996). Roots of instability in Uganda, Kampala, Fountain Publishers, 2nd Edition. Langseth P. and Mugaju J. (1996). Post Confl ict Uganda: Towards an effective Public Service. Ministry of Public Service. (2012). Strategic Plan 2012/2013-2016/2017 Accountable Service Delivery Ministry of Public Service (2010). Civil Service Reform Programme. Annual report for the fi nancial year 2009/2010. Kampala, Uganda Ministry of Public Service. (2009). Civil Service Reform Programme. Annual report for the fi nancial year 2007/2008, Kampala, Uganda Ministry of Public Service (2009). Report for the 5th Annual Review Workshop of the Civil Service Reform Programme. Kampala, Uganda

10 Hilda Musubira

Ministry of Public Service. (1994). Civil Service Reform Programme. Management of Change, Kampala, Uganda Mutibwa, P. (1992). Uganda since independence: a story of unfulfi lled hopes. London: Hurst & Company Ltd. Nkata J. L. (2010). Administrative reforms in Uganda: Lessons and Challenges. Paper presented at the Korean Association for Public Administration International Conference, October 7 – 8, 2010. Olum Y. (n.d) Public Service Reform in Uganda (1982-2002). A critical appraisal, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda. Opio-Lukone .V. (2004). Uganda’s experience with public sector reform key note address at the 9th Annual Commonwealth advanced seminar. The Public Service Commission Act (2008)

11 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Drivers of Recentralization in Uganda and Effect on Service Delivery

Martin M. Lwanga Uganda Christian University, Mukono

Abstract

Decentralization defi ned as the transfer of authority from central to local governments to perform certain duties, is seen as one of the public sector reform strategies to increase service delivery. Uganda is one of the countries whose decentralization reform was labeled ‘exceptional’ among developing countries in terms of the scale and scope of the transfer of power and responsibilities to the local level. But starting in 2005, the Government of Uganda started rethinking the policy. Among others the offi ce of Chief Administrative Offi ce (CAO) was recentralized taking the responsibility of CAO appointments from District Service Commission) DSCs) to Public Service Commission (PSC). This has been followed with recentralization of Kampala City under the management of a Central government appointed Executive Director and certain aspects of the Health sector. What drives this more recent development of recentralization in Uganda? Is it an indication of failure of decentralization? Scholars have argued that drivers could range from electoral politics, ethnic politics, to the need for fi nancial accountability. This paper seeks to verify these drivers with evidence from Uganda. The paper reviews different government, public and academic literature as well as fi ndings of other researches concerning the phenomena. Interviews were conducted with a number of key policy makers. Based on these sources the paper answer the following questions: what are the drivers of recentralization in Uganda? Further, to what extent does recentralization improve service delivery by increasing effi ciency, participation, accountability and effectiveness? What are their prospects of continued recentralization in Uganda?

Key words: Recentralization, Decentralization, Local Government, Service Delivery

Introduction

Decentralization in Uganda is not a recent development; it started in the colonial period where a number of laws were put in place to empower rural and urban local government to perform duties where the colonial government was indisposed. Laws such as the Native Courts Ordinance (1908) the Native Authority Ordinance (1919), the Local Government Authority (1949) District Administration Ordinance (1955) and Urban Authorities Ordinance empowered local governments (Villadsen & Lubanga, 2000). The British colonists governed Uganda through a loose decentralized structure with traditional chiefs working as sub agents, a system referred to as indirect rule.

In 1962 Uganda achieved independence and retained a decentralized structure through a federal constitution that left districts with limited administrative roles. Nonetheless, soon thereafter attempts were made by the Uganda People’s Congress (UPC) government to centralize administration. For example, in 1963 District councils lost powers to appoint and remove their political heads (Secretary General) which were handed over to the Public Service Commission where the UPC had more control. Indeed, in 1966 the UPC government abrogated 12 Martin M. Lwanga the constitution and all local authorities were centralized through the Local Administration Act of 1967. The Minister of Local government took direct responsibility for the management of Districts. District councils became agents of the central government and ceased to be known as governments. This continued to be the order of the day through the military rule of Idi Amin (1971-1979) that created ten provinces administered by military offi cers on behalf of the central government. The second UPC government (1981-85) restored the Local Administration Act of 1967 and governed through a centralized administration.

As a policy centralized governance is blamed for bureaucratic ineffi ciency and promoting dictatorship. It is pointed out that it stifl ed development through favoritism, nepotism, ineffi ciency, rigidity, arrogance, red tape, duplication of efforts and empire building (Nsibambi, 2001). Consequently by 1986 when the NRM government came to power, having already developed a decentralized grass roots local governance approach through the Resistance Council (RC) approach, which was legalized in 1987, a decentralized system was affected in 1992 under the Local governance decentralization program. Problem Statement

In 1992 Uganda launched the Decentralization program which received wide recognized as exceptional in Africa (Steiner 2006). However, in 2003 the Central government started withdrawing certain functions from Local governments like the appointment of CAOs. Since then there have been similar steps that seem to threaten decentralization in Uganda. The recentralization of previously decentralized functions presents a need for a scholarly examination of the drivers and effect on service delivery. Methodology

This paper is based on qualitative research as it seeks to capture opinions, refl ections and views of key actors in the Decentralization program. Data was collected through an examination of extant literature, observations and interviews with one administrator at Central government and two administrators at Local government level.

Decentralization under the NRM government

The roots of decentralization as inspired by the NRM government can be traced to the Resistance Council (RC) system during the fi ve year bush war. Though not empowered to collect taxes the committees were responsible for local administration like ‘issuing permits to allow a villager to travel to another village’ (Kasfi r, 2001: 20-4). Once in power in 1986 the NRM regime spread the RC system throughout the country. Due to their democratic nature RCs were ‘greeted with enthusiasm’, winning the ‘confi dence of members of the public… in most areas of the country’ (Golooba-Mutebi, 1999: pp. 105, 109). This system became institutionalized with the implementation of the Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Local Government System in 1987, which resulted in the 1987 Resistance Councils and Committees Statute. The 1987 law set up a fi ve-tier structure that consisted of the RCI (village), RCII (parish), RCIII (sub-county), RCIV (county) and RCV (district) with the additional offi ces of District Administrator (appointed by the President) and District Executive Secretary (appointed by the Minister of Local Government) at the RCV level.

13 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Decentralization policy was legalized in the 1995 constitution after a heated debate with proponents of a federal system of governance. Federalists were defeated on the grounds that decentralization would be more conducive to Uganda’s national unity as opposed to federate along ethnic sub regions. The 1997 Local Government Act decongested and devolved power at fi ve levels of government: ranging from LCI to LC5 which became corporate bodies with responsibilities in areas of fi nance, planning and personnel matters. Power was now transferred to the people through local government. Decentralization was seen in line with the quest for good governance by promoting democratization, participation, accountability and responsibility at the local levels. The aims of decentralization was to overcome the weaknesses of centralization by transferring power to local government, reduce workload at center, foster greater fi nancial accountability, limit red tape by fostering a more responsive system of governance.

The resultant effect led Uganda’s decentralization reform to be labeled ‘exceptional’ among developing countries in terms of the scale and scope of the transfer of power and responsibilities to the local level (Steiner, 2006). Scholars have referred to the decentralization program as ‘one of the most far-reaching local government reform program in the developing world’ (Francis and James, 2003) and as ‘one of the most radical devolution initiatives of any country at this time’ (Mitchinson, 2003).

Under Uganda’s decentralization framework, the district is the highest level of local government. Below the district are lower local governments (municipalities, city divisions, town councils, and sub counties). The District Council is the highest political organ of local government and comprises the elected district chairperson as the political head plus a number of councilors representing electoral areas of the district and interest groups youth, people with disabilities and women. The process of decentralization involved devolution with functions being transferred from the center to local bodies. Central government retained responsibility for national security, planning, immigration, foreign affairs and national projects, and all other functions were devolved to local institutions. According to the Local Governments Act 1997 (ss. 96-99) the role of the center visa-vis line ministries and the Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) is limited to coordination, advocacy for local government, inspection, monitoring, technical advice and training supervision within respective sectors . From Decentralization to Recentralization

Recentralization is not a new phenomenon in Uganda’s political evolution as already highlighted with the UPC government taking certain measures to recentralize certain functions shortly after independence. Whereas the colonial government had governed through a decentralized framework the 1964 Urban Authorities Act and the 1967 Local Administrations Act created a uniform set of regulations that gave the Central Government control over local administration in each district. The 1967 Constitution abolished kingdoms and made them districts as well. There were 18 districts overall. Extensive powers for the Minister responsible for Local Governments were provided for in the Constitution.

The powers allowed the Minister to, among others, determine the number of Local Councils, and approve Council elections and bye-laws. Under the Idi Amin regime (1971-79) the country was divided into 10 provinces directly ruled by the military governors.

14 Martin M. Lwanga

However, in 1987, the NRM Government set up a Commission of Inquiry into Local Governments to review the Local Government System and Structures in Uganda in 1987. The Commission recommended, among others, to raise the profi le of the Local Councils and grant them suffi cient authority and autonomy. Eventually, in 1992, the Museveni government launched the Local Government Decentralization Program. Subsequently, the Local Governments (Resistance Councils) Statute 1993 which emphasized greater Local Government autonomy and authority including principles of non-subordination was enacted.

But starting in 2003, the Government of Uganda started rethinking the decentralization policy. For example, the appointment of the Chief Administrative Offi cer (CAO, which had been given to District Service Commission (DSC) was restored back to the central government. While the donor community and a number of stakeholders opposed the move (Nabaho, 2013), the government put up a spirited fi ght, which highlights some of the drivers behind recentralization some of these included: Political Interference by Local Authorities

Under decentralization legally and politically, the Local Government Council is responsible for all local government functions, including planning, fi nancial accountability and the delivery of public goods and services (Natamba, et al., 2010). However, the central government desirous to protect local administration from interference by local politicians has taken over certain functions, as when the appointment of CAO was recentralized.

Here, it was argued that there was an urgent need to insulate CAOs from incessant and undue local political interference and pressures, from local authorities. Appointment of CAOs by districts, it was argued, exposed them to tremendous local pressure to contravene established regulations and procedures, especially on fi nancial management and resource allocation (Kiyaga-Nsubuga & Olum, 2009).

CAOs who did not succumb to these pressures had been dismissed by their respective DSCs. Francis and James (2003) highlight a case where a DSC of one district dismissed a deputy CAO, under pressure from the district executive, for questioning the use of the unconditional grant for elected leaders’ allowances. The central government argued recentralization would enable the CAO to be independent from the political control of district councils. This would in turn create an environment for CAOs to operate within the provisions of the law as it would eliminate pressure on the CAO to approve illegal expenditure. Lack of Financial discipline by Local Authorities

The Constitution and the Local Governments Act allowed Local Governments to collect revenue from a number of specifi ed sources, formulate plans and budgets, allocate expenditure, and make investments in a wide range of services. Local Governments fi nance their recurrent budgets from local revenue and transfers in form of unconditional grants. The Local Government Act (CAP 243; GoU 1997) provided three types of fi scal transfers (conditional, unconditional and equalization grants) to local governments to implement their decentralized responsibilities. Unconditional grants are given as a minimum grant to local government to run decentralized services. Conditional grants are given for services agreed

15 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies with central government and provided by local governments, and may not be used for any other purpose apart from the one for which it is provided. Equalization grants are given to those local governments lagging behind the national average standards in service delivery.

By 1999, central government transfers amounted to over 93% of the local government funding (Saito, 2003). Local Governments experienced an unstable local revenue performance. The total own source of revenue started to decline from Ug Shs 130 bn in FY 1997/98 to a low level of Ug. Shs 70 bn in FY 2003/04. Meanwhile there was a growth in Central Government transfers since 1997 to 2008, (224.9bn in 1997/8 to 1,048.9bn in 2007/8 which was a 366.4% increase (MOLG, 2014). At the same time, cases of resource misappropriation were frequently reported in the media, and reports of the Auditor General. In view of the above, central government argued for powers to appoint accounting offi cers who would be centrally accountable for central government transfers and use them frugally for maximum service delivery.

Central government would therefore be in position to sanction accounting offi cers who fl out fi nancial management laws and regulations, in contrast to a separate personnel system where it would merely recommend to DSCs to take disciplinary action against errant accounting offi cers.

Further, in recentralizing certain functions, as happened where the procurement of drugs was restored back to the National Medical Stores (NMS) from districts, the need to curb corruption has been cited. The issue of corruption at Local Government has been widely noted. Survey evidence suggests that Ugandans fi nd local offi cials more corrupt than central government offi cials, with corruption increasing as one moves upwards from the village level to the district (Deininger & Mpuga 2005: 178). Subsequently, in 2006 the Local Government Act was amended to strip local governments of the power to govern a procurement system, abolishing the former local tender boards that were appointed by councils. There had been accusations that these procurement entities had become instruments of cronyism and patronage and were corrupt (CLGF, 2007). Human Resource Crisis at Local level

Uganda has frequently been cited as one of the countries with severe shortage of health workers (Lwanga, 2003:25). The health worker to population ratio in Uganda is 1:1298 compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines of 1:4391. The former Uganda minister of health, Dr Stephen Malinga, advocated recentralization of health services back under the control of central government in a bid to address a major shortage of medics in rural areas, noting, “most health workers do not want to work in the countryside, especially under the local government, because of the limited opportunities for promotion and further education.” (The Guardian 7 May 2010). Subsequently the Health Strategic Investment 2010/11-2014/15 plan points out that while Local Governments are to remain responsible for recruitment of staff at district level, over the implementation of the HSSP III the Ministry of Health Headquarters shall recentralize the recruitment of senior staff such as medical doctors. Aside from health workers not wanting to work in up country hard to reach duty stations, decentralization provided for the recruitment of staff by local authorities and instances of abuse by preferring “unqualifi ed sons of the soil” were found, exacerbating human resource crisis. For example, in the case of the recruitment of CAO, it was pointed out it tended to be inward looking and biased against candidates from other districts, favoring

16 Martin M. Lwanga people of local origin. Instead of appointing staff ‘for the district from the national labor market’, errant DSCs tend to appoint staff ‘for the district from the local/district labor market’ (Nabaho, 2012: 80), limiting opportunities for recruiting people with relevant competences (IGG, 2008). The decision by the Public Service Commission to retire some CAOs due to lack of requisite qualifi cations immediately after recentralization lends credence to the idea that some DSCs had breached merit principles during recruitment and selection of staff. Fear of Local Autonomy

The length of NRM government which is coming to nearly 30 years in power can be attributed to its total control of the nation brooding minimal opposition starting with local authorities (Aili, 2010). Where it has seen a threat the NRM government has not be hesitant to curtail such power. This can be revealed in two instances that culminated in recentralization.

In November 2010 the Ugandan Parliament at the request of the Cabinet passed the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) Act which brought the affairs of the Kampala under direct supervision of the central government. Previously, Kampala City Council was administered as a district under the Local Government Act 1997. According to the KCCA Act, the Town Clerk who was formally the highest fi nancial offi cer in the City was replaced by an Executive Director answerable to the central government Minister for Kampala Capital City Authority. The elected Mayor became the Lord Mayor, a largely ceremonial position. Throughout NRM tenure in power Kampala has had a long history of leaning towards opposition, being the center of sporadic protests and electing key opposition elements in critical decision making offi ces like Mayor. The move to recentralize the management of the city and have the President appoint the Executive Director and her deputy is an attempt to undermine the infl uence of the opposition and weaken her power base. Following the recentralization this has resulted in the central government increasing her fi nancial allocation to the city, and thereby having greater control of her affairs and ultimately weakening the opposition in power. Ever since the Lord Mayor who arises from the opposition was elected into offi ce in 2011 he has been assigned limited and in 2013 under a meeting chaired by the central government minister he was impeached from offi ce (Mwanguhya, 2013).

Likewise the recentralization of the offi ce of CAO was also motivated by the desire to curtail local autonomy. As Nabaho (2013) notes, when the NRM lost in elections, President Museveni accused CAOs of conniving with the opposition (Awortwi, 2011:368). Soon after the February 2006 elections, President Museveni accused CAOs of being sympathizers of opposition political parties and threatened to appoint only those who subscribe to NRM government philosophy as CAOs (Awortwi, 2011). Immediately after 2006 elections, all CAOs were required to apply for their jobs alongside new applicants. Recentralization of CAOs was therefore part of a broader scheme by government to minimize the risk of losing to any competitor (Awortwi, 2011). Has recentralization improved service delivery?

Recentralization can be seen as an attempt to improve service delivery, where Local governments have failed. For example, with the recentralization of Kampala and the central government

17 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies having a greater control of her affairs through increased fi nancial allocation, the city has since undergone a restructuring and subsequent improvement in delivery of services. In a period of three years from 2011 to 204 local revenue collection grew by 86%, 146 Kms of road were upgraded, garbage collection was doubled from 14,000/tons per month to 32,000/ tons, among others (Three Years of KCCA, 2014). However, assessing the full impact of recentralization nationwide on service delivery is still diffi cult as the process is being implemented piecemeal. But, where it has happened we can examine its effect on service delivery based on certain agreeable parameters and standards. These parameters include: Effi ciency of service delivery

Decentralization’ refers to the transfer of power over decision-making and implementation to lower administrative levels for purposes of improving effi ciency and effectiveness (Kiyaga Nsubuga, 2004). The health sector has been decentralized, with a District Director of Health Services (DDHS) leading a district health team while hospital management boards are appointed by local councils. As earlier noted, concerns were expressed that the shortage of health workers in certain districts was as result of giving autonomy to DSC to procure health workers, which was subsequently recentralized for senior staff. Further, the shortfall districts were experiencing in drugs was also blamed on decentralization and the function was restored to NMS. Presently, districts are asked to list drugs worth a given amount of money and forward the requests to NMS to deliver the drugs.

But has this improved service delivery? District leaders have criticized the recentralization of drug procurement citing it as responsible for drug stock-outs, irrelevant and expired drugs. In the month of December, 2009, Soroti, Hoima, Mbale, Amuru, Mbarara and Gulu districts were reported to ran out of essential drugs. “Sometimes when you request for drugs worth sh10m, you receive drugs worth sh8m, including drugs that you did not ask,” lamented Francis Lukoya, the LC5 chairman for Mukono district. This was blamed on NMS using a regional drugs delivery system which takes longer for districts in a given area to receive drugs (Kato, 2010). Effect on Accountability

Several key offi ces such as the Executive Director of KCCA and CAO are now directly under the control of the central government lessening the infl uence of local authorities on their performance. Since the Executive Director of KCAA is now appointed by the President, the line of accountability has been extended to the President who has a Minister for Kampala city apparently to oversee the offi ce. In a series of pitched battles between the Executive Director and the opposition leaning elected Mayor the government has not hesitated to swing in favor of her appointed offi cial.

The Secretary of Treasury has also in what was termed as government crackdown “on non-accountability of public funds and other itches to service delivery” dropped 27 CAOs citing the mandate from the Public Fnance Management Act (Mugerrwa, 2015).

18 Martin M. Lwanga

Nabaho (2013) notes that the recentralization of the CAO has impacted on accountability in local governments in two major ways: shift in reporting and allegiance of top administrators in districts; and weakening control over the CAO by elected councils; Recentralization has created two masters for the CAO: the district council and central government. This has shifted the pattern of reporting for the CAO from being uni-directional to being bidirectional. Currently, the CAO reports upward to central government and downward to the district council.

Brinkerhoff (2001:2) opines that the essence of accountability is answerability; being accountable means having the obligation to answer questions regarding decisions and/or actions. Decentralization would mean that public servants are more accountable to the people who directly hold them to account. However, with recentralization, local governments, as there are hardly involved in the appointing process, are not the centers of accountability which does undermines performance. Effect on Empowerment

Decentralization is often hailed because it brings government closer to its citizens and provides opportunities for participation in decision- making (Sonko, 2013). This is due to proximity of decision making center which increases opportunities for public choice and democratic participation. In instances of recentralization proximity and choice by local authorities is widened. Th is is certainly the case with the new policy of NMS procuring drugs for Health centers as opposed to the old policy where Districts would shop for their needs.

Indeed, in the case of recentralizing the offi ce of CAO, as Nabaho (2013) notes:

It has substantially reduced the control of elected politicians over top administrators in local governments….Though the CAO is responsible to the elected district chairperson and the district council, the chairperson and council cannot sanction the CAO, in contrast to the pre-decentralization era, where district councils could remove CAOs through DSCs. Under the current legal regime, councils can only recommend removal of a CAO by a resolution supported … Elected district chairpersons were of the view that CAOs now feel they are superior and exhibit arrogant tendencies toward councilors and elected district chairpersons.

Increased fi nancial dependency

Recentralization increases the dependency of Local Authorities on the central government for revenue which does not foster good governance. Up until 2005 the vast majority of local revenue—84 per cent at the district level—came from graduated personal tax (GPTs). But the GPT was regarded as a regressive tax, characterized with extremely arbitrary system of assessing household income. The unpopularity of the GPT led to government eliminating the GPT altogether in late 2005 in the run-up to the 2006 presidential elections, as were market dues and taxes on boda-boda drivers. In an attempt to replace the GPT with new sources of local revenue the government created two new local taxes in 2008: local hotel tax and local service tax. However, so far neither tax has produced much revenue for local governments, generating an average of 6 billion USH per year compared to 80 billion which they used to

19 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies collect with GPT (Green, 2013). Ultimately the result, has been that local governments have become even more reliant upon the central government for 95 per cent of their budget (New Vision, 4 July 2010). And to make matters worse, the money that is released by the central government often comes late, which has led numerous local government offi cials to ask for the GPT to be reinstated or ask for a 1 per cent addition to VAT ( Green, 2013). Conclusion and Recommendation

Decentralization of local governance has been seen as one of the most ambitious reforms undertaken by Uganda since independence in 1962 (Saxena, et al, 2010). Various scholars have praised the Ugandan decentralization reform initiated in 1992 as exceptional among developing countries, in terms of the scale and scope of the transfer of power and responsibilities to the local level (Steiner, 2006). However, the decentralization program is now being threatened by knee jerk developments manifested through recentralization of previously decentralized functions. To minimize this danger there is a need for a reassessment of the success and failure of decentralized program. This could help rectify some of the gaps that have fueled those steps. This paper has highlighted some of the drivers behind recentralization of functions previously decentralized. However, it is important to note there is no evidence to suggest that Uganda will retrace her steps and go back to recentralization of Local Government as witnessed in the 1960s, following the colonial period. The drivers tend to mitigate emerging problems though such steps tend to be short term driven and at times opportunistic. As decentralization occurs within a porous and toxic political environment cases are bound to happen of abuse by certain political forces causing the withdrawing of those decentralized functions from Local governments. Yet, even as that happens, where certain functions have been recentralized, this should be seen as a temporary measure meant to rectify the defects in decentralization, a system bound to stay and whose weakness need to be addressed directly without abandoning it. We therefore recommend a more critical refl ection on the practice of decentralization in Uganda and how it can be practiced with a political context to illuminate how the system can be strengthened. References

Aili, M. T. (2010). Museveni’s Uganda: Paradoxes of Power in a Hybrid Regime. Lynne Reinner Publishers: London, Awortwi, N. (2011). An unbreakable path? A comparative study of decentralization and local government development trajectores in Ghana and Uganda. In International Review of Administrative Sciences, 77(2), pp. 347-377. Brinkerhoff, D. W. (2001). Taking Account of Accountability: A Conceptual Overview and Strategic Options. Draft report for the Implementing Policy Change Project, Phase 2, Center for Democracy and Governance, USAID. Abt. Associates, Inc., Washington, DC. Mimeo CLGF (2007). Meeting the Challenges of the Aberdeen Agenda: An Assessment of Local Governance and Democracy in Uganda, report commissioned by CLGF. London: (CLGF) Commonwealth Local Government Forum Deininger, K., and Mpuga, P. (2005). Does Greater Accountability Improve the Quality of Public Service Delivery? Evidence from Uganda. World Development, 33(1), 171-91.

20 Martin M. Lwanga

Francis, P., and James, R. (2003). Balancing rural Poverty reduction and citizen participation: The contradictions of Uganda’s decentralization programme. In World Development 31(2), 325-337. Golooba-Mutebi, F. (1999). Decentralization, Democracy and Development Administration in Uganda, 1986-1996: Limits to Popular Participation. Unpublished PhD, London School of Economics, London. Green, E., (2013) The rise and fall of Decentralization in contemporary Uganda. Wider Working Paper No. 2013/078. Kasfi r, N. (2001). Guerrillas and Governance: The Ugandan National Resistance Army, Civilians and Committee Organization. Paper presented at the 3rd Meeting of the Laboratories in Comparative Ethnic Processes. Kato, J. (January 13th, 2010). Districts blame medical stores for drug shortage. The Daily Monitor. Kiyaga-Nsubuga, J. (2004). Decentralization, Local governance and poverty reduction: A theoretical exploration. A paper presented at Uganda Management Institute, Kampala, Uganda. Kiyaga-Nsubuga, J., & Olum, Y. (2009). Local Governance and Local Democracy in Uganda, Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, 2, 26-43 Lwanga, M, M. (2003). Things Fall Apart in Uganda: How to build a liberal developmental middle income Uganda that works. Kampala: Everyone Publishers. Malinga, J. (May 7th, 2010). Uganda Government seeks to end decentralization of health care. The Guardian. Mugerwa, J. (June 18th, 2015). Finance drops 50 accounting offi cers. The Daily Monitor. Mwanguhya, C. M. (November 26th, 2013(. What next for Erias Lukwago Mayor Kampala City. The New Vision. Mitchinson, R. (2003). Devolution in Uganda: An experiment in local service delivery. In Public Administration and Development, 23(3), pp. 241-248. Nabaho, L. (2012). Driving up Standards: Civil Service Management and Decentralization: Case Study of Uganda. Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, 11, 75-94. Nabaho, L. (2013). Recentralization of Local Government Chief Administrative Offi cers Appointments in Uganda: Implications for Downward Accountability. In Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance, Issue 13/14. November, 2013. Natamba, E. F., and Muyomba-Tamale, L. (2010). Local government councils’ performance in Uganda. In ACODE Policy Research Paper Series, No. 39. Nsibambi, A (ed). (2000). Decentralization in Uganda: The quest for good governance. Kampala: Fountain Publishers. Saito, F. (2003). Decentralization and Development Partnerships.Tokyo: Springer. Saxena, K., Sohini, P., and Goel, P. R. (2010). Decentralization in Uganda. National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER). Steiner, S. (2006). Decentralization in Uganda: Exploring the constraints for poverty reduction. GIGA working Paper No.31. Three years of KCCA (2014). Villadsen, S., and Lubanga, F. (2000). Democratic Decentralization in Uganda: A new approach to Local Governance. Kampala: Fountain House

21 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Institutional Capacity Critical for Effective Record Management towards enhanced Transparency and Accountability in Public Procurements

Fred Alinda, Uganda Management Institute, Kampala Uganda and Geofrey Mugisa, Muhorro Town Council, Kibaale District, Uganda Abstract

Enhancing transparency and accountability is widely recognized as an indicator for improved governance and pre-requisite for enhancing service delivery and development. In a bid to promote transparency and accountability in public procurements, Uganda’s Public Procurement system, through the Public procurement and Disposal of Assets Act and the PPDA authority is committed to ensure that all Public Procurement Entities keep records of public procurements to desired regulatory standards. However, poor record keeping has remained persistent in public procurements compromising accountability, transparency and public service delivery. Records are scattered, kept on separate fi les or different departments. In other cases, they miss completely for some procurements or specifi c procurement activities. This paper provides empirical evidence in account of this phenomenon. The paper is based on fi ndings from analysis of primary qualitative and quantitative data which was collected from a sample of 76 record management stakeholders in Local Government Procurement and Disposing Entities. The study established prevalence of critical capacity gaps, institutional and technological challenges which constrain record keeping and management in the districts. These are typically institutional capacity challenges which should be addressed looking forwards to improve record keeping for enhanced transparency and accountability in public procurements. The paper fi nally provides possible measures to address the challenges.

Key words: Institutional capacity, transparency, accountability, record keeping, public procurements

Introduction

Enhancing transparency and accountability is widely recognized as an indicator for improved governance and pre-requisite for enhancing service delivery and development (Grindle, 2007; Bunse & Fritz 2012). Uganda is committed to enhance transparency and accountability with the help of institutions like the OAG, IGG and MoFPED. This is expected to contribute towards achievement of the desired transformation from a peasant to a modern and prosperous country by 2040 (NDP, 2010). Transparency and accountability remain among the guiding principles in delivery of public services. In a bid to enhance transparency and accountability, capacity building has been extended to institutions like the OAG through programs such as Support for Good Governance (ISPGG) program implemented between the periods 2005 to 2009. This program assisted in the creation of a Value for Money (VFM) audit units and manned the units with trained offi cials resulting into unanimous improvement in the accountability environment and performance of OAG with 10 VFM reports averagely produced annually. It is believed that effective records management can foster even more transparency and accountability

22 Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa

(Fust & Graf, 2002; Ngoepe, 2008; Michael, 2009; Lowell, 1994). Consistently, Uganda’s Public Procurement system, through the Public procurement and Disposal of Assets Act and the PPDA authority is committed to ensure that all Public Procurement Entities keep records of public procurements to desired regulatory standards. Section 56 of the Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Act, 2003; Regulations 90–91; Local Government Procurement and Disposal Regulations as well as Guidelines 8-10).

However, poor record keeping has remained persistent in public procurements (PPDA, 2009; 2010; 2011; 2012), a threat to transparency and accountability in public service delivery as has been observed too in other countries (Venter 2004; OECD 2005; PPOA, 2010). For example, compliance with record declined signifi cantly, averaging at 24% over the period 2008-2012 as indicated in Figure 1. 100 100 100 100 100 100 90 80 70 60 Contracts with complete records 50 Target 40 32 30 30 24 16 17 20 10 0 2008/9 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12 Average

Figure 1: Procurement performance on record keeping between the period 2008-2012 Source: PPDA, Compliance Assessment Report, 2008/2009, 2009/2010, 2011/2012

In monetary terms for example, procurements amounting to Ug Shs 114 billion (28.5 per cent of the total value of procurement) had no complete records. The problem is more pronounced in Local Government Procurement and Disposing Entities (PDEs) where compliance is estimated at only 40.2 per cent compliance compared to 44.5% in Central Government PDEs (PPDA, 2011). Kyenjojo and Kibaale PDES are identifi ed among the poor performing entities compared to other districts (PPDA, 2009; 2011). In the two districts, records are scattered, on separate fi les or are kept in different departments. In addition, procurements do not contain all the required documents on fi le. For example, lack of records ideally implies that the prevailing problem of irregularities in other procurement implementation aspects which also bear signifi cant implication on transparency and accountability cannot be traced. Ultimately the non-compliance results into poor service delivery (Tukamuhabwa, 2012). The status has

23 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies prevailed despite existence of regulatory standards, monitoring and measures like training support for compliance with record keeping (PPDA, 2010). To address the challenge, the need for a clear understanding to understand the barriers to effective record keeping has been called for (Alinda and Mugisha, 2014).

Previous studies elsewhere, for example, Gelderman et al., (2006); Guinipero, et al., (2006); Eriksson, et al., (2009) identify the factors that affect compliance with the public procurement regulations. In Uganda a recent study by Eyaa and Nagitta (2011) identifi es the factors in account of non-compliance with procurement regulations but in the context of Central Government Procurement and Disposing Entities. Besides, the study and did not have specifi c focus on a particular compliance area yet compliance assessment reports (PPDA, 2009; 2010; 2011; 2012) increasing non-compliance with record keeping amidst the improving state of overall compliance across all parameters. This calls for empirical evidence specifi c to the record keeping parameter. Besides, there is need to understand compliance factors in the Local Government context where the working environment in the rural areas differ from Central governments in the urban areas. This is a critical information gap which the study sought to bridge. Theoretical and empirical evidence on determinant of compliance

The study drew to the theoretical perspectives in the principal agent theory (Health & Norman, 2004), human capital theory (Becker, 1962) and the institutional theory (Lowell, 1994).The principal guides this study in conceptualizing PDEs’ compliance to the record keeping standards as set in the PPDA regulations. The theory deals with situations in which the principal is in a position to induce the agent to perform some tasks in the principal’s interest, but not necessarily in the agents interest (Health & Norman, 2004). Donahue (1989) explains that procurement managers including all public servants concerned with public procurement must play the agent role. As argued by Krawiec (2003) compliance may represent a principal-agent problem. When compliance is forced, dissonance is created between their cognition Festinger (1957) Forced public law compliance on maintenance and keeping of procurement records may end up into dissonance (Langevoort, 2002). The human capital theory opens insight into the potential role adequate capacity (staff competence) in enhancing compliance with record keeping standards. The institutional theory emphasizes the rule of law and sanctions as potential enforcement mechanism while recognizing the potential effect of cultural norms and values to enhance compliance with record keeping in public procurements. This study utilized the assertions of these theories to explore the capacity and institutional capacity factors in attempt to account for the increasing non-compliance with record keeping regulatory requirements in Uganda’s PDEs.

Elsewhere in the Netherlands and EU, compliance to the public procurement regulations in municipalities was reported to be infl uenced by familiarity with the regulations (Gelderman, et al., 2006). Consistently, Eyaa and Nagitta (2011) attributes non-compliance with public procurements in Uganda to limited familiarity with the procurement regulations. Eyaa and Nagitta (2011) measures familiarity on four proxies (familiarity with applicability, familiarity with exceptions, overall knowledge of the rules and perceived clarity of the rules). Moreover Basheka and Mugabira (2008) identify low professionalism in public procurements and high

24 Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa staff turnover which according to the PPDA Audit Report (2008) infl uences non-compliance to procurement regulations. The Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development in its Ministerial statement 2009 confi rms challenge of inadequate staffi ng on low compliance to the procurement law.

From the above, there is diverse literature on factors that contribute to non-compliance with record keeping in public procurements in Uganda. The Rationalist, normative and institutional theories of compliance highlighted in the literature open insights into capacity and institutional factors as key factors that infl uence compliance. These theories have been used in previous studies to explore the factors that infl uence compliance. Capacity factors relate to adequacy of staff numbers their knowledge, skills, experience and job motivation. The institutional factors relate to complexity of the regulations, monitoring and supervision compliance, performance incentive systems and sanctions. These factors were adopted to study those contributing to non-compliance with record keeping regulatory requirements in Kibaale, Kyenjojo and Kyegegwa Districts. Methodology

To ensure a comprehensive analysis, (Thai, 2008; Witting 1999), the study took a case of Kyenjojo, Kyegewa and Kibaale Districts Local Governments which were reported to have performed unsatisfactorily in regard to record keeping. A cross sectional survey was carried out to collect primary data through face-to-face interviews on a sample of 76 record management stakeholder comprising of Chief Accounting Offi cers, Contracts Committee member, staff of PDUs, User Departments, and District governing Councils. The sample size was determined based on the study population as recommended by Krejecie and Morgan (1970). Respondents were selected using purposive sampling to ensure representation of stakeholders in the three districts and represent all categories of stakeholders. The data measured the extent of stakeholder’s agreement with the statements on institutional capacity and technological challenges.

Analysis of capacity entailed statements testing the aspects of staff adequacy and competence vis avis record keeping workloads and complexity of the record keeping processes, staff motivation availability and implementation of performance incentives such as rewards and sanctions. The analysis of capacity further drew to the adequacy and appropriateness of available facilities, and tools as well as technical and fi nancial support to the record keeping function in the PDEs. Regarding technology, the aspects of awareness and integration of ICT in the procurement record keeping function and associated constraints were explored. The statements explored opinions of stakeholder with regard to prevalence of challenges hypothesized and refl ected in the statements. For each statement in the questionnaire open- ended questions were included to probe the respondent further on response provided during face-to-face interviews. To a minimal extent, secondary data was used and entailed evidence on procurement record keeping provided in PPDA’s assessment studies on compliance with procurement regulations in Uganda and was gathered through review of relevant documents. The quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Specifi cally percentages of respondents who agreed or disagreed with the statements elicited in the questionnaire were estimated. The percentages indicated the extent to which a specifi c individual capacity,

25 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies institutional capacity or technological challenge is perceived to be prevailing or not in the PDEs. Quantitative data was manually analyzed for content and recurrent themes in the texts, the recurrent themes and corresponding quoted verbatim identifi ed. Results and Discussions

The study established prevalence of critical capacity gaps, institutional and technological challenges which constrain record keeping and management in the districts (Figure 1).

IntergraƟon of automated record management 2.7

Adequate budget support to record management 25.7

There is a high likelihood of idenƟfying faults or violaƟons… 28

Adequate and appropriate record handling faciliƟes 30.0

UnsaƟsfaorily record management perfomance is oŌen… 33.3

High degree of commitment to record keeping 33.3

Record management staī are job moƟvated 35.7

Best records management perfomance is oŌen… 36.4

Deliberate non-record keeping to manipulate the… 70.5

0 1020304050607080

Figure 2: Percentage of respondents who consented to prevalence of particular capacity gaps and institutional challenges in the PDEs As indicated in Figure 1, the procurement record management units are characterized by staff who lack motivation, job commitment and who deliberately choose not to keep records to pave way for fraud. This partly is attributed to the fact that they work under an environment of limited performance incentives such as low salary enumerations, are quite often not sanctioned for poor performance or not rewarded for performance excel- lence in records management. To the worst, the monitoring function is weak to identify record management faults or fraud intentions. Besides, they lack vital tools and facilities like shelves, fi les, automated fi ling systems to keep records safe and secure. These capac- ity gaps are anchored on limited funding to Local Governments and the record keeping and management function in particular, as exemplifi ed in the following excerpts from the fi led notes:

Monitoring is crucial to keep track of record compilation and tracking as events arise. This is particularly more important in instances where the staff don’t take responsibility. Some offi cers do not keep records or even put some documents off- record to allow for or cover up fraud.

26 Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa

It was also indicated:

I consider weak monitoring to be a crucial factor. The fact is that internal monitoring is almost non-existent in most districts. Even when monitoring is done, it is not tailored to execution of tasks and responsibilities. Attention is often drawn to checking whether they are present or absent on duty. In the event, offi cer experience a backlog of tasks and do not deliver. This is the case with the record keeping and management function. You fi nd the person to the task with cumulative minutes and reports for many procurement proceedings such as bid opening, bid evaluation among others.

In addition, it was established:

Non-compliance with record keeping an institutional culture issue. Activities along the procurements process are executed but documentation done later. The culture of service managers is to think of and request for documents in response to compliance assessments. This leads to inaccuracies and inconsistencies information rendering some documents to be considered non-authentic during compliance assessments, investigation of procurement queries and fraud. Surprisingly, due to weak record tracking systems, some information will be altered or put off record to compromise investigations of procurement, queries, irregularities or fraud.

The menace of limited staff motivation and commitment on record keeping is consistent with the assertion by Robert & Stanković, (2006) and Kagaba (2010) that motivation is crucial to enhance implementation of the procurement processes. Similarly, the observed un ethical conduct in record keeping coincides with the general literature on institutional challenges in procurement management (Fred Tang, 2009; Basheka, 2008) and the Social value orientation and regulatory compliance in Ugandan public procurement (Ntayi et al., 2011) which identify monitoring and unethical conduct among the institutional factors which affect the procurement process. The record keeping and management function was yet to adopt automated systems. Record keeping remains reliant on manual fi ling and retrieval of information, a system that is far behind the technological trend, cumbersome and subjects the information and documents to a risk of manipulation and insecurity. Record keepers and managers appreciate the value an automated system would offer in easing fi lling, retrieval and security of information. They however consider that the automated system would be more relevant with an e-procurement system which is the way to go in the near future. The sentiment below validates this stakeholders’ view on the technological gap in keeping and management of procurement records.

Automated record keeping is a way to go particularly with the latest advances in the technological world. We need an online system for compiling and fi ling records and managing procurement information kept. With such a system, accuracy, swiftness in access and above all security of documents can be more guaranteed. “Record managers should be relieved of the burden of checking documents manually. The physical records can be a back-up to the online records. The automate system comes with

27 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

security features-passwords that can limit access and manipulation of information by some self-interest individuals to allow fraud in public procurements”. While measures to adopt automated systems would be costly, they should be considered priority in planning, budgeting and soliciting of support funds to the procurement function.

The signifi cance of technology in record keeping is consistent with the fi ndings by Guinipero, et al. (2006) that calls for greater reliance on the use of information technology to support the procurement function while the NPPPU (2005), considers information technology a key compliment to the effectiveness and effi ciency of the procurement process. Conclusion

The paper identifi es critical capacity gaps, institutional and technological challenges which constrain record keeping and management in public Procurement and Disposing Entities of Local Governments. More specifi cally, the staff in record keeping lack motivation and job commitment. They also lack adequate and appropriate record handling facilities and adequate budget support to fi nance potential measures to enhance proper keeping. Besides, there is a low likeliness of identifying faults, best performance is often not rewarded while unsatisfactory performance is not severely sanctioned. And fi nally, there is limited integration of ICT in keeping of public procurements records. These are typically institutional capacity challenges which should be addressed looking forwards to improve record keeping for enhanced transparency and accountability in public procurements. Recommendations

To address, the constraints, the following are recommended. First, management of the record keeping function should offer a work environment that offers incentives, tools and facilities for performance excellence in records management. The entities which excel in record keeping and management should be rewarded while those which perform poorly be sanctioned. Secondly, the record management function should be automated to enhance accuracy, swiftness in access and above all security of documents. Monitoring and Evaluation of the records management function should be strengthened with emphasis on increasing the likeliness of identifying faults and frauds. Finally, considering that implementation of these measures will necessitate a boost in fi nancial resources to the records management function, the planning committees districts are argued to prioritize resource mobilization and allocation towards building capacity for improved management of procurement records. References Basheka, B.C., and Michael, I. Mugabira, M. I. (2008). Measuring Professionalism Variables and their Implication to Procurement Outcomes in Uganda, The 3rd International Public Procurement Conference Proceedings. Becker, J. (1962). Bureaucratic experience vs. legislative authority: A model of deception and monitoring in budgeting. In American Political Science Review, 79, 1041–1060. Benjamin, R., and Tukamuhabwa (2012). Antecedents and Consequences of Public Procurement Non- compliance Behavior. Journal of Economics and Behavioral Studies, 4(1), 34-46.

28 Fred Alinda and Geofrey Mugisa

De Boer, L., and Telgen, J. (2006). Purchasing Practice in Dutch Municipalities. In Journal of Supply Chain Management, Vol.34, No 2, pp. 31 – 36. De Wet, S. and DuToit, A. (2000). The challenge of implementing a records management system at the National Electricity Regulator in South Africa. In Records Management Journal, 10 (2), 73-86. Eyaa S. and Nagitta, O. P. (2011). Explaining non-compliance in public procurement in Uganda. In International Journal of Business and Social Science, 2(11). Fust, W. and Graf, C. (2002). Information and good governance. Geneva: Swiss Federal Archives. Government Offi cials in New York State Guinipero, L., Handfi eld, B. R., and Eltantawy, R. (2006). Supply management evolution: key skill sets for supply manager of the future. In International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 26 (7), 822-844. Health, J., and Norman, W. (2004). Stakeholders theory, corporate governance and public management. Journal of Business Ethics, 53, 247-265. Kraweic, K. D. (2003). Cosmetic compliance and the failure of negotiated governance. In Washington University Law Quarterly, 81(2), 487. Krejcie, R. V., and Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610. Lowell, L. (1994). Organization and management in the public sector. 2nd ed. London: Longman. Michael, A. (2009). Procurement Reforms in Public Sector Organizations. In Journal of Economics. Vol. 23. Ngoepe, M. (2008). Strategies for preservation of records in South Africa: implications on access to information. Paper, 2nd Annual Knowledge, Archives and Records Management (KARM) Conference in Polokwane, SA, pp.6 -7. Ntayi, J. M., Ngoboka, P., Mutebi, H., and Sitenda, G. (2011). Social value orientation and regulatory compliance in Ugandan public procurement. In International Journal of Social Economics, 39(11), 900-920. OECD (2005). Fighting Corruption and promoting integrity in public procurement, OECD Publishing Paris, France. Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority, (2012). Public Procurement Symposium, Report. Kampala, Uganda. http://www.ppda.go.ug/symposium2012/presentations/PPDA- Symposium-Magazine2012.pdf Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority (2011). Compliance Assessment Report, Kampala, Uganda. Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority (2010). Compliance Assessment Report, Kampala, Uganda. Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority (2009). Compliance Assessment Report, Kampala, Uganda. Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Authority (2007). Report On Compliance and Performance Indicators for the Uganda Procurement System, Kampala, Uganda. Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets (2003). The Local Governments Public Procurement and Disposal of Public Assets Regulations, 2006 Available at: ww.ppda.go.ug/dmdocuments/ Local_ Government_regulations 2006.pdf Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets (2003). The Public Procurement and Disposal of Assets Act. Available at: http://www.ppda.go.ug/dmdocuments/ThePPDAAct2003.pdf

29 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Thai, K.V. (2008). Measuring losses to public procurement corruption: The Uganda Case, 3rd International Public Procurement Conference Proceedings, (August 28-30). Trepte, P. (2005). Transparency and Accountability as Tools for Promoting Integrity and Preventing Corruption in Procurement: Possibilities and Limitations. Document prepared for the OECD Public Governance and Territorial Development Directorate, Public Governance Committee, Expert Group Meeting on Integrity in Public Procurement. United Nations (2012). Supplement to the annual Statistical Report on United Nations Procurements: Transparency and Public Procurements. Venter, L. (2004).The impact of the Provincial Records Management Capacity Building Project on the roll out of Integrated Document and Records Management Solutions. Paper read at Electronic Records Management Workshop in Cape Town, South Africa, 19 March. Witting, W. A. (1999). Building value through Public Procurement: A focus on Africa. Paper presented to the 9th international anti-corruption conference. Retrieved on 20th October 2010 from www. legacy.transparency.or

30 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello

Using Baseline Studies as a Basis for Monitoring and Evaluation: A Review of the Literature

David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello Uganda Management Institute Abstract

Baseline data is often required by any organization or agency before an intervention as a basis for benchmarking progress; not only when implementation commences, but even prior to starting to gain knowledge of the situation at hand, and as a pillar for mid-term, end-term and impact evaluations. Baseline studies are pivotal as part of the pre-intervention foundational activities, because they help in testing hypotheses and can be a point of reference in the formative stages of a project in case the changes are bigger than what was assumed. Baseline studies have been very useful in project design and are an integral component of Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) frameworks. In impact evaluations, baseline studies provide a basis for comparing the change observed over time with the situation that existed before the intervention or program. Because of donor preconditions, most implementers carry out baseline studies as a donor requirement and not as part of the standard M&E practice. This paper provides an overview of baseline studies as a valuable tool to inform the M&E processes and how baseline data has been utilized in M&E of different interventions. It concludes that baseline studies, if conducted well and data from them utilized effectively are very handy and useful in informing M&E processes.

Key words: Baseline studies, Monitoring, Evaluation, Indicators, Utilization

Introduction

Globalization has mounted pressure on governments and organizations across the globe to be more responsive to demands of internal and external stakeholders for accountability, transparency which are pillars of good governance as a prerequisite to greater development effectiveness, for delivery of tangible results. Several stakeholders, including governments, citizens, the private sector, non-government organizations (NGOs), civil society, international organizations, and donor communities are now focused on increased performance of policies, programs and projects, which calls for enhancing Results-Based Monitoring and Evaluation (RBME).

Worth noting is that in the past few decades, many national and international development organizations and agencies, as well as national government departments and agencies, have adopted Results-Based Monitoring and Evaluation (RBME) systems. RBME is a powerful management tool that can be used to help managers and policy makers in organizations and governments to track the outcomes and impact of a given policy, program or project (Kussek & Rist, 2004). Kussek and Rist (2004) identifi ed 10 steps to designing, building and sustaining an RBME system and these are: conducting a readiness assessment; agreeing on outcomes to monitor and evaluate; selecting key indicators to monitor outcomes; collecting baseline data on selected indicators; planning for improvements, i.e. setting targets; monitoring for results, i.e. routine monitoring system; evaluating for results, i.e. conducting evaluations; reporting monitoring and evaluation fi ndings; utilization of monitoring and evaluation fi ndings; and sustaining the Monitoring and Evaluation system within the organization.

31 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

According to Kussek and Rist (2004), baseline studies take the fourth step in designing, building and sustaining an RBME system. Availability of baseline data is critical for performance evaluation since it is impossible to measure changes without reliable data on the situation before the intervention began (Bamberger, 2010). Imas and Rist (2009, p. 119) argues: ‘the measurement of progress (or lack of it) towards outcomes begins with the description and measurement of initial conditions and therefore, collecting baseline data means taking the fi rst measurement of indicators to fi nd out where we are today’. This step is very important in the process of building a Results-Based Monitoring and Evaluation (RBME) system since it provides valuable data on indicators at the initial stages of any intervention. This data will be useful in judging whether an intervention is making progress or not during implementation, but also enable evaluators to assess the outcomes and impact based on the difference between baseline and end-line data.

Baseline data enable evaluators and planners to measure outcomes and the impact of policies, programs or projects and, indeed, in almost all programs and projects in many developing nations; baseline studies are part and parcel of the initial processes in many organizations either as a requirement by the donor or as standard best Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) practice. It is also important to note that baseline data facilitates management decision- making on whether to implement the proposed intervention or not. This is because baseline data would confi rm whether the problem to be addressed by the intervention really exists, and also inform on its magnitude in case it does.

The baseline data would also give management an idea of whether the selected indicators and related targets are realistic or not. This enables the project management team to make decisions of whether to make changes to the objectives and indicator targets if baseline data favors the intervention or to discontinue/ stop implementation or even design a completely new intervention if baseline data shows the problem in question is not signifi cant. Baseline studies are budgeted for in most of the programs or project budgets. As to whether the data from these studies are utilized effectively is another aspect to examine.

This paper attempts to provide an overview of baseline studies as an M&E tool, its applicability in M&E, and the rationale and theoretical explanations behind baselines. It also examines the utilization of baseline data in M&E, emerging issues, and what needs to be done to make baselines useful in M&E. The data used for this review has been mainly from key practitioners and organizations that conduct baseline studies as well as utilizing the data for monitoring and evaluations. The key practitioners cited are Michael Bamberger, Kusek Jody Zall, Ray Rist, Michael Patton and Linda Morra Imas. The other sources are organizational manuals and handbooks contextualized within their sectors of operations. Methodology

This paper was based on a review of literature that involves the use of secondary data to explain any phenomenon and is an appropriate and reliable approach to scientifi c research(Amin, 2004). The review was carried out based on the constructionist theoretical thinking. This thinking, especially by scholars such as Grotty (1998) emphasizes that knowledge is actively constructed by human beings rather than being passively received by them(Jane Ritchie, 2013).

32 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello

The researchers adopted document review method and collected several papers and other literature on baseline data collection, analysis and utilization for Monitoring and Evaluation. The researchers used Google scholar search engine and other websites to identify journal articles, reports, and manuals on the subject which they reviewed to inform the current study.

The analysis was done using content analysis. Berg and Lune (2012, p. 240) defi ne content analysis as “a careful, detailed, systematic examination and interpretation of a particular body of material in an effort to identify patterns, themes, biases, and meanings”. The researchers followed the stage model of qualitative content analysis developed by Berg and Lune (2012) that includes: determining analytic categories for each research question, reading through the data to establish categories, determining systematic criteria of selection for sorting data, sorting data, seeking thematic patterns and making conclusions based on the patterns and themes. Based on this analysis method, the researchers were able to bring forward the key issues on the value of baseline studies in M&E including the theoretical explanations of the concept, the value of baseline studies in all M&E processes, applicability of baseline studies in M&E, and key fi ndings or emerging issues. Results and Discussion

Theoretical explanation of baseline studies

What is a baseline?

The concept baseline has been defi ned by several writers and therefore with several meanings though they all agree in principle. The researchers explore some of the various defi nitions of the concept as follows. In the guidelines for project baseline studies developed by the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA) the need to have evidence of results in facilitating evaluation of programs or projects which requires a comparison of the situation before the start of implementation with the situation afterwards, and control for other factors that may infl uence the changes that are observed during implementation was recognized. According to them, baseline data therefore is basic information on indicators gathered before a program or project begins. This data is later used to provide a comparison for assessing the net effect of the program or project (ASARECA, 2010).

In the guidelines to conducting baseline studies by Forum for Women and Development (FOKUS) it is argued that, in order to see if the situation has improved as a result of the project, it is necessary to know the basic facts about the situation prior to project start (FOKUS, 2010). According to them, through a baseline study, the situation that exists prior to the project start is recorded and this is compared with the situation after conclusion of the project or program. Without a baseline study, it is diffi cult to measure the results after the project has been implemented. In the guidebook on baseline basics published by the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) baseline is defi ned as the measurement of key conditions (indicators) before a project begins, from which change and progress can be assessed. According to them, baseline data provides a historical point of reference to inform

33 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies program planning such as target setting; and monitor as well as evaluate change for program implementation and impact assessment (IFRC, 2013) .

According to Australian AID, a baseline study is one that provides information required to enable robust conclusions to be eventually made about the impact of the activity. According to them, a baseline study gathers key information early in an activity so that later judgments can be made about the quality and development results achieved of the activity (Australian- AID, 2005). In the guidelines for conducting baseline studies for Center for Disease Control (CDC) baseline data is defi ned as the initial measurement data collected prior to the program intervention. According to the authors, the baseline serves as a point of reference and helps to assess the effects of the program and compares what happens before and after the program has been implemented (CDC, 2014).

According to the US Government’s Feed for the Future global hunger and Food Security Initiative guidance on baselines a baseline is the fi rst piece of data that should be collected for a performance indicator to establish a specifi c value or values for future data to monitor performance (USAID, 2012). The objective of baseline data collection, according to them, is to: establish the starting point for indicators; reveal the nature, magnitude and severity of a situation; ascertain appropriate amounts of intervention that will be required; and determine or set targets.

Why baseline studies?

Without baseline data, it can be very diffi cult to plan, monitor, and evaluate future performance. Baseline data helps to set achievable and realistic indicator targets for each level of results in a project design (log frame) and then determine and adjust progress towards these targets and their respective results (IFRC, 2013). The authors also outline other reasons for conducting baseline studies including: to inform project management decision-making, providing a reference point to determine progress and adjust project implementation to best serve people in need; to assess measurability of the selected indicators and fi ne-tune the systems for future measurement; and to uphold accountability, informing impact evaluation to compare and measure what difference the project is making.

Other reasons are: to promote stakeholder participation, providing a catalyst for discussion and motivation among community members and project partners on the most appropriate means of action; to shape expectations and communication strategies by assisting, sharpening communication objectives and focusing content of media materials; to convince and provide justifi cation to policy-makers and donors for a project intervention; and to support resource mobilization for and celebration of accomplished project results compared to baseline conditions. If conducted properly, baseline results can be generalized and used to inform service delivery for communities with similar characteristics.

IFRC (2013) clearly identifi ed two stages when a baseline can be conducted and these are: before the project starts and after the project is launched. According to them, a baseline ideally should be conducted after the initial needs assessment and project design but prior to the start of the project. This enables the project team to assess pre-project conditions and set

34 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello specifi c targets for the indicators identifi ed to measure the results. They, however, argued that in exceptional cases, baseline data might be required to inform project development according to donor requirements to facilitate investment decision making. In this case the baseline can be conducted even before project design.

The other stage is after project start. Despite the fact that a pre-project baseline study is ideal, it might not have been possible to conduct the baseline study before the project starts, for example, in emergency operations implementers might be forced to deliver project services prior to conducting a reliable baseline. In this case, baseline data can be collected a few weeks or months after the project operations have already started. At the same time, because the award process often does not immediately fi nd staff and others in place, it takes time for the team to form. The time-lag between delivery of project activities and baseline study, however, need not to be big. Otherwise, more likely a big time-lag may have a measurable effect on indicators leading to under estimation, since implementation would have narrowed the performance gap. Planning for a baseline study The USG Feed for the Future program and IFRC have elaborate approaches on how to effectively plan a baseline study. Practitioners could adopt any of these or a combination of these approaches in planning effectively their baseline studies. The USG Feed for the Future program provides several principles that should guide baseline data collection, analysis and utilization. These include: good planning, i.e. upfront planning which includes identifying who collects what data and when for the baseline; exploring a variety of data sources, i.e. triangulation of data sources enhances the quality of baseline data and therefore primary and secondary sources, database information from national and international sources, NGOs and earlier studies need to be explored; and ensuring appropriate disaggregation of data, i.e. disaggregated by sex, gender, and other relevant groups that are essential for tracking progress of activities and interventions.

The other principles are: quality assurance i.e. baseline data needs to be collected, analyzed, and reported ensuring data quality standards; validity, reliability, accuracy, relevance etc.; and feedback and learning, i.e. baseline information collection needs to be viewed as critical for knowledge management, sharing and learning so as to ensure proper utilization.

IFRC on the other hand outlines several steps in planning a baseline survey including: First is identifying the purpose and scope of the baseline study which involves determining the rationale for the study, identifying key stakeholders and their information needs, timing of the study, deciding on the geographical and demographic scope, making critical assumptions, and looking at the available resources for the study. This step can be very useful in developing Terms of Reference (TORs) for the baseline study. The other step is planning for data collection (methodology) and management which involves identifying the baseline indicators and assumptions from the project log frame, deciding on the kind of data to collect on the selected indicators as well as the sources of that data. It also involves deciding on data collection methods and how the methods and sources will be triangulated. At this stage, the evaluator needs also to determine the sampling strategy, prepare and pilot data collection tools, come up with a data management plan and how data will be disaggregated. The team for data collection and the entire data collection process has to be determined.

35 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The other steps are: Planning for data analysis that involves identifying the purpose for analysis, deciding on data analysis methods, management process and technology as well as tools. The evaluator needs to have a clear plan for data analysis taking into account the purpose, timing, methods, and people responsible for data analysis; and planning for information reporting and utilization which is a very critical step in baseline study planning, because reporting of data determines how data will be utilized to inform and motivate project implementation and later measurement of project progress as well as achievement of results.

Reporting baseline data can take several forms, i.e. written reports, oral presentation of fi ndings, effective benefi ciary communication, audio-visual presentations, etc. The format and content have to be specifi c and appropriate for the particular audience. At this stage, the evaluator needs to have a comprehensive dissemination plan, since the dissemination strategy will determine levels of awareness and generate further discussions and feedback from the stakeholders. The last step in the IFRC approach is planning for human resources and capacity building. The quality of baseline data depends on the competence and commitment of the team doing data collection, analysis, and reporting. It is important to have a committed team with the required capacity to conduct the study. Strategies for collecting baseline data

Collecting baseline data can be done using several strategies and in this section, we present some of the common strategies that practitioners have used in their programs casting a critical eye on each of them. Bamberger (2010) identifi ed several strategies for estimating initial conditions of programs or projects. He proposed the techniques outlined below.

First is the document review which looks at existing data as key sources of baseline data on benefi ciary population before the intervention begins. Most often, data on populations, agriculture, industry, education, environment, health, demography etc., may be available from national and foreign governments, NGOs, and private organizations. Countries often collect this data through population censuses, periodic household studies, performance reviews, special evaluation studies, and academic research studies by universities. All these are sources of data that can be helpful in providing baseline data for programs and projects. However, one needs to be extra careful about secondary data, especially with respect to validity and reliability of these sources. Issues of sampling and non-sampling errors, measurement and analysis errors, lack of completeness of data and lack of data quality standards etc. could compromise the quality of your baseline information.

Another commonly used strategy for collecting baseline data is the questionnaire survey method. The survey method provides quantitative or numerical description of trends, attitudes or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From the sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the population(Creswell, 2009). This strategy will often involve developing a comprehensive tool with several questions covering all the issues that the evaluator would want to collect data on. The tool is then administered to a sample of respondents either using an interviewer or self-administered. This strategy is capable of collecting data across several issues though not in-depth.

36 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello

The other strategy is the use of administrative data from the intervention. The monitoring system in an organization collects routine performance and administrative data on interventions that could be used to estimate baseline conditions for the target population. Planning and feasibility studies, monitoring reports and administrative records can be very useful in providing baseline data. Again, it is important to be careful when using administrative data since it is never available in a right format for analysis and therefore many not be useful for baseline in some cases.

Another strategy that has been used in practice is the use of the recall. This technique involves asking individuals or groups to provide information about their socio-economic conditions of their community at a particular point in time. The technique has been used in poverty analysis, demography, and income expenditure studies to collect information on behavior or economic status. Recalls can also be used to estimate changes in welfare conditions of households. Like any other qualitative method, recalls are susceptible to bias due to memory or distortion. Often unintentional distortion may occur when people romanticize the past or intentional distortion where respondents adjust their responses to what they think the researcher wants to hear. This therefore means that if one chooses to use a recall, one has to be extra careful given the above weaknesses of the strategy.

The other common strategy used in collecting baseline data is the key informant interviews. The strategy involves interviewing key informants or knowledgeable and experienced individuals in relation to a particular condition or issue of interest. Key informants can provide factual information but also particular point of view about an issue. Usually it is advisable to select key informants with differing perspectives to enhance richness in the data. This strategy can be used on an individual or group of respondents. In case of groups, interviews can be conducted to obtain information on socio-economic characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of groups that share common experiences. The groups usually are made of 6-11 members per group and they have to be mutually exclusive. If properly conducted, group interviews are very rich in data and they are economical and fast in collecting baseline data.

Participatory assessment techniques yet another strategy that is used in collecting baseline data. This technique or method promotes participation of communities and other stakeholders in reporting about their conditions, problems, and changes over time. The community groups often are engaged in providing feedback on their experiences and estimates of key variables like quality of services, access, and timeliness in service delivery etc. This technique has been widely used in poor rural and urban-related interventions where communities are characterized by low levels of literacy or other diffi culties. Evaluators can use community mapping, charts, tables, timelines, and trend analysis as well as transect walks in collecting baseline data. Participatory assessment techniques are associated with several advantages including; providing opportunities to respondents to express themselves freely; ability to generate consensus; cost-effectiveness in data collection and analysis; as well as creating synergies among participating groups. The drawbacks are that a few elites or infl uential members may dominate the group; there may be facilitator bias, etc.

37 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Applicability of baselines in Monitoring and Evaluation

Baseline evaluations have been used in many programs and projects to help in program design but also as a basis for measuring program outcomes and impacts. In many organizations and agencies, baseline evaluations are a requirement by the donor and therefore part and parcel of compliance to the donor requirements. Literature provides several examples of programs and sectors where baseline evaluations have been applied. The researchers look on a few. Education programs

Here researchers cite the baseline study on basic education in the Republic of Moldova from the perspective of child-friendly schools in 2008. This baseline study aimed at evaluating primary and secondary school education in the Republic of Moldova in terms of the fi ve dimensions of child-friendly schools and facilitated formulation of recommendations for potential public policies in the area of education, oriented towards promoting and expanding child-friendly schools in the country(Barbarosie, Gremalschie, & Jigau, 2009). This implies that baseline data from this study was very helpful in coming up with effective policies and interventions that would promote child-friendly schools in that country.

Another example of a program in the education sector where baseline studies have been utilized to inform program management including M&E is Action AID’s Action Children Rights in Education (ACRE) program. In this case, a baseline study was undertaken in Kalangala and Nebbi districts of Uganda to inform their ‘empowering girls to say no to early marriage initiative’. The results showed that there was progressive decline in enrolment in upper classes especially for girls leading to low completion rate and the major cause was early marriages. Based on these fi ndings, the ACRE project team developed interventions to tackle discrimination against girls and promote their right to education through supporting school- based clubs for children in several schools (ActionAid-International, 2013). Governance and National Development Planning

In this sector, we cite the Uganda National Governance Baseline Survey (UNGBS) undertaken by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics in partnership with Makerere University, with support from UNDP Uganda to illustrate the applicability of baseline data in program management including M&E. The study aimed at generating baseline data on governance indicators within several themes like: human rights; access to justice; access to information; democracy and decentralization; political representation and participation; transparency and accountability. The fi ndings of this baseline study were very handy in informing the development of indicators on governance in the National Development Plan II and consequently would inform the review of the same plan (UBOS, 2014). Health programs

In the health sector, the researchers refer to the baseline survey for the School Health and Nutrition project in Luweero and Nakaseke districts by the Uganda Program for Human and Holistic Development. As part of Monitoring and Evaluation, this baseline survey was aimed at determining current indices that were to be compared with the end

38 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello of project achievements. The baseline survey was conducted by a local consultancy fi rm called Service for Generation (SFG) international. The baseline survey produced results on several indicators of school health and nutrition, which included: prevalence of malaria cases; prevalence of anemia; school attendance rate; percentage of children sleeping under insecticide-treated mosquito nets; and percentage of pupils who know about abstinence (UPHOLD, 2005).

Other indicators included: percentage of pupils who wash hands after using toilets at school with soap or ash; percentage of schools with functioning latrines for girls and boys; percentage of schools with functional School Management Committees (SMCs) mobilized for school health and nutrition; and percentage of parents of pupils who talked with them about delaying sex in the past month. Baseline data collected on these indicators were helpful in the fi nal program evaluation which had been scheduled to be undertaken after two years (UPHOLD, 2005). Water and Sanitation

In this sector, the researchers cite the WASH baseline study 2013 by OXFAM in Liberia. The study was aimed at collecting baseline data on the following: the current levels of community access to and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities; people’s knowledge, attitude and practices that will allow the development of programs; Behavioral Change and Communication for Development activities; and disaggregated data and information on program indicators in both rural and urban contexts.

The study was designed to provide a basis for measuring WASH indicators for the Discretionary Grant Information System (DGIS) and Department for International Development (DfID) projects. It is indicated that data and information generated by this baseline study, presented key points of reference for different WASH activities intended for the DGIS and DfID projects from the planning for WASH facilities to developing strategies for hygiene promotion (OXFAM, 2013). Public Policing and Management

In this sector, the researchers cite the Local Public Confi dence baseline survey 2010 by the Cleveland Police Authority (CPA) in England. This baseline survey was conducted via telephone interviews undertaken with a random sample of 2,400 local residents. The aim of the baseline survey was to assist the police force in understanding the level of public confi dence in local policing across Cleveland area and map out ways of improving public confi dence and successfully deliver future policing services to all neighborhoods across the local area (CPA, 2010). Key fi ndings/emerging issues

Baseline Evaluation is one of the key components of a functional M&E system and therefore a necessary evil in RBME. Without collecting baseline data on indicators, it is impossible to measure changes in program performance and outcomes.

39 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Baseline studies signifi cantly inform program planning such as target setting and provides historical point of reference to monitor and evaluate change in program implementation and impact assessment. They inform management decision-making, help determine progress and assess measurability of indicators. They also enhance improved service delivery providing justifi cation for interventions as well as resource mobilization for projects.

Baseline studies should ideally be conducted before the project/program launch. However, in case this is not possible, say, due to emergencies, one can conduct them immediately after project/ program launch.

Good planning for the baseline survey is necessary to enhance its quality and issues of triangulation of data sources, disaggregating data appropriately, data quality assurance and making baseline data critical for feedback and learning need to be emphasized.

There are several strategies the researchers can adopt for collecting baseline data including document review, questionnaire survey method, administrative data for the intervention, and use of the recall, key informant interviews, group interview techniques and participatory assessment techniques and counterfactual locations. It is advisable that the evaluators triangulate the strategies and take care in using existing or secondary data to avoid errors and lack of data quality.

Baseline studies are mostly seen as a donor requirement by many implementing partners and therefore done for the donors as part of compliance to the grant terms and conditions. However, it is important to note that baseline data is not only of value to the donors but also management and implementing teams of programs, which implies that utilization of baseline data by all stakeholders needs to be promoted in all programs. In almost all management models used by public, private and voluntary management units, there will be a need for initial data on indicators as well as a feedback component to assess performance and outcomes.

The widely used logic model (Logical Framework) and indeed the theory of change which is being widely adopted in all these sectors, cannot be used without baseline data. The logical framework model, for instance, provides a 4x4 matrix that shows the vertical logic (Inputs, activities, outputs and outcomes/impact) as well as the horizontal logic (Indicators, Means of Verifi cation and Assumptions). All these will make use of baseline data to inform especially the vertical logic and indicator development in the horizontal logic.

The theory of change likewise requires that a serious contextual analysis is done to provide information that will support the proposed change to happen. The contextual information can only be got through a baseline study. These models and frameworks feed into other management planning and evaluation frameworks like the Work Break Down structure, Results Based Management (RBM) model and strategic planning frameworks. This implies the crucial signifi cance of baseline studies in effective management and M&E.

40 David Ssekamatte and Samuel Moses Okello

Recommendations

Based on the review and key fi ndings as well as emerging issues, we make the following recommendations:

First, is that baseline studies need to be part and parcel of every program or project design, since they are very essential for planning, monitoring and evaluation of any program.

Secondly, implementing agencies and organizations need to make available adequate funding and resources for conducting baseline studies, since they have a serious bearing on the quality of programs designed but also the ability to effectively evaluate high-level program results (outcomes and impacts).

Thirdly, there is a need to organize and run capacity building programs for all those involved in program design, implementation and M&E to appreciate the value of baseline data and acquire skills and knowledge in conducting high-quality baseline studies for their programs.

Lastly, deliberate efforts need to be made to ensure effective utilization of baseline data among all stakeholders in programs during planning, project design and refi nement as well as M&E in organizations and agencies.

Conclusion

It is obvious that throughout this paper, we have argued that quality baseline data is a key ingredient in any Monitoring and Evaluation as well as program management processes. Without this much-needed data, the program management team would not be able to make informed evidence-based decisions on whether to undertake programs or projects, set good quality indicator targets as well as assess how well the program or project has performed and, of course, the outcomes/impacts made.

Despite the signifi cance of baseline data as shown above, many program management teams fail to effectively utilize this data though many actually collect it as a donor requirement. We believe that with the theoretical understanding, the when, why and how of baseline studies as well as the applicability and recommendations provided in this paper, many practitioners will re-think their program management and M&E practices to effectively collect and utilize baseline data in their programs.

We, therefore, argue that practitioners should focus on ensuring that quality baseline data is collected by competent and well trained staff (through capacity building);and they should utilize the data effectively to inform planning, management and M&E practices.

41 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

References ActionAid-International (2013). Success Stories: Action for Children’s rights in Education. Retrieved from Johannesburg: Amin, M. E. (2004). Foundation of statistical inference for social science research. Kampala: Makerere University Printery. ASARECA (2010). Guidelines for Project Baseline Studies: . Monitoring and Evaluation series. Programmes Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa. Nairobi. Australian-AID (2005). Baseline Study Guidelines. Canberra, Australia. Bamberger, M. (2010). Reconstructing Baseline data for Impact Evaluations and Results Measurement. Prem Notes: The nuts and Bolts of M&E systems, 1-10. Retrieved from Barbarosie, A., Gremalschie, A., & Jigau, I. (2009). Baseline study on Basic Education in the Republic of Moldova from the Perspective of Child Friendly Schools. Retrieved from Chisinau: Berg, B. L., & Lune, H. (2012). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. CDC. (2014). Guidelines for Conducting Baseline Studies. Atlanta, US. CPA. (2010). Local Public Confi dence Baseline Survey. Retrieved from Cleveland England: Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design; Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed methods Approaches. London: Sage Publications Inc. FOKUS. (2010). FOKUS’ Guide to Conducting Baseline Studies. Retrieved from Oslo Norway: Grotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspectives in Research Process. New York: Sage Publications. IFRC. (2013). Guide book on Baseline Basics. [Guide book]. Geneva. Imas, L. G. M., & Rist, R. C. (2009). The Road to Results: Designing and Consucting Effective Development Evaluations. Washington DC: World Bank Publications. Ritchie, J. L., Carol Nicholls and Rachel Omston. (2013). Qualitative Research Practice; A guide for social science students and researchers. London: Sage Publications. Kussek, J. Z., & Rist, R. C. (2004). The Ten Steps to a Results Based Monitoring and Evaluation. Washington DC: World Bank Publications. OXFAM. (2013). WASH baseline study on current community access to and practices on water, sanitation and hygiene in Liberia. Retrieved from Monrovia: UBOS. (2014). Uganda National Governance Baseline Survey (UNGBS) report. Retrieved from Kampala: UPHOLD. (2005). A Baseline Survey for the School Health and Nutrition Project in Luweero and Nakaseke. Retrieved from Kampala: USAID. (2012). Baseline Guidance. New York.

42 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Performance of Non-African Foreign Commercial Banks in Uganda

Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu, Mbarara University of Science and Technology and John Ddumba-Ssentamu, Makerere University Abstract

The focus of this study was to establish key factors responsible for the performance of non-African foreign Commercial banks in Uganda, in the light of Global Advantage Theory. The analysis was supplemented by structure–conduct performance (SCP) and effi ciency hypothesizes (ES). The study analyzed the performance of licensed non-African foreign commercial banks on average, over the period 2000-2011, using Linear multiple regression analysis. The study fi ndings showed that, management effi ciency, capital adequacy and reputation/goodwill are key factors affecting the performance of non- African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. On the contrary, credit risk has a negative impact on performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. On a positive note, diversifi cation, investment in securities and correct prediction of infl ation are factors that drive the enhanced performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. The emerging policy implication is that commercial banks’ managements should focus on improving: management effi ciency; bank reputation/goodwill; credit risk management; capital adequacy levels; diversifi cation and investment. In addition, monetary policy regulations and instruments should not enforce high liquidity and capital adequacy levels. There is also need for regulations on non-interest income activities to harmonize the impact of diversifi cation on all commercial banks’ performance and avoid the exploitation of commercial banks’ customers.

Key words: Bank performance; Non-African foreign commercial banks; Internal and External factors:

Introduction and Background

During the past two decades 1990-1999 and 2000-2009, the Uganda commercial bank industry underwent signifi cant restructuring including, among other changes; liberalization (Nsambu Kijjambu, 2014). The resultant effect was the increase of foreign commercial banks to the tune of 83 percent of licensed commercial banks; however, the number of non-African foreign commercial banks remained constant. Non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda include: Standard Chartered Bank; Barclays bank; Bank of Baroda; Citibank and later joined by DFCU Bank in 2005, an indication of sustainability compared to some domestic and African foreign commercial banks that face closure.

As at 31 December, 2011 Uganda had twenty-three licensed commercial banks (Bank of Uganda, 2011). Out of these; four were domestic; 14 African foreign and fi ve non-African foreign commercial banks. The observation suggests that 73.6 per cent of foreign commercial banks in Uganda are African foreign commercial banks, however; non-African foreign commercial banks had 36 per cent market share compared to 46.5 per cent for African foreign commercial banks. This became a source of contention which needed to be investigated.

43 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

There is a paramount difference in performance among foreign commercial banks in Uganda. The average Return on Equity (ROE) indicates that African foreign commercial banks had 25.9 per cent, whereas non-African foreign commercial banks had 28.3 per cent. Similarly, the average Return on Assets (ROA) indicates that African foreign commercial banks had 3.0 per cent while non-African foreign commercial banks had 3.5 per cent. This suggests that non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda perform better than African foreign commercial banks. The relatively better performance of non-African foreign commercial banks calls for investigation.

Specifi cally, the study intended to establish the impact of key internal factors on the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda, so that other commercial banks can be able to adopt them to enhance their performance. This paper is organized as follows: Section one provides the background of the study, putting it in a distinctive position in the context of active bank behavior in Uganda. It explains the problem under study; objectives; scope; signifi cance and the guiding hypothesis.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section two presents empirical literature on factors affecting the performance of foreign commercial banks; followed by Section three which describes and explains the methodological approach used. Section four presents the fi ndings and discussion of the factors responsible for the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. Finally, Section fi ve presents conclusions together with emerging policy issues and suggested future studies

The Global advantage theory (Berger, et al., 2000), assumes that foreign banks have comparative advantage over domestic-owned banks leading to better performance. The main argument is that foreign banks use more advanced technology related to risk pricing, screening and monitoring. The theory assumes that foreign banks have state-of-the-art practices to deal with adverse selection and moral hazards. A moral hazard may occur when a borrower does not act in the interest of the lender such as adhering to terms and conditions of the loan contract. Other factors remaining constant, the theory expects foreign-owned banks to increase credit availability and better performance relative to domestic banks; however, further empirical evidence is required to confi rm its applicability to developing countries like Uganda. This study, therefore, aimed at fi lling this gap in the literature, by providing empirical evidence on the factors affecting the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda.

Miller and Parkhe (2002) found out that the variations in commercial bank performance was due to the fact that foreign banks face competitive disadvantage in the host country, due to information asymmetries, cultural and language differences. Demirgiic-Kunt and Huizinga (2000) found out that foreign banks generated higher interest margins and profi ts in developing countries than domestic banks. The variation in commercial bank performance was thus reported to have been due to high technology refl ected in foreign banks.

Majnoni, Shankar and Varhagi (2003) in their study in Hungary (1994-2000) concluded that foreign banks persistently achieved higher profi ts than domestic banks. They further explained that the high profi ts were due to the duration of presence of the foreign bank in the host country coupled, with the nature of initial investment.

44 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Bikram (2003) carried out a study on bank ownership and performance among Indian commercial banks categorized into: public domestic banks; old private banks (domestic) and new private banks (Foreign). The results indicated that public banks consistently had higher levels of net interest margins, mainly because of access to low-cost funds and having been in business for a longer period compared to new and private banks. The fi ndings also indicated that the high interest margin was a result of charging high rates of interest on loans given to small and medium enterprises, taking advantage of their large network, relative to other private commercial banks that were at the disadvantage with regard to branch outreach. However, the new banks had lower operating cost ratio compared to public banks, which had signifi cantly higher cost operating ratio due to their wide branch networks. The outcome of this study indicated that the causes of commercial bank performance variations were from cheap sources of funds, branch networks, age and differences in interest spread. In addition, new private foreign banks performed better than public and old banks, partly because of their smaller and well managed networks, together with automated and modernized systems which included diversifi cation to fee-based activities.

Micco, Panizza and Yanez (2004) found out that foreign banks operating in developing countries, specifi cally located in East Asia and Eastern Europe, were characterized by high levels of profi tability and lower costs. The results were consistent with fi ndings of Demirgiic- Kunt and Huizinga (2000) and Bonin et al., (2004), which indicated that in developing countries, foreign banks tend to be more profi table than domestic banks.

Havrylchyk and Emilia (2006) investigated the effi ciency of the Polish banking industry and found out that foreign banks were more effi cient than domestic banks due to: loan portfolio quality, higher productivity of labor and market power. On the contrary, Sturm and Barry (2007) found out that increased domestic market incumbency reduced the effi ciency of foreign banks in the host markets and thus they performed differently compared to domestic banks, unless foreign banks overused inputs to produce the required outputs.

A study by Fadzlan and Muhd-Zulkhibri (2008) conducted on the Malaysian banking sector showed that foreign banks exhibited higher technical effi ciency (TE) compared to domestic banks. The higher technical effi ciency of foreign banks was attributed to pure technical effi ciency, implying that foreign banks were managerially more effi cient in controlling their resources relative to their counterparts. However, much as the results suggested that, the difference in performance was related to banks’ technical effi ciency and management, there is a possibility that bank performance may be associated with the national regulatory and economic environment in their respective areas of operation. Thus further investigation is paramount in the Ugandan perspective.

On the other hand, there is a possibility that foreign banks cherry-picked the best borrowers, especially from their countries of origin to have greater loan intensity and less non- performing loans, thereby improving the quality of their portfolio and ultimately increasing effi ciency (Fadzlan and Muhd-Zulkhibri 2008). Kiyota (2009), in a comparative analysis of cost and profi t effi ciency of domestic and foreign-owned banks in Sub-Saharan African countries suggested that foreign banks out-performed domestic banks; and revealed that the difference in performance was associated with the extent to which bank managements

45 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies put their funds to unproductive use (Kiyota 2011).

Claessens and Horen (2009) found out that foreign banks that had operated for more than eight years in a country had the best performance. The implication was that the more years a foreign bank had been active in the host country impacted on its performance. Claessens and Horen (2009) further indicated that performance variation among commercial banks depended on competition in the host country; explaining that if there was little competition in the host country, foreign banks out-performed domestic banks by generating super-normal profi ts.

The study by Subika, et al., (2011) in the Middle East and North Africa region had empirical evidence, to confi rm that foreign banks had higher ROAs and ROEs than domestic banks. In addition, the results indicated that foreign banks generated higher Net Interest Margins (NIMS) than domestic private banks. The explanation given was that foreign banks had lower funding costs: through leveraging internal funding markets and the parents’ balance sheet together with good reputation. Subika, et al., (2011) further indicated that domestic banks were under performing relative to foreign commercial banks because they were still embedded in local credit markets, whereas foreign banks were more involved in niche markets (i.e. upscale consumer lending, non-interest income business lines such as commissions, advisory services and international trade).

In order to establish why non-African foreign commercial banks performed better and what fundamental key internal factors were responsible for such better performance, the study was based on the following key hypotheses: Hypotheses:

Ho: There are no signifi cant key internal factors responsible for performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda

H1: There are some signifi cant key internal factors responsible for performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda

The investigation to establish the underlying key factors responsible for Non-African foreign commercial banks’ performance in Uganda is paramount, given the recent reforms of the commercial banking sector. The study provides insight for bank owners and policy makers, on factors that determine bank performance in Uganda, that is; effi cient utilization of resources, for sustainable competitiveness.

The study fi ndings inform the regulatory authorities the techniques used for persistent better performance of Non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. Methodology

This section presents descriptive statistics; correlation matrix; model specifi cation and empirical fi ndings on the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks

The study population included all the fi ve licensed non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda as at 31 December 2011 (Bank of Uganda, 2011).

46 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

The study focused on the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks, purposely to establish the key underlying internal factors responsible for the banks’ performance in Uganda. The time scope for the study was 2000-2011; a period during which the commercial banking sector in Uganda underwent signifi cant restructuring including among other changes; banking sector liberalization. In addition, the main aim of choosing this particular period was to utilize the most recent fi nancial data from commercial banks in Uganda.

Profi tability is used as a proxy for bank performance, consistent with the studies of; Nsambu Kijjambu (2014), Kaushik and Lopez (1996), Staikouras and Wood (2004), Deger and Adem, (2011), Samina and Ayub (2013). Bank performance is measured in terms of ratios consistent with studies by Sagar and Rajesh, (2008), since ratios are not affected by changes in price levels.

This study used Return on Assets (ROA) and Return on Equity (ROE) as the dependent variables in line with the studies by: Ongore and Kusa (2013); Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Davydenko (2011), Sehrish et al., (2011), Oladele et al., (2011), Bennaceur and Goaied (2008),and Kosmidou (2008), among others.

Factors that affect commercial banks’ performance represented by profi tability are broadly classifi ed into two; internal and external factors, (Sehrish, et al., 2011). Internal factors are mainly infl uenced by a bank’s management decisions and policy objectives (Staikouras & Wood, 2004), whereas external factors focus on industry- related and macroeconomic variables refl ected in the economic and legal environment where banks operate (Athanasoglou, et al., 2006). These are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 shows summaries of hypothesized expectations may have an impact on the performance difference among commercial banks in Uganda.

47 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Table 1: Internal and External independent variables

Internal variables Measurement Notation Expected impact Bank liquidity Total loans to Total Assets LA + Capital adequacy Equity capital to Total Assets EA + Credit Risk/Loan Quality Loan loss provisions to Total Loans LLPTL - Bank size Natural logarithm of Total Assets LOGTA +/- Market profi t opportunity Deposits to total Assets DEPTA + Cost effi ciency Interest expenses to Equity INTEXEQ - Non-interest income Measure of diversifi cation INVESTTA + Interest income Net interest margin to Total Assets NIMTA + Cost ineffi ciency Interest expenses to Total Assets IETA - Bank Diversifi cation Non-interest income to Total income NIITI + Financial leverage Debt capital to equity capital FL +/- Management ineffi ciency Operating costs to Total Assets OPEXTA - Management ineffi ciency Operating costs to Total Income OPEXTI - Reputation/Goodwill Natural logarithm of years (old) LLIFE + External variables Economic growth Natural logarithm of GDP GDP + Annual Infl ation rate Consumer price index CPI +/- Bank interest rate Regulatory interest rate BIR +/-

Source: Adopted from reviewed literature, 2013

The model developed and expanded is consistent with studies by Samina and Ayub (2013), Dietrich and Wanzenried (2011), Deger and Adem (2011), Rajesh and Chaudary (2009), Sufi an and Habibuhhal (2009). The model is designed to be run on non-African foreign commercial banks, as a single entity in order to capture key factors responsible for performance of an average non-African foreign commercial bank in Uganda. The dependent variable is Yit which represented Return on Assets (ROA) and Return on Equity (ROE) for the bank (i) during the period (t), while α is a constant.

The independent variables were represented by bank specifi c factors in form of ratios. In this study, the following baseline model is used.

Yit = f (α0+ α1 EAit, + α2LAit, + α3LLPTLit, + α4 INTEXEQit, + α5INVESTTAit, + α6 NIMTAit, + α7 FLit, + α8 LLIFEit, + α9 OPEXTIit, + α10NIITI it+……… α11GDP+ α12CPI+ α13BIR) + eit. (1)

Where; eit is the error term.

The model assumptions tested in this study included: linearity; normality; homoscedasticity; Multicollinearity and autocorrelation. Consequently, at each stage of model building, graphical methods and numerical tests were carried out to test linearity and normality, while others were done to eliminate Multicollinearity, auto correlation and heteroscedasticity.

Yit = f (α0+EAit+ α1 LLPTLit+ α2INTEXEQit+ α3INVESTTAit α4+ FL it+ α5OPEXTIit+ α6LLIFFE it+ α7 NIITIit,+ α8CPI) + eit. (2)

48 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Extending equation (2) to exclude variables; INTEXEQ and FL that had weak impact on non-African foreign commercial banks’ performance, the following baseline model is used: Yit = f (α0+EAit+ α1 LLPTLit+ α3INVESTTAit α4+ α5OPEXTIit+ α6LLIFFE it+ α7 NIITIit, + α8CPI) + eit. (3) Results and discussion

Correlation Matrix

Table 2 presents information on the degree of correlation between explanatory variables used in multiple linear regression analysis for non-African foreign commercial banks. The matrix shows that correlation between bank specifi c variables is not strong, suggesting that Multicollinearity problems are not existing, consistent with the study by Kennedy (2008), who indicated that Multicollinearity exists when the correlation is above 0.80. Table 2: Correlation Matrix (ROA & ROE dependent variable)

ROE LLPT INVESTT ROA EA L OPEXTI LIFFE NIITI CPI

Pearson ROA 1.000 Correlation ROE 1.000

EA .064 -.470 1.000

LLPTL -.464 -.160 -.480 1.000

INVESTT -.500 -.353 -.205 .151 1.000 A

OPEXTI -.703 -.884 .550 -.127 .360 1.000

LIFFE -.088 -.161 .223 -.030 .312 .342 1.000

NIITI -.187 -.179 .104 .366 .168 .269 .742 1.000

CPI .116 -.229 .681 -.464 -.303 .491 .199 .007 1.000

In Table 2, the researchers present Correlations Matrix for the variable in the model for non- African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. There is a positive insignifi cant correlation of EA with ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda; this observation is in agreement with the fi ndings of Staikouras and Wood (2003) and Athanasoglou, et al. (2008) that Equity capital to Total Assets (EA) has a positive relationship with profi tability. On the other hand, LLPTL has a signifi cant negative relationship with ROA. This negative relationship signifi es that risks associated with loans increase the level of loan loss provisions, and eventually reduce profi ts. The observations suggest that non-African foreign commercial banks have higher credit risk that tends to exhibit lower profi tability levels caused by high loan loss provision. The deduction from the observation is that the quality of loan portfolio is among the factors contributing to performance variations among commercial banks in Uganda. 49 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The study shows that INVESTTA has a signifi cant negative relationship with ROA, consistent with fi ndings of Hoffmann (2011) that commercial banks in the United States displayed a negative relationship between investment in securities and bank performance. This is contrary to expectations because investments are anticipated to contribute to the total income of commercial banks through non-interest income. The observations therefore suggest that non-African foreign commercial banks are over-investing, and their investment does not follow optimal investment strategy, to the extent of reducing the profi ts already made. The observations further imply that profi ts gained from diversifi cation by non-African foreign commercial banks are offset by increased expenditure on non-interest activities.

OPEXTI, a measure of operating expenses has a signifi cant negative correlation with ROA. The fi ndings are similar to studies by Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007), Kosmidou (2008), Sufi an and Chong (2008) in Philippines, which showed that operating expenses had a negative impact on bank profi tability, implying that expenses-management is one of the factors contributing to the performance variations among commercial banks in Uganda. LLIFE, a measure of reputation or goodwill has insignifi cant negative relationship with ROA over the period. The observation suggests that bank profi ts for non-African foreign commercial banks did not persist overtime. Infl ation measured by the ratio, CPI, has a positive insignifi cant relationship with ROA for non- African foreign commercial banks over the period 2000-2011. The positive correlation suggests that, non-African foreign commercial bank managers predicted the trend of infl ation and adjusted interest rates to achieve higher profi ts and ultimately good bank performance. The results were in line with fi ndings by Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Davydenko (2011), Kasman, et al., (2010), Alexiou and Sofoklis (2009), Garcia-Herrero, et al., (2009), Athanasoglou et al (2008), Claeys and Vander Vennet (2008), Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007) who indicated that there was positive relationship between infl ation and bank profi tability.

The ratios: EA, LLPTL, INVESTTA, FL, OPEXTI, LIFFE, NIITI and CPI had negative relationship with ROE for non-African foreign commercial banks. Operating expenses had negative correlation with ROE, implying that, operating costs had greater impact on bank performance for non-African commercial banks in Uganda during 2000-2011. The observations are similar to fi ndings by Kosmidou and Pasiouras (2006) and Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007), that high operating expenses reduce bank profi tability among European commercial banks. Equity to Asset ratio has a moderate negative relationship with ROE, consistent with the previous fi ndings on Domestic and African foreign commercial banks in the current study. Model measurement

Non-African foreign commercial banks

Yit = f (α0+EAit+ α1 LLPTLit+ α2INTEXEQit+ α3INVESTTAit α4+ FL it+ α5OPEXTIit+ α6LLIFFE it+ α7 NIITIit,+ α8CPI) + eit. (1)

Extending equation (1) to exclude variables; INTEXEQ and FL that had weak impact on non-African foreign commercial banks’ performance, the following baseline model is used:

Yit = f (α0+EAit+ α1 LLPTLit+ α3INVESTTAit α4+ α5OPEXTIit+ α6LLIFFE it+ α7NIITIit, + α8CPI) + eit. (2)

50 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

In the model summary: R= 0.995 which means that, there is a very strong relationship. R Square = 0.990 indicates that 99% of performance variation is accounted for through the combined linear impact of predictors (independent variables). The adjusted R square value takes into account the number of variables and observations. In this case, adjusted R square value is 0.973. This means that, the model has accounted for 97.3% of the variance in the criterion variable.

The Durbin-Watson statistic is 1.756, implying that there is no serious fi rst order auto- correlation which is neither positive nor negative, at 5% level of signifi cance

The model was tested basing on the following hypothesis:

HO: None of the independent variables are signifi cant predictors of the dependent.

H1: At least one independent variable is a signifi cant predictor of the dependent (ROA).

Conditional Rule: Reject Ho if p-values are less than 0.05 and accept H1

Since the p-value is 0.001, which is less than 0.05, Ho is rejected and concluded that at least one of the following: EA, LLPTL, INVESTTA, OPEXTI, LLIFE, NIITI, and CPI is a predictor of non-African foreign commercial banks’ performance in Uganda. The model is signifi cant at F 7, 4 =57.159, p < 0.05

In the model summary, when ROE is dependent variable: R = 0.986 which means that there is a very strong relationship. R Square = 0.972. It indicates that 97.2% of performance variation is accounted for through the combined linear impact of predictors (independent variables). The adjusted R square value is 0.922, meaning that the model has accounted for 92.2% of the variance in the criterion variable.

The Durbin-Watson statistic is 1.674. It implies that there is no autocorrelation which is neither positive nor negative, at 5% level of signifi cance.

Likewise, the model was tested basing on the following hypothesis:

HO: None of the independent variables are signifi cant predictors of the dependent.

H1: At least one independent variables are signifi cant predictors of the dependent (ROE).

Conditional Rule: Reject Ho if p-values are less than 0.05 and accept H1

Since the p-value is 0.006, which is less than 0.05, Ho is rejected and concluded that at least one of the following; NIITI, INVESTTA, LLPTL, EA, LIFFE, OPEXTI, and CPI are predictors of ROE for non-African foreign commercial banks performance in Uganda. The model is signifi cant at F 7, 4, = 19.621, p=0.006 < 0.05

Empirical fi ndings for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda

Multiple linear regression results focusing on the impact of internal factors on the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks are shown in the table 3 and 4, using ROA and ROE as dependent variables respectively.

51 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Multiple linear regression results focusing on the impact of internal factors on the performance of Non-African foreign commercial banks are shown in the table 3 using ROA as dependent variables respectively.

Table 3 presents regression coeffi cients for Non-African foreign commercial banks over the period 2000-2011.

Table 3: Regression Coeffi cientsa for non-African foreign commercial banks

Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Collinearity Statistics

Model B Std. Error Beta tSig. Tolerance VIF

1 (Constant) .124 .044 2.838 .047

EA .097 .030 .267 3.244 .032 .367 2.728

LLPTL -.179 .028 -.471 -6.383 .003 .454 2.203

INVESTT .030 .015 .152 1.960 .121 .412 2.429 A

OPEXTI -.147 .010 -1.196 -14.019 .000 .340 2.939

LIFFE -.040 .028 -.137 -1.436 .224 .271 3.690

NIITI .063 .018 .353 3.569 .023 .252 3.962

CPI .065 .015 .373 4.451 .011 .353 2.836

a. Dependent Variable: ROA

The results of Variance Infl ation Factor (VIF) are all below 10 and Tolerance values are greater than 0.1 as shown in Table 3 This implies that, there is no problem of Multicollinearity in the model.

Table 3 presents regression coeffi cients for each individual predictor. OPEXTI, LLPTL, and LIFFE have negative coeffi cients, whereas NIITI, EA, INVESTTA and CPI have postive coeffi cients.

The study indicated that operating expenses have a signifi cant negative impact on the performance of non–African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. The results are consistent with fi ndings by Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007), Kosmidou (2008), Sufi an and Chong (2008), Oladele et al., (2012), who examined the determinants of bank performance and found out that operating expense, had a negative impact on bank profi tability. This implies that, expenses management is among factors contributing to performance variations among commercial banks in Uganda.

52 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

The loan loss provision to total loan (LLPTL) has a signifi cant negative impact on bank the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks, consistent with the fi ndings of Ongore and Kusu (2013), Samina and Ayub (2013), Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Davydenko, (2011), and Sufi an (2010), who found that asset quality had a signifi cant negative impact on bank performance measured by ROA. The results suggest that credit risk has a signifi cant negative impact on bank profi tability for non-African foreign commercial banks over the period. The implication is that, the quality of loans of Non-African foreign commercial banks led to increased loan loss provisions and ultimately reduced bank profi ts.

LIFFE, a measure of goodwill has a signifi cant negative impact on return on assets for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda; contrary to the fi ndings of Berger and Bonaccorsi di Patti (2006) who indicated that bank profi ts showed a tendency of persistence over time. Lack of persistence in profi ts implies that there are no market competition barriers in the Ugandan banking sector.

Non-interest income to total income (NIITI) had a signifi cant positive impact on bank the performance for non-African foreign commercial banks over the period. The results are consistent with the fi ndings of Deger and Adem (2011), Dietrich and Wanzenried (2011), Sufi an and Habibullah (2009), Sufi an and Chong (2008), who indicated that diversifi cation, had a positive impact on bank profi tability. This implies that diversifi cation was crucial in the fi nancial performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda during the period.

Investment to total assets (INVESTTA) has a signifi cant positive impact on return on assets for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. The fi ndings suggest that investments for non-African foreign commercial banks led to higher profi ts. The results are consistent with fi ndings by Singh and Chaudary (2009) that investments had a positive impact on the profi tability of Indian public, private and foreign banks during 2001 to 2007.

There was signifi cant positive impact of capital ratio (EA) on ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks over the period. The results are consistent with the fi ndings by Ongore and Kusa (2013), Ong and Teh (2013), Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Oladele, et al., (2012), and Khrawish, (2011), which showed that, Equity to total assets ratio had a statistically signifi cant positive impact on profi tability. This implies that non-African foreign commercial banks are well capitalized and easily adhere to regulatory capital standards while the excess is provided as loans thus maximized net interest income. In addition, the results suggest that non-African foreign commercial banks’ investments were worth equity capital employed.

On the external factors, Infl ation measured by the ratio CPI had a positive signifi cant impact on return on assets (ROA) for non- African foreign commercial banks over the period 2000-2011. The positive impact suggests that managers of non-African foreign commercial banks predicted the trend of infl ation and adjusted interest rates to achieve higher profi ts and ultimately registered good bank performance. The results are consistent with fi ndings of Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Davydenko (2011), Kasman et al., (2010), Alexiou and Sofoklis (2009), Garcia-Herrero et al, (2009), Athanasoglou et al., (2008), Claeys and Vander Vennet (2008), Pasiouras and Kosmidou (2007) which indicated that, there was positive impact of infl ation on bank profi tability.

53 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Test of hypotheses

The p-values for each independent variable was tested basing on the following hypothesis

Ho: independent variable: EA, INVESTTA, NIITI, LLPTL, OPEXTI, LIFFE and CPI is not signifi cant predictor of the dependent variable (ROA)

H1: Each independent variable: EA, INVESTTA, NIITI, LLPTL, OPEXTI, LIFFE and CPI is a signifi cant predictor of the dependent variable (ROA)

The decision rule is; if p < 0.05 rejects Ho, and conclude that Independent variable is a signifi cant predictor of ROA. Since the p- values for EA, OPEXTI, NIITI, LLPTL, and CPI are less than 0.05, Ho is rejected and concludes that EA, OPEXTI, NIITI, LLPTL, and CPI are signifi cant predictors of ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks at 5% level of signifi cance. However, INVESTTA and LIFFE are not signifi cant predictors of return on assets.

Multiple linear regression results focusing on the impact of internal factors on the performance of Non-African foreign commercial banks are shown in the table 4, using ROE as dependent variables respectively.

Table 4 presents regression coeffi cients for Non-African foreign commercial banks over the period 2000-2011.

Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients Collinearity Statistics

Model B Std. Error Beta tSig. Tolerance VIF

1 (Constant) 1.303 .768 1.696 .165

EA -1.412 .524 -.375 -2.696 .054 .367 2.728

LLPTL -1.782 .494 -.451 -3.609 .023 .454 2.203

INVESTTA .147 .269 .072 .547 .614 .412 2.429

OPEXTI -1.264 .184 -.989 -6.855 .002 .340 2.939

LIFFE -.335 .494 -.109 -.677 .535 .271 3.690

NIITI .667 .312 .358 2.138 .099 .252 3.962

CPI .623 .257 .343 2.423 .072 .353 2.836

a. Dependent Variable: ROE

The results of Variance Infl ation Factor (VIF) are all below 10 and Tolerance values are greater than 0.1 as shown in Table 4, implying that there is no problem of Multicollinearity in the model.

54 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Table 4 presents regression coeffi cients for each individual predictor. EA; OPEXTI; LLPTL and LIFFE have negative coeffi cients, whereas NIITI; INVESTTA and CPI have postive coeffi cients. Capital adequacy measured by EA has a signifi cant negative impact on return on equity (ROE). The results are similar to the fi ndings by Sehrish, et al., (2011) and Hoffmann (2011) who found a strong negative relationship between capital and bank profi tability. This implies that non-African foreign commercial banks may be operating over-cautiously, hence avoiding potential profi table ventures. Setting up high-capital regulatory requirement may have a negative impact on commercial banks’ performance. However, the results contradicted a positive impact of EA on ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks in this study.

Asset quality ratio (LLPTL) has a signifi cant negative impact on ROE for non- African foreign commercial banks over the period, which indicates that, the quality of loans were not good enough and necessitated an increase in loan loss provisions that ultimately decreased profi ts. This is an indication of weaker credit risk management among non-African foreign commercial banks during the period. The results are consistent with the fi ndings by Ong and Teh (2013), Ongore and Kusu (2013), Samina and Ayub (2013), Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Sufi an (2010), Wong and Fong (2007) and Athanasoglou, et al., (2006) that loan loss provisions had a signifi cant negative impact on returns on Equity. The implication is that, asset quality strongly determined the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period.

Operating expenses to total income (OPEXTI) has a signifi cant negative impact on return on equity for non-African foreign commercial banks over the period of study. The results are consistent with the fi ndings on domestic commercial banks in Uganda in this study. The results are also in agreement with the fi ndings by Oladele, et al (2012), Trujillo-Ponce (2012), Hoffmann, (2011), Davydenko (2011), Olson and Zoubi (2011), Sufi an (2010), Sufi an and Habibullah (2009), Sufi an and Chong (2008), Grigorian and Manole (2006), together with Fries and Taci (2005), whose studies found out that the cost to income ratio had a signifi cantly negative impact on bank performance. This implies that higher operating expenses decrease profi tability and eventually overall performance of the non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda.

LIFFE, a measure of Goodwill has a signifi cant negative impact on ROE consistent to the impact of LIFFE on ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda in the study, although, contrary to the fi ndings of Berger and Bonaccorsi di Patti (2006) who indicated that bank profi ts show a tendency of persistence over time. Lack of persistence in profi ts implies that there are no market competition barriers in the Ugandan banking sector.

Non-interest income to total Income has a positive and statistically signifi cant impact on returns on equity for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. The results are consistent with fi ndings of Sufi an (2011), Deger and Adem (2011), Dietrich and Wanzenried (2011), Sufi an and Chong (2008), and Chiorazzo et al., (2008), that the ratio: Non-interest income over total Assets (NII/TA) had a signifi cant positive impact on profi tability and ultimately returns on equity. This implies that, diversifi cation is crucial for bank performance

55 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies improvement.

Investment to total assets (INVESTTA) has a signifi cant positive impact on return on equity (ROE), consistent with the impact of INVESTTA on ROA for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda during the period 2000-2011. The results are similar to the fi ndings of Singh and Chaudary (2009) who found out that investment had a positive impact on the profi tability of Indian public, private and foreign banks during 2001 to 2007. The empirical fi ndings suggest that the more the investments, the higher the profi ts for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda.

Infl ation measured by consumer price index (CPI) had a positive signifi cant impact on return on equity for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda as shown in Table 4. The results are consistent with the fi ndings of Davydenko, (2011), Sehrish et al., (2011), Kasman et al., (2010), Alexiou and Sofoklis (2009), Garcia-Herrero et al., (2009), Claeys and Vander Vennet (2008) and Athanasoglou, et al., (2006) which indicated a strong positive impact of infl ation on bank profi tability. The results suggest that bank income increased more than expenses, implying that the managements of non-African foreign commercial banks predicted correctly the trend of infl ation and adjusted interest rates accordingly in order to earn more profi ts. Conclusion

The factors that affect the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period 2000-2011 are mostly internal factors, including: Asset quality, Management effi ciency, Reputation, Capital adequacy and Diversifi cation. Among the external factors, it was only Infl ation that had a signifi cant impact.

Credit risk, a refl ection of the quality of Loan Assets was a signifi cant factor that affected the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period 2000- 2011. Loan loss provisions to Total Loans (LLPTL) had a signifi cant negative impact of -0.471 and -0.451 on return on assets and equity respectively.

Management effi ciency was a signifi cant key factor that affected the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period 2000-2011. Management effi ciency, measured by operating expenses to total income (OPEXTI), had a signifi cant negative impact of -0.1.196 and -0.989 on return on assets and equity respectively for Non- African foreign commercial banks over the study period.

Reputation or goodwill was among the key factors that affected the performance of non- African foreign commercialbanks in uganda over the period 2000-2011. Goodwill which is measured by the number of years a bank is in existence in the country (LIFFE), had a signifi cant negative impact of -0.137 and -0.109 on Return on assets and Equity respectively over the study period.

Capital adequacy (EA) had an impact on the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period of study. Equity to assets had a signifi cant impact of 0.267 on Return on Assets, while there was a negative impact of -0.375 on Return on Equity.

56 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Thus there is no conclusive direction on the impact of capital as a factor.

Diversfi cation, measured by non-interest Income to Total Income (NIITI) was one of the key factors that affected the performance of of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period. Non-interest income to total income had a signifi cant positive impact of 0.353 and 0.358 on Return on Assets and Equity respectively for non-African foreign commercial banks over the period 2000-2011.This shows that diversfi ed bank activities enhances bank performance. Investment measured by Investments to total assets (INVESTTA) was another form of diversifi cation with a signifi cant positive impact of 0.152 and 0.072 on return on assets and equity respectively for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda. More investments led to better performance for non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda.

Infl ation was another key factor that affected the performance of non-African foreign commercial banks in Uganda over the period 2000-2011. Consumer price index (CPI), a measure of infl ation had a signifi cant positive impact of 0.373 and 0.343 on return on assets and equity for non-African foreign commercial banks over the study period. The positive impact means that bank profi ts increased depending on an increase in infl ation rates. Hence the study concludes that the managements of the non-African foreign commercial banks predicted infl ation trends correctly and adjusted accordingly. Policy Implications

The emerging policy implications are that commercial banks’ managements should focus on improving the following: management effi ciency; bank reputation/goodwill; credit risk management; capital adequacy levels; diversifi cation and commercial bank investment. Regulations on non-interest income activities should be put in place to harmonize the impact of diversifi cation on the performance of all commercial banks and avoid exploitation of customers.

Future studies should focus on the performance of foreign African commercial banks in Uganda, since they have recorded declining performance of bank profi ts, that has led to some of them being closed (Bank of Uganda, 2013). References Alexiou, C. and Sofoklis, C. (2009). Determinants of bank profi tability: Evidence from the Greek banking sector. In Economic Annals, 182, 93-118 Athanasoglou, P. Delis. M, and Staikouras, C. (2006). Determinants in the Bank profi tability in South Eastern European region. In Journal of Financial Decisions Making, 2, 1-17. Athanasoglou, P. Brissimis. S. N, and Delis, M. (2008). Bank- specifi c, Industrial-specifi c and Macroeconomic Determinants of bank profi tability. In Journal of international Financial Markets, Institutions and Money, 18,121-136. Bank of Uganda (2011). Annual Supervision Report, Issue No.2 December 2011 Bank of Uganda (2013). Annual Supervision Report, Issue No.2 December 2013 Bennaceur, S. and Goaied, M. (2008). The Determinants of Commercial Bank Interest Margin and Profi tability: Evidence from Tunisia. Frontiers in Finance and Economics, 5,106-130.

57 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Berger, A. N., De Young, Genay, H., and Udell, G. (2000). Globalization of fi nancial Institutions: evidence from cross-border banking performance. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Financial Services, 3, 23-158. Berger, A. N., and Bonaccorsi, D. P. (2006). Capital structure and fi rm performance; a new approach to testing agency theory and an application to the banking industry. Journal of Banking & Finance, 30, 1065-102. Bikram, D. (2003). Ownership effects on bank performance: a panel study of Indian banks. Journal of Comparative Economics, 2, 1-28. Bonin, J. P., Hasan, I., and Wachtel, P. (2004). Bank Performance, Effi ciency and ownership in Transition Countries. The Dubrovnik Economic Conference (D.E.C), 9th Conference. Chiorazzo, V., Milan, C., and Salvini, F (2008). Income diversifi cation and bank performance: Evidence from Italian banks. Journal of Financial Services Research, 33,181-203. Claeys, S, and Vander, V. R. (2008). Determinants of bank interest margin in Central and Eastern Europe: A comparison with the west economic systems, 32,197-216. Claessens, S., and Horen, V. N. (2009). Being a foreigner among Domestic banks: Assets or Liability? Working paper WP/09/273. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. 53 Davydenko (2011). Determinants of bank profi tability in Ukraine. In Undergraduate Economic Review; Vol.7 Iss1, Article 2, at http:// digitalcommons.iwu.edu/uer/vol7/iss1/2. Deger, A., and Adem, A. (2011). Bank specifi c and Macroeconomic determinants of Commercial banks profi tability: Empirical Evidence from Turkey. Business and Economics Research Journal, 2, 139-152. Demirgiic-Kunt, A., and Huizingz, H. (2000). Determinants of Commercial Bank Interest Margins and Profi tability: Some International Evidence. World Bank Economic Review, 13 (2). Dietrich, A., and Wanzenried, G., (2011). Determinants of bank profi tability before and during the crisis: Evidence from Switzerland. In Journal of international Financial Markets and Institutions. Fadzlan, S., and Muhd-Zulkhibri, A. M. (2008). Bank Ownership, Characteristics and Performance: A Comparative Analysis of Domestic and Foreign Islamic Banks in Malaysia. MPRA, Paper No. 12131 December 2008 UTC. Fries, S., and Taci, A. (2005). Cost effi ciency of banks in transition: evidence from 289 banks in 15 post-communist countries. Journal of Banking and Finance, 29, 55-81. Garcia-Herrero, A., Gavila, S., and Santabarbara, D. (2009). What explains the low profi tability of Chinese banks? Journal of Banking and Finance, 33, 2080-2092. Grigorian, D. A., and Manole, V. (2006). Determinants of Commercial banks Performance in Transition: An application of Data Envelopment analysis. Palgrave Macmillan: Journals: Comparative Economic Studies, 48(3), pp. 497-52. Havrylchyk, O., and Emilia, J. (2006). Profi tability of foreign banks in central and Eastern Europe: Does the entry mode matter? Bank of Finland, BOFIT Discussion Paper 5. Hoffmann, P. S., (2011). Determinants of the Profi tability of the US banking Industry. Kasman, A., Tunc, G., Varder, G., and Okan, B. (2011). Consolidation and commercial bank net interest margin: Evidence from old and new European Union members and candidate countries. Economic Modelling, 27, 648-655.

58 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu

Kaushik, S. K., and Lopez, R. H. (1996). Profi tability of credit unions, Commercial banks and Savings banks: A Comparative Analysis. American Economist, 40(1), 6. Kennedy, P. (2008). A Guide to Econometrics. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishing. Khrawish, H. A. (2011). Determinants of commercial banks performance: Evidence from Jordan. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, Zarqa University, 5(5), pp. 19-45. Kiyota, H., (2009). Confronting the Global Financial Crisis: Bank Effi ciency, Profi tability and Banking System in Africa. Paper prepared for African Economic Conference on Fostering Development in an Era of Financial and Economic Crisis’ Addis Ababa,November.11’13 2009. Kiyota, H. (2011). Effi ciency of Commercial Banks in Sub-Saharan Africa: A comparative Analysis of Domestic and Foreign banks. Working Paper No.2011/58 United Nations University. Kosmidou, K., and Pasiouras, F. (2006). Determinants of profi tability of domestic UK commercial banks; Panel evidence from the period1995-2002. Applied Research Working Paper Series, Coventry University Business School. Kosmidou, K. (2008). The determinants of banks’ profi ts in the Greece during the period of EU 54 fi nancial integration. In Managerial Finance, 34 (3), 146-159. Majnoni, G., Shankar, R., and Varhegyi, E. (2003). The dynamics of foreign bank ownership: evidence from Hungary. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No.3114, World Bank, Washington D.C. Micco, A., Panizza, U., and Yanez, M. (2004). Bank ownership and performance. Inter-American Development Bank, Research Department Working Paper 518, November 2004. Miller, S., and Parkhe, A., (2002). Is there a liability of foreignness in global banking? An empirical test of banks X-effi ciency. Strategic Management Journal, 23, 55-75. Naceur, S. B. and Goaied, M. (2008). The determinants of commercial bank interest Margin and Profi tability: Evidence from Tunisia. Frontiers in Finance and Economics, 5, 106-130. Nsambu Kijjambu, F. (2014). Factors affecting performance of commercial banks in Uganda. Unpublished PhD thesis; Mbarara University of Science & Technology. Oladele, P. O., Sulaiman, A. A., and Akeke, N. I. (2012). Determinants of bank performance in Nigeria. International Journal of Business and Management Tomorrow, 2 No. ISSN: 2249-9962. Olson, D., and Zoubi, A. T. (2011). Effi ciency and bank profi tability in MENA countries. Emerging Market Review, 12, pp. 94-110. Ong Tze, S., and Teh Boon, H. (2013). Factors affecting the profi tability of Malaysian Commercial banks. African Journal of Business Management, 7(8), pp. 649-660. Ongore, V.O., and Kusa, G. B. (2013). Determinants of Financial Performance of Commercial Banks in Kenya. International Journal of Economics and Financial Issues, 3(1) pp. 237-252. Pasiouras, F., and Kosmidou, K. (2007). Factors infl uencing the profi tability of domestic and foreign commercial banks in the European Union. Research in International Business and Finance, 21, pp. 222-237. Rajesh, K. S., and Chaudary, S., (2009). Profi tability Determinants of Banks in India. Journal of Global Business, 2, pp. 163-180.

59 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Rasiah (2010). Review of literature and theories on determinants of commercial bank profi tability. Journal of Performance Management, 23, 23-49. Sagar, R. D., and Rajesh, B. (2008). Incorporating Intangible aspects in performance Evaluation of Indian Banks. Samina, R., and Ayub, M. (2013). The impact of Bank Specifi c and Macroeconomic Indicators on the profi tability of Commercial banks. The Romanian Economic Journal; year XVI, 47. Sehrish, G., Irshad and Zaman (2011). Factors Affecting bank Profi tability in Pakistan. The Romanian Economic Journal Year XIV, No.30 March 2011. Singh, K. R., and Chaudary, S. (2009). Profi tability determinants of banks in India. International Journal of Global Business, 2 163-180. Staikouras, C., and Wood, G. E. (2003). The determinants of Bank Profi tability in Europe. Paper presented at Proceedings of the European Applied Business Research Conference. Venice, Italy, June 9-13, 2003. Staikouras, C. K., and Wood, G. E. (2004). The determinants of European Bank Profi tability. International Business & Economics Research Journal, 3(6). 55 Sturm, J. E., and Barry, W. (2007). What Determines Differences in Foreign Bank Effi ciency? Australia Evidence. GDC Working Paper, Bond University, No.5. Subika, F., Erik, F., and Roberto, R. (2011). Bank ownership and Performance in the Middle East and North Africa Region. In The World Bank, Financial Flagship. Sufi an, R., and Chong, R. R. (2008). Determinants of bank profi tability in a developing Economy: Empirical Evidence from The Philippines. Asian Academy of Management Journal of Accounting and Finance (AAMJAF), 4 (2), pp. 91-112. Sufi an, F., and Habibullah, S. M. (2009). Bank specifi c and macroeconomic determinants of bank profi tability: Empirical evidence from the China banking sector. Frontiers of Economics in China, 14, pp. 274-291. Sufi an, F. (2010). Financial Depression and profi tability of the banking sector of the republic of Korea: Panel Evidence on bank specifi c and macroeconomic determinants. Asian-Pacifi c Development Journal, 17, pp. 65-95. Trujillo-Ponce, A. (2012). What determines the profi tability of Banks? Evidence from Spain. Journal of Accounting and Finance, Early View Doi: 10. 1111. Vander Vennet, R. (1996). The effects of mergers and acquisitions on effi ciency and profi tability of EC Credit Institutions. Journal of Banking and Finance, 20(9), pp. 1531-1558. Wong, J. T., and Fong, H. (2007). Determinants of the performance of Banks in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Monetary Authority Working Paper, 06/2007, 18.

60 Frederick Nsambu Kijjambu and John Ddumba-Ssentamu nal accounts, 2012 fi Appendix A1: Financial Ratios for non-African foreign Appendix commercial banks; 2000-2011 2000-2011 ROE ROA Loans/Assets(LA) Equity/Assets(EA) (LLPTL) Provisions/loans (LOGTA) (Logarithms) Size (DEPTA) Deposits/Assets (intexeq) /Equity expenses Interest (NIMTA) /Assets(INVESTTA) 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 assets Investments 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 margin/Total interest Net 0.342 0.305 0.296 0.303 0.29 0.051 0.042 0.078 0.01 2.337 2.352 2.438 2.591 2.556 -0.017 0.005 0.015 0.027 0.016 0.02 0.411 0.455 0.406 0.439 0.438 0.442 0.491 2.571 2.636 2.772 2.846 2.871 2.993 3.021 0.431 0.384 0.165 0.419 0.369 0.012 0.103 0.147 0.139 0.169 0.244 0.107 0.115 0.084 0.092 0.122 0.337 0.222 0.223 0.189 0.206 0.21 0.073 0.067 0.054 0.071 0.28 0.242 0.124 0.136 0.13 0.069 0.072 0.066 0.068 0.074 0.54 0.177 0.208 0.212 0.149 0.118 0.136 0.144 0.17 0.07 0.046 0.044 0.014 0.039 0.045 0.149 0.158 0.042 0.03 0.029 0.027 0.035 0.031 0.038 0.778 0.739 0.788 0.774 0.756 0.645 0.644 0.65 0.633 0.651 0.671 0.659 0.138 0.256 0.328 0.262 0.228 0.192 0.229 0.227 0.267 0.264 0.201 Source: Study computation using published individual commercial banks

61 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Reward Policy as Distributive Justice: The Case of Primary School Teachers in Uganda

Wilson Muyinda Mande Nkumba University, Uganda Abstract

This study focused on the effect of reward policy on distributive justice. Primary school teachers from 2009 expected to be rewarded with just salaries. When these were not forthcoming, teachers went on strike between 2009 and 2015. The analysis revealed that reward policy and teachers’ union leadership (r (246) =.290, p<0.01)were closely associated; that teachers’ union leadership advocated distributive justice (r (246) =.464, p<0.01). Using a hypothetical model, the total causal effect of reward policy on distributive justice was found to be 70%. Although salaries were raised in the 2013/2014fi nancial year, teachers were not satisfi ed. They continued demanding increment of 10% in the 2015/2016 fi nancial year. This study therefore recommends that to supplement a reward policy that promotes distributive justice, the government should also adopt non-fi nancial rewards. This is benefi cial because when simulation was applied, it emerged that non- fi nancial rewards would increase teachers’ perception of distributive justice by 17%.

Key words: Reward Policy, Distributive Justice, Union Leadership, Non-Financial Rewards

Introduction

The centerpiece of the current study was to analyze the effect of reward policy on distributive justice with particular reference to primary school teachers in Uganda. The study was premised on the fact that, for quite some time, government had made changes in public servants’ reward policies, including teachers, and consequently implemented salary increments on several occasions. However, teachers clamored for a fair reward so much that, on a number of occasions, they had to resort to industrial action. Concept of reward policy

Reward policy can be defi ned as ‘all forms of fi nancial returns and tangible services and benefi ts employees receive’ (Milkovich & Newman, 2004, p. 3). This defi nition implies that there are fi nancial and non-fi nancial rewards which employees expect. The fi nancial rewards as provided for in the government policy include: base pay, allowances, gratuity, and performance-related pay. The non-fi nancial rewards include: promotion, gifts, certifi cates of recognition and other benefi ts in kind. In every sector, rewards are based on the policies that owners put in place with the help of government.

A reward policy covers the whole spectrum of how workers are rewarded in accordance with their value in the organization. It is about both fi nancial and non-fi nancial rewards and embraces the strategies, policies, structures and processes used to develop and maintain reward systems (Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, 2014). The implication here is that an employee reward policy is much broader than merely paying employees their wages. It involves strategies, procedures, structures and processes.

62 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Reward Policies for Primary School Teachers in East Africa

Uganda is a member of the East African Community (EAC). So it is prudent to compare the reward policies and the resultant pay for primary school teachers in the fi ve countries of Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda. This suggests the prevalence of differences in policy and pay. The comparison is given in Table 1 below: Table 1: Average salaries for primary school teachers in 2013 Number of primary school Pay in US Country Monthly salary teachers dollars 1 Burundi 36,557 BIF 65,058 $42 2 Kenya 146,205 Ksh 26,499 $302 3 Rwanda 40,299 Frw 98,000 $142 4 Tanzania 175,449 Tsh 196,500 $119 5 Uganda 129,651 UGX 250,000 $95

Source: Internet

From the above table it is noted that Kenyan primary school teachers earned the highest salary ($302) in the region. Rwanda is second, Tanzania third, Uganda fourth and Burundi last. Consequently, Ugandan primary school teachers tended to go to Kenya and Rwanda where the pay of was better than Uganda.

Although there were differences in the reward policies in the region, the salaries for primary school teachers had not been good enough. This assertion was based on the fact that teachers in Uganda, Kenya and Burundi were on strike in last several years (Biryabarema, 2013; Nikiza & Stecher, 2013; Chao, 2013). In some countries, the terms and conditions for primary school teachers had changed.

The purpose of a reward policy was to pay employees fairly, equitably and consistently in line with each employee’s contribution to the organization’s overall objectives. Fairness and equity as far as employment is concerned could be achieved by paying employees consistently according to their competence and contribution (Armstrong & Murlis, 2001). Trends in Primary School Teachers’ Reward Policy

Phase I: Reward Policy during Missionary Education 1800s up to 1962

Primary schools were introduced in Uganda by Anglican and Catholic missionaries towards the end of the 19th century. Primary school teachers were paid about East African Shs70 per month in the 1950s. This was a good pay at the time because the cost of living was different then. In addition to that, there were allowances paid in recognition of special responsibilities. The policy further provided that “a teacher earning less than East African Shs70 per month would have one child studying free in a school where parents were employed” (Native Anglican Church, 1950, p.5). Primary education in Uganda was in the hands of missionaries for more than 70 years.

63 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Phase II: Reward Policy for Primary School Teachers from 1963 to 1971

Uganda attained independence from the British in 1962. The following year, 1963, the government set up the Ugandan Education Commission chaired by Professor Castle to make proposals for the new education policy. This commission drew members from several countries: United Kingdom, United Stated of America, India, Nigeria, Uganda and agencies especially UNESCO. This commission was set up following the World Bank report on manpower requirements in the country (Uganda Government, 1963).

The reward policy included free accommodation. The pupils used to help teachers carry out home-related activities like fetching fi rewood, water and growing food. During this period, that is the 1960s and 1970s, children paid fees at primary and secondary school levels but studied free when they joined University. Similarly, teachers received both fi nancial and non- fi nancial rewards.

Phase III: Reward Policy between1971 and 1997

The change in the reward policy came in the 1970s. In 1971, General Idi Amin Dada usurped power in Uganda. A year later he declared the economic war. As a result, the Ugandan economy plummeted tremendously. As a result, the government was not able to pay teachers well. Teachers could no longer meet the cost of living.

Given the fi nancial challenges primary schools faced, the Parents Teachers Association (PTA) took up the role of raising funds to pay teachers some allowances. The PTAs were initially set up in 1969 as Welfare School Associations (Mamdani, 1987). PTAs took on the role of raising funds for schools because the Economic War declared in 1972 made school fi nancially incapacitated. The reward policy of the 1970s allowed government primary schools to raise money from parents. It became regular for schools to ask parents to make fi nancial contributions towards school activities. The funds parents contributed would enable schools to meet the fi nancial needs of a school. This included paying teachers’ allowances. This situation obtained until 1997 when the Universal Primary Education (UPE) policy was introduced in the country (UBOS, 2010, p.55).

Phase IV: Reward Policy after the Introduction of UPE

When UPE was introduced in Uganda in 1997, the pupils’ enrolment grew from 3.1 million in the previous year (1996) to 5.3 million in that year. The UPE policy banned head teachers from levying any form of fees. Government seemed to suggest that it was able to pay salaries and that the reward given was to be enough to meet teachers’ basic needs (Government of Uganda, 2008).

Phase V: Single Salary Spine Reward Policy

In 2002 a Single Salary Spine Reward Policy was introduced and approved by government in 2006. It was deemed that this policy, which in a sense was a consolidated reward, would enable the civil servants to meet the cost of living. In the aftermath, that is 2008 and 2009, primary school teachers realized that the single reward policy was not good enough. For that reason, beginning with 2009, the teachers under the leadership of their Uganda National Teachers

64 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Union (UNATU), intensifi ed their demands to government for salary increment. From 2010 to 2015 there were teachers’ strikes. In all these years, teachers demanded: (a) Fairness in reward; (b) Justice, and (c) a living wage. The factors that lead to the paucity of the reward were high infl ation (Birungi, 2012) and unpredictable cost of living.

Uganda’s public service reward policy contains scales and notches. This implies that there is an in-built annual increment, and that employees of different qualifi cations and levels of responsibility fall in different scales and notches. The above reward policy advocates a progressive reward system. Initially the progressive reward system was intended to encourage primary school teachers to embark on staff development programs. Teachers at Grade I were expected to upgrade to Grade II, and thereafter to Grade III. The pay for teachers with Grade III qualifi cation was higher compared to those with lower grades of I and II. This progressive salary scale system had nothing to do with responsibility or performance. It is right to argue that teachers’ reward in Uganda for a long time has not been performance-based. Rather it is qualifi cation, seniority, and promotion to headteachership or deputy headteachership which infl uence the teachers’ salary scale. Justifi cation of the Study

The reward policy has always permitted the pay for teachers in Uganda to be revised upward during the general salary increments of civil servants. It is assumed that reward policy changes ensure distributive justice and creates a work environment that is congenial to employees. In spite of the above intention, primary school teachers in Uganda have not been happy with the reward policy. This is because the increments had been outpaced by the cost of living. In 2002, the Uganda Public Service Pay Reform Strategy was adopted by Pubic Service and was approved by Cabinet in 2006. This strategy was aimed at removing inequality in wages for similar graded jobs (Ministry of Education and Sports, 2013: 96-98). As if to make matters worse the motivation allowances they used to get at their schools were banned with the introduction of UPE in 1997. All these were interpreted as injustice by teachers. The dissatisfaction of teachers is evidenced by the following instances:

(a) In March, 2010, the primary school teachers in Masaka, western Uganda went on strike over non-payment. Similarly, on 23 June 2010 primary teachers in Gulu town in northern Uganda went on strike because they had not been paid for several months (Kafeero, 2013). (b) In 2011 Ugandan teachers declared strikes over salary increment. Teachers wanted a 50 per cent pay rise. On 20 July and 30 August, the teachers argued they wanted a living wage (Walukamba, 2011). (c) In February 2012, the primary school teachers demanded a living wage. In the same year UNATU announced a two-day strike over poor payment (Sentongo, 2012). (d) In September 2013 primary school teachers demanded a 20 per cent pay rise and when government failed to yield to their demands, they went on strike (Biryabarema, 2013). At the same time, the Secretary General of UNATU contended that the Uganda primary school teachers were the worst paid in East Africa because the average pay was UGX 250,000 or US$97.16 per month.

65 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

(e) In 2014 primary school teachers in Rakai and Kampala complained about delayed salary payment for the months of March, April and May. (f) Some teachers have been taking long without accessing the payroll, yet they work fulltime. This implies that they work and do not earn.

The teachers’ union leaders, surmised that it was degrading for the government to increase salary of teachers in 2014 -2015 fi nancial year by a mere UGX 30,000, or $10 at that time, disregarding the exorbitant cost of living (Nakajubi, 2014). The UNATU leaders warned that the small pay rise may harm the teachers’ morale and, consequently, Ugandan children would suffer to a deliberate academic catastrophe because they would not have qualifi ed teachers. The salary increments, like the15 per cent was far below the 30 per cent infl ation situation. The primary school teachers concluded that there was no clear distributive injustice.

Besides the demands for pay rise and the concomitant strikes, some teachers left Ugandan primary schools and went to teach in Rwanda and Kenya where the pay was higher. Others stayed in the schools but reduced their commitment to professional responsibilities. Objectives of the study

In order to determine the effect of reward policy on distributive justice, this study aimed: (i) to assess the effect of UNATU leadership on reward policy; (ii) to analyze the effect of UNATU leadership on distributive justice; and (iii) to assess the effect of reward policy on distributive justice for teachers. Literature Review

This section of literature review examines the key variables of the study. These are: employee reward, distributive justice and UNATU leadership. The relationship between these variables is that when UPE was introduced in 1997, charging of any form of fees was prohibited (Government of Uganda 2008). It implied that Uganda was ready to implement a policy of providing free elementary education to its citizens. The policy of providing free education is supported by some authors (Anderson, 2013; Herman, 2014). In contrast, there are others (Leon, 2014; Statesman, 2014) who are opposed to this policy. They argue that parents should fund the education of their children.

When the UPE policy was adopted in Uganda, school leadership in primary schools lost the say about remuneration for teachers. So the leadership of UNATU took up the role of mobilizing teachers to demand for fair pay and pressurize government to respond to those demands. The UNATU leadership based their demands on justice.

66 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Policies on Financial and Non-Financial Rewards for Teachers

A lot of literature has been written about reward management. Reward policy refers to both fi nancial and non-fi nancial benefi ts (Armstrong, 2009). In the public sector reward policy has involved periodic pay increments (Chieppo, 2012).There are policy provisions which emphasize fi nancial rewards only for teachers (McCaig, 2013; Dolan et al., 2012). There is an observation that schools should have reward policies that provide bonuses to schools whose students perform well on standardized examinations (Palmer, 2003). In contrast, other educationists (Sammer, 2011; Anderson, 2012; Douglas, 2012; Gove, 2013) prefer policies that accord equal emphasis to non-fi nancial rewards. These writers argued that non-fi nancial rewards were cheaper than bonuses. The UNATU leadership supports the policy that provides fi nancial rewards mainly. From this observation, the fi rst hypothesis was derived as given below: H1O There is no signifi cant relationship between UNATU leadership and reward policy H1A There is a signifi cant relationship between UNATU leadership and reward policy

Leadership

Leadership has been defi ned in as many ways as there have been people to defi ne it. For example, Rauch and Behling (1984:46) and Yukl (2006) defi ned leadership in terms of a “process of infl uencing the activities of an organized group towards a goal achievement” (p. 9). Richards and Engle (1986) described leadership as “articulating vision, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be accomplished” (p. 206). The latter defi nition by Richards and Engle (1986) has resonance with UNATU leadership. From the defi nitions above, it can be concluded that leadership has four major elements: (i) ability to have infl uence on others; (ii) individual or collective efforts; (iii) actions; and (iv) achievement of objectives. These elements are expected of all organizations including employee organizations like UNATU.

Leadership in all categories of organizations is important for the following reasons: (i) to interpret the meaning of issues. (ii) to create agreement about objectives, priorities and strategies; (iii) to build task commitment and optimism; (iv) to build mutual trust and co- operation; (v) to strengthen collective identity; (vi) to organize and co-ordinate activities; (vii) to encourage and facilitate collective learning; (viii) to obtain necessary resources and support; (ix) to develop and empower people; and (x) to promote justice and morality. Yukl (2006) described the above ten objectives of leadership as the essence of leadership. The last one (x) links directly with the focus of the current study.

Within the educational setting, Coleman (1994) has pointed out that three conditions show that leadership really exists, namely: (a) availability of common goals; (b) existence of different roles including that of a leader; and (c) existence of systems and structures that allow the co-ordination of efforts to achieve the common goals. To have these conditions in place requires focus on both the people and the tasks to be achieved.

As far as Ugandan primary school teachers were concerned, their leadership was vested in UNATU. Leadership in UNATU is not limited to the General Secretary; it is also assumed by or delegated to others (Coleman, 1994). Following Coleman’s (1994) views, the current study adopts the broad view of leadership, that is, in addition to UNATU leaders, there are

67 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies other people who exercise leadership of teachers in the districts. This is justifi ed because there are many teachers who need to be mobilized and sensitized. This implied that there was shared leadership. This type of leadership had been described in a variety of ways. Bolden (2011) likened it to distributed leadership. On the other hand, Yukl (1989), Pearce and Sims (2001), Pearce and Conger (2003), Carson et al (2007), Bergman et al. (2012) have all addressed the concept of shared leadership and its main characteristics. From the above discussion, the second hypothesis is formulated a follows: H2O Leadership of teachers’ union has no signifi cant effect on distributive justice H2A Leadership of teachers’ union has a signifi cant effect on distributive justice

Distributive Justice

Justice is concerned with distribution of rewards, privileges and responsibilities (Rawls, 1999). This calls for what has been described as fairness, desert (that which is deserved), and entitlements (Sen, 2009). Justice is also defi ned as that which people deserve or what they have a right to. This takes various forms, for example, receiving a particular treatment, certain goods, enjoying certain prerogatives or freedoms (Chryssides & Kaler, 1996; Gin & Desa, 2014). All these forms of justice can be required of individuals, groups, society, etc. What is deserved may be benefi cial or harmful. Therefore, justice can be interpreted as fair, equitable and appropriate treatment in the light of what is due or owed to persons. In the context of work, distributive justice refers to employees’ perception of fairness in decisions and pay allocation (Saks, 2006). To be fair, the allocation must follow the reward policy (Kontakos, 2015). Although that is a logical argument, in the Ugandan case teachers did not perceive that distributive justice was being done (Birungi, 2012).

Distributive Justice thus concerns the ways benefi ts and burdens are shared out among people. It seeks to divide correctly things like wealth, power, property, and obligations between a number of people, groups or societies (Chryssides & Kaler, 1996). Correct division of things in society is referred to as social justice.

Distributive justice concerns what some consider to be socially just with regard to the allocation of goods in society. It is not only allocation of goods but also money. A society in which incidental inequalities in outcome do not arise would be considered a society guided by the principles of distributive justice (Stiglitz, 2012). The concept includes the available quantities of goods, the process by which goods are distributed, and the resulting allocation of the goods to the members of the society. Distributive justice has fi ve norms which are: equity, equality, power, need and responsibility (Forsyth, 2006). The fi ve norms are yet to be analyzed in relation to Ugandan teachers. In relation to primary school teachers the perception is that qualities, quantities and procedures are very good. They should be applied equally.

H3O Employee reward has no signifi cant effect on distributive justice

H3A Employee reward has signifi cant effect on distributive justice

68 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Conceptual Framework

State the conceptual relationship between independent and dependent variables. In this diagram below, employee reward is the independent variable, leadership is the moderating variable while distributive justice is the dependent variable.

 ‡ƒ†‡”•Š‹’

‡™ƒ”† ‹•–”‹„—–‹˜‡ ’‘Ž‹ ›  —•–‹ ‡  Figure 1: Relationships of variables as conceptualized by the author

There are authors (Armstrong & Murlis, 2001; Nakacwa et al, 2005; Ssali, 2011) who have written about rewards and distributive justice as illustrated in this section. However, they do not discuss the relationship between the three variables and more so in a Ugandan setting. Methodology

Unit of analysis

The population of interest consisted of primary school teachers in Wakiso and Kampala districts. The teachers in the Ugandan government primary schools were the unit of analysis for the current study. The total number of respondents was 246. The sample was considered suffi cient following the rule of the thumb which states that in social science research any sample between 30 and 500 is suffi cient to produce credible results (Roscoe, 1975).

Data collection

A cross-sectional research design requires one to use several data collection methods. In that regard, the following methods were used:

Questionnaire: A questionnaire was designed according to the objectives and variables. It was designed in such a way that respondents had a list of possible options or answers from which they ticked. The questionnaire as a tool was preferred because it is an appropriate instrument for any survey research. Questionnaires were administered to teachers to get the necessary information. The respondents provided answers in a pre-determined order (Saunders et al, 2009). The instrument had sections labelled A, B, C and D. The sections are summarized in Table 3 below.

69 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Table 3: Sections of the questionnaire

Section Items A Personal variables 6 B Reward 9 C Leadership 9 D Distributive justice 9 Total 33

The questionnaire, the main tool in this study employed 33 items. Apart from items on the demographic characteristics of the respondents, the rest of the items were on the Likert type scale. This scale served as a measurement for the effect of employee reward and distributive justice. The Likert scale used was: (i) Strongly Disagree = 1; (ii) Disagree =2; (iii) Neither disagree nor agree = 3; (iv) Agree=4; and (v) Strongly Agree=5.

Validity and Reliability instruments

Validity: An expert rated the items using 4=very valid; 3=valid; 2=valid only to a small, 1= not valid at all, to ensure that the research design fully addressed the research objectives that were achieved. Validity is concerned with the idea that the research design fully addresses the research objectives (White, 2002). In the current study, validity was established through a validity test using the Content Validity Index (CVI). These were computed as follows:

3+4 1+2+3+4

The product of the CVI test was 0.873. Since conventional research wisdom requires that a good research have a CVI of ≥ 0.7 (Amin, 2005; Saunders et al, 1997), that is, either equal or greater than 70%. This implied that the individual questions posed were relevant and valid.

Reliability: Reliability in this study tried to show that each section produced results which are reliable. This was determined by using SPSS to work out the Cronbach alpha (α) of each section on the questionnaire. The reliability alpha needed to be greater than 0.75 for the study to be regarded exhaustive. The cut-off point for most social science research should be [≥] 0.75 (Sullivan, 2001). They accurately measured the scales used in the study. For the current study, the test of Cronbach alpha yielded results as given in Table 4.

Table 4: Results of reliability test

Scale Cronbach alpha 1 Employee reward .803 2 Leadership .734 3 Distributive justice .812 Average alpha .783

The scales for main variables of the study were the only ones that were considered. They each had an alpha score that was greater than 0.75 which is recommended for social science

70 Wilson Muyinda Mande research (Sullivan, 2001). The average alpha was 0.783. The implication of all this is that the scales used to measure fees policy, reputation and quality were reliable and consistent. Analysis of Findings and Discussion

Reward policy in Uganda

The reward policy in Uganda especially for public servants like the primary school teachers is incremental in nature. Changes are usually introduced as a revision of the existing policy. This is normally done when the national budget is being read in the month of June every year. In Uganda, the fi scal year runs from July to June. Teachers in government primary schools fall in the salary scale U6 and U7. The salary scales depend on the level of a teacher’s professional training. The teachers have been paid as follows:

Table 5: Amounts of pay primary school teachers receive Scale Level 2011/2012 percentage 2012/2013 Percentage 2013/2014 increase increase

UGX % UGX % UGX

U6 Upper (T) 333,717 8 360,414 4 374,830

Upper (B) 299,129 8 323,059 4 335,982

U6 Lower (T) 304,612 8 328,981 4 342,140

Lower (B) 277,844 8 300,071 4 312,074

U7 Upper (T) 267,686 15 307,839 4 320,153

Upper (B) 224,188 15 257,817 4 268,129

U7 Lower (T) 205,035 15 235,790 4 245,221

Lower (B) 173,119 15 199,087 14 227,240

Sources: Salary structure for 2011-2012, 2012-2013, and 2014-2015

It can be noted from Table 5 that the government reward policy provided salary increment. The increments were often dwarfed by high rates of infl ation. For instance, in 2012/2013 the salary increase was 4% on average but the infl ation was 8.4% (UBOS, 2013). So there was a variance of 4.4%.In 2010/2011 the salary increment was about 11.5% but the infl ation reached

71 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies the highest level of 30.48% (Businge, 2011).When the infl ation was signifi cantly higher than the salary increment, it meant that with the low pay, primary school teachers were not able to meet the cost of living. It was also noted by UNATU (2013) that the teachers’ pay in Uganda was exceptionally low, and the entry level salary was insuffi cient for a single person’s basic subsistence. This, coupled with continuous issues of late or non-payment of wages, made teachers resort to industrial action from 2011 to 2015.

In August 2011, UNATU negotiated with President Museveni who committed to raise the primary teachers’ pay by 50%. This was to be paid in three fi scal years: 2012/2013 to increase by 15%; 2013/2014 to increase by 25%; and in 2014/2015 to raise by 10%. The fi rst 15% was paid promptly but the 25% was not paid in 2013/2014 until there were a series of industrial actions; then it was eventually paid in the 2014/2015 fi scal year. UNATU’s negotiation with President Museveni indicated that the reward policy in Uganda was so fl uid that it required the head of state to intervene.

In June 2014, increment of salaries for primary school teachers was as indicated in Table 6. The increment for 2014 is compared with the salary scale of 2013.

Table 6: A comparison of salary scales of 2013 and 2014

Monthly pay Monthly pay Percentage in 2013/2014 in 2014/2015 increase U6 lower 382803 489,988 28% 378,203 487,574 29% 373,604 485,685 30% 371,304 482,695 30% U7 Upper 374,148 467,685 25% 367,659 457,574 24% 361,798 452,247 25% 356,076 445,095 25% 350,496 438,119 25% 345,074 431,309 25% 339,741 424,676 25% 334,557 418,196 25% 330,493 413,116 25% Entry point for Grade III teachers 326,508 408,135 25% Teachers on trial terms (U7 Lower) 227,240 284,050 25% Non-formal teachers on trial terms (U8 159,035 198,793 25% lower)

Source: Circular Standing Instruction No.2 of 2014

The salary scales in Table 6 refl ected the pay for both trained teachers and support staff

72 Wilson Muyinda Mande who were not trained. The teachers on trial are normally described as licensed teachers. The implication was that when the trained teachers were not enough, the licensed teachers assisted in a number of ways just as a fulltime trained staff would do. For most notches, the increment was 25% apart from those in U6 where the increment exceeded 25%. Although the increment was high, the purchasing power of the shilling was already low. This meant that the salary increment did not improve the teachers’ standard of living. The head teachers’ salary scales approved by the 2014 reward policy are given in Table 7 below:

Table 7: The primary school head teachers’ pay in 2014:

Category of school Scale Salary per month UGX leaders 1 Head teacher Upper U4 799,323 2 Head teacher Lower U4 611,984 3 Deputy Head teacher Upper U5 608,822 4 Deputy Head teacher Lower U5 511,617

Obviously the salary scales of primary school leaders are higher than the scales in Table 6. The increments of 2014 make the rewards for the head teachers and deputies much higher than they had been in the previous years. In spite of the apparent increment, it is worth noting these were not living wages. A living wage can be described as that a pay which enables an employee to afford the basic needs of life so as to enjoy a safe, decent standard of living within a particular community. Reward Policy and Teachers’ Union Leadership

Leadership is very important for organizational effectiveness. The effectiveness is marked by a vision and a followership. An effective organization is one that responds to the needs of the members and to changes in the environment. To achieve such effectiveness leadership must be good.

UNATU was registered in March 2003 following a transformation of the Uganda Teachers’ Association (UTA) into a Trade Union to fulfi l a dual role of professional development and trade unionism. UNATU is affi liated to Education International (EI), Pan African Teachers’ Centre (PATC) and Ugandan National Union of Teachers (UNUT). UNATU is a statuary organization registered under the Trade Union Act. By 2011, UNATU had 80,000 registered members out of the approximate potential of 160,000 teachers on government payroll.

The objectives of UNATU can be summarized into a mission to promote and protect the social, intellectual, economic and professional interests of the teachers as a pre-requisite to quality public education. These objectives are pursued by the UNATU leadership. The leadership of UNATU has been instrumental in organizing teachers’ industrial action. Under the Uganda Constitution of 1995 and the Trade Union Act of 2000, it is a trade union body which could challenge the reward. With the introduction of the UPE in 1997, the authority of school leaders reduced markedly. So only UNATU could put up a strong challenge to government.

73 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Qualifi cation-Seniority-Responsibility-based Pay System

In Uganda there is no performance-based pay as it is in the Organization for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) countries (Harvey-Beavis, 2003). Instead, what exists in

Uganda is what is referred to in this study as qualifi cation-seniority-responsibility-based pay system. This system has the following characteristics: 1. Qualifi cation: Payment according to professional training level one has attained. The teachers without professional training earn the least pay; then Grade II; Grade III and Diploma holders are paid in different scales. The higher the training the more one is paid. 2. Seniority: Teachers are paid according to seniority. Given the annual increments, the longer one stays in the teaching profession, the more one earns. 3. Responsibility: Payment for additional responsibility; a teacher is paid an additional pay, for instance, when he/she becomes a head of school or deputy head teacher.

The above payment system can be described as a qualifi cation-seniority-responsibility based pay system. This system does not motivate primary school teachers to perform to their best because there is no performance-based pay. However, before the introduction of UPE in 1997, primary school fees were levied on each pupil. This money would be used to supplement the meagre remittances from government. Some of it would be used to pay allowances to teachers. In Table 8 it is indicated that teachers at various levels used to earn some allowances on top of the salary. These allowances differed from school to school. The commonly remunerated roles are summarized in Table 8.

Table 8: Roles that attracted remuneration before UPE policy

Role Yes No 1 Headship of a school √ - 2 Deputy headship of a school √ - 3 Class teacher √ - 4 Being a teacher in a school √ - 5 Teaching a particular subject - √ 6 Other roles √ -

Source: Interview responses

All the allowances associated with the roles in Table 8 were scrapped when UPE came into effect in 1997. Without salary increment, teachers considered the scrapping of PTA fi nancial contribution a case of injustice. That was why during the industrial action in 2009 to 2015, teachers demanded “justice”. Leadership at school level had lost the mandate to organize fi nancial resources for the teachers. Therefore, the connection between reward policy and leadership was severed and so was the connection between reward and distributive justice. School leadership would make an attempt at distributive justice before 1997, but after that, it became practically impossible for school leaders to promote distributive justice. This explains why the leadership of UNATU took up the role of organizing industrial action and demanding justice as far as pay was concerned. 74 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Results of the Test of Hypothesis 1 on reward policy and UNATU leadership

The fi rst null hypothesis (H1O) of the current study stated that; ‘there is no signifi cant relationship between reward policy and UNATU leadership”. This hypothesis was tested fi rst by Pearson’s Correlation. This produced results which indicated that there was a low positive signifi cant relationship between reward policy and leadership [r (246) =.290, p<0.01]. This meant that reward policy and leadership support each other. That is, the more UNATU leaders played their role of engaging government more effectively on teachers’ salaries, the more likely that government would respond and implement a more favorable reward policy for teachers.

The above hypothesis was also subjected to a simple linear regression test in order to determine how much reward policy explained teachers’ attitudes towards UNATU leadership. The test yielded an Adj. R2 of .080. This translated into 8%. It could be inferred therefore that reward policy explained 8% of the teachers’ appreciation of UNATU leadership.

Furthermore, the regression matrix also gave results that proved the linearity between reward policy and teachers’ positive attitude towards UNATU leaders [F (1, 244) = 22.421, p<0.01]. From this, one can infer that any unit increase in reward policy leads to a corresponding positive attitude towards UNATU leadership. For that reason it is right to conclude that reward policy increases teachers’ positive appreciation of their trade union leaders. This was so because head teachers had been banned from raising funds for their schools (Government of Uganda 2008).

Without the role of the UNATU, it was less likely that an individual teacher would have achieved the increment they obtained.

Regression matrix results revealed further that reward policy infl uences teachers’ attitudes towards their union leaders (β = .290, p<0.01). From this statistic, it can be rightly concluded that the null hypothesis was rejected but the alternative one (H1A) which stated that: “There is a signifi cant relationship between reward policy and UNATU leadership in Uganda” was supported. UNATU began to demand for pay rise in 2009. In 2011 UNATU demanded a 100% increment and threatened to stage a nation-wide strike. President Museveni negotiated with UNATU and committed 50% increment to be in three instalments of 15%, 25%, and 10%. In 2012/2013 the 15% was paid, but in 2013/2014 the 25% increment was not paid because it was not budgeted for. UNATU again organized nation-wide strikes (Mugerwa, 2013). In response, government accepted to pay the increment in 2014 (Nalugo, 2014). Again in 2015/2016 the last percentage of 10% increment was not budget for. So UNATU embarked on a nationwide strike (Nassaka, 2015). Government realized that it had no money to increase their salaries in the budget read on June 11. Instead, it was agreed that UNATU calls off the strike, government would give not only 10% increment but 15% in fi nancial year 2016/2017. This meant that teachers would end up with 55% salary increment between 2011/2012 and 2016/2017 fi nancial years. Without UNATU leadership, it would have been hard for individual teachers to demand such pay rise and cause government to respond positively as it did.

75 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Relationship between UNATU Leadership and Distributive Justice

As already stated, UNATU provided leadership that demanded salary increment for primary school teachers in all public schools. UNATU led the negotiations with government, carried out mobilization of teachers countrywide, and acted as key spokes-organ for the teachers. Results of Test of Hypothesis 2 on Leadership and Distributive Justice

The second null hypothesis (H2O) read that, “Leadership has no signifi cant effect on distributive justice for teachers”. When this hypothesis was tested, the results indicated that there was a positive signifi cant relationship between leadership and distributive justice [r (246) =.464, p<0.01]. The deduction from this statistic is that the more effective the UNATU leadership, themore distributive justice the teachers are likely to realize. UNATU’s leadership had the ability to stand up for the rights and aspirations of their members – the teachers. As a result, government responded positively by granting the salary increment.

The regression test further revealed that the Adj. R2 was .212 which became 21% effect of leadership on distributive justice. Leadership therefore is a strong cause of distributive justice for teachers in the country. Linearity was also tested and it produced results which showed that there as a linear relationship between leadership and distributive justice [F (1, 244) = 66.914l p<0.01]. So if the leadership of UNATU is improved further, it also affects teachers’ perception of distributive justice accordingly. Hence, if we get better leaders at UNATU, the teachers will believe that these good leaders will fi ght for distributive justice on their behalf.

The results of regression revealed that leadership helped teachers to form positive attitudes towards distributive justice (β =.464, p<0.01). From these results it can be concluded that the second null hypothesis was rejected. So it was the alternate hypothesis (H2A): “Leadership of UNATU has a signifi cant effect on teachers’ perception of distributive justice” which was supported. Distributive justice and reward policy

The motif of distributive justice is concerned with the ways in which benefi ts and burdens are shared out among people. It seeks to divide correctly these benefi ts and burdens between a number of people, groups in a particular setting. Correct division of things in society is often referred to as social justice.

In the current study the focus was on reward policy being able to ensure that the individual teacher lived happily in his or her profession. This reward policy is not merely about reward, but also should have an effect on other variables, especially distributive justice. It was noted during the fi eld investigations that teachers felt that as they work fulltime, they deserve a salary that enables them meet all their basic necessities. These include: food, water, accommodation, electricity, medical care, travel, communication and clothing. Distributive justice also means that the teachers must earn the amount of money that enables them to meet the cost of living. The cost of living requires employers, including government, to pay a living a wage. If that is not done, then teachers become disgruntled which usually culminates into industrial action.

76 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Cost of living in Uganda in 2014 /2015

The cost of living is going to rise as tough times ahead show the depreciating shilling push up the price of fuel. The increase of fuel and food prices often determines the infl ation and generally the cost of living. Cost of living refers to the average costs of consumer goods and services. These vary between different urban and suburban residential areas. Cost of living indexes tend to compare the expenses an average person can incur in order to acquire food, shelter, transportation, energy, clothing, education, healthcare, child care and entertainment in a given area. In this research that area is Uganda. The said costs are given in table 9 below.

Table 9: Cost of living as at 2014/2015

Items Quantity Amount per month 1 Accommodation 1 room 50,000 2 Electricity 426.10 x 100 units 42,610 3 Water 1,213 x 10m3 12,130 4 Food - Breakfast 5000 x 30 days 150,000 - Lunch 10,000 x 30 days 300,000 - Evening snack 5000 x 30 days 150,000 - Supper 10,000 x 30 days 300,000 5 Medical 40,000 Treatment of common illnesses once a month 6 Travel / transport 10,000 x 30 days 100,000 7 Communication 50,000 Airtime, email, etc. 8 Clothing 20,000 Monthly saving 9 Personal effects 20,000 Toothpaste, soap, razors, salon, etc., per month Total: cost of living per month 834,740

Source: Bank of Uganda, 2013

It can be noted that cost of living in Uganda for a single individual was UGX834, 740 in 2015. However, the Ugandan Ministry of Education and Sports contended in 2012 that, under the prevailing cost of living, a modest budget for a primary school teacher amounted to UGX657, 000. Consequently, the Ministry of Education and Sports proposed that the pay for teachers at the minimum be raised to UGX500, 000, up from UGX 310,000 (Businge & Lule, 2012). Result of test of Hypothesis 3 on reward policy and distributive justice

The third hypothesis (H3O) stated that, “Reward policy has no signifi cant effect on distributive justice for teachers”. To test this hypothesis, both correlation and regression analyses were executed. The results of the correlation revealed that there was a positive signifi cant effect of

77 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies reward policy on distributive justice [r (246) =. 574, p<0.01]. The clear implication here was that when primary school teachers are given better reward, they are likely to interpret it as distributive justice.

Further test of the regression matrix showed that there was a linear relationship between reward policy and distributive justice [F (1, 244) = 120.117, p<0.01]. The other regression results were β = .574, p<0.01. From this statistic it is possible to note that reward policy is a major contributor to teachers’ perception of distributive justice. The model summary yielded an Adj. R2of .327. This implied that reward policy contributed 32% to teachers’ perception of distributive justice.

In view of the above analysis, it is proper to conclude that the null hypothesis was rejected. The alternate hypothesis (H3A) which stated that reward policy has a signifi cant effect on distributive justice for primary school teachers was supported. Hypothetical model for reward policy and distributive justice

The hypothetical model was used to determine the overall effect of reward policy on distributive justice. The hypothetical model therefore provides a reliable explanation that distributive justice is a function of reward policy, that is, DJ = f (ER). In the explanation the following are taken into account: (a) Determining variables – in the model there is an independent variable (reward policy), and moderating variable (UNATU leadership), and a dependent variable (distributive justice). (b) Establishing causal paths – the causal paths relevant to variable (3) which is distributive justice are paths from (1) to (2) to (3); and from (1) to (3). (c) Stating assumptions – e.g. all relations are linear, (d) Variables are measured linearly left to right. The paths for the hypothesized empirical model

2 UNATU Leadership

.29 .46

1 3 Reward Distributive policy Justice .57

The paths in the hypothesized model above establish the following relationships:

78 Wilson Muyinda Mande

(1) A positive signifi cant relationship between reward policy and UNATU leadership (2) A positive signifi cant relationship between UNATU leadership and distributive justice (3) A positive signifi cant relationship between reward policy and distributive justice

The results were as the paths coeffi cients indicate:

Paths Variable coeffi cients P21 = reward policy and leadership .29 P32 = leadership and distributive justice .46 P31 = reward policy and distributive justice .57

Variable 1 (reward policy) is the only exogenous variable because it has no arrows pointing to it. This leaves two endogenous variables in the model, that is variable 2 (leadership) and variable 3 (distributive justice). Each of these variables is explained by one or two variables. Effects of decomposition

The paths coeffi cients were used to decompose correlations in the model into direct and indirect effects corresponding to direct and indirect paths refl ected in the arrows of the model. This is based on the rule that in a linear system the total causal effect of variable A on variable B is the sum of the values of all the paths from A to B. Distributive justice is the dependent variable while reward policy is the independent variable, the indirect effects and calculated by multiplying the paths coeffi cients for each path from reward policy to distributive justice

= reward policy →leadership →distributive justice

= .29 x .46 = .1334 ≡ .13

So, .13 is the total indirect effect of reward policy on distributive justice, plus the direct effect of .57. The total causal effect of reward policy on distributive justice is (.13+.57) .70. In view of the above model, it is appropriate to infer that reward policy is a major determinant of the distributive justice. The other factors which account for the remaining .30 should be only peripheral in the matters of distributive justice in a workplace.

Although the total causal effect of 70% is moderate, there is some discontent about the salaries paid to primary school teachers. This is evidenced by the teachers’ industrial actions in 2010; in 2011, in 2012; and in 2013 (Agaba, 2014; Akweteireho, 2009; Olaka, 2010; Nuwagaba, 2011; Businge, 2011; Biryabarema, 2013).The industrial actions were settled when there were successful negotiations between UNATU and government over teachers’ salaries. Recommendation: Use of non-fi nancial rewards

The Uganda Government in the 1990s took a deliberate decision to consolidate the remuneration to civil servants including teachers. With this policy, the non-fi nancial rewards for teachers in government primary school were abolished. The consolidated salary is not satisfactory. Teachers have always felt that they have not had distributive justice. That is why teachers have on many occasions resorted to industrial action as an expression of their dissatisfaction.

79 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The non-fi nancial rewards include: housing; meals at school; education support for biological children; career development opportunities; non-fi nancial recognition, and employee development and training.

It has already been observed that introducing non-fi nancial rewards can create perceptions of the overall fairness of a rewards program. Fairness is treated as being synonymous with justice. This is why Rawls postulated that “justice was fairness” (On the principles of justice as fairness, Rawls (1971) argues that social and economic inequalities are to satisfy two conditions: (a) They are to be attached to offi ces and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity; (b) They are to be to the greatest benefi t of the least-advantaged members of society, the difference principle (Stanford, 2012). Since the primary school teachers are among those paid the meagre salaries, they are among the least advantaged as far as pay is concerned.

The hypothetical model confi rmed that the total causal effect of reward policy on distributive justice is 70%. In order to improve the effect of reward policy on distributive justice and eliminate the disapprovals pointed out earlier on, this study recommends the adoption of the non-fi nancial rewards model.

Simulating the contribution of the non-fi nancial rewards model

How much the use of the non-fi nancial rewards model can contribute to concretizing distributive justice can be determined by carrying out a simulation? The simulation is carried out in the following steps: Step 1 the percentage of total causal effect is subtracted from 100%. In this study, the total causal effect from the hypothetical model is 70%. So 100% minus 70% leaves 30%. Step 2 the product in step 1 above is multiplied by the direct effect. In the current study, this is .30 x .57 = .17. So the contribution of the non-fi nancial rewards model is 17%. Step 3 The product in step 2 is added to the total causal effect in order to derive the total causal effect after simulation. In this study the 17% is added to the 70% giving a fi nal fi gure of 87%. Step 4 Conclusion based on the simulation is that it is viable to adopt the non-fi nancial rewards model because it promises to add value (17%) to the employee reward which is purely fi nancial as an effect on distributive justice. Conclusion

This study focused on the effect of reward policy on distributive justice. Teachers like all civil servants expected to be rewarded with just salaries. When these were not forthcoming teachers resorted to industrial actions between 2009 and 2015.

The analysis was executed and the following outcomes were realized. Although government has been paying teachers’ salaries, and giving them increments every year, the increments have been always outpaced by infl ation. So the real value of the increment was not obtained. Furthermore, the salaries given to primary school teachers, even when increased by 25% in 2014, did not match the cost of living in the country.

80 Wilson Muyinda Mande

The study noted that in order for the primary school teacher to earn a salary which allows him or her to meet the cost of living, the salary needed to be increased by 83% for the lowest paid teaching staff. This increment would not be sustainable, so the best option is to provide non-fi nancial rewards. Using simulation, it emerged that the use of non-fi nancial rewards would contribute 17% to the teachers’ perception of distributive justice. Lessons learned:

(i) When a public policy is weak, unsatisfi ed parties make a recourse to the head of state. (ii) Changing a public policy without clear program of implementation causes a miasma. (iii) Complaints and industrial actions are some of indicators of a failed public policy. (iv) Unity is strength, NATU was able to be taken seriously because all members spoke with one voice through their leaders. (v) Non-fi nancial rewards are still useful and can go a long way to ameliorate the shortcomings in the fi nancial rewards. (vi) The recommendation to provide non-fi nancial rewards to teachers is a policy reversal which is possible and plausible. References Agaba, A. (2014). Challenges of universal primary education. Available at: http://www.redpepper. co.ug/. Accessed on 13 November 2015. Akweteireho, J. (2009). Excel High School teachers go on strike over salary. http:// ugandaradionetwork.com/a/story.php?s=21357. Accessed January 2015. Anderson, J. (2012). Non-Monetary Employee Rewards. http://tx.englis/ch.com/teacher/bien/. Retrieved 13th December 2014. Anderson, P. (2013). College Expenses: Should Parents Pay for Their Children’s Tuition? http://www. biblemoneymatters.com/college-expenses-should-parents-pay-for/. Retrieve 4 February 2015. Armstrong, M. and Murlis, H. (2001). Reward Management: A handbook of remuneration strategy and practice. 4th Edition. London: Kogan Page Limited. Armstrong, M. (2009). Armstrong’s handbook of human resource management practice. 11th Edition. London: Kogan Page Limited. Bergman J Z., Rentsch, J. R., Small, E. E., Davenport, S. W., and Bergman, S. M. (2012). The shared leadership process in decision-making teams. In Journal of Social Psychology, 152 (1):17-42. Birungi, T. (2012). Uganda: Education unionists demand fair and decent salary. http://www.ei ie.org/ en/news/news_details/2183. Biryabarema, E. (2013). Ugandan teachers go on strike to demand 20 percent pay rise www.reuters. com/.../uganda-strike-idUSL5N0HC17L20130916 Retrieved 4 February 2015. Bolden, R. (2011). Distributed Leadership in Organizations. A Review of Theory and Research. International Journal of Management Reviews. 13 (3), 251 – 269. Businge, C., & Lule, J. (2012). Government plans to pay primary school teachers UGX 500,000. In http://www.newvision.co.ug/ news/636802 Accessed 10th February 2015.

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82 Wilson Muyinda Mande

Kontakos, A. M. (2015). Employee engagement and fairness in the workplace. Centre for Advanced Human Resource Studies. www.docfl ic.net Retrieved 2 May 2015. Leon, M. (2014). Parents ready to pay up for post-secondary education even if it means straining their own fi nances. http://business.fi nancialpost.com/personal-fi nance/ Mamdani, M. (1987). Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Local Government System. Kampala. Government of Uganda. McCaig, A. (2013). Financial rewards improve teacher attendance, retention and students’ test scores. http://news.rice.edu/2013/04/25/rice-u-study-performance-based-fi nancial rewards. Accessed 6 June 2015. Milkovich, G. and Newman, J. (2004). Compensation, 8th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill/Irwin. Ministry of Education and Sports (2013). Teachers Initiative in Sub-Saharan Africa. Kampala Uganda. www.education.go.ug/. Accessed 2 April, 2015. Ministry of Public Service (2014). Circular Standing Instruction No.2 of 2014. Salary Structure for 2014 / 2015 fi nancial year, Kampala. Ministry of Public Service, Salary Standing Instructions Nos. 2: Salary structure for fi nancial years 2011-2012; 2012-2013 and 2013-2014. Mugerwa, J. (2013). Uganda: Teachers strike over failure to receive salary increments. https://www. ei-ie.org/en/news/news_details/2683 Nakacwa, J. (2005). Rewards and job performance of secondary school teachers in Kawempe Division. Unpublished Masters Proposal, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda Nakajubi, G. (2014).Losers, Gainers in headteachers’ salaries. In New Vision Mwalimu 23rd July. Nalugo M (2014) Primary Teachers’ Salaries Increased by Shs 50,000. http://www.monitor.co.ug/ news Nassaka, F. (2015). Teachers’ Pay. http://www.independent.co.ug/news Native Anglican Church (1950). Teachers’ Service Book. Printed at Namirembe. Nikiza, G. and Stecher, L. (2013). A Little Less Conversation: The Burundian Government Just Can’t Please its Teachers. http://thinkafricapress.com/burundi/strikes-teachers-mdgs-human-rights- education. Retrieved, 12 July 2015 Nuwagaba, A. (2011).Government must rectify the salary imbalance in Public Sector. http://allafrica. com/stories/201109090120.html Olaka, D. (2010). Teachers strike enrages parents. http://ugandaradionetwork.com/ a/story.php? Palmer, J. S. (2003). Performance incentives, teachers and students: estimating the effects of reward policies on classroom assessment practices and students’ performance. PhD dissertation. Ohio State University, USA. Pearce, C. L., and Conger, J. (2003). Shared Leadership Theory. digitalcommons.unl.edu/. Accessed 1 March 2015. Pearce, C. L., and Sims, H. P. (2002). Vertical versus shared leadership as predictors of the effectiveness of change management teams: An examination of aversive, directive, transactional, transformational, and empowering leader behaviors. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, Vol. 6(2), pp. 172-197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.6.2.172. Accessed 1 March 2015.

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Ssali, G. (2011). Rewards and job commitment of primary school teachers in Mityana District. An unpublished Master of Education degree dissertation for Makerere University. Kampala. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012). John Rawls. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/ Stiglitz, J. E. (2012). The price of inequality. London: Penguin Books Limited. Uganda National Teachers Union (UNATU). (2013). Teachers strike over failure to receive salary increments. http://www.ei-ie.org/en/news/news_details/2683 Accessed 2 May 2015 Saks, A. (2006). Antecedents and consequences employee engagement. Journal of Management Psychology, 21(7). Sullivan, T. J. (2001). Methods of Social Research. Harcourt College Publishers. Sentongo, J. M. (2012). Teachers claim victory as two-day strike ends. http://www.ekimeeza.com/ Department of International Development Press Release 54/98 – 10/1998 www.dfi d.gov.uk/ PressRelease/fi les/pr1oct.htm Statesman, M. (2014). No: let’s make sure kids get the most from their education. http://www.wsj. com/articles/. Accessed 4 January, 2015. Uganda Bureau of Statistics. (2010). Uganda National Household Survey. Kampala: Uganda Bureau of Statistics. (2013).Consumer price index. www.ubos.org–June. Uganda Government (1963). Education in Uganda: The Report of Uganda Education Commission. Published by Authority. Walukamba, A. (2011). Primary School Teachers in Mayuge start Strike. http://ugandaradionetwork. com/ Retrieved 12 June 2015 White, B. (2002). Writing your MBA Dissertation. London: Continuum. Yukl, G. (1989). Managerial Leadership. A review of theory and research. Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in Organizations, New Jersey: Pearson Educational Inc.

84 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

Community Service Functions of Higher Education Institutions and Socio-Economic Development in Uganda

Maria K. Barifaijo, Sebastian Bigabwenkya, Rose B. Namara, Felix A. Andama and Wilfred L. Bongomin. Uganda Management Institute, Kampala Abstract

This study examined the link between community service functions of higher education institutions (HEIs) and socio-economic development of localities around these institutions. The study set out to: explore the forms and strategies used by institutions in promoting the community service function; fi nd out the contribution of community service to local socio-economic development endeavors in Uganda; and examine the linkage of HEIs research and teaching to community service. Utilizing the interpretive approach and the general collaborative theory, the research was done among three higher Institutions of learning i.e. Uganda Management Institute, Makerere and Gulu Universities where teaching and administrative staff participated in the study. Findings show that there are many strategies used by staff and students in community service, but community service lacks a comprehensive strategy at HEIs level. The contribution of community service to local socio-economic development is not necessarily explicit in communities but the function is intertwined with research and education which all in the end contribute to socio-economic development. Community service is not deliberately linked to socio-economic development of localities as it is linked to promotion of staff and students learning. Besides, community service interventions in many institutions of higher learning are inadequately resourced and lack systematic approach to working for community transformation. The study recommends that for community service to be meaningful, it has to be benefi cial to the communities too. There is need to develop costed institutional strategies for community service and development of documentation mechanisms for community service interventions by university actors.

Key words: Community Service, Higher Education Institutions, Third Mission, Local Socio-Economic Development, Uganda

Introduction

The overall focus of this research project is explore the link between the third mission of higher institutions of learning (community service) and local socio-economic development. Community service function of higher institutions of learning requires institutions to engage with communities and focus their research and teaching functions to transform communities in which they operate. This function brings the university ’near to the communities’, and consequently minimizes the ‘ivory tower’ syndrome. In this arrangement, a symbiotic relationship between higher education institutions (HEIs) and their localities is created. Although community service appears to be one of the three functions of HEIs often embedded in schemes of service and promotion policies, the community service function has not been well developed in HEIs in relation to other functions of research and teaching. Nevertheless, scholars have argued that the community service is a potential resource for developing collaborative links with the wider world (Inman & Schuetze, 2010). This research project set

85 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies out to explore the contribution of community service function of universities in Uganda to local socio-economic development of communities around higher Institutions of Learning. Higher Education Institutions and Community Service

There is renewed momentum of interest in the way higher institutions of learning interface with their communities and regions; including a concern that higher education needs to be more relevant to national development needs (UNESCO, 2009). For example, higher education is seen to contribute to poverty reduction and sustainable development (WB 2000, UNESCO, 2009). Higher education functions of teaching, research and community service are expected to jointly shape socio-economic development of nations through policies, programming, planning and providing labour that executes these development plans. HEIs have traditionally embraced three functions namely: teaching, research, and community service. However, community service has often been a ‘distant cousin’ to the more dominant roles of teaching and research. Nevertheless, many scholars have argued that the community service is a potential resource for developing collaborative links between HEIs and the wider world (Inman & Schuetze, 2010).

Community service has traditionally been linked with the concept of service-learning especially in the fi eld of teaching (education), agriculture and community service. There is considerable agreement in the academic community that service-learning is a multi- tiered pedagogy that can be implemented at any level of education. For example, Wade (2000) recommends that in teacher education programs; (a) fi eld experiences and goals be collaboratively developed to minimize the asymmetry between the “server” and the “served,” (b) types of community experiences be varied to provide multiple perspectives on societal issues, and (c) critical refl ective papers and discussions be planned so that TCs confront preconceived biases and/or beliefs. Service-learning in teacher preparation programs involves the achievement of curricular goals through authentic community or school-based experiences. The experience usually relate to the subject matter of the course. In fact, some scholars such as Roldan, Strage, and David (2004) have investigated service-learning outcomes in terms of student achievement, as well as the social components of civic engagement and personal growth of students. Accordingly, students learn the course content as they engage in the service-learning experiences.

Increasingly, community service is seen as a means of engendering citizenship values and community responsibility amongst university learners. It is also a potential resource for ‘africanising’ HEIs system through raising the profi le of indigenous knowledge systems and helping communities to identify African solutions to local problems in the face of an inherited colonial curriculum and ongoing infl uences from imported distance education options from other corners of the globe (Brock, 2003). As such there is a call for continued support to higher institutions of learning so as to prioritize needs of Africa’s development and for universities to create mutually benefi cial partnerships with communities and civil societies to facilitate the sharing and transmission of appropriate knowledge (UNESCO 2009: 6). The notion of reciprocal impact is central in community service; that is, outcomes achieved are also benefi cial to the community and/or school partners. For community service programs to be effective, the issues addressed in the experience must be meaningful and of consequence to the communities too. As Harkavy (2004) argues, it is important to target global problems occurring at local

86 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L. levels through initiatives that provide workable solutions.

Community service includes the vital component of refl ection, which engages HEIs actors and communities in knowledge construction and reconstruction as they analyze their own previous understandings of social phenomenon and preconceived notions about people from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds (Baldwin, & Rudisill, 2002; Sleeter, 2000). Experience from diverse settings enables communities to gain insights from HEIs thereby providing the beginning of understanding of HEIs actors who seemingly live in different worlds. Both the universities and communities move from accepting the different worlds as they are to questioning them which can lead to more refl ection and research. Thus community service has the potential to transforming thinking of university actors and communities.

The community service function of HEIs in Africa is historical, though not well developed: some universities have taken initiatives to build it. Scholars have documented elements of community service from different perspectives; for instance Bringle et al., (2006) on service learning; Hall (2010) on community engagement in South Africa; Ntseane (2010) in relation to developing a learning city in Botswana; and efforts to revive the university’s community service mission in Tanzania (Mwaikokesya, 2010). The notion of partnership between HEIs and communities is evolving to the realization that community service promotes mutual learning gains (Preece, 2011a, 2011b). Consequently, community engagement is seen as a means of contributing to the knowledge society, whereby theoretical knowledge is adapted to specifi c local contexts such as the development of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa (Pillay, 2009). Research Problem

Causing social economic development requires a deliberate effort to identify socio-economic needs, local capacities to transform the local economies, availability of services as well as institutions to guide such development. There is no doubt that higher education is expected to transform communities; however, HEIs, especially Universities, have traditionally been known to be elitist. Universities have been criticized for their ‘ivory tower’ image with limited impact on the socio-economic environment in their locality (Lulat, 2005) and employers have increasingly voiced their concerns about inadequate graduate skills for the job market. The challenge for African HEIs has been how to match global demands for higher education as a commodity for knowledge production whilst preserving indigenous qualities of pedagogy, identity and relevance to regional and local development needs. The community service function of HEIs provides the space to address such a challenge in a way that can refocus HEIs research and teaching to addressing local socio-economic needs. However, the third mission of HEIs, (i.e. community service) has for long been treated as peripheral or a ‘distant cousin’ to the more dominant roles of teaching and research. The community service function is usually underdeveloped in terms of its purpose, institutional arrangement for its functionality and how learning and research components are linked to it. There seem to be no standardized practice or measure for HEIs contribution to local development. It is diffi cult to fi nd existing data that portrays the contribution of community service function of universities to the development of localities. As such, some university stakeholders are not often engaged in community service and if they are, it is basically left to individuals wishes. This scenario has left a knowledge gap.

87 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Objectives

This study set out to examine the role of community service functions of HEIs to local socio- economic development in Uganda. The study comprised three selected HEIs in Uganda. Study objectives included; (i) Explore the strategies used by HEIs in Uganda in promoting the community service function (ii) Find out the perceived contribution of community service to local socio-economic development endeavors in the country (iii) Examine the linkage between HEI research and teaching and community service among HEIs Methods and approach

The study utilized interpretative process focusing on lived experience by HEIs lecturers and administrators. The study adopted a case study design among three HEIs in Uganda to explore how the community service function has been developed and the experiences of those who are engaged in it. The HEIs covered were Makerere University, Gulu University and Uganda Management Institute. Makerere and Gulu universities were selected to establish how community service was being carried out in a public university setting and Uganda Management Institute was included because of her peculiarities given that the institute does a lot of consultancy work with practitioners. The study participants mainly included teaching staff and administrators who had worked with such HEIs for over 10 years. The 10- year experience was important because it was assumed that such persons would have been assessed by their institutions on their performance regarding community service or managed a community service project or carried out consultancy work, or having been promoted on the basis of community service/consultancy work outcomes. Data collection methods adopted included both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For instance, interviews focused on participants’ experiences, views, perceptions of community service, and their interaction with communities. These were conducted per HEI with the heads of human resource offi ce and the senior teaching staff. The discussions centered on the future of community service in higher institutions of learning; its relevance to research; and possibility of reconstructing the function. Most of the interviews were audio taped and transcribed. More data were collected through document reviews that included the universities’ performance evaluation forms; promotional criteria documents; human resource manuals; and the HEIs’ strategic plans. The review aimed at identifying the elements of community service, especially their presence, understanding and the strategies of achieving their objectives. In addition, more data were collected using questionnaires. On the other hand, quantitative approach used questionnaire which required the respondents to indicate their opinions and suggestions on the different statements concerning community service. In summary, the study used data collection instruments such as a documentary review guide, questionnaire, and an interview guide.

88 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

Using interpretative and content analysis, the lived experiences of lecturers and their perceptions of community service were documented. The data from questionnaires, interviews, and discussions were corroborated with existing scholarly literature. In analyzing the qualitative data the researchers followed the sequence of reading, interpreting, re-reading, noting patterns, categorizing, and identifying themes. Primary data were coded into descriptive units of shared meaning, categorized and using interpretive analysis, shared meanings were generated. Questionnaires were used to collect quantitative data from respondents. These respondents were selected from all colleges and schools in the three public institutions. The nomenclature of colleges, schools, or even departments differed across HEIs. However, generally, majority of the respondents were from the humanities departments such as those handling Business studies, Management studies, and Social sciences, while those from the natural and biological science departments were the least represented in the study. In quantitative analysis, the data from the questionnaires were analyzed and presented in form of descriptive statistics which included frequencies and percentages. Findings of the Study

In this study interest was put on exploring the strategies used by HEIs in Uganda in promoting the community service function; fi nding out how community service contributes to local socio-economic development endeavors in the country; and examining the linkage between HEI research and teaching and community service among HEIs Participating Institutions and Characteristics of Respondents

Three out of six higher education public institutions participated in the study i.e. Makerere University; Gulu University; and Uganda Management Institute. The total number of 93 self- administered questionnaires out of a targeted 200 (two hundred) were received back from respondents. These were received in different ratios across institutions covered by the study. These include Makerere University; Gulu University; and Uganda Management Institute.

Institution

45.20% 50.00%

40.00% 26.90% 28% GULU 30.00% MUK 20.00% UMI 10.00% 0.00% GULU MUK UMI

N= 93 Fig. 1: Percentage of respondents from the participating institutions Key: Gulu University; MUK = Makerere University; UMI = Uganda Management Institute 89 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

As Figure 1 shows 25 (26.9%) respondents from Gulu University, 26 (28%) from Makerere University and 42 (45.2%) from Uganda Management Institute participated in the study. UMI’ high participation in the study could be attributed proximity of the respondents to the researchers. For the low response rate was attributed to the fact that, teaching outweighs both research and community service in universities it was because during the time of data collection it was examination time and both teaching and administrative staff were not available to attend to researchers. Respondents’ positions of responsibility

Both teaching and non-teaching staff members participated in the study because these categories were deemed relevant in explaining the community service functions in socio- economic development of localities. Table 1 presents the different occupational categories of respondents. Table 1: Occupational categories of respondent Category Frequency Percent Teaching 60 64.5% Non-teaching 33 35.4% Total 93 100.0

As table 1 reveals, the majority of respondents were teaching staff category 60 (64.5%), while 33 (35.4%) were non-teaching staff. This could be explained by the fact that non-teaching staff do not carry out community service in form of consultancy work and training. Participation of HEIs in Community Service

Views were sought from the 93 questionnaire-respondents concerning their participation in community service. Results show that majority (77.4%) of the respondents indicated that they had been engaged in community service before, although only a few (about 41%) had been engaged in community service more than once. It was further noted that the majority (67.8%) of the respondents did not engage in community service for certain reasons (such as contributing to local economic development) but they just engage in community service because it was a requirement of the institution. However, some members make a contribution to society not because they are at an HEI but because it is their personal obligation. Generally, although respondents knew that community service was a requirement for their assessment for their promotion, few were engaged in it. This was because community service is ad hoc in nature, depends on when the need arises and often it is not documented. Moreover, there were no guidelines to undertake community service as it mainly came out during assessment. The above issues challenge the continuity of community service

However, that there seemed to be an appreciation of community service, with an overwhelming 77.4% which indicated that they had gained knowledge through community service, while 70% indicated having passion to serve in the community yet, 68.7% revealed that they had learnt a lot from working with the community. Only 16% reported that participation in community service helped them to access a promotion, and only about 22% believed that community service carries

90 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L. suffi cient points for promotion. Findings suggest that community service is a minor component of the promotion and performance contract strategy. Therefore, community service enhances learning for HEIs staff and increases their belongingness to the community. Actually, 82.8% believed that community service was very benefi cial to both the HEIs and the society. Hence, some institutions had even designed strategies for promoting community services. Institutional Strategies used in promoting community service function

In view of the fact that HEIs in Uganda assess the performance of their staff inter alia based on service to the community, the current study chose to explore and explain the strategies used by the institutions. Through both qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the study established that indeed there are some strategies used in promoting community service function in HEIs. Such strategies include internship, research, training, rewarding and some administrative strategies as further elaborated in the following paragraphs. Students’ internship strategy

One of the strategies for intervention in communities was reported as internship. For example, in the three departments studied at Makerere University, some lecturers reported that when they send out students for internship or fi eldwork placement, the department directly contributes to community service. The students help communities, institutions and industries to practically solve given problems. Actually, one respondent explained: “In practice we have been doing internships. This is where students go to the community and are attached to certain organizations and they transfer knowledge and skills to the community”. Another respondent noted: Although we have started to send our diploma students to institutions for internship, the objective is mainly to give the student hands on experience rather than helping that particular organization in undertaking activities. The objective is mainly to promote student centered learning and the assessment is usually on what the student has learnt, rather than on what the student was able to transfer at a workplace. Further, the follow up by supervisors is still a problem.

Internship is widely used as a two-way strategy of HEIs working with the communities to solve their problems and enable the students to attain practical skills and gain interaction with the communities. As students and lecturers go out to do something; the students receive as well as give out some knowledge. However, it also came out that internship is riddled with quality- related work problems due to the limited experience and expertise possessed by students. Even then, on the side of the students, internship is ideally more of a learning experience than a working experience. Therefore student’s contribution to achieving organizational objectives may not be tangible and it may not be very effective because it is not designed for that purpose. Research and innovations strategy

The research and innovations strategies were perceived to be both opportunistic and also deliberately undertaken to help out the community on a particular issue of interest. Under this strategy HEIs in Uganda considered community service to embrace situations that involved students’ learning and lecturers’ research. For instance, a respondent said:

91 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

We have been doing research in the community…and, we have also been transferring innovations. For example, we have developed a questionnaire that measures corruption and we have been selling it to public service and communities so that it can help to detect the corrupt applicants... as to whether this is considered part of community service or not, we believe that is the contribution HEIs make to society. Another respondent observed:

You know in Makerere University, teaching students are always deployed in schools to teach in secondary schools. Even others go into hard to reach areas and get the experience of living in those areas, they integrate accordingly as they learn...especially the science and agriculture faculties undertake technology development and transfer in communities. There are many demonstration farms in communities and in so doing people are learning from those farms as students and lecturers also learn. This kind of action research is good for community service, because farmers are given on spot advice where such studies are being done. In Makerere still, like with social work and social administration course students are sent to children homes to learn as they offer labor.

In addition, a different respondent noted: One important strategy at Uganda Management institute has been the applied nature of the Masters in Management studies. You know our masters were intended to solve organizational problems. It was a problem-based master’s [degree] until recently. That is why we encouraged students to do research at their own workplaces, be supervised by both a practitioners and a UMI based academician so as to blend theory and practice. Then the work-based supervisor and the student would ideally advocate for implementation of such research fi ndings, thereby contributing to better organizational performance.

The above responses indicate that through research and innovation strategies, HEIs can help the communities solve problems. Through research and innovations both the HEIs and communities benefi t. For example, staff members of HEIs develop their careers and individual profi les while communities benefi t from directly consuming the innovation or research products. Direct training of stakeholders’ strategy

The HEIs use training as a strategy for helping the community improve their livelihoods or businesses. The use of training as an intervention is premised on the fact that HEIs have a lot of knowledge and skills that can be shared out. One respondent said:

Of recent, the university, through the Department of Social Work, has been working with the Ministry if Gender, Labour and Social Development to build capacity of community development assistants in issues of child protection. I regard this as community service. We have trained over, 500 persons in 80 districts in Uganda, more especially Community Development Assistants.

92 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

Given that HEIs are considered to be the centres of knowledge, skills and learning, training is indeed one of the most straightforward tools for community service. As HEIs, train the community, they (HEIs) also receive some learning from the community _ operating a kind of give and take relationship. Role modelling strategy

HEIs staff performed a plethora of activities within their neighborhoods (including charity work, leadership roles, giving motivational talks), which consciously or unconsciously serve as good practices that can be emulated. In the process, HEIs act as role models for the community. For example, one respondent explained:

Some individual people do community service for example in northern Uganda which was helping to rehabilitate and resettle people out of the war. We have many members who are members of NGO boards such as Hospice Uganda; and there is another one in Child Fund, which I also consider community service. One other respondent noted: “Some university lecturers are members of school boards of many well performing schools in the Country. Such people give talks to students and explain their own life histories which help students to admire and build careers”. While the involvement of staff in this way of role modelling was reported as a strategy, the researchers observed that it was a ‘haphazard’ strategy with no clear institutional framework to manage it. This is because individual lecturers, do it mainly for personal gains, took own initiatives to engage in such work as fi nding own organizations or participating on administrative bodies within the community. This is not guided by institutional ideologies or objectives but individual responsibility Business’ strategy

HEIs in Uganda promote community service through a business strategy. This takes the form of consultancy services or directly selling products such as formulas, books, food, and so on to communities. One respondent reported:

There is a lot of community services we are doing and also part of it could be in consultancy form which is like doing baseline surveys, evaluations which contribute to understanding communities and solving community problems but at the same time as sources of income to individual staff…Some staff have published books and they sell them, it is a form of sharing knowledge with communities but also a source of income for university staff. The product like books, formulas of animal feeds, food and beverages inspires communities to engage in similar activities. Another one said; I believe it is community service even if I sell the idea. Why not? ... I am using my knowledge and my expertise to go and help somebody to solve a problem. I believe it is community service; I don’t market myself to these people to employ me but they come and ask for a service.

93 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Another one said:

You know university lecturers have their academic knowledge and have failed to do business in communities. But giving back to communities includes bringing services nearer to them. For instance if you are a doctor and you open a clinic, if you are a counsellor and you run a youth counselling centre, if you are a project manager and you start a project and run it professionally, then you are offering community services. Increasing a service to a community, whether they are paying for it or not, it is community service. Even those probation offi cers and community development offi cers in government, undertake community services, they do not do it free, they are paid for it in form of salary.

HEIs staff members undertake community service as a business, they employ and incur operational costs (for example, fuel for a car to travel long distances) which inevitably require monies. Universities in Uganda are cash strapped making it diffi cult to offer free services to communities. Therefore the sale of goods and services to the community creates inspiration and solves some pertinent community problems that require expertise from HEIs. Rewarding community service strategy HEIs reward their staffs who participate in community service. The traditional reward mechanism has been through promotion. The performance of a staff in community service earns them points that form part of the equation when the time for promoting an individual comes. As one respondent mentioned: “Of course, when they are promoting you, you must indicate what community activities you have been doing and that has a score. Anyway, it is in a way promoting people’s engagement in community service...” Indeed, the objective of such rewards is to encourage more staff to do community service. However, the researchers could not establish any clear-cut criteria used by the different HEIs in capturing data on community service done by their staff. Moreover, the scoring systems and levels were equally blurred as anything good done by an HEI staff outside the campus gates seemed to constitute community service. Administrative-structural strategy

Majority (53%) affi rmed that universities encourage joint work with communities, even though many of them showed that community service is not considered as part of staff workload. Some departments or schools within the HEIs had designed some administrative units manned by staff who, among other things, handle matters of community service. At Makerere University, for example, it was reported:

The school of psychology is a unitary school. A unifi ed school is actually holding two departments and an outreach center. ...when we became an institute about ten years ago we asked to become an institute with academic departments plus a unit that would be ideally responsible for doing outreach work to be able to promote community learning and interaction. So that outreach department is the way we try and reach out to the community in terms of trying to apply what psychology can do to the world of work, to the communities and all the different sectors of work-life outside there. Our members of staff are actually engaged in the activities of this department.

94 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

Therefore, the presence of a structure in such a setting presents an opportunity for the advancement of community service in such a school and the university as whole. However in some institutions community service is not yet institutionalized with a clear specifi c strategy although such institutions still believe community service is their function. As one of the respondents said:

Here at Uganda Management Institute we have no institutional strategy for community service. It is considered as part of promotion criteria, but we have not yet developed that function. We should have direct linkages with employers, some of our students for attachment, but as you know the nature of our business, weekend and evening classes: when will students work where they have been attached? It becomes hard. We need to think through it if we need to organize it and possibly even create an offi ce for that purpose. In very few cases (26%), institutions were noted to be facilitating individuals to carry out community service and still only few respondents (33%) showed that institutions support them to take their students for community service. Results suggest that there is lack of serious strategies in terms of facilitating, supporting and engaging in community which might be affecting the effectiveness of community service. Contribution of Community Service to Local Socio-Economic development

The researchers’ central focus of this study was to explore the contribution of community service to the local socio-economic development. From the data collected, the majority of the respondents (76%) confi rmed that a university is ideally responsible for its community’s socio-economic development because it is the university that shapes thinking and models for local economic development. HEIs have a duty to transform their communities. Majority of the respondents (53%) felt that there are visible positive results as a result of their participation in the community, although only 28% said that their involvement enabled communities to increase their incomes. In general, community service by HEIs in Uganda was considered to be important in terms of: 1) designing new products; 2) sharing of knowledge and skills; 3) solving community problems which contribution may not easily be quantifi ed. Designing new products

Institutions of higher learning generate products and ideas which, among other things, they sell or give out to the community thereby contributing to development. As one respondent revealed:

We have got a third component of this department called incubation center. The incubation center is like a hen lays an egg, incubates it, hatches it, looks after the chick ... This is what we do here. We have people who have good ideas, about value addition on their products. We seal them, we help to nurture their ideas up to a good level when they have reaached commercial level and then we release them to go and have good business. We do all that with communities.

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Another one echoed: There is no doubt that universities come up with new products through interaction with communities. I think the challenge has remained at technology or innovation transfer to communities for use. For instance the car invented at Makerere [University], when will it be ever used? What mechanism is there to scale it up and start manufacturing such cars? Yes lecturers and student will design new programs but again they will remain irrelevant to Universities if they are not carefully transferred.

Product development was, however, noted to be on a small scale due to lack of resources, including a clear-cut policy for supporting transfer of such products to usage. In fact, low product development among HEIs in Uganda is one of the major shortcomings commonly quoted by the public. Transfer of knowledge and skills

Majority perceive HEIs to be the source of information sharing especially with communities regarding for instance, survival, development and prosperity. Sharing of knowledge happens on different fronts such as when students and lecturers are doing research and publications, or through radio and television programs, through public debates and dialogues and so forth. For example, one respondent stated:

Units and colleges form one university. I can look at the Department of Music Dance and Drama; they are doing community service activities of sensitization through drama, they compose songs. Look at the Department of Food Science and Technology they are doing a lot of things. If you consider the institute of languages, they are doing a lot of things e.g. in translations, helping people such as traders...

Another respondent reported that:

At Uganda Management institute, we have contributed to public policy formulation through policy research and holding public debates and dialogues on certain policies, thereby providing alternative views. We have developed policy briefs and shared among academicians, practitioners and the public. This helps to clarify some policies and/ or understand policy positions...

Through such activities the HEIs transfer knowledge and skills to the wider community of practice.

The knowledge and skills shared by the HEIs with the communities directly or indirectly provide an input into the development process from different perspectives. In the process, the HEIs not only share knowledge and skills but also solve community problems. Providing solutions to community problems

Through day-to-day work routines the HEIs solve some community problems. When University staff engages with students, with their neighborhoods they provide solutions to problems. This is a deliberate strategy for educationists to contribute to the community. The process involves identifying a problem and moving out to solving it. For example, a respondent revealed:

96 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

First of all, from the nutrition area, we have got projects which are targeting communities in terms of nutrition (you know malnutrition is a serious problem in this country). We look at child nutrition, especially the under-fi ves; now projects are targeting mothers (lactating mothers); then we have programs that are targeting the elderly. So, all those are in community programs. Then from the food science point of view we have several programs... For example, ... addressing the area of food safety, something to do with micro-toxins and afro-toxins which are poisons found in maize, groundnuts, dried cassava etc.

Another respondent suggested:

Institutions of higher learning should be to support research, and to establish the problems facing the communities and how these problems can be solved. Two, they can also be policy makers with government and parliamentarians because most of these institutions have got expertise to inform policy very well. So, that one can be something which is very good.

There is no doubt that providing solutions to immediate problems contribute to community development. This has been possible through the day to day interaction between the HEIs and the community. Linkage between community service, research, teaching and learning in HEIs

One of the objectives of this study was concerned with establishing how community service connects to teaching, learning and research in HEIs in Uganda. Results show that 61% of the respondents used the research fi ndings from the community service in their teaching. Seventy fi ve (75%) of the respondents said that, that students appreciate local examples from research, besides being more informed as a result of conducting the research. It was also noted by majority of respondents (72%) that students understand better when lecturers use examples from the community and besides, when lecturers conduct research with the community, the students gain deeper understanding of the concepts. Community service is accepted as an avenue for practicum. Teaching staff utilize their community service experience to teach students basing on reality which is quite often informed by the research and work the lecturers do in the community. Similarly, students engaged in community service, for instance, through internship or fi eld work placement gain knowledge and skills from the world of work. For instance, a respondent confi rmed:

Actually, I think community service is a very positive thing. And, from my own assessment, I think it has made a difference in the way our students appreciate the experience from learning ... When students learn from practical experience, there is an immense difference this makes to the way they actually appreciate the knowledge they are getting from the university and how much they can actually use the time they have at the university to better themselves as future employees.

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In addition, another respondent argued:

Community service has enriched teaching and learning. It has made teaching and learning more practical, more hands on. And also a chance for job opportunities; once these people come to the university from the community, then students learn about the available opportunities, they are offered trainee opportunities. Staff go with students to the community to places such as markets and hospitals to experience reality.

The current study established that community service is very good because it enables lecturers to teach practical courses better. Indeed, the teaching is better informed if the lecturer has something that comes from the real world of practice given that basically lecturers are not practitioners, but academics. Community service is utilized in designing some courses with a focus on enhancing community well-being. The outreach programs of universities involve working with communities; disseminating our research fi ndings; and experimenting with them, in so many areas. For instance, a respondent noted:

This department has two areas: one, we have a bachelor of science in human nutrition; and two, we have a Bachelor’s Degree in Food Science and Technology that is at undergraduate level. And then at postgraduate level, we have a Master’s of Applied Human Nutrition and a Master’s in Food Science and Technology. In both of those programs, we have different activities where we interact with communities. Our students do their degree research projects in real life situations such as human nutrition or food preparation.

Since the students are sent to work in the communities, it is possible that students will have a more practical approach to issues and therefore be in better position to help the communities. In addition, as already indicated elsewhere in this paper, there are business incubators in Makerere University; for example where certain demonstrations concerning food preparation, packing and storage are made and the public is always welcome to emulate the practices at the university that are informed by research.

It should also be noted that community service is a source of knew knowledge, it provides an opportunity for knowledge construction like in form of teaching materials and research reports needed by HEIs in Uganda. The recommendations in the research reports for both practice and further research are important for HEIs as potential new frontiers for new knowledge. It provides real fi rst-hand empirical evidence relevant for learning. It is through knowledge construction and reconstruction that development models are developed and later implemented for the benefi t of society.

It was further established that some research done by staff of HEIs has been disseminated in the community. In some cases, dissemination had been done physical while in others it was just through sending a research report to the community. Actually, one of the ways of research result dissemination was through the consultancy reports generated from consultancy services offered by staff to communities. The HEIs staff give such reports to the organizations or sponsors hoping that they (sponsors) are going to learn from the reports. For example, at

98 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L.

Makerere University, some of the university’s research is disseminated through the national research dissemination workshop, organized annually by the Directorate of Graduate School of Makerere University. Normally, once in a year the university holds a very big workshop funded by Swedish International Development Agency where government offi cials, researchers and policy makers are invited. During the workshop, the university academics present their researches and innovations. Meanwhile, at Uganda Management Institute, research seminars and public policy dialogues are organized about 6-8 times a year to disseminate research reports.

In a nutshell, fi ndings suggest that community service is intertwined with research and training at HEI, in such way that the three functions of universities are diffi cult to delineate. However, the visibility of community service is hampered by a number of challenges as highlighted below. Emerging challenges to community service

The study reveals that in Uganda the challenges of community include; limitations in fi nancial availability, strategy defi nition and data capture.

In almost all institutions studied there was a regular outcry of absence of a clear strategy in these institutions for advancing community service in spite of it being a requirement for promotion in some institutions. Many claimed that such strategies were not yet institutionalized in HEIs, and that is why there was limited guidance and documentation for it. In most institutions there were uncoordinated efforts in undertaking community service and most employees participated in community service through their own initiative. Community service was still haphazardly done, with no timetable and no strategy, although it was a requirement for staff promotion and career advancement. University staff do a lot of community service in form of consultancy assignments where they are paid by their clients on contract basis. If there was a clear-cut strategy, resources or an appropriate forum, community service would be more vigorous and helpful to both the communities and the HEIs in Uganda.

On the challenge of fi nancial limitations, it was echoed that inadequate fi nancial resources as a limiting factor in the growth and prosperity of community service. Inadequate funding was indeed a challenge that was echoed by most of the study respondents. The lack of resource for community service is compounded by general resource constraints experienced by most HEI. It was established that most departments in HEIs, were struggling to survive fi nancially. In fact, funding of community service was a non-priority and was easily dropped by departmental management teams. At management level it was revealed, that there was no budget specifi cally for community service.

There was another challenge of inadequate capturing of data which seemed to have been riddled with absence of data on community service done by their staff. The institutions rely on staff-self reporting as and when the information is needed, say for promotional purposes. After such an ad hoc capture of community service data, there appear to be no classifi cation or storage of such data.

99 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Discussion of fi ndings This study set out to examine the linkage between the community service functions of higher institutions of learning with the socio-economic development of localities around these institutions in Uganda. The study comprised selected higher education institutions in Uganda. Although HEIs have traditionally embraced three functions namely: teaching, research, and community service, the third mission, (i.e. community service) has for long been treated as periphery or a ‘distant cousin’ to the more dominant roles of teaching and research. Yet, some scholars (e.g. Inman & Schuetze, 2010) have found a strong relationship between community services with improved local economic development. These scholars maintain that community service provides a strong potential resource for developing collaborative links with the wider world, which in the end translates into improved socio- economic development of any country. For this potential benefi t UNESCO, (2009) found a renewed momentum of interest in the way HEIs interface with their communities. Similarly this study found out that HEIs in Uganda have undying interest in community service, though the community service function is not uniformly active across universities. The major purpose of undertaking community service is mainly for promotion purposes and some staff members of universities undertake community service to contribute in fulfi lling their religious obligations and not necessarily for academic reasons.

This research explored the forms and strategies used by institutions in promoting the community service function. Several strategies including; internship, research, training, rewarding and other some administrative strategies were being used. The fi ndings in this study mirror those of the previous studies, for example Inman and Schuetze (2010) who contend that rewards have often been attached to the third mission. Such rewards have been found to include; career enhancement, recognition and sometimes, fi nancial rewards. However, according to this study, many institutions were not using the above mechanisms of rewarding those involved in community service. The major reward was in terms of promotions which come at the end of it all. This possibly explains why despite its “theoretical” importance, staff in higher education institutions are not eager to participate in community service. This study found that the mission is often treated as a “by the way”, yet there is considerable agreement in the academic community that service-learning is a multi-tiered pedagogy that can be implemented at any level of education (Wade, 2000; HERANA (2010) and Roldan, et al., 2004). Although previous research (e.g. Bringle et al., 2006; Hall, 2010; Ntseane, 2010; and Mwaikokesya, 2010), has identifi ed value to community service many higher education institutions have not attached a stronger value as a strategy to encourage staff to contribute toward socio-economic development. In accordance with previous studies the present results have demonstrated that there is need to aggressively create awareness of the importance of community service in HEIs in Uganda.

The contribution of community service to local socio-economic development was assessed and indeed the study established that community service by HEIs in Uganda contributes to; designing new products; sharing of knowledge and skills; and directly solving community problems. This is in line with other scholars’ fi ndings (such as Baldwin & Rudisill, 2002; Sleeter, 2000, and Preece 2011a, 2011b), who argue that community service promotes knowledge construction and mutual learning. The study found that designing new

100 K.M. Barifaijo, K. M., Bigabwenkya, S., Namara, R. B., Andama, F. A., and Bongomin, W. L. products such as renewable energy, affordable sanitary pads, recycling waste paper, affordable fertilizers and so forth – all contributed to the promotion of community service. These fi nding are supported by the fi ndings of Wade, (2000); HERANA (2010) and Roldan, et al. (2004) who found that sharing of knowledge and skills could go a long way in solving community problems. However, the study shows that a small percentage of 28% said that their involvement enabled communities to increase their incomes. By and large, the impact of community service in Uganda does not come out strongly. For stance while scholars like Roldan, Strage, and David (2004) said community services increased citizen engagement and created community responsibility among learners, this is not the case in Uganda. It is diffi cult to explain this result, but it might be related to value attached to community service in the Ugandan context. The results of the study indicate that HEIs in Uganda considered community service to embrace situations that involved students’ learning, lecturers’ research and private consultancies.

In other words, community service was basically linked to research, consultancy work, internships and school practices that are believed to give back to these agencies or Higher Education Institutions. By implication, whereas university lecturers go out to do research and consultancy work and students go out to study, in the process they may identify areas benefi cial to school curriculum, further research and collaborative learning. A possible explanation for these fi ndings might be that as lecturers go out to work in community to advance individual professional and academic career, and also believe that they are contributing to community service. This is supported by the fi ndings of this study where things such as Rotarians, founder members of development programs, development of partnerships and representatives on boards (e.g. church, mosque, schools etc.) earn more points during promotional exercise. However, in order for community service programs to be effective Harkavy (2004) recommends that the issues addressed in the experience must be meaningful and of consequence to the communities too. In addition, Preece’s (2011) fi ndings support these this study and explain how the notion of partnership between HEIs and communities is evolving from the realization that community service promotes mutual learning gains.

As to whether HEIs research and teaching are linked to community service, community service that includes research and other kinds of participation is surely useful for teaching and learning. This study found out that community service is useful in knowledge construction and reconstruction as the communities analyze their understanding of social phenomenon. Experience from diverse settings enables communities to gain insights from HEIs and provides HEIs actors with opportunity to incorporate research fi ndings into teaching (Baldwin & Rudisill, 2002; Sleeter, 2000). On the other hand, Oyewole (2010) recommends development of indigenous knowledge systems in Africa which should improve the quality education and relevance in HEIs. Conclusions and implications

The link between community service of HEIs and local socio-economic development exist but is not deliberate. Apparently, there are no standardized activities, strategies or even guidelines to community service. As indicated in this report, the strategies include internship, role modelling, research, direct training and so forth. Community service seems to mean any activity a student or staff is involved in outside the gates of an HEI. However, these strategies

101 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies used by the institutions are generally disjointed and ad hoc in nature. No clear-cut strategies were established by this study. The lack of clear institutional strategy contributes to the limited practice and emphasis of community service in HEIs in Uganda.

Potential role of HEIs in improving the livelihoods of the community and overall national development is high. The contribution of community service to local socio-economic development was assessed and indeed the study established that community service by HEIs in Uganda inter alia contributes to: designing new products; sharing of knowledge and skills; and directly solving community problems. However, the impact of community service to local economies does not come out explicitly and is not intentional. While it is acknowledged that institutions can act as agents of change and positive transformation of communities, for community service to be meaningful it has to be consequential to communities too.

The link between HEIs research, teaching and learning to community service was widely described as real. The work of staff in communities provided them an opportunity to generate new learning resources such as research reports and recommendations needed in their teaching. Research reports also inform both practice and further research which benefi t both the HEIs and the community.

Overall, it can be concluded that indeed community service contributes to local socio- economic development of localities in Uganda. It contributes to designing new products for the community; sharing knowledge and skills; and directly solving community problems. Community service is benefi cial to universities and those that engage in it. The fi ndings are similar to what Roldan, Strage and David (2004) attest that students learn the course content very well when they engage in the service-learning experiences that relate to their studies. Therefore, it is imperative that community service be promoted and streamlined in HEIs in Uganda. References Baldwin and Rudisill, (2002). Service Learning as Scholarship in Teacher Education. In Alice M. Buchanan, Shelia C. Baldwin and Mary E. Rudisill (eds.), Educational Researcher, 31, 8 (Nov., 2002), pp. 30-36. Bringle, R. G., Hatcher, J. A., & Clayton, P. H. (2006). The scholarship of civic engagement: Defi ning, documenting, and evaluating faculty work. To Improve the Academy, 25, 257-279. Brock, U. B. (2003). Transforming African Universities Using Indigenous Perspectives and Local Experience. G.R Teasdale and Z. MaRhea, (eds), Local Knowledge and Wisdom in Higher Education. New York: Pergamon Press. Hall, M. (2010). Community Engagement in South African Higher Education. In CHE (ed): Kagisano No. 6: Community Engagement in South African Higher Education. Auckland Park: Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd. Harkavy, I. (2004). Service-learning and the development of democratic universities, democratic schools, and democratic good societies in the 21st century. In M. Welch & S. Billig (Eds.), New perspectives in service-learning: Research to advance the fi eld. Greenwich, CN. Information Age, pp. 3-22.

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Hart, D., Donnelly, T. M., Youniss, J., and Atkins, R. (2007). Volunteering High School Community Service as a Predictor of Adult Voting and Volunteering. American Educational Research Journal, 44, 1, 197–219. HERANA (2010). Towards the establishment of a higher education research and advocacy Network in Africa, (Oslo, September, 2010), unpublished. Inman, P. and Schuetze,H.G. (eds.) (2010). The Community Engagement and Service Mission of Universities. Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education (NIACE). Lall, N. (2010). Measuring the Impact of University - community Research Partnerships: A Literature Review of Theories, Concepts, Tools and Practices. In Inman, P. & H. G. Schuetze (eds.): The Community Engagement and Service Mission of Universities. Leicester: NIACE. Nkata, J. L. (2005). Emergent issues in education management in the Developing Countries in the 21st Century. Kampala: Masah Publishers Ltd. Ntseane (2010). Researching Education with Marginalized Communities. Palgrave, Macmillan. Pillay, P. (2009). Higher education and economic development: A literature review. Cape Town: Centre for Higher Education Transformation (in print) Preece, J. (2011a). Service Learning and Community Engagement in South African Universities: Towards an ‘Adaptive Engagement’ Approach. Preece, J. (2011b). Towards an Africanisation of community engagement and service learning. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 30 (6):713-732. Preece, J. and Biao, I (2011). Community service as open learning: Case of ITMUA (Implementing the Third Mission of Universities in Africa). A paper presented at Conference of Rectors, Vice Chancellors and Presidents of African Universities. Roldan, Strage, & David, (2004). Educational Impact of Service Learning: Evaluation of Citizenship and Professional Skills Development, No. 4 (70). Sleeter, C. (2000). Multiculturalism, at its core, is a struggle against racism, and must go beyond an appreciation of diversity, Rethinking Schools, Vol. 15, No. 2 (Winter 2000/2001). UNESCO (2009). Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education. Published by the United Nations Educational, Scientifi c and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France. Wade, J. (2000). Helping Care Leavers: Problems and Strategic Responses, Department of Health, London. World Bank (2000). The World Bank Group. Oxford University Press. 2000. English version. ISBN: 0195211294

103 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Research Funding at Makerere University and its Implications on Human Resource and Institutional Development: Does Gender Matter?

Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa Makerere University , Uganda Abstract

The study investigated the research funding pattern at Makerere University. The major focus was to assess how the research funding pattern at Makerere University translated into human resource and institutional development and to ascertain whether gender matters. The analytical framework was anchored within the feminist organizational theory, economic resource-based theory of the fi rm and the human capital theory, Using secondary data, the results indicated that Makerere University was, to some extent, a gender-responsive institution in programming and organizational processes; although beneath these processes was a gendered sub-structure that was reproduced daily in practical work activities and impacting negatively on female staff research productivity, feminizing some academic disciplines, colleges, schools and administrative positions within the University structures. Makerere University research funding sources including, government and development partners as well as internally-generated funds demonstrated some level of gender responsiveness. Time was a binding constraint to female research productivity, the technical capacity of the members on the policy committees in gender analysis as well as the organizational logic built on masculine structures was found inadequate.There was need to reconsider widening research funding sources to increase research support, to include administrative staff, while targeting staff and colleges that are lagging behind in research outputs. Gender equity should be guiding factor. Technical capacity in gender mainstreaming that is already existing at the institution should be engaged to change the organizational logic with a view to enhancing the integration gender in the organizational structures, programs, policies including recruitment, promotion, retirement and processes which inadvertently create and enhance gender gaps between, colleges, administrative units and within disciplines for self-actualization. It is important for Makerere University to consider building the skills of the existing female staff into role models for the upcoming female students.

Key words: Gender and Research Funding, Gender and Human Resource Development, Gender and Institutional Development

Introduction and Problem Statement

The emergence of globalization and knowledge- based economies has given rise to a new economic, social political and cultural order to which nations, regions, higher education systems and institutions are responding. The contribution of research and development towards this new world order cannot be overemphasized as it is through research that new technological innovations are born. Magara (2009) notes that at Makerere University, research is important as it is an avenue for career growth and development as well as institutional growth and prosperity. It is through research that Makerere University as an institution can promote herself to respond to the global agenda and gain visibility. It is noted that these challenges are

104 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa gendered; therefore institutions are being forced to re-examine themselves internally with a view to pursuing the global agenda vis-a-vis their own visions and missions, if they are to remain relevant nationally and internationally Thomas, (1988), Santiago et al (2002), World Bank (1999) and Castells (2001) note that to aim at development without addressing inequalities that exist in institutions is cosmetic. Knowledge production, accumulation, transfer and application have become major factors in socio-economic development and are increasingly at the core of national development strategies, in order for any country to gain competitive advantage in the global knowledge economy. Higher education institutions must be seen as playing a key role in generating and delivering the knowledge requirements for development. Nico et al. (2011) note a strong association between higher education participation roles and levels of development. Makerere University is aware that research is the pathway for universities to become the loci of scientifi c discoveries that drive economies forward through knowledge production, innovations and effective utilization of research outputs, as well as being a prerequisite for growth, competition and visibility. Makerere University has positioning herself to become a research-led university. Enhancement of research production has been one of the strategic objectives in the successive University strategic plans (University Strategic Plan 2008/09 -2018/19; Makerere University Annual Report 2012).

Makerere University has positioned herself uniquely among public universities in Uganda and Africa in general to engage the global challenges, namely; gender mainstreaming internationalization, privatization, decentralization, liberalization of the economy, and the increasing competition generated from the global policies (Magara, 2009; Makerere University Annual Report, 2012). Creating an enabling environment and capacity for knowledge generation, innovation and utilization have been signifi cant drivers in the re-positioning process. All academic and a number of the senior staff in administrative units are eligible to research production and publication (Makerere University Strategic Plan, 2008/09-2018/19). This is amidst Government of Uganda policy shift in national spending priorities towards Universal Primary Education (UPE), Universal Secondary Education (USE), Business, Technical and Vocational Education (BTVET), science, technology and innovation and, above all, women empowerment.

Makerere University being a public institution for long enjoyed monopoly status as a sole provider of higher education in Uganda and full support from the Government until 1987. The government paradigm shift to privatization, liberalization policies and the general global trend, and the changing priorities in education sector spending has led to the creation of more private and public universities, impacting negatively on the government funding towards Makerere University. Currently, there are over thirty universities in Uganda, both private and public, providing similar products (National Council for Higher Education 2012). Through the public -private sector partnerships the private universities are eligible to government support, and hence compete with Makerere University for government support. Makerere University has responded to this policy shift by transforming to a collegiate system of governance with a view to increasing effectiveness and effi ciency in her core functions of teaching, learning, research and service to the community, among others.

This cannot be business as usual for Makerere University if it is to play the leading role in higher education, become a center of excellence, while at the same time being seen as

105 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies egalitarian and equitable in service delivery - a double-edged sword which many interpret as women gaining at the expense of men. This research interrogates the interface between research funding pattern and the effect of these paradigm shifts at Makerere University, Uganda, and the international agenda, and how this translates into human resource and institutional development, with a view to establish whether gender matters. Theoretical Perspectives

The study is situated within the feminist organizational theory, economic resource-based theory of the fi rm and human capital theory. Feminist writers on gendered organizational processes have elaborated gender as a concept to mean more than a socially constructed, binary identity and image (Connell, 1987; Harding, 1986; Scott, 1986). Accordingly, gender as an analytic category is an attempt to fi nd new avenues into the dense and complicated problem of explaining the extraordinary persistence through history and across societies of the subordination of women. Scott (1986) defi nes gender as a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and argues that gender is a primary way of signifying relationships of power.

Cockbum (1985), Game and Pringle (1984), Knights and Willmott (1985), Phillips and Taylor (1986), and Sorenson (1984) observe that new approaches to the study of waged work, particularly labour processes, view organizations as gendered, not as gender-neutral. Organizations are conceptualized as one of the locations of the inextricably intertwined production of both gender and class relations. Acker (1988) studied class and gender and noted that class is constructed through gender and that class relations are always gendered. The structure of the labour market, relations in the workplace, the control of the work processes, and the underlying wage relation are always affected by symbols/images of gender, processes of gender identity, and material inequalities between women and men. These processes are complexly related to and powerfully support the reproduction of the class structure.

For an organization, or any other analytic unit, to be gendered, advantages and disadvantages, exploitation and control, action and emotion, meaning and identity, are patterned through and in terms of a distinction between male and female, masculinity and femininity Gender is not an addition to ongoing processes, conceived as gender-neutral. Rather, it is an integral part of those processes, which cannot be properly understood without an analysis of gender (Connell, 1987; West & Don, 1987). It is noted that gendering occurs in at least fi ve interacting processes that may be analytically distinct, yet in practice, are parts of the same reality. First, is the construction of divisions along lines of gender - divisions of labour, allowed behaviour, locations in physical space, power, including the institutionalized means of maintaining the divisions in the structures of labour markets, the family, the state as well as often obvious to casual observers. Kanter (1977) documented that although there are great variations in the patterns and extent of gender division; men are almost always in the highest positions of organizational power. Cohn (1985) argued that managers’ decisions often initiate gender divisions and organizational practices maintain them, although these also take on new forms with changes in technology and the labour process.

Secondly, there is the construction of symbols and images that explain, express, reinforce, and/or sometimes oppose those divisions. These present in many sources or forms- language,

106 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa ideology, popular and high culture, dress, the press, television. Lipman-Blumen (1980) and Kanter (1975) note that the image of the top manager or the business leader is an image of successful, forceful masculinity. Men workers’ images of masculinity link their gender with their technical skills, such that the possibility that women might also obtain such skills represents a threat to that masculinity.

The third set of processes that produce gendered social structures in organizations are interactions between women and men, women and women, men and men, including all those patterns that enact dominance and submission. West and Don (1987) observe gender differences in conversation analysis through interruptions, turn-taking, and setting the topic of discussion. These recreate gender inequality in the fl ow of ordinary talk such that men are the actors, women the emotional support (Hochschild, 1983).

Reskin and Roos (1987) note that these processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity, which may include consciousness of the existence of the other three aspects of gender such as: in organizations choice of appropriate work, language use, clothing, and presentation of self as a gendered member of an organization.

Lastly, Clegg and Dunkerley (1980) and Smith (1988) note that gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and conceptualizing social structures. Gender is obviously a basic constitutive element in family and kinship, but, less obviously, it helps to frame the underlying relations of other structures, including complex organizations. It is a constitutive element in organizational logic, or the underlying assumptions and practices that construct most contemporary work organizations. It is further noted that as organizational logic appears to be gender-neutral, then gender-neutral theories of bureaucracy and organizations employ and give expression to this logic. However, underlying both academic theories and practical guides for managers is a gendered sub-structure that is reproduced daily in practical work activities and, somewhat less frequently, in the writings of organizational theorists. The argument is that organizational logic has material forms in written work rules, labour contracts, managerial directives, and other documentary tools for running large organizations, including systems of job evaluation widely used in the comparable-worth strategy of feminists. Job evaluation is accomplished through the use and interpretation of documents that describe jobs and how they are to be evaluated. These documents contain symbolic indicators of structure, the ways that they are interpreted and talked about in the process of job evaluation reveals the underlying organizational logic. In light of the above, as long as the University structures, programming and organizational logic is gender-neutral, it is unlikely to respond positively to the aforementioned paradigm shifts in a gender-responsive way.

The resource-based theory of the fi rm is a blend of organizational economics and strategic management (Barney, 1991; Conner, 1991). The fundamental assumption is that organizations can be successful if they gain and maintain competitive advantage. It is noted that organizations and nations which promote the full and equal partnership of male and female leaders tend to be amongst the most humane, economically vibrant and environmentally friendly (Porter, 1985; Kate, 2010). Competitive advantage is gained by implementing a value-creating strategy that competitors cannot easily copy and sustain and for which there are no ready substitutes (Barney, 1991). For competitive advantage to be gained, two conditions are needed; fi rst, the

107 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies resources available to competing fi rms must be variable and these resources must be immobile, something that is not easily obtained. Three types of resources associated with organizations are: physical -including technology, equipment and geographic location; human - including employees’ experience and knowledge; and organizational structure -including systems for planning, monitoring, and controlling activities; social relations within the organization and between the organization and external constituencies. Human resource management greatly infl uences an organization’s organizational resources and so can be used to gain competitive advantage (Schuler & MacMillan, 1984). Kate, (2010) revealed that women’s distinctive approaches to business and leadership were chiefl y responsible for changing the rules for business success because of the unique gifts they possess. Wright et al., (1994) argued that the extent to which human resource management can be used to gain competitive advantage, and the means of doing so, are partly determined by the environments in which organizations operate. This theory highlights the different skills and organizational attributes possessed by both male and female employees and presents an argument for building of synergies between top male and female employees for the success of the organization.

The human capital theory refers to human capital as the productive capabilities of people’s skills, experience, and knowledge. According to Becker (1964) human capital has economic value to organizations as it is an enabler to productivity and adaptability. Therefore people constitute the organization’s human capital. Like other assets, human capital has value in the market place, but unlike other assets, the potential value of human capital can be fully realized only with the cooperation of the persons. All costs related to eliciting productive behaviour from employees, including those related to motivating, monitoring, and retaining them, constitute human capital investments and are made in anticipation of future returns (Flamholtz & Lacey, 1981). Organizations can use human resource management (HRM) in a variety of ways to increase their human capital (Cascio, 1991; Flamholtz & Lacey, 1981). For example, they can “buy” human capital in the market by offering desirable compensation packages or develop it internally by offering extensive training and development opportunities. Investments of either type have associated costs, which are justifi able only to the extent the organization is able to productively utilize the accumulated capital (Tsang et al., 1991). Contextual factors such as market conditions, unions, business strategies, and technology are important as they affect the costs associated with alternative approaches to using human resource to increase the value of the organization’s human capital and the value of the anticipated returns, such as productivity gains (Boudreau & Berger, 1985; Russell et al., 1993).The human capital theories assume that men and women provide similar products in terms of labour and labour productivity once motivated and availed with an enabling environment. From this perspective it is implicit that labour is gender-neutral.

The European Commission (2005), presents a framework that demonstrates that effective use of resources is only sustainable by using a people-centred and resource distributive approach. It is argued that inputs in an organization, coupled with outside infl uence, are what determine the organizational outputs. These inputs together with the existing internal capacity and external infl uence interact to enhance the capacity of human and social capital eventually leading to institutional development as conceptualized in Figure 1.

108 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa

Context of Appreciation: Structural and institutional factors, and agents beyond short-term influence

Context of influence: External stakeholders with some influence on the organization(s)

… oneor In more Outputs Outco Ultim ate pu organizatio contrib mes impa tst ns with uting with capacity to

Figure 1: Analytical framework of Organization(s) as open system(s) Source: (European Commission (2005)

This research adopts the feminist organizational theory, economic resource-based theory of the fi rm and the human capital theory and the EU conceptual framework to show that organizations are open systems, with many factors, actors and inputs, internal and / or external, each with their own reaction functions towards the achievement of organizational objectives. Some of the pressures may be detractive, complementary or competitive.

The organization may be competing for the same inputs, markets, to gain visibility over its competitors and /or eventually drive the competitors out of the market. Organizations are expected to formulate reaction functions subject to the human resource and how this resource is to be harnessed and mobilized for the achievement of organizational objectives, and the mix of external environmental factors including international commitments like gender mainstreaming, globalization, competitors’ reaction functions and government policy to remain relevant. From the Makerere University perspective, research is considered as an input to boost the University’s capacity to produce outputs. Makerere University is expected to deliver a dual agenda, that is, effi ciency and effectiveness in order to remain relevant to national and international agenda. This requires building an organizational logic in programming and organizational processes to engage and take advantage of external and internal forces in order to counteract the gender question. This could be by incorporating gender into its programming and organizational processes, consciously or otherwise, through mentorship, targeted research funding, and the creation of a targeted enabling environment for research

109 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies productivity for both male and female academics. It is anticipated that this could result into increased research outputs for both male and female staff, balanced institutional development, international visibility, increased infl uence national development trends, as well as meeting global challenges. Methodology Secondary data, generated annually by different accountability centres of the University, during annual performance reviews for purposes of reporting to the Uganda Parliament was used. Each accountability centre submits a report to the Planning and Development Department of the University in line with her mandate. The Planning and Development Department then compiles the data into a University-wide annual report for submission to the University Council. In addition, the Planning and Development Department compiles a Fact Book annually highlighting the status of standard performance indicators in line with the relevant University Strategic Plan. These documents are available at the Planning and Development Department, the University Library, and all accountability centres of the University. This was supplemented by reviews of theoretical and empirical studies on the contribution of research to human resource and institutional development from an economic and feminist perspective. Being secondary sources, compiled purposely for reporting, there could have been data bias and inaccurate reporting, Besides, the study being longitudinal in nature, analysis was stretched as far as data was available. Data gaps were fi lled by taking averages of the lower and upper years. The data that was available provided a good ground for analysis, the result of which will provide a reference point for future studies of a similar nature. The above notwithstanding, it did not signifi cantly affect the results of the research. Results Makerere University Research Funding Sources The University has three major sources of funding: government subvention; appropriation in Aid/ Non-tax revenue - internally generated; and donor support. Donor support falls into two categories, mostly in form of grants for institutional capacity building focusing on teaching and learning, and capital development. The research focused on donor support for capacity development in the areas of teaching and learning. This support comes predominantly through government bilateral support and foundations. The international organizations Makerere University relates with in terms of fi nancial support include: Ford Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, Carnegie Corporation, MacArthur Foundation, Sida-SAREC, NORAD, individual and /or external universities, among others. These organizations are gender-responsive and support women empowerment. The fi nancial spectrum over the last ten years indicated that total funding mounted to Uganda shillings 960b, with government contributing Ushs 346 billion and Ushs184 billion from the donors. The major funding sources were internally-generated funds, followed by government and donors’ sources with 45 per cent, 36 per cent and 19 per cent, respectively. Internal private sources showed an upward trend, an indication that Makerere University’s fi nancial base will for some time be supported from internal sources than from donors and government. The trend of donor support is unpredictable as donors’ ideology has signifi cant infl uence on the trend of programming and organizational processes in Makerere University. Makerere University donor agencies are emphatic on gender mainstreaming. This has been

110 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa refl ected in the support to Makerere University to establish the Gender mainstreaming division, currently a Directorate of Gender Mainstreaming of University and the establishment of the School of Women and Gender Studies, a national and institutional lead agency for gender mainstreaming, among other activities. Research Funds Availability and Use The total amount of research funds over the period 2001 - 2011was Ushs3.4b to fi nance research and related activities. Ushs 1,7b (50 %) was spent of doctoral training, Shs 282,9m (8%) was spent on Masters training, Ushs 755,9m (22%),was spent on conference and travel, Ushs3.6m (18%) was spent on postdoctoral research. Uganda Shilling 6m was spent on organizing conference activities, Ushs4m was for inaugural lectures and Ushs 38.6m was spent on research-related activities (Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012). Funds from donors were targeted to colleges, research themes and/or functions. Science-based colleges were the biggest benefi ciaries. The College of Health Sciences topped, followed by the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, the College of Natural Sciences benefi ted least with US$73,273,555, US$15,858,727 and US$14,952,594 respectively. US$ 6,546,029 was for institutional development (Makerere University Fact Book, 2014/15). Distribution of Research Funds by Research-related Activity It was observed that the distribution of research funds followed the University strategy - to enable her to strategically position herself to becoming a research-led University, emphasizing building capacity for research at PhD and post-doctoral training as indicated in Figure 2. It was noted that PhD training carried the highest weight in the distribution of research funds compared to Masters, post-doctoral research and other related activities. The idea was to put resources to the most effi cient use by building staff capacity in proposal writing, a skill necessary for competing for international research grants. It is assumed that a PhD holder is competent enough to write competitive papers and proposals that can attract funding. Other activities that research funds were spent include, hosting conferences and travel to present research outputs to conferences. These activities increase visibility of the University.

Post HosƟng 1% Inaugural Conference 18% Lecture Other Doc 1% 0% PhD 50%

Confere nce Masters Travel … 8%

Figure 2: Distribution of Research Funds by Research-related Activity Source:Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012.

111 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Access to Internally Generated Funds by College

It is University policy that one percent of the internally-generated funds is earmarked for staff development. This is meant to support research in the needy colleges or schools, especially at PhD level. Figure 3shows the percentage share of internally-generated funds by colleges, schools, administrative units by gender. It was observed that over the decade, the College of Humanities and Social Sciences, College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, College of Education and External Studies and College of Business and Management Sciences were the main benefi ciaries to this fund for the period ending 2012 for equity reasons. However, the distribution of the internally-generated funds exhibited gender gaps by colleges and between academic and administrative units.

Percentage Share of Access to Internally generated funds between Males and Female for the Period 2001 to 2012.

90 80 70 60 50 % of Female 40 % of Males 30

Percentage Share 20 10 0 Law CHS CAES MUBS Admin CoCIS Library CoNAS CoVAB CoEES CEDAT CHUSS CoBAMS College/School of Law /Adminstrators Source: Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012

The percentage of female staff that benefi ted from the staff development stood as 37, 34 and 40 percent for fi nancial years 2012/13, 2013/14 and 2014/15 respectively (Makerere University Fact Book, 2014/15).

Furthermore, it is University policy that 40 percent of staff development fund should be targeted at female staff. The University Library presented the largest number of female benefi ciaries. The colleges that benefi ted least were the College of Health Sciences, College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural Sciences and the College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Science and Bio-Security. A gender analysis presented interesting results - an inverse relationship in access to research funds between academic staff, with gender gaps greater in the colleges with core science disciplines compared to humanities-based colleges, as if to justify the meagre number of female staff in the core science disciplines. The access of female academic staff to internally-generated funds stood at a meagre 28 per cent against 72 per cent for male academic staff over the decade. It was evident that although senior administrators, who were Master’s degrees holders, were

112 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa eligible to access research funds, only 34 per cent female staff accessed these funds during the decade. None of the colleges hit the 40 per cent institutional female target as per University regulation for affi rmative action. It was observed that access to research funds was feminized between science-based and humanities disciplines, between female and male academic staff and between administrative and academic staff.

The distribution of staff development funds at academic level is shown in Figure 4. In fi nancial year 2010/11, 72 per cent of staff development fund went for doctoral training, 23 per cent for Masters, 3 per cent for Bachelors and 2 per cent for related activities. The distribution highlighted the weight Makerere University puts on capacity building for research production and publications, by prioritizing PhD training to any other level. However, meagre funds were allocated to research-related activities. This could imply that staff have to fi nd own support to attend and present papers, peer network and publish, and this could justify the low level of publication of research outputs.

Others Bachelor 2% 3%

Masters 23%

Doctorate 72%

Figure 3: Distribution of Staff Development fund at academic level Source: Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012.

By fi nancial year 2014/15, 26 per cent of staff development funds supported Masters compared to 76 per cent that went for PhD training. By level of training, 167 teaching assistants, 347 assistant lecturers and 121 lecturers benefi ted from the staff development fund. These fi gures were not gender-disaggregated (Makerere University Fact Book, 2014/15). Institutional framework for Management of Research Fund

The University Council, the highest organ of the University is responsible for discussing and enactment of policy at the University. Currently, University Council is constituted by seventeen members, six of whom are female and eleven are male. Below Council are major committees of the University that oversee development and implementation of gender mainstreaming at the University, including the Senate, the Appointments Board, the Staff Development Committee, among others. The Senate is composed of 36 members, seven of whom are female - 27 are representatives of schools, one representative of principals of colleges, nine representatives of colleges and the School of Law, and fi ve members of 113 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

University management. The Appointments Board is composed of nine members, fi ve of whom are female. This committee is responsible for appointing and retirement of University staff, The University Staff and Development Committee is responsible for the management of the internally generated staff development fund. The constitution and technical capacity of these committees have signifi cant infl uence on the pattern of research funding, either directly or otherwise. Besides they drive the gender agenda of the University in recruitment, promotion and retirement. The University staff development policy requires that every academic staff acquires a PhD qualifi cation in order for him/her to be eligible for recruitment to the rank of lecturer and provides for conditions for promotion of academic staff.

A gender analysis of these committees showed that only the appointments board had more women than men and the rest were male-dominated. The University Council is male- dominated, as well as the Senate. These are the two most infl uential policy committees of the University. The constitution of the Council and Senate determines the organizational logic towards the gender agenda, ceteris paribus. Although the representation of women on these committees may not matter, it is important to point out that the technical capacity the staff representatives to deliberate on and implement gender issues may be wanting in their mind-set. A case in point is that, currently, some of the data that is generated in not gender disaggregated. It becomes diffi cult to argue out a case, the above notwithstanding, the observable gaps may not be data related, but a result of time constraint within the female research production functions, although further investigation could address this issue more conclusively.

Besides, these committee representatives have undergone training and worked in environments and structures that are masculine in nature, and hence appreciate masculine values as the standard norm. They are unlikely to advocate for gender mainstreaming, let alone women empowerment. In addition, the selection of membership to these committees is determined by their respective constituencies, outside the control of Makerere University. The representatives from such constituencies may not have the technical capacity in gender analysis even when the University requires so. The result from such committees is likely to be sub-optimal and could explain the gender differences in access to research funds, research output and gender representation in the academic and administrative structure. For example, the committee of appointment and promotions has failed to integrate gender in promotion. A case in point is to assume that both men and women have equal amount of time for research production. The reality is that women’s time is encumbered between reproductive and productive roles, making the ground for competition in research productivity unlevelled between men and women. It would be gender responsive if the men and women followed different time structures for promotion. Implication of Research Funding Pattern on Human Resource Development

The impact of Mujaju report on research and publication at Makerere University cannot be over-emphasized. The report recommended that for one to remain relevant in academic growth, there was need for continued research, evidenced by one’s research productivity. To operationalize this, recommendation, research output was mandatory for academic staff recruitment and promotion. In order to become a lecturer, one must have acquired a PhD. This process ensures that staffs build their respective research skills. This has contributed to the

114 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa high ranking of Makerere University in terms of research outputs and potential internationally. Makerere University ranks among the top 20 universities in Africa. By 2012, Makerere University had a total of 1,650 academic staff, of whom 1,496 were full time and 150 part time. Seven hundred fi fty-fi ve staff from the rank of lectures held PhDs, distributed in all colleges. Assuming a research takes two years, and given the teaching schedule of these lecturers, and assuming further that each staff outputs one article, then the University would be producing on average 377 research outputs annually. This would come with increased staff promotions, University visibility, resource mobilization and international ranking (Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012).

By the 2014/15 academic year the University had 9female against 77 male professors; 23female against 122 male associate professors;63female against 128 male senior lecturers; 130 female against 318 male lecturers; and 176 female against 383 male assistant lecturers; 22 female against 55 male teaching assistant (Makerere University Fact Book 2014/15). The distribution shows that the gender gap increases by level. There is a challenge of female academic growth after attaining the PhD. This challenge needs to be investigated with a view to fi nding a solution.

The distribution of staff by college out-turn indicated that the College of Health Sciences had 265, the College of Engineering Design, Art and Technology had 142, the College of Education and External Studies had116, the College of Computing and Information Sciences had 80, the College of Business and Management Sciences had 109, the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences had 166.Among the campuses, Jinja had 88, Fort Portal had11. The School of Law had 43, the College Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Bio- Security had 89, the College of Natural Sciences had 148, and the College of Humanities and Social Sciences had 270 (Makerere University Fact Book, 2014/15). These fi gures could not be gender disaggregated pointing to the signifi cance of a positive organizational logic.

Besides, there was the challenge that staff capacity was not well distributed through the colleges in proportion to the number of students. There were fewer students in the science disciplines compared to the number of lecturers. The formula for computing the teaching load considers teaching and laboratory-based practical load per lecturer. This formula does not refl ect the staff effort in marking volumes of scripts that exist in humanities related colleges and attendant student academic support services. These support services render heavier workloads to the academic staff in the humanities disciplines. In most cases the numbers of students admitted is higher than those admitted for the science disciplines. This is translated into heavy marking, evaluation, guidance to students, and impacts negatively on the availability of time for the academic staff from the humanities discipline. On the contrary, it provides more time for the staff in the science disciplines to write scholarly articles and proposals for research funding than staff in the humanities and social science fi elds. This scenario is even more challenging for the female academic staffs that have to combine academic programming with their reproductive roles. It should be noted that research productivity is one of the pillars for promotion at the University. This pyramid shape of female staff in the academic ranks is explained by the differential research outputs between the science and humanities disciplines in favour of the male academic staff compared to the females as per requirement for promotion as collaborated in the Table 1.

115 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Table 1 Comparison of Academic Staff by College and Rank as at February 2011/12

College /Academic Rank P AP SL L AL T.A Total Part- Total time College of Agricultural and 10 22 24 42 48 19 165 30 195 Environmental Sciences College of Engineering, Design, Art 3 9 21 39 51 34 157 19 176 and Technology College of Education and External 1 3 14 40 42 16 116 8 124 Studies College of Health Sciences 13 23 33 101 58 42 270 20 290 College of Humanities and Social 10 23 41 74 90 40 278 19 297 Sciences College of Business and Management 2 1 11 18 58 11 101 28 129 Science College of Natural Science 12 12 15 42 37 33 149 13 162 College of Computing and Information 3 2 9 6 43 21 84 9 93 Science College of Veterinary Animal 11 7 12 15 19 38 102 4 106 Resources and Bio-Security School of Law 3 5 2 10 27 1 48 4 52 Makerere Inst. of Social research 1 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 5 Library 1 0 3 2 0 15 21 0 21 Total 70 107 185 393 473 268 1496 154 1650 Source Makerere University Fact Book Third Edition, 2012

It was noted that in general, there were fewer professors, associate professors compared to senior lecturers, lecturers and teaching assistants for both female and male academics in all academic Units of the University. This scenario emphasized the University priority of support to PhD training. With this policy in place, more and more lecturers would be promoted and hence more female and male professors and associate professors would most likely become available, ceteris paribus. However, due to a policy shifts requiring the University to engage only staff with PhD, and doing away with teaching assistants and assistant lecturers, then this condition would persist as fewer and fewer women would be able to execute research and compete for the positions in the academic ranks. Time will tell how this is likely to be sustainable in terms of internal staff capacity development and the challenge of gender mainstreaming. This is aggravated by current policy shift by government to promote science and technology. Government research funds are directly focused to science disciplines. This further feminizes the humanities and social science disciplines where most of female academic staffs are concentrated.

The other gender dimension is the feminization within the science disciplines. More professors were reported in the College of Health Sciences, the College of Engineering Design Art and Technology, the College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, the College of Natural Sciences than the College Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Bio-Security. Makerere University will need to revisit her research support strategy, focusing research support towards the feminized disciplines if she is to realise her aspirations of becoming a research-led University and at the same time remain relevant to national development. The above notwithstanding, Makerere University ranking has been improving at least on the African continent, with a rank of eight in 2012 and third in early 2016. The feminization of research funding by gender within the science disciplines needs further investigation.

116 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa

Implication of Research Funding Patterns on Institutional Development

Gender mainstreaming is one of the strategic areas in the University Strategic Plan 2008/09 – 2018/19. The University considers gender as a crosscutting strategic area through the University structures, programs and functions. It is Makerere University’s Endeavour to make women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs for development. The overall goal is to mainstream gender in all structures, programs and functions of the University.

A rapid gender appraisal of research funding of the Makerere University institutional framework showed that, to some extent, gender issues were integrated in the programming and organizational processes. The Directorate of Gender Mainstreaming and the School of Women and Gender Studies were part of the organization’s structure. The Directorate is responsible for mainstreaming gender in administrative and support functions of the University. The School of Women and Gender Studies offers cross-cutting courses to different colleges of the University on request. These courses are meant to introduce gender in the academic programming in the respective colleges. Academic programming takes cognizance of gender concerns in the curriculum development while integrating it into the existing curriculum. At the University level, it responsible for mainstreaming gender in educational processes including teaching and learning and research among the programming activities. The effect of the introduction of the Directorate of Gender Mainstreaming and the School of Women and Gender Studies in reducing the gender gaps in academics progression of female and male at all levels is yet to be established.

However, prior to the Mujaju report, the policy on promotion allowed promotions based on teaching experience and publications, irrespective of their level of academic achievement or level at which one was seeking promotion. This was especially so in the College of Health Sciences and School of Law. Through this policy, eight male compared to one female professors had Master’s degrees as a basis for promotion to professorship. Similarly, three females compared to 15 male associate professors and 18 female compared to 57 male senior lecturers followed the same track, On the other hand, four females compared to 50 males had a doctorate as their highest educational level of training as a basis for promotion to professor, 14 females compared to 67 males followed the same track, while 25 females compared to 72 male senior lecturers followed the same track. This arrangement for promotions seemed to be permissive for anybody, both male and female, to progress academically. However, the constant factor is the gender gaps in promotion in favour of male staff (Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition, 2012; 2015).

The current structures of promotion, staff development, appointment, and Council committees are a product of a masculine system that sets policies and criteria developed using masculine values. These criteria assume fulltime staff engagement in teaching with no interruptions imposed by domestic and reproductive roles in which women invest a lot of their valuable time, including: maternity leave, child care for the family, among others. The gender reproductive roles tend to introduce time as a variable and binding constraint to female research production function and exacerbates gender gap in research. Besides, the recruitment, retention and retirement procedures were developed without gender equity

117 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies consideration. The criteria tend to appreciate characteristics that do not take into account of the effect of reproductive roles in the research function. For instance going to the fi elds for data collection for a long time away from the family, caring and nurturing of children, among others. The implication of this is that many female staff fail to publish and get promotion to associate professor level within the standard period set by the University of sixty years and retire at senior lecturer level compared to their counterparts that can take advantage of time to source extra contracts up to seventy years. This further denies the female students especially undergraduates the role models they need to emulate. There is need to investigate the criteria for recruitment, research scholarship awarding procedures and promotion and retirement with a view to consider the time element that is a binding constraint to female research productivity and give more time to female staff after sixty years to publish in order to be promoted, with a view of closing the gender gap.

The organizational logic assumes that administrators remain administrators and therefore do not need very high-level training and participation in research. This approach to research fund allocation that prioritizes academics and makes it diffi cult for administrators to switch careers compared to their counterparts–the academic staff - who easily switch from academics to administrative careers wherever it is convenient and economically viable. This has gazetted some jobs in the University structure to certain ranks of staff, and feminizes administrative and other academic staffs who may have a wealth of their administrative skills built. Given the discrimination in research support between administrative and academic staff, female staffs who are mainly in administrative ranks cannot access research support to build their careers to professor level. One needs to be a professor to be a vice chancellor, experience in administration notwithstanding. This could be responsible for dismal female representation in the higher echelons of the University administrative structure. Consequently, these posts have been carved out to the advantage of academic staffs who happen to take advantage of the meager research funds to upgrade their professional experience unlike the administrative staff. The posts of vice chancellor and deputy vice chancellors are administrative positions. This could explain why it has been diffi cult to fi nd female competitors for the posts of vice chancellor and deputy vice chancellors at Makerere University and the masculinity in outlook in the top structure. This mode of operation and procedures of restricting administrative staff access to research funds feminizes administrators in their own fi eld of specialty, where they developed experience over a long period and is a binding constraint to their career growth. Unfortunately, women constitute the majority of administrative staff in the University structure.

This organizational logic is gender-neutral and assumes that career paths for administrative staffs are a linear progression and that administrative staff cannot switch career from administrative to academic compared to academic staffs who are permitted to switch careers from academic to administration. The implication of this mental logic is that no sooner than the academic staff attain professorship than they cross to administration, without the regard that academic staff are prioritized in access to research resources with a view to build capacity in research, teaching, and learning that places them at an advantage over the administrative staff. This creates a skills gap in research and teaching, frustrating the very objective of prioritizing capacity building in research. The other challenge is that career paths of administrative staff are stifl ed due to the absence of upward openings for promotion after a certain rank in the

118 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa

University structure (M4). This negatively impacts on self-actualization on the part of the administrative staff. It would be interesting for both administrative and academic staff switch careers for balanced academic and administrative career advancement by reconsidering research support to administrative staff in their pursuit of career development. In the light of the above, Makerere University has a lot of unfi nished business if gender parity is to be achieved by gender, levels in administration, academic ranks, between colleges and disciplines and research productivity. This has implications on the institutional development that is likely to follow a masculine mode and therefore remain gender unresponsive. It would be interesting to investigate the barriers to women’s research productivity and publications on the basis of which a strategy could be formulated to promote and increase women’s advancement in research and publications and institutional development. Discussion and Conclusion

The study investigated how the research funding pattern at Makerere University translates into human resource and institutional development with a view to ascertain whether gender mainstreaming matters. The analytical framework was anchored within the feminist organizational theory, economic resource-based theory of a fi rm and the human capital theory. Within these paradigms, Makerere University was expected to deliver a dual agenda of effi ciency and effectiveness, where if she chose effi ciency, this would come at a high price of gender inequality. If on the other hand she chose effectiveness, Makerere University would remain relevant to the national and international agenda - building an organizational logic in programming and organizational capacity to engage / take opportunity of external and internal forces to counteract the gender imbalance question. Secondary data was used in the analysis focusing on funding sources, research fund availability and distribution; access to internally generated funds; institutional framework for management of research fund; implication of research funding pattern on human resource and institutional development.

The results indicated that Makerere University has charted a middle position, and to a good extent and she is a gender-responsive institution. It has several funding sources with government being the biggest funder. Most of the funding sources are emphatic on gender mainstreaming and women empowerment. The total amount of research funds available over the decade to fi nance research and related activities has been growing. Likewise is the trend of access of females to this fund, although this is rather slow. This corroborates with the theory of organization as advanced by European Commission (2005) whereby institutions are not independent entities. They get feedback from the environment outside the organization that may affect its behaviour. Funds from donors are usually targeted to colleges, research themes and functions, with science-based colleges being the biggest benefi ciaries; PhD training is given a higher weight in the distribution of research funds than Masters, post-doctoral research and other related activities. One percent of the internally generated funds at Makerere University is earmarked for staff development. This supports colleges and schools with insuffi cient support for research, especially at PhD level; although its distribution exhibited gender gaps by colleges and between disciplines and administrative units.

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None of the colleges hit the 40 percent institutional female target for access to research funds as per University regulations for affi rmative action. It was further observed that this translated into Makerere University’s high ranking regionally and internationally. This was in line with arguments by Flamholtz and Lacey (1981) and Becker (1964) that organizations use their human resources available to their advantage. This is contrary to Cascio (1991) and Acker (1988) who note that class and gender and noted that class is constructed through gender and that class relations are always gendered. The structure of the labour market, relations in the workplace, the control of the work processes, and the underlying wage relation are always affected by symbols/images of gender, processes of gender identity, and material inequalities between women and men. These processes are complexly related to and powerfully support the reproduction of the class structure. From this perspective, the challenge is that staff capacity was not well distributed through the colleges, with more PhDs represented in the Science-based colleges. Feminization in access to research funds between science-based and humanities-based disciplines, between men and women academic staff, between administrative and academic staff, between research productivity and publications was observed compared to other research-related activities. Government research funds are directly focused to science disciplines, further feminizing the humanities and social sciences where most of female academic staff are more concentrated.

A rapid gender appraisal of research funding of the Makerere University institutional framework revealed that, to some extent, gender issues are integrated in the programming and organizational processes; with the Directorate of Gender Mainstreaming and the School of Women and Gender Studies being part of the organization’s structure. The constant factor is the gender differences in promotion that favors male academic staff. The organizational logic is yet to be mainstreamed in structure, functions and programmmes. The current organizational structure and criteria for promotion, staff development, appointments, retirement, research funding procedures and Council memberships is a product of masculine systems. Time was the most constraining factor for research productivity of female academic staff. The career paths of administrative staff are stifl ed due to the preference given to academic staff capacity building and therefore lack of space for upward mobility of the administrators. Makerere University has to tried to address this dual agenda as proposed by European Commission (2005), but with a lot of room for improvement. There is some level of effi ciency as refl ected in the high rankings internationally, bur she scores comparatively less on gender responsiveness especially in female research productivity. Makerere University is yet to consider the issue of providing for role models for the female students in its academic ranks. This fi nding shows that Makerere University puts minimal emphasis in creating openings and enabling environment for academic advancement of administrative staff in general and female staff in particular after a certain level of service.

In conclusion, it is apt to deduce that gender matters in human resource and institutional development, if Makerere University has to achieve the dual agenda of effi ciency and effectiveness as well as remain relevant to national and international agenda. To some extent, Makerere University has to tried to address this dual agenda, but with a lot of unfi nished business. This includes addressing the gender concerns that cause the gender gaps between female and male academic staff at all levels in the University programming and structure, the

120 Elizabeth Kaase-Bwanga and Consolata Kabonesa feminization of other disciplines, feminization of science against the humanities disciplines, and feminizing administrators against academic staff. Above all, the mental logic of the institution is built on masculine norms. All this will need to be addressed with a view to creating equity in access to research resources for a balanced institutional development.

It is recommended that Makerere University reconsiders the research funding pattern by sourcing for more funding sources to support all its staff, be it administrative or academic staff, both female and male. This will create a level ground for competition. In the absence of adequate funding, targeting should be done with a gender face with equity between male and female, administrators and academic staff, within and across disciplines as the guiding factor The organizational logic of the University will have to change with a view to further integrate gender in the organizational structures and processes by reviewing the criteria for recruitment, procedures of awarding research funds, promotions, staff development, appointments, retirement opening up of top management positions to deserving administrative staff, review of Council committee memberships and mainstreaming the main policy committees of the University both in numerical representation and technical capacity. Above all Makerere University should build a cadre of models for the female students to emulate. References

Acker, J. (1988). Class, Gender and the Relations of Distribution. Signs13:473-97. Barbara F. R, Patricia. A. Roos, (1987). Status Hierarchies and Sex Segregation. In Ingredients for Women’s Employment Policy, edited by Christine Bose and Glenna Spitze. Albany: SUNY Press. Barney, J. (1991). Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage. In Journal of Management, 17:99- 120. Becker, G.S. (1964). Human Capital. New York: Natl. Bur. Econ. Res. Bjorg, A. S. (1984). The Organizational Woman and the Trojan horse Effect. In Patriarchy in a Welfare Society, edited by Harriet Holter. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. Boudreau, J. W., and Berger, C. J. (1985). Decision Theoretic Utility Analysis Applied to Employee Separations and Acquisitions. In Journal of Applied Psychology, 70:581-612. Cascio, W. F. (1991). Costing Human Resource: The Financial Impact of Behavior in Organizations. Boston: PWS-Kent. Castells, M. (2000). Universities as Dynamic Systems of Contradictory Functions. In Muller, J, Cloete, N. and Badat, S. (Eds) Challenges of Globalization: South African Debates with Manuel Castells. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman. Clegg, S. and D. Dunkerley. (1980). Organization, Class and Control. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Cloete, N. Bailey, B. and Maassen, P. (2011). Universities and Economic Development Pact, academic core and coordination; Synthesis Report. Centre for Higher Education Transformation (CHET), House Vincent, First Floor, 10 Brodie Road, Wynberg Mews, Wynberg, 7800 ISBN 978-1- 920355-80-7 CHET. Cockburn, C. (1985). Brothers: Male Dominance and Technological Change. London: Pluto Press. Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and Power. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

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Conner, K, R. (1991). A Historical Perspective of Resource-based Theory and Five Schools of Thought within Industrial Organization Economics: Do We Need a New Theory of the Firm? in Journal of Management, 17:121-54. European Commission. (2005). Aid Delivery Methods Concept Paper; A Contribution to Development Thinking. Institutional Assessment and Capacity Development. Why, What and How? Flamholtz, E. G., and Lacey, J. M. (1981). Personnel Management, Human Capital Theory, and Human Resource Accounting. Los Angeles: Inst. Ind. Relations, Univ. Calif. Game, A., and Pringle, R. (1984). Gender at Work. London: Pluto Press. Harding, S. (1986). The Science Question in Feminism. Ithaca, NY: Corell University Press. Hochschild. R. (1983). The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press. Kanter, R. M. (1975). Women and the Structure of Organizations’ Explorations in Theory and Behavior. In Another Voice, edited by Rosabeth Kanter and Marcia Millman. New York: Doubleday. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and Women of the Corporation. New York: Basic Books. Kate, C. (2010). Seven Deadly Sins of Women in Leadership. Overcome Self Defeating Behavior in Work and Ministry, Next Leadership, Birmingham: United Kingdom. Knights, D. and Willmot, H. (1985). Gender and the Labour Process. Aldershot: Gower. Lipman-Blumen, J. (1980). Female leadership in Formal Organizations: Must the Female Leader Go Formal? In Readings in Managerial Psychology, edited by Harold J. Leavitt, Louis R. Pondy, and David M. Boje. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Magara, E (2009). Financing a Public University: Strategic Directions for Makerere University in Uganda. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa in JHEA/RESA, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 61–86. Makerere University Annual Report 2009. Makerere University Annual Report 2010. Makerere University Annual Report 2011. Makerere University Annual Report 2012. Makerere University Fact Book, 2014/15. Makerere University Fact Book, Second Edition, 2011. Makerere University Fact Book, Third Edition 2012. National Council for Higher Education 2012. Phillips, A. and Taylor, B. (1986). Sex and Skill in Waged Work. edited by Feminist Review. London: Virago. 137 Porter, M. E. (1985). Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. New York: Free Press. Russell, C. J, Colella A, and Bobko P. (1993). Expanding the Context of Utility: the Strategic Impact of Personnel Selection. Personal Psychology, 46:781-801.

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Santiago, R. Meek, L. Goedegebuure, G., and Carvalho, T. (2002). The Changing Dynamics of Higher Education Middle Management, Springer Dordirchi Heidelberg, London New York, ISBN 978- 90-9163-5.D01 10 1007978-481-9163-5. Schuler, R. S., and MacMillan, I. C. (1984). Gaining Competitive Advantage through HR Management Practices. In Human Resource Management, 23: 241-55. Scott, J. (1986). Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis. In American Historical Review, 91:1053-75. Smith, D. E. (1988). The Everyday World as Problematic. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Thomas, A. B. (1988). Does leadership make a difference in organizational performance? In Administrative Science Quarterly, 33, 388 - 400. Tsang, M.C., Rumberger, R.W., and Levin, H.M. (1991). The Impact of Surplus Schooling on Worker Productivity. In IndRelat, 0:209-28. West, C. and. Don H. Z. (1987). Small Insults: A Study of Interruptions in Conversations between Unacquainted Persons. In Language, Gender and Society, edited by B. Thorne, C. Kramerae, and N. Henley, Rowley, MA: Newbury House. World Bank (1999). Education Sector Strategy, Washington, D. C. World Bank. Wright, P. M., McMahan, G.C., and McWilliams, A. (1994). Human Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage: A Resource-based Perspective. In International Journal of Human Resource Management, 5(2): 299-324.

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Accelerating the Fight Against Corruption in Uganda: Strengthening the Coalition Between Anti-Corruption Agencies and the Media

Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija Uganda Management Institute Abstract

This article seeks to examine how the media contributes to corruption, the need to report on corruption with intent to create awareness as a preventive measure, and how the media can partner with anti-corruption agencies to accelerate the fi ght against corruption in Uganda.In order to achieve these objectives, the article used documentary analysis, literature review and interviews. The argument in the article is that the media has a big role to play in the fi ght against corruption, beginning with acknowledging that there is manifestation of corruption practices – cash for news, staged or fake news, gifts and advertisement, nepotism and media capture. Therefore the media has to overcome corruption within its own ranks. Other means through which the media can contribute towards the fi ght against corruption include both tangible and intangible ways. It also emphasizes that there is urgent need for the media to participate in corruption prevention, throughthe launching of investigation by authorities, the scrapping of laws or policies promoting opportunities for corruption, the impeachment or forced resignation of corrupt politicians, the fi ring of offi cials, the launching of judicial proceedings; and since the fi ght against corruption is a collective responsibility, then the media has to partner with anti-corruption agencies to accelerate the fi ght against corruption in Uganda. We cannot ignore the critical role of the media in the fi ght against corruption, and together the various actors can curb corruption in the country through a coalition of willing anti- corruption crusaders.

Key words: Uganda, corruption, media, prevention, collective responsibility

Introduction

The media is often referred to as the fourth estate or pillar in a democracypolity. It plays a critical role as a watchdog, agenda setter and gatekeeper. The media frames the discussion about corruption as a public problem, suggests solutions to curbing corruption, lends voice to a wide range of perspectives and arguments, and empowers citizens to fi ght corruption. Varied studies have shown a strong positive correlation between freedom of the press and control of corruption (Fardigh et al., 2011; Brunetti and Weder, 2003). The media in Uganda has made a fundamental contribution towards fi ghting corruption too in various ways, and can still do a good job by unveiling corruption. However, it has also been observed that as far as corruption is concerned, no one is innocent and the media is not immune to corruption. So, there is need for the various actors to work together to accelerate the fi ght against corruption as a collective responsibility. After all, the public perception in Uganda is that corruption is heavily entrenched in society and has to be curbed (Inspectorate of Government, 2014). This articlehas fi ve sections after the introduction: the fi rst section details the research methodology used. The second section seeks to shed light on corruption in the media and how it can be fought. The third section seeks to answer the question – Can the media contribute to the fi ght against

124 Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija corruption? If so,how?The fourth section focuses on Steps toward forming a coalition between anti-corruption agencies (ACAs) and the media to accelerate the fi ght against corruption in Uganda,and the last section is the conclusion. We are thus going to look at each section in turn. Methods

The study is a qualitative exploratory study. It relies heavily on a number of documents including newspaper stories, reports on media work, and reports from international bodies like Transparency International, and previous studies. A total of 18 interviews were also carried out, and the participants were selected through snowball sampling; the participants include offi cials from anti-corruption agencies (Police, Inspectorate of Government and Auditor General), members of parliament, journalists and editors, trainers of journalists, development partners, government offi cials and the civil society. The data was analyzed through a number of techniques: classifi cation, constant comparison, logical analysis, discourse analysis and narrative analysis. Care was taken to ensure that the ethical values of benefi cence, justice and respect for person were upheld. This was done though allowing free participation and exit, non-disclosure of sources of information and informed consent. Corruption in the Media

According to the Inspectorate of Government Fourth Annual Report, 2014, corruption in Uganda is widespread and is a major constraint on economic development and cause of poverty in Uganda. The public perception is that corruption is heavily entrenched in society and has to be curbed. Corruption has been variously defi ned, the simplest defi nition being the abuse of public power for personal gain or for the benefi t of a group to which one owes allegiance. It occurs when public offi ce is abused by an offi cial accepting, soliciting, or extorting a bribe (Langseth, Stapenhurstand& Pope, 1997).

In Uganda the media is faced with a number of factors that may foment corruption. These include lack of journalistic skills, unprofessionalism, limited funding, inadequate and undemocratic legal frameworks. As a consequence, some journalists and media houses are notimmunized against corruption. Elsewhere, there are many examples of journalists, editors and media houses accepting bribes and publishing paid material disguised as news stories, or extorting money either for publishing favorable stories or for not publishing damaging ones (Ristow, 2010). Other types of corruption in the media include cash for news, staged or fake news, gifts and advertising, nepotism, and media capture. Cash for News

The concept of “cash for news coverage” is where journalists agree to publish positive news against payments. This is done in a number of ways; 1) at the interpersonal level – where cash is handed directly to the journalist by a news source; 2) at the intra-organizational level - where the editor tells the journalist what to write or not write, due to some sort of internal pressure such as from advertising; and 3) at the inter-organizational level, where there can be fairly formal arrangements, and even a legal contract under which a company pays a news organization a monthly amount in exchange for having a certain number of articles published about that company (Ristow, 2010). In Uganda, we have labeled it the Khaki (Brown) Envelope

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Syndrome. Two years ago, two Daily Monitor headlines “Journalists arrested over extortion” and “More Ugandan Journalists Arrested in alleged Extortion”, attest to this phenomenon. The hope is that it is not widespread. Staged or fake news

It is also possible for some journalists to work it out with some news sources and end up publishing fake or staged news. This can be in form of exaggerated comments from consumers of a product, exaggerated numbers of people attending apolitical rally and support for a politician. Gifts andadvertisements

Giving gifts and placing advertisements as media corruption often results from the widespread collusion between journalists and public relations and advertising organizations (Spence, 2008). For example, some media organizations report on the growing trend of public relations companies using pseudo independent and objective news release to promote their clients’ products. Similar to such media release, the practice of cash for comment involves presenting paid advertisement as editorial comment or opinion (Spence, 2008). In Uganda, currently, there are many PR and advertisingfi rms which are owned by former journalists. They know the industry in and out and if not well managed, can be a vehicle for promoting corruption in the media. Lastly, there is also arm-twisting from major advertisers such as big business empires and the government. Nepotism

Nepotism in the newsrooms may occur while hiring or fi ring staff or publishing a feature article. In the United Kingdom, for instance, “media is rife with nepotism. Parents secure internships and even teen columns for their student offsprings” (Corkindal, 2007). The extent to which we have nepotism in the Ugandan media is an empirical question that we need to investigate.

Media capture

All those that want to shape public opinion for private or political interests look at the media as the key to that. It is likely that low salaries make journalists more susceptible to accepting bribes, and an individual with a low salary will benefi t more from a given bribe than one with a higher salary (Klitgaard, 1988). It is observed that journalists are not well paid, and are thus susceptible to capture. Moreover, most journalists have limited possibilities of advancement in the hierarchy, and this makes corruptionattractive. Fighting media corruption

Fighting corruption in the media includes raising awareness of ethical standards, strengthening media independence through adequate media policies, promoting media accountability through increased oversight and controls as well as investigative journalism training. A number of actorshave a fundamental role to play;mediadevelopment organizations should: a) Promote ethics training as an integral part of professional standards of journalism, with specifi c training

126 Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija on why and how to avoid taking cash for news coverage, b) Support the creation of media accountability systems such as ombudsmen and other complaints mechanisms to increase transparency and accountability of media operations(Arnold and Sumir, 2012) Arnold and Sumir (2012) further argue that news media owners, managers, and editors should: a) Adopt, publicize and implement a fi rm policy of zero tolerance for any form of cash for news coverage–from simple “facilitation” payments to reporters to paid advertisements masquerading as objective news. This can include reviewing pay policies to remove incentives for journalists to indulging in unethical practices, b) Acknowledge that pay can have an impact on ethics, c) Create accountability systems for establishing more transparent relationship with their audiences, The Public Relations Association of Uganda should encourage their members to practice zero tolerance, declining the sometimes too-easy path of paying in the hope of getting the best spin on their clients’ stories, and helping them with strategies to do so without hurting their business.Lastly, we could encourage media oversight and accountability through the available regulatory bodies to monitor the media and ensure that ethical standards are upheld by the profession.

Given that the Media is prone to Corruption; can it contribute to the fi ght against Corruption? Having observed that the media is not immune to corruption, it is imperative to note that it can play a signifi cant role in combating corruption by exposing and reporting the facts relating to corruption particularly in high places, in the private and in the public sector, without fear or favour.So far, the media in the Caribbean has played an important role in at least one key area – exposing, editorializing and analyzing corruption in public contract awards, in abuse of corporate power, in bringing to light external infl uences in campaign fi nancing and party funding across the region. The role of the media in the fi ght against corruption can be seen in tangible and intangible ways. The impact of media reporting on corruption can be “tangible” and “intangible” (Stapenhurst, 2000). It is tangible when some sort of visible outcome can be attributed to a particular news story or series of stories—for instance, the launching of investigation by authorities, the scrapping of a law or policy promoting opportunities for corruption, forced resignation of a corrupt politician, the fi ring of an offi cial, and the launching of judicial proceedings. It is intangible when checks on corruption arise from the broader social climate of enhanced political pluralism, enlivened public debate and a heightened sense of accountability among politicians, public bodies and institutions that are inevitably the by-product of a hard- hitting, independent news media. Fighting corruption through investigativejournalism

Investigative journalism can help as a powerful tool to fi ght corruption and uncover corruption in the media. For instance Makerere University with the support from GIZ has been building capacity in investigative journalism, and African Centre for Media Excellence (ACME) offers an investigative reporting grant.

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Investigating and exposing corrupt offi cials and offi ce-holders

When corrupt offi cials are exposed, this may promptACAs to initiate formal investigations into the reported allegations of corruption. Furthermore, themedia disseminates ACA fi ndings thus reinforcing the legitimacy of ACAs and putting those who hold power and wish to implement their corrupt wishes on check. Prompting investigations by offi cial bodies

In Uganda, for instance, the purchase of “junk helicopters” story was fi rst broken by the New Vision in 1997.This led to a judicial commission of inquiry in 1999 to investigate which recommended that several offi cials, including Gen. SalimSaleh and Colonel Kizza Besigye, be triedfor corruption. The cabinet also directed that the implicated army offi cers should face an army court martial. Unfortunately, neither the commission’s report northe fi ndings of the court martial were ever made public, but the media did its role (Global Corruption Report, 2003). Reinforcing the work and legitimacy of the state’s anti-corruption bodies

Journalists have a symbiotic relationship with ACAs that investigate or prosecute corrupt offi cials. It is at times a transactional relationship and instrumental in value, whereby journalists’ benefi ts are in terms of strong, dramatic stories and ACAs have their activities reportedon. Additionally, the publicity may encourage witnesses to do wrong and in some cases mobilizethe public pressure for corrupt offi cials to be heldto account. Strengthening anti-corruption bodies by exposing their fl aws

One of the key assets for a journalist is the source. However, journalists may become too close to the ACAs and as such refrain from punchy, dramatic stories about them. More so, some journalists may hesitate to consider that these very sources can themselves turn out to be corrupt, or tainted by corruption. No public body—or private entity, for that matter—can be immune from corruption, after all. Helping to shape public opinion hostile to “sleaze” in government

The Ugandan media has done a lot in reporting sleaze in government. For instance, quite often, according to the IG, in 2012, the OAG conducted a special audit into allegations of fi nancial impropriety and irregularities involving diversion, fraud, unauthorized approvals of payments and irregular withdrawals of funds. As a consequence of these irregularities, funds to an estimated value of UGX 58 billion had been misappropriated between 2011 and 2012. In 2012, the OAG audit established that a number of fi nancial controls had been deliberately circumvented, resulting in the misappropriation of funds to a value of approximately UGX 165 billion. All of these cases have resulted in widespread media coverage, increasing citizens’ awareness of the scale of corruption (Inspectorate of Government, 2014: 10). Theensuing uproar is widely believed to contribute to public disgust over “sleaze” in public life and may lead to attitudinal change towards corrupt behavior.

128 Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija

Pressure for changes to laws and regulations that create a climate favorable to corruption

Hard-hitting journalism can also expose fl aws in policy, laws or regulations that foster a climate ripe for corruption, thus creating pressure for reform. For instance, the IG has pointed out the need for Government to set up the Leadership Code Tribunal to facilitate the full implementation of the Leadership Code Act 2012. Second, the passage of the Anti-CorruptionAmendment Bill 2013 containsa clause to facilitate the recovery ofmisappropriated funds and assets. Theintroduction of a law that empowersanti-corruption institutions to confi scateassets and to recover misappropriatedfunds will act as a strong disincentiveto those who may engage in corruptpractices. Additionally, Government should set up theLeadership Code Tribunal to facilitatethe full implementation of theLeadership Code Act 2012, and also government should consider thebenefi ts of implementing theExtractive Industries TransparencyInitiative (EITI). The media should thus champion the campaign to popularize these recommendations from the IG. Anticipation of adverse media publicity prompting a preemptive response

Journalists nosing for news and prodding even in the absence of evidence may lead to the generation of stories from the affected. Journalists should be vigorous in chasing stories and prompting sources to come up with responses. They can as well work with the ACAs to get out stories that are still cooking, and also represent well the sources. Steps toward forming a coalition between Anti-Corruption Agencies (ACAs) and the Media to accelerate the Fight against Corruption in Uganda

Largely drawing from Byrne, Arnold, and Nagano (2010) and Arnold and Sumir (2012), I propose the following.

First, there is need to specify the issue: It is necessary for the ACAs, through a number of avenues, to clearly defi ne their objectives in the fi ght against corruption to achieve an effective media campaign. The issue determines which media are most relevant: petty corruption is likely to be an issue of the local media, while grand corruption might more successfully targeted through the elite media. Social media complement all media campaigns.

Second, Map relationships and stakeholders: Each media house has some well-known journalists whose passion or assignment is to cover corruption. The ACAs need to familiarize themselves with editors that have a reputation to reveal corruption in their news outlets. While profi ling the media to rely on, such variables may be useful; the place of the media practitioners in the national power hierarchy, dedicated, knowledgeable, and eager to reveal corruption and has some public clout.

Third, Form the coalition: Identifying media partnersisone thing, and winning them over to join the coalition is another. Media partners have to be convinced that it is in their interest to cover and criticize corruption. The ACAs need to conduct background conversations, host media breakfasts, and come up with joint CSR projects as instruments to inform journalists about the ongoing anti-corruption efforts and also as a way to forge relationships of mutual benefi t.

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Fourth, Sustain the coalition: Anti-corruption coalitions with the media should not be limited to an issue or event. It should be continuous through, for instance, regular meetings, ACAs becoming reliable sources of stories and co-hosted events.

However, when forming a partnership with the media, some constraints of the media industry should be understood. Media partners may be given a story, and they do not cover it. The story may be covered, but it may not have a big audience or make a big change. The media industry operates under a number of constraints, including, freedom of the press, protection of journalists, and access to information, journalism culture, journalism capacity, competition and capture, Motivation, short media cycle, and tight deadlines.

With regard to freedom of the press, according to the UHRC report 2013, in that year there was a closure of four media houses, in the wake of the controversial letter reportedly authored by the former coordinator of intelligence services. With regard to the protection of journalists, in the same year Human Rights Network for Journalists – Uganda documented 110 attacks on journalists, doubling those of 2010. Two radio journalists, BasajaMivule and Simon KaggwaNjagala were suspended from their shows on Radio 1 and Akaboozi respectively; Thomas Pere and Alex Kule died mysteriously; and media practitioners have been under pressure from various state agents and other elements to reveal their sources. Such also affects the access to information, regardless of the legal framework. Indeed, the UHRC found out that there were still gaps in the access to information, which is the duty of the state to guarantee.

Journalism culture also varies and may affect the way particular journalists behave and report corruption. It has been observed that some journalists considerthemselves as mouthpieces for the government or particular entities. This calls for intense engagement with journalism associations and journalism schools to let journalists appreciate that they are pillars of democracy.

Journalism capacity is sometimes overestimated. It is true that some the ability to conceptualize corruption and utilize investigative techniques signifi cantly is not universal. Other than investigative journalism techniques (ACME, Journalism Schools etc.), it is helpful to have workshops and seminars that improve on sector knowledge, public policy and anti-corruptionstrategies (like at UMI) to help some journalists distinguish between petty corruption, grand corruption, political corruption,collusion and extortion, and ineffi ciency. Additionally, avenues like annual conferences and media conventions should be exploited; to explicitly focus on the theme of corruption. Media partners can be enabled toconduct their tradein an ethical manner that respects privacy and avoids litigation.

Competition and media capture: Media partners may hesitate to cover corruption if it involves important and powerful political fi gures or companies that are their advertising clients, and in the Ugandan case, government Ministries, Departments and Agencies MDAs which are the biggest advertisers. As much as a breaking story sells, it also matters on who is reported on. Some business empires have penetrated some of the news rooms so much that mention of a story concerning them either invokes fear or reprimand from the gatekeepers- editors and sub editors.

130 Gerald Kagambirwe Karyeija

Motivation: Media partners who do their job well should be motivated for successful anti- corruption investigative journalism. This can be done through awards that are organized and funded, inter alia, by the ACAs, civil society organizations, universities, private corporations, and MDAs. These awards must be designed in a way that they are publicly acclaimed, since the country is now awash with award-giving bodies with suspect intentions —and possibly corrupt.

Short media cycle: The ACAs’ level of tolerance should be also lifted higher, to know that the pressure of storytelling may be responsible for shallow analysis, short sound bites that are reported out of context, and a disregard for complexities. This is not to promote unprofessional behaviour, but to invite ACAs to appreciate media constraints and design ways on how to manage them. This is closely related to the issue of tight deadlines whereby journalists have to fi nish their stories in the early evenings for them to be included in next day’s paper or a story to be included in the evening television news must be fi lmed and edited in the afternoon. Radio is the fastest and a radio journalist wishes to be the fi rst to make the world know. ACAs therefore must know when to time their information releases and be accessible to reporters when needed. It is imperative to focus on stories that can sell, which calls for better framing of stories. Conclusion

From the foregoing, it is evident that the media can cover up or uncover corruption. However, it has a twin role in contributing to the accelerated fi ght against corruption in Uganda. First, by being alert to any corrupt elements within its own ranks, and second by exposing corruption through extortion—when government offi cials refuse or delay a service to extract a rent, and collusive corruption—where client and bureaucrat have a mutual interest in the corrupt act as in instances of tax evasion (Brunetti and Weder, 2003). For corruption through extortion, the press provides a platform for voicing complaints. The incentives of exposing collusive corruption lie in opportunities of investigative journalists and media institutions to achieve fame and larger audiences, as profi t-making media fi rms seek to expose corruption to sell their product (Suphachalasai, 2005: 3–4).The Ugandan media, together with the ACAs can play a signifi cant role in accelerating the fi ght against corruption while, at the same time, achieving its reason for existence. Reference Arnold, A.-K. and Sumir, L.(2012). Using Media to Fight Corruption: A paper for the 2011 Asia Regional Peer-Learning and Knowledge Sharing Workshop Engaging Citizens against Corruption in Asia: Approaches, Results and Lessons. Byrne, E., Arnold, A.-K. & Nagano, F. (2010).Building public support for anti-corruption efforts. Why anti-corruption agencies need to communicate and how.Washington, DC: World Bank Group. Besley, T and Prat, A. (2006). Handcuffs for the Grabbing Hand?Media Capture and Government accountability.American Economic Review, 96, no. 3: 720-736. http://econ.lse.ac.uk/~tbesley/ papers/mediacap.pdf Brunetti, A. and Weder, B. (2003). A Free Press is bad News for Corruption. Journal of Public Economics,87:1801–1824. http://www.academia.edu/916687/A_free_press_is_bad_news_for_ corruptionCorkindal, Gill. (2007). Nepotism: The Unspoken Rules, Havard Business Review. digh_andersson_oscarsson.pdf

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Daily Monitor, November 9, (2010). More Ugandan Journalists Arrested in Alleged Extortion, Daily Monitor, November 9, (2010). Be very afraid when journalists turn to extortion Inspectorate of Government (2014). The Fourth Annual Report on Tracking Corruption Trends in Uganda, using the Data Tracking Mechanism (DTM), Report to Parliament, July –December 2013, Uganda Fardigh, M., Andersson,E., and Oscarsson, H. (2011). Re-examining the Relationship Between Press Freedom and Corruption. http://www.qog.pol.gu.se/digitalAssets/1357/1357841_2011_13_far Klitgaard, R. (1988).Controlling Corruption. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press Langseth, P., R. Stapenhurst and J. Pope. (1997). The Role of a National Integrity System in Fighting Corruption, EDI Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Bank. Mendes, M., and Chêne. M. (2013). Overview of corruption in the media in developing countries. U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Center. Norris, P., and Odugbemi, S. (2010). Assessing the Extent to Which the News Media Act as Watchdogs, Agenda Setters and Gatekeepers. In Public Sentinel.News Media and Governance Reform, edited by Pippa Norris, 379-394. World Bank: Washington D.C. http://issuu.com/world. bank.publications/docs/9780821382004. Nangora, M. (2009). Role of media in curbing corruption: the case of Uganda under President Yoweri K. Museveni during the ‘no-party’ system. DESA Working Paper Series no. 72. http://www. un.org/esa/desa/papers/2009/wp72_2009.pdf OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe). (2008). The Media Self-Regulation Guidebook. http://www.osce.org/fom/31497 Ristow, B., (2010). Cash for Coverage:Bribery of Journalists Around the World. http://cima.ned.org/ sites/default/fi les/CIMA-Bribery_of_Journalists-Report.pdf. Spence, H., (2008). Corruption in the Media.International Journal of Applied Philosophy 22 No.1: 231-241. http://secure.pdcnet.org/ijap/content/ijap_2008_0022_0002_0231_0 241. Suphachalasai, S. (2005).BureaucraticCorruption and Mass Media, Environmental Economy and Policy Research Working Papers 05.2005, University of Cambridge, Department of Land Economics The Republic of Armenia Presidential Election February 19. Transparency International (2010/2011).Global CorruptionBarometer. http://gcb.transparency.org/ gcb201011/results/ Transparency International(2003).Global Corruption Report 2003, http://archive.transparency.org/ publications/gcr/gcr_2003#download Tsetsura, K. (2008). Media Transparency Initiative: An Exploratory Study of Global Media Practices. Slide presentation, International Public Relations Association Summit. London, June 10, 2008. http://www.instituteforpr.org/iprwp/wpcontent/uploads/Tsetsura_2008.pdf Tsetsura, K. and Grynko, A., (2009). An Exploratory Study of the Media Transparency in Ukraine. Public Relations Journal 3, No. 2. http://www.prsa.org/SearchResults/download/6D-030205/0/

132 Hawa Kasule

The Controversies of Social Media Surveillance: When Privacy and Exposure are at War

Hawa Kasule

Marmara University, Turkey Abstract

Social media is characterized by a self-regulatory privacy policy regime that puts capital interests fi rst. Surveillance normally occurs in political and economic forms; though to a small extent social surveillance is also evident in social media.Little is known by Social Media users about social media surveillance, and surveillance technologies, yet such media is used for e-management. This article sought to establish the stages of surveillance, its technologies as well as its linkage to self-exposure and privacy by a qualitative and innovative research.In relation to exposure, it was discovered that surveillance creates an unbalanced relationship between the observers (such as social media service providers) and those being observed (social media service users). From a privacy point of view the study revealed that the anonymity enjoyed by the individual in small communities, is jeopardized by pervasive surveillance, especially via social media.It was concluded that surveillance over social media is a very controversial issue. The study recommended that the concept of surveillance and its transformation through the digital incarnation of the individual requires an examination with a greater scope and an interdisciplinary approach (which includes diverse disciplines of social sciences like sociology, political sciences, social psychology, anthropology and even history and philosophy) to be evaluated.

Keywords: Surveillance, privacy, exposure, surveillance society, surveillance technologies

Introduction

This study was conducted with a qualitative and innovative research method, instead of a quantitative and generalizing one. In searching for an answer as to how self exposition and surveillance take form in the social media on the point of self expression, this study was based upon an objective manifestation of the current situation as it occurs. For this reason, a comprehensive literature search was done by focusing on current studies.Digital data alongside areas of recent communication technology usage were included in the scope of this research.

Social media, through the changes and transformations that are brought up by the new communication media and technological developments come forward as the most infl uential platforms. For this reason, it is highly important to examine the individual-power relation under the title of surveillance, and to detect the situation of the privacy principle. To put forward the affects of the developments mentioned above, current studies on discourse and content analysis have been broadly evaluated; moreover, the digital data of the usage of social media and where the individual is situated within the dimensions of surveillance, exposition and privacy while expressing oneself have been examined.

133 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

The limited number of researches based on surveillance on social media, has caused the necessity to concentrate on international studies and foreign researches about the topic.

This article targets all social media users particularly those who are unaware of surveillance and their contribution towards it, social media platforms Background

The context of the surveillance society

Surveillance society involves being spied on by a “third party”. Communication and surveillance are antagonistic counterparts of the usage of commercial social networking platforms

The easy transfer of information from one place to another through digitization has facilitated the surveillance of “information” alongside the convenience ensured regarding the user, and this has brought up new arguments concerning the relation between the one surveilling and the one who is surveilled, “privacy”, and “self expression and exposure”.

Contemporary surveillance is linked to the growing centrality of consumption and the adoption of information technologies (Lyon 1994, p.25).

The new communication media, while providing avenues to move an individual’s self- expression via his/her “digital incarnation”, particularly with the social networking, into a much more different and richer dimension than it used to be, has also introduced the transformation of surveillance in new forms .

“Surveillance”, as it does in every aspect of life, also reveals itself in social networking where information is being shared. Thus, the basic objective of this study in which the current and potential consequences of “self exposition” of the individual are being examined, and in this context, the transformation of surveillance through digitized information is being investigated; is to put forward, understand and interpret the contradiction of the forms of self expression on social media, on the basis of exposition and surveillance. Surveillance Technologies

Surveillance technologies have changed the nature of surveillance. Internet surveillance technologies may take the form of surveillance of personal data captured from general internet use; surveillance of personal data captured using specialized internet services; and technologies and practices designed to access data from internet users. Many technologies especially those that support social media operate as part of the global networks that enhance continuous surveillance for example from the Global Positioning System(GPS).In this context, Face book and other web 2.0 platforms are largely advertising based capital accumulation machines that achieve their economic aims by economic surveillance.

Additionally web 2.0 surveillance can be referred to as mass self-surveillance, since it targets large user groups which help to hegemonically produce and reproduce surveillance by providing user-generated (self-produced) content.

There is a Post-Fordist component via e-surveillance as observed by Arvidsson

134 Hawa Kasule

(2005, p.241), when he alleges that the post-fordist production process directly exploits the communication dimension of social life. A case in point for instance is the Face book application developed by the “software-as-service” company Appirio that enables employers’ access to employees “social networks”. The application links data from the social networks of individual employees to a proprietory consumer relationship marketing database, in order to track leads, make follow-up offers, and report on campaign success to see how their viral campaigns stack up to other marketing programmes.( Market Wire, 2009).

Much as interactive media technologies facilitate new forms of collaboration and communication, including the enhanced ability to access and share information rapidly at a distance, they also represent the next stage of colonization of social life by commerce and marketing.

As internet –based services compatible with mobile technology, social media also benefi t from special versatility, meaning that opportunities for surveillance multiply. Research question a. What are the stages of surveillance? b. What are surveillance technologies? c. What is the linkage between surveillance, exposure and privacy? Hypotheses:

Social media surveillance has a negative co-relation with privacy and exposure of social media users.

The above research questions were meant to inform social media users about the surveillance process, surveillance technologies about which they may not be aware, and the relationship between surveillance, self-exposure as well as privacy. Stages of surveillance

The surveillance society is made up of various processes, whereby by surveillance that was formerly conducted on the “suspect” and “ deviant”, has now been extended to the entire population world-wide, as explained below. Social sorting

Social media surveillance potentially sorts its users by basis of their economic value, and may do so on the basis of unregulated transmission data, as well as the billing data protection under data protection legislation. Categorization

This involves sorting social media users into categories, and then ranks’ ordering within and between those categories. According to the state, citizenship and surveillance belong together in the modern world.

135 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Social media users’ profi les enable companies to target their marketing to a narrower band of consumers, thereby decreasing marketing costs, and increasing response rates. This is much cheaper than mass marketing channels of television, radio, and print marketing. While largely intentional, sometimes surveillance is conducted unintentionally, under the intention of a swift fl ow of information, goods and people.

It is worth noting that direct privatization can lead to increased surveillance. A case in point is the telecommunications sector in which the diversifi cation and convergence of both technologies and functionalities in telecommunications, as well as the diversifi cation of telecommunications markets, have greatly extended surveillance. The trend is therefore for a multiplicity of surveillance agencies and agents (like social media sites’ operators) with their own databases, becoming increasingly subject to commercial pressures to purchase and sell valuable information, as well as to succumb to state desires to accumulate information for anti- terrorist; anti-fraud; and law enforcement purposes. Surveillance technologies

These networks provide a crucial source to the state or ruling power for the control and surveillance of Internet medium (which is indeed a database as a whole). Disclosures of Edward Snowden who used to be a former agent of America’s NSA (National Security Agency) have played a prominent role in Face book and Twitter becoming important data sources within a global context, stemming from the fact that these media’s frequent usage in our country, and Snowden’s confessions become more of an issue in our contemporary world, where the USA is called the “big brother.”

The NSA (National Security Agency) is an intelligence and counter intelligence unit established by the USA for the purposes of global surveillance, data collection, decoding, translation, analysis of information and data. Snowden’s exposition of “Prism” global surveillance system of the NSA and claims about global surveillance through this system in addition to social networks such as Twitter and Face book providing data to NSA have all caused wider controversy regarding the issue.

So, “meaningful relation” between social sharing networks and surveillance has been revealed. Snowden’s recent disclosures have added to the impact of data provision through social networks and enabled a more clear sight of the contemporary situation in surveillance today.

According to the secret documents revealed by Snowden, NSA has set up a Google-like system in order to trace cell phone location information, internet communication logs as well as phone records and electronic mail messaging information that belongs to millions of people. It is claimed that this system named as ICReach has been developed by American intelligence. The system, which can be accessed by the FBI and CIA, is designed to enable searching data and communication logs of foreigners and ordinary American citizens with no criminal record at all. (http://www.sabah.com.tr/Dunya/2014/08/28/abdnin-gizli-googlei).

This new “intelligence pool” developed by the USA, makes it easier to reinterpret future provisions and scenarios of individuals ,in addition to keeping current surveillance intact.

136 Hawa Kasule

ICReach will enable collection of information ranging from religious beliefs to political ideologies, facilitating prediction of forthcoming actions of individuals within the context of such collected information.

All this progress shows that there is a new individual who prefers to be known instead of remaining anonymous; being visible instead of invisible; being aware of surveillance and not being disturbed by this fact; what is more enjoying it by becoming an object of Face book and Twitter. This perception of an individual who willingly exposes himself or herself, rewarding the power by providing all kinds of information to its “database”, while not even being defi nitely suspicious about the potential harm that all this might cause, has resulted in a power which does not even invest more in surveillance and control, and this transformation is still in progress.

Among the social media tools used for analyzing business trends such as consumer data are SocioBro on Twitter which monetizes the followings of businesses on Twitter; Tweetdeckwhich enables users to monitor activities across several accounts on Twitter; Social Rank which ranks a business’s best followers, most engaged and most valuable; Tweriod which measures the effectiveness of posts according to levels of engagement, detailing hours and days when engagement is at its peak; Need Tagger which pinpoints Twitter users that are searching for a product or service; LikeAlyzer on Face book which analyses Face book pages while highlighting areas for improvement and can therefore enable businesses to see how they compare to similar brands and other businesses’ standards; Wolfram Alpha Face book report which is incredibly detailed including a relationship status graph and is mainly useful to those who run their businesses through their profi les; Agorapulse which focuses on Customer Relationship Management( CRM) by building profi les of fans based on their interactions on the page. Build Fire which interacts with all platforms; as well as PageModo. All these social media business surveillance tools are paid for on a monthly basis by Social media business owner users.(The Entrepreneur Face book page).These tools play a big role as far as surveillance on social media is concerned, of which many social media users are unaware. The linkage between surveillance, self-exposure and privacy

Privacy

As Lyon also states, blurring down of lines between private and public space is related to the improvement of our contemporary surveillance technology. While technology is causing a restructuring within the realms of public and private spaces, “the body” presents itself as the most-infl uenced one, degraded to a new form of incarnation made concrete by numbers, letters, symbols and codes (such as mobile phone numbers, IP or e-mail addresses) instead of a physical entity, and this results in the physical “disappearance” of the body. Therefore, privacy becomes “a new space of imprisonment” under the vice of authority. Many technology users however are unaware of this constraint.

The intense monitoring of cyberspace by private corporations seeking information on consumer behavior, is worthy of critique.( Brown 2006,p10).In web 2.0 ,the users are producers of information, but this creative communication activity enables the controllers of disciplinary power to closely gain insight into the lives , secrets, and consumption preferences of users. For

137 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies example, last year, Face book disabled the possibility of people not seeing your name during searches and it is increasingly exhausting privacy violation avenues, whereby the only way to prevent a person from your profi les, is to block them.

Exposure

Being a part of that social network is realized through not hiding one’s self, but directly “exposing” it. The individual realizes himself by “dissolving” in and mixing with these virtual communities; so he is confused about when he becomes the subject or object of surveillance. This surveillance that the individual is also aware of is progressive with all its speed and impact on social networks too; however causing a dilemma, the individual does not see harm in “exposing” himself by overarching “self expression” (and even pushing the limits of own privacy) just to be present there.

Haggerty (2006, p.175) alleges that reading weblogs is a form of surveillance that allows for analyses and images of otherwise unknown individuals in an entertaining way. That is to say, democratic surveillance is enhanced by social media and a virtual archiving of documentary traces of the “powerful” is enabled. This is true, since bloggers freely express themselves on ordinarily contentious issues like politics. It is worth noting that while bloggers freely express themselves, they also contribute to surveillance whereby details about them are archived for future use when the need arises, without their knowledge.

The danger of surveillance society lies in the fact that there is more to it than just a series of activities connected to a political-administrative force. So, a sociological perspective aimed at complete control of private living spaces has come along with the transformation of the Internet and information technologies into a form of cyber-space (Aslan, 2011p. 94-95).

It therefore involves the society’s simultaneous transformation into an observer/observed position. Methodology

The literature was selected based on validity and reliability in relation to the research questions. This was very helpful in answering the research questions.

The available literature was analyzed using the content analysis method which was not very appropriate, since the material was holistic and non step-by-step, and ongoing by the researcher.

There was no chance to include variables, since working with them would be highly restrictive. Observations, Discussions, Validation

From the content analysis of the limited available literature about social media surveillance, it was observed that Social media surveillance is both empowering and exploitative from the angles of privacy; exposure as elaborated below.

138 Hawa Kasule

A key aspect of privacy is the maintenance of anonymity of individuals, especially in the urban areas. On a positive note, surveillance while violating the anonymity principle can help to create many new services and a speeded-up urban lifestyle backed by individually tailored services, continuous electronic and physical interaction, an always digital-reliant economy and the transcendence of many of the time and space barriers that traditionally inhibited urban life. On the other hand though, the anonymity enjoyed by the individual in small communities, is jeopardized by pervasive surveillance, especially via social media .Through anonymity, the individual has ownership over his or her actions, and relationships.

In addition, the ideals of modernity such as freedom of ownership result in income and wealth inequality; poverty; unemployment as well as precarious living and working conditions.These socio-economic differences create problems for the maintenance of order and private ownership, such as crime, political protests and violent confl icts to mention but a few, that must be contained for modernity to survive. From this point of view, surveillance is a necessary component of modern societies. To elaborate on this further, the establishment of trust, socio-economic differences and corporate interests, are three qualities of modernity that necessitate surveillance. Hence, modernity on one hand advances the ideal of the right to privacy, but at the same time it must continuously advance surveillance that threatens to undermine privacy rights.

Some people are heavily using social networking sites and are willing to take the risk of increased surveillance, despite their awareness of surveillance and privacy risks. Therefore, in this case the potential advantages seem to outweigh the potential disadvantages. For example, for the young generation, it is not an option not to use social media platforms because they consider the communicative and social opportunities associated with social media as very important. At the same time, such users are very conscious of the disadvantages and risks. They seem to fear that they will miss social contacts or otherwise be at a disadvantage if they do not use platforms like StudiVZ, Face book or MySpace and many others. To them not participating in social media, equals to missing out on an increasingly important communication trend in today’s world. This seemingly controversial adherence to social media, is attributed to the fact that alternative social networking platforms that are non-commercial and non-profi t oriented without an interest in economic surveillance, and which see privacy as a fundamental right that needs to be well-protected under all circumstances, are hardly available or hardly known.

Put differently, capitalist business interests and the unequal distribution of assets that is characteristic of the capitalist economy, result in the domination of markets by a handful of powerful corporations that provide services and that make infl uence by non-commercial, non- profi t operators diffi cult.

Albrechtslund discusses about participatory surveillance when he alleges that the practice of on-line social networking can be envisaged as empowering since it involves voluntarily engaging with others and constructing identities, hence being regarded as participatory. This is not all though , since participating in online social networking involves the act of sharing yourself( in terms of your constructed identity with others).In this case therefore, participatory surveillance is a means of maintaining friendships by checking on information shared by other people. In modernity via social media, strangers enter social relations that require trust or

139 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies enabling exchange. Whether a stranger can be trusted is checked with the help of surveillance procedures. Friend requests and suggested sites’ verifi cation on Face book are a good example.

Mere access to interactive platforms does not amount to shared control. In other words, produsage/prosumer commodity does not signify a democratization of the social media toward a participatory /democratic system, but the total commodifi cation of human activity. For example, according to the Entrepreneur page on Face book this year, Face book revealed its secret study of 689,000 users who did not give their consent. Face book harvested users’ News Feed interactions to develop a detailed report on “emotional contagion,” the ability to manipulate a person’s emotions through Face book. This is just one example of Face book’s unethical use of the public’s information, and entrepreneurs who need to protect their intellectual property are not safe on this platform.

Some surveillance is user-generated (self-generated) and therefore there seems to be a blurred line between online producers and consumers due to the emergence of user-generated content. There is an element of social media users› exploitation, since such users are not paid for the value creation they engage in when using commercial web 2.0 platforms and uploading data.

Self-surveillance also helps in regaining the physically lost inter-personal contacts in form of virtual interpersonal contacts for example, after relocations, school completion and other modifi cations in people›s lives. It therefore enhances social relationship management. The other side of this kind of surveillance from a negative perspective is that it leads to a lot of time wastage as people spend time perusing through other people›s profi les, as well as photographs. For example, if an individual spends an hour a day during week days on Face book, an additional two hours on Saturday and Sunday that would equate to about 10 hours a week, which would constitute a big waste of a valuable asset of one›s life-time.

In the same vein, Manuel Castells (2009) refers to web 2.0 communication as mass self- communication, since it can reach a global audience just like a YouTube video, a blog or a message to a massive e-mail list. He also refers to it as self-communication on the other hand, since the message is self-generated and the potential receiver self-directed. Many times social media users choose the audience of their message, by way of the «private» and «public» category.

Self-exposure by social media users has enhanced the ease with which surveillance can be performed, due to the new forms of visibility and transparency enabled by such media. A very good example is the time and place indicator when one posts a message on Face book. For example next to the posted message, something like»2hrs ago, Istanbul-Turkey» will appear if the message is posted by a Face book user who is located in Istanbul. This instills some bit of trust among the users of such a platform.

Surveillance from the exposure point of view makes the commodifi cation of audience participation on social media much easier to achieve than with other mass media, since detailed user profi les and knowledge about personal interests and on-line behavior of users can be attained. For example on Face book bio-data; employment information; relationship information; place of residence; home town birthday; likes;email addresses; mobile phone numbers; to mention but a few is among the information required while registering for a Face book account.

140 Hawa Kasule

In addition, exposure in the form of surveillance enables advertising to become more effective since it is able to predict human behavior with a high degree of reliability, hence managing the populace more effi ciently. For example according to (StarTribune.com, 2009), by analyzing or mining large amounts of data, companies can determine customers who are most likely to buy a product, pay their bills on time, or respond to a marketing campaign. Consequently, the more data that are gathered and the more powerful the statistical tools that are applied to that information, the more accurate the results.

The step we take by connecting to the Internet, becoming a member of a social network, buying a mobile phone line, creating an e-mail account, will be watched and surveilled from that moment onwards second by second. “Digital information” based on zeros and ones in different combinations, makes it easier to trace each player included in these social networks. Every player who enters this game (whether knowingly or unknowingly) and believes to be a subject of surveillance would not be able to escape becoming the object of surveillance inside this network structure.

This situation is not only valid for the common citizen; political fi gures of the powers ruling countries, either “visible” or “invisible”, cannot escape the surveillance of those powers controlling the fl ow of information and communication. “Facts” revealed could only show the tip of the iceberg while the truth is kept hidden underneath the surface. However, this will not suffi ce for the observer to remain immune and out of the system. Once information is “digitized”, the preservation of it will not be such an easy task. This information, which is perceived to be well preserved, can change hands unexpectedly and there are examples of such a situation.

Cannons and guns still matter for possessing power; but “the war” is now about having information, possessing digital information through “the surveillance”. “The power” which can develop the best “surveillance” and occupies the targeted “information” as well as preserving it, is going to be the “winner” of the war and “absolute owner” of the power as well.

Contrary to the assumption of the hypothesis, it was found out that social media surveillance is both positively and negatively co-related to privacy and exposure. Conclusions

This article has explained the surveillance process, surveillance technologies, as well as the relationship between surveillance, privacy and exposure.

Surveillance over social media is a very controversial issue as elaborated above. Any meaningful debate on surveillance society, will depend on the public having at least some knowledge of what information is held about them, where it goes, what is done with it and why. It will also depend on what can be done to regulate the excesses of surveillance and by whom.

141 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

Recommendations

The concept of surveillance and its transformation through the digital incarnation of the individual requires an examination with a greater scope and an interdisciplinary approach (which includes diverse disciplines of social sciences like sociology, political sciences, social psychology, anthropology and even history and philosophy) to be evaluated.

The following areas of research can be helpful in drawing a “road map” for future social media surveillance practices. a) The compatibility between level of disclosure, collection and use of personal information with democratic values. b) Types of control that should be placed on the use of personal information. References Albrechtslund,A. (2008 ).Online social networking as participatory surveillance.First Monday 13(3). Arvidson,A. (2005).Brands: a critical perspective. Journal of Consumer Culture 5(2):235-258. Aslan,C. ( 2011).MedyadaMahremiyet, OlgusuveTransparanBirYaşamdan Parçalar Brown,F. (2006). Rethinking the role of surveillance studies in the critical political economy of communication.IAMCRprize in Memory of Dallas W. Smythe. Castells,M. (2009).Communication Power. Oxford University Press. Haggerty,K.,and Richard, E. (2000).The surveillant assemblage.British Journal of Sociology 51( 4):605-622. Lyon,D. (1994).The electronic eye. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Market Wire (2009).Appirio referral management solution connects social networks with applications to encourage, manage and measure word-of-mouth referrals.February 2. StarTribune.com (2009). Predictive analytics: What is it? October 11. The Entreprenuer Facebook page, 6 Reasons to Delete Your Face book Account Right Now, as accessed on 12, November, 2014. The Entreprenuer Facebook,Marketing Expert: The Best Tools for Understanding Your Social-Media Accounts, as accessed on 19, November, 2014.

142 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma

Can Social Media Enhance Service Delivery? Lessons and Best Practices

Flavia Kyeyago Ouma Uganda Bureau of Statistics Abstract

Governments are increasingly leveraging social media to deliver better services to the public. These networks are useful for government organizations since they have many interactive and innovative features which aid communication and interaction among citizens and enable them to interact and collaborate with government in the delivery of public services. This exploratory study examines the use of social media and its potential in enhancing public service delivery. The paper discusses the drivers to the use of social media in government, the benefi ts and lessons learned, and the best practices of managing social media for service delivery. It focuses on the use of social media in two case studies: the UK Metropolitan Police and Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). We fi nd that social media has enabled citizen participation, increased transparency, collaboration and improved accountability in service delivery.

Keywords: Social Media, Government, Drivers, Benefi ts, Service Delivery; Face book Introduction

New social networking and social media technologies are widely believed to offer business and government organizations a powerful means to improve their communications, processes and, ultimately, performance. According to the UN E-government Survey Report (UN, 2012) there has been a drastic rise of social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Micro Blog etc.), which continues to grow rapidly, including through the use of mobile technology. The use of social media globally has grown, with over 975 million users of Facebook, of who Africa accounts for over 50 million (Internet World Stats, 2012). In Africa, Egypt has the largest number of Facebook users (13 million), while in East Africa, Kenya has the largest number of users (1.8 million) (Facebook, 2014). Increasingly in Uganda today, many youths and the working age group are involved in using the social media, and statistics records have 584,000 monthly users (MTN, 2013). A number of government organizations in Uganda are now using social media to deliver their services to the public. The most prominent corporate users include Uganda Revenue Authority (URA), Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS), Kampala City Authority (KCCA), Ministry of Information and Guidance (MIG), National Information Technology Authority (NITA-U). All these have Facebook accounts through which they are reaching out to the public with their different services (Facebook, 2014). Problem statement

Globally, governments are turning attention and resources to using the social media for improving public service delivery. As a result, government services are revolutionizing the way they relate with the public. In this new age, good government is accessible government which correlates to immediate access to pertinent information (Capek & Ritschelova, 2006). Social media has been highlighted as a good example of open government, which builds on

143 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies principles of citizen centrality and information transparency (UN, 2012). The use of social media has caused changes in the way organizations communicate with their employees, customers, stockholders, communities, governments and other stakeholders (Wright & Hinson, 2008). This means that social media could have an impact on the delivery of services by organizations. Government organizations are all trying to interact with the public through several social media tools seeking for support and opinions about various government initiatives with an aim of improving service delivery. The effective use of social media seems to show promise to improve the delivery of public services. However, it is still not clear how the social media can be used to improve the delivery of the services the organizations offer to the public. There is limited research done which focuses on how social media enhances service delivery. The importance of the use of social media in government agencies is emphasized by the Obama administration that strongly encourages governments to use social media to provide information, communicate with members of the public, and distribute services (Jaeger, Paquette & Simmons, 2010). This paper explores the impact of social media on service delivery in government while examining the driving factors for using social media; the benefi ts and lessons learnt; and shares best practices of using social media to enhance service delivery. Section two presents the problem statement and objectives of the study, section three presents related literature and conceptualization, section four presents methodology, while section fi ve presents the analysis. Section six presents the discussions on contributions of social media to service delivery in the government sector and limitations of the research methodology and section seven presents the conclusions and recommendations. The objectives of the study were: i. To examine the drivers for using social media to enhance service delivery. ii. To establish the benefi ts for using social media for service delivery. iii. To establish the lessons and best practices in social media use to enhance service delivery. To realize these objectives, the following research questions guided the study: i. What are the drivers for using social media to enhance service delivery? ii. What are the benefi ts of using social media for service delivery? iii. What are the lessons and best practices for using social media to enhance service delivery Literature Review

In this section of the paper, I review literature on social media, relevant theories about social media, social media and service delivery, Social media use in government on a global context, drivers, benefi ts, and the conceptual framework. According to Serrat (2010), social media refers to online technologies and practices that users (including citizens) leverage to share concepts, experiences, insights, opinions as perspectives in social interface. Social media has a particularly appealing potential for e-participation. Bertot, Jaeger, Munson and Glaisyer, (2010) state that social media has four major potential strengths, i.e.: collaboration, participation, empowerment and

144 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma time. Social media is collaborative and participatory by its very nature as it is defi ned by social interaction. It allows anyone with access to internet the ability to inexpensively publish or broadcast information, effectively democratizing media. Social media consist of any online platform or channel for user-generated content and these are called social technologies like YouTube, Facebook and Twitter. This paper focuses on Facebook and Twitter. These have been experimented in government service delivery processes. Relevant theories related to Social media

This section reviews some theoretical frameworks that may be applicable to the study and understanding of social media. These two explained here below might contribute to our understanding of the nature of social media, why people contribute or use social media, how they form relationships, and how one can discover the opinion leaders and valuable social media content. Social Exchange Theory

Social media is dependent on users providing content this may give an understanding in the motives of why individuals participate in the social media exchanges. The Social exchange theory from sociology explores exchange between individuals or small groups (Emerson, 1976). The theory mainly uses cost-benefi t analysis and comparison of alternatives to explain how human beings communicate with each other, and how communities are formed through communication exchanges (Homans, 1958). The theory explains that individuals engage in behaviors they fi nd rewarding and avoid behaviors that have too high a cost. In other words, all social behavior is based on ones assessment of the cost-benefi t of contributing to a social exchange. In the public service context, the citizen communicates about a government service at a low cost expecting feedback in the shortest time in anticipation for improved service delivery hoping their voices will be heard. Social Media Integration theory model

The Social Media integration theory (Isra, 2010) explains that social media is an interactive process that enables same-level information exchange among the audience and the brand, creating a long-lasting feedback communication process and giving to the brand a total engagement approach. The theory was tested for media channels that included social media like Facebook and twitter. The fi ndings by Isra (2010) revealed that exposure, feedback, engagement (connecting) and exchange (sharing) through Social Media platforms are some of the factors that drive organizations into social media participation. The theory further clarifi es that all content is an active eco-system that allows social media interaction such as Twitter or Facebook. This content is then shared and spread virally through the connections made from interaction on the social media eco-system. This social media platform allows the interaction and the ability for the model to fl ow and become organic. Then, the social networking platforms enable the connection with the public through the engagement approach caused by the “two- way street” interaction process, linked to the social bookmarking sharing perspective. At the same time, while the driving forces of one side are acting and creating communication, the driving forces of the other side, such as social recommendation/reviews, measure the impact

145 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies of the information and turn it into a valuable feedback experience that can deliver the most effective exposure impact (giving feedback, engaging and sharing information all at once). This theory provides some feelers that can help measure the impact of social media on service delivery. Literature review on social media does not provide much on models that have been constructed before. This paper therefore constructs a conceptual model that embraces, driving factors of social media in government and benefi ts of social media translated into aspects of service delivery that include engagement, accountability, transparency, collaboration and participation. The framework (Figure 1) encompasses some of the factors believed to contribute to improved service delivery. Driving factors are those that push organizations to use social media and these include innovation, feedback, leverage technology, visibility, fast turnaround time leading to quicker feedback and increased open government.

Driving factors Enhance Service Delivery

- Increase - Open Collaboration government Benefits - Increase - Innovation Use Social Media translated into Engagement - Feedback - Increase - Leverage Participation technology - Increase - Visibility transparency - Experimentation - Increase - Fast turnaround awareness time - Reduced costs

Figure 1: Conceptual Model: Drivers for using Social Media this study

Social media and Service delivery

Public agencies are slowly moving from simple online integration of their services to expanding communication with residents via Internet. Academics have described this shift as a move from e-Government to Government 2.0 (Mergel, 2012). E-Government is defi ned as government activities that take place over electronic communications including: acquiring and providing products and services, placing and receiving orders, providing and obtaining information, and completing fi nancial transactions (Fang, 2002). The shift from e-Government to Government 2.0 correlates with the Obama Administration’s Open Government Initiative, which is guided by the three principles of transparency, participation, and collaboration (Orszag, 2009). These three correlate with service delivery and improving government use of technology in general. This initiative has challenged government agencies to use social media as appropriate. The shift to e-government has expanded communication methods and the groups that communicate through the usage of new social technologies. The use of social media is increasing and it is

146 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma argued by some authors that it is a new step in the development of increasing use of Internet for improving service delivery (Constantinides & Fountain, 2008). Hence, social media will become a more interesting subject for the improvement of service delivery.

Service delivery is defi ned as a continuous cyclic process for developing and delivering user-focused services (WMO, 2014). In an OECD, Report 1987) it is suggested that the key components of responsive service delivery are transparency; participation; satisfying user requirements; and accessibility. In another OECD (1996) report, the importance of openness and accountability on behalf of the service providers is articulated as an important feature. Therefore, measurement of service delivery can be determined using the quality of program service delivery, level of participation and engagement, level of transparency, participation and collaboration (Orszag, 2009). These aspects are some of the ways through which the extent of service delivery can be measured in e-government. This paper combines both e-government and service delivery aspects that focus on participation, engagement, collaboration and transparency. Social media use in government on a global context

There are a number of governments using social media in their organizations. In Australia a cross-agency collaboration platform called GovDex was developed in 2006 and reached 20,000 users in 2011 (GovDex, 2010). The initiative was designed to facilitate business process collaboration across policy portfolios, administrative jurisdictions and agencies. The service is designed to promote effective and effi cient information sharing, providing governance, tools, methods and re-usable technical components across Australian government cross- agency. United Kingdom uses a social media platform called Yammer which is open source for internal sharing of info and collaboration between employees and external stakeholders. In addition, they have realized more gains via the social media as it has unleashed productive gains in public procurement of IT services through the Github an open source collaboration platform (Yammer, 2015). In Africa, Zimbabwe is already using twitter through their @263 chat created in 2012 to generate dialogue about issues concerning their country and this has provided the citizens with an opportunity to interact with government (263 Chat, 2015). In South Africa, through the city Tshwane, a page was created to engage the citizens as agents of change to report on service interruption such as water and power outages and announcing new developments, information on events, traffi c and emergency-related information, and receiving and escalating customer complaints (Tshwane, 2015). Drivers for using Social media in government

Social media is becoming the primary source of news for many governments. Various scholars have discussed various reasons for using social media. These vary based on the objectives of each government institution and the different services each public institution provides (Martinez, 2009; Evans & McKee, 2010; Bertot et al., 2012). These scholars have argued that social media puts the consumer in charge, giving every user the opportunity to voice their opinions and views. This means that organizations can no longer control consumers by sending them a one-way message. Government institutions are advocating for the use of social media so that citizens can openly discuss services provided by the government (Evans & McKee,

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2010). It is important that government organizations encourage their customers (public) to leave review messages on their online social media tools as this would provide an opportunity for open governance where the citizen can openly contribute about the implementation of a particular service.

Governments are using social media because it is ubiquitous, it allows for widespread blogging, social networks, video sharing sites, and opportunities to comment on and rate online content helping governments spread information very fast (Martinez, 2009).The use of social media is seen as relevant for government to share timely information with people who need it and allow for fast response time and faster feedback (Fang, 2002; Martinez, 2009). It has also been the power of personal connections as this is a way people are more compelled to act on information that is transmitted through personal ties. Scholars have eminently discussed that social media tools are used so as to engage citizens to improve government and service delivery. Social media allows people to engage, to provide input for improving government services, and be part of the democratic process. Using social media to leverage technologies for better and quicker services is common amongst most government entities as it allows them to own competitive ideas and inventions to harness, thus encouraging innovation (Martine, 2009; Fang, 2002; Mergel, 2013).

From the literature above, it is observed that there are gaps on what specifi c drivers push government agencies to use social media to improve service delivery. Literature does not discuss much on open government as a major driver yet it is the major contributor to improvement of service delivery. Benefi ts for using Social media for Service Delivery

Public sector organizations can benefi t from social media for many reasons. However, measurement of these benefi ts is perceived differently by each sector. Social media have been used to reach wide areas globally and at a low cost. In comparison to the traditional advertising, public sector organizations need to invest in promotion through social media channels which only requires time to keep a site running (Masterson & Tribby, 2008). Mergel (2013) explains that social media allow organizations to expand their reach and connect with the public who do not use traditional forms of communication as often, but spend a signifi cant amount of their time online. Therefore it is logical for governments to expand their online presence. In effect, the use of social media to communicate and advertise at low costs will lead to reduced administrative costs.

Transparency and accountability are benefi ts that the social media provides because the setting offers government an avenue to share important information with individuals (Mergel, 2010). The Kublai initiative in Italy has shown success in allowing creative young citizens to participate online in economic development projects to improve their communities. In so doing the site promotes openness and transparency, while providing coaching and mentoring to its participants (Biachi & Cottica, 2010).

One of social media’s biggest breakthroughs is that it has provided governments the opportunities to inform, consult, involve, collaborate with and empower residents. This whole procedure has been defi ned as Participation 2.0 by Mergel (2012). Through public sector social

148 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma media public comments, opinions and polling, results can be obtained and shared. Scholars Newsom and Dicky (2013) believe that with further innovation, government IT professionals could use technology to connect to citizens for consensus building. It is important to realize that much as technology offers public organizations the ability to advance many of these initiatives, they are still limited to using social media for information sharing (Ouma, 2013).

Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) argue that social media offer organizations a great opportunity to reach out and talk to their current and potential customers who increasingly expect to fi nd their brands online (O’Connor, 2010). Additionally, Aggarwal (2010) discusses that participating in several social media channels can help organizations increase their visibility while increasing awareness of the public services they provide or about to be implemented for decision making.

Literature summary shows that there are different approaches to making social media very effective in public sector organizations. However, the literature used is still scanty with no concrete evidence to explain more on the use of social media and how it can enhance service delivery in the government sector. This has been confi rmed by Hardy (2006) that the web has evolved considerably from a read-only technology to an interactive and participatory platform that allows users to create and share information. This study is to fi nd out the usefulness of linking social media to improving service delivery. Methodology

To test the research model for this study, a case study research design was used. This qualitative multiple case study is a research approach that facilitates exploration of a phenomenon within its context using a variety of data sources. A case study-based research approach was conducted using the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) in the UK and UBOS (Uganda) experience as representative case studies (Yin, 1994). Data was collected from the MPS and UBOS to explore the use of social media through literature review. A comparative analysis of both case studies was done using literature review to look at the driving factors for using social media, benefi ts, lessons and best practices. The case studies helped the author to have a true picture of social media in both the local and international context where it has been very successful. Analysis

Case Study I - UK’s Metropolitan Police

The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) is the UK’s largest and most infl uential police force, which covers a population of 7.2 million. In 2011, rioting broke out in London lasting four days and costing £200m in clean-up and policing. Lack of community engagement and social media were found to be contributing to the spread of information among rioters. In 2012 the MPS oversaw three events (London Olympics and Paralympics Games, The Diamond Jubilee and Notting Hill Carnival) which required an unprecedented level of policing. To do this, the Police needed to identify and engage with new, community infl uencers and have more of a proactive approach in order to fi lter social media channels. The organization engaged HP, a long-term IT infrastructure supplier, to create a three-months’ (July – September 2012) trial to help understand and utilize better social media analysis (SMA) for community engagement with lessons shared across the entire city. The solution covered a vast range of social media,

149 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies

(YouTube, Flickr, LinkedIn and Facebook). The trial helped MPS formulate a long-term strategy to social media and provided insight as to how social media could be used to advance community engagement, intelligence gathering and crime investigation (MPS, 2015). The main driving force for MPS to use social media was to innovate ways through which they would use the various social media channels they had to achieve enhanced business and operational outcomes. Benefi ts, lessons and best practices

The social media facility provided users with real-time understanding of what was capturing public attention, further providing MPS chance to track messages and review impact, to penetrate and identify responders. On average, there were 2,306,796 tweets a day with a peak of 3,291,998 (MPS, 2015). The social media solution resulted in more effective community engagement, earlier insight into relevant issues and more accurate analysis of social media sentiment. These insights have benefi tted Police operations, including intelligence and crime investigation. Specifi cally, the solution helped to identify potential incidents and links much more quickly and accurately, ensuring that appropriate operational response was provided to highly-sensitive community events, and speed up understanding and operational awareness. The process enabled the team to monitor sentiment, respond to messages on a wider national scale and has led to saving of resources in terms of scanning papers, Internet and other social media feeds. Along the implementation, it was important that a team of experts on social media analytics were hired to measure the social media metrics. To further build and establish social media in the institution, the organization developed long-term social media strategies and trained staff on the use of the solution, enabling more engagement by users.

Case Study II - Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UBOS is the offi cial statistical provider for Uganda. It is mandated to produce, coordinate and disseminate offi cial socio-economic statistics. Recently, the Government of Uganda, through UBOS, conducted the 2014 National Population and Housing Census (NPHC, 2014). In a bid to improve communication with the public, UBOS started to experiment with the use of social media accounts -- Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn-- about June 2012. The initiative was led by the Web Team within the Directorate of Information Technology in partnership with the Communication and Public Relations Division.

Driving forces and implementation

The main driving forces to use social media was to assert our social media presence, improve client satisfaction, provide opportunity to leverage new technologies, and share knowledge more broadly so as to improve the quality, effi ciency, and effectiveness of information and service delivery to the citizens. For quick and easy reference, the social media innovation was initially targeted specifi cally towards sensitization and advocacy of the 2012 National Population and Housing Census. The process provided an opportunity to pilot various strategies of sensitizing the citizens about the Census using both Facebook and twitter. The content uploaded mainly focused on Census activities that included live tweets of key points on census, daily updates to Facebook, myth busting of misinformation in the media and community at large, response to inquiries and calendar of events about the census. This experimentation

150 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma has led to improvements in the communications approach towards the various stakeholders (UBOS, 2015a). Measurement of interaction was done focusing on understanding how the end-user interacts with UBOS through the various social and web channels, and what the client accomplishes or achieves on a bi-weekly basis via mainly Facebook (UBOS, 2015b).

Benefi ts, lessons and best practices

The use of Facebook in UBOS has since led to increased engagement amongst its subscribers as seen by a greater following from 2,700 in September 2014 to 10,964 followers (UBOS, 2014b). This has also resulted in increased awareness and visibility of what UBOS does, compared to the past when UBOS was mistaken for Uganda National Bureau of Standards. The UBOS top management team has increasingly demanded for more use of social media to better engage with the public and understand their needs. Much as it is diffi cult to measure cost savings with the use of the social media presence, the bureau has experienced some reduction in costs of information dissemination as it has enabled a wider coverage both locally and internationally through the online consultations via the social media pages (UBOS, 2015a). Usage of social media has been seen as an effective and effi cient channel for advertising and marketing the UBOS products, services and job adverts for recruitment. During the 2014 Census the social media page helped in clarifying on issues related to census activities, payments to the enumerators and recruitment procedures. The social media team broadcast the per diem rates on all the social media accounts and this aided in curbing corruption at the district level. Through the social media Census activity leaders were able to openly engage with citizens and this eased communication with the public and has since increased on the number of channels for sharing information and statistical data that are released in UBOS. During the implementation it was important to customize the use of social media to meet the needs of the organization and users

UBOS has since learned that openness and honesty are the best ways to keep satisfying social media followers and that since discussions may not be easily controlled to the confi nes of the organization’s core business, there is need to understand that some information from the users may position the organization negatively (UBOS, 2015a). As a best practice, social media has been integrated as a work process and a standard practice at UBOS with a new social media policy. The policy defi nes clear roles and responsibilities, and safe procedures for engaging in social media. The bureau has taken up the use of the Facebook insights and Google analytics tool to help measure the use of social media in improving information dissemination (UBOS, 2015a; UBOS, 2015b). UBOS staff have been introduced to the different social media tools through professional seminars (Ouma, 2015) and more statistical information is being posted monthly and is generating debate and more followers. Discussion

Driving Factors for using social media to enhance service delivery

The fi ndings show that both case studies started the social media project with the aim of asserting their social media presence, improve their communication, and improve service delivery and leverage new technology (MPS, 2015) by innovating the best way possible to use the social media. To examine the fi rst objective both case studies link the need for

151 The Ugandan Journal Of Management And Public Policy Studies experimentation with social media to innovation using the various platforms on how to engage the public suggesting ways of improvement in the implementation phases of both projects. By doing so there was increased feedback and more open participation (Mergel, 2012) by the citizens on how both projects had been implemented. It is true the use of social media caused fast turnaround in form of feedback from the public and this helped the implementers of the different services quickly innovate the best solutions that could make the organizations better. However both cases were not initially driven by open government much as it one of the most important factors driving use of social media in the developed e-government. (Mergel, 2012). Benefi ts of using Social media

The fi ndings reveal that both case studies obtained benefi ts in using the social media while implementing their different activities of crime prevention and census dissemination. To assess the second objective, both cases under study link openness and honesty to genuine satisfaction (MPS, 2015) of all the customers during online discussions and this is one way through which relationships have been fostered, thus increasing open participation and collaboration for better service delivery.

The results seem to provide answers to the best practices in implementing social media to enhance service delivery which responds to the second objective of the study. The dependent variable of enhancing service delivery is measured through the benefi ts of social media use in service delivery which were strongly demonstrated through the increase in the number of followers which resulted into increased engagement (Tswane, 2015; MPS, 2015) and participation (Aggarwal, 2010) of the followers with the different social media pages. There is evidence of increased sharing of information on a wider scale which indirectly contributes to reduced costs (UBOS, 2015a) in communication to various stakeholders; so social media is seen as an effective method of disseminating crucial information (UBOS, 2015a; MPS, 2015).

Increased transparency was observed as a result of broadcasting details of budget on all social media and was seen as a way of controlling corruption. On awareness and visibility, the fi ndings reveal that, in both cases (MPS, 2015; UBOS, 2015; Aggarwal, 2010) clarifi cation of issues was done through explanations on the social media platforms during the implementation of the projects leading to better understanding of activities done by the various organizations and leading to increased public awareness and visibility of both government organizations. Lessons and best practices in social media use to enhance service delivery

Metrics is one way through which evaluations on the use of social media for better service delivery can be made, and using analytics has helped highlight areas for improvement (MPS, 2015). The fi ndings further show that having champions in terms of staff and management is essential in promoting the use of social media in organizations. Additionally, having a budget (MPS, 2015) is important to cover the cost of staff who are on standby to respond to the queries on the social media for sustainability of the social media projects. Social media policies have also been seen as important mechanism that aid better integration of social media in the organizations. However, having this is not enough without proper integration of social media in the work processes, using a step-by-step strategy for better results and training for better inculcation (MPS, 2015). 152 Flavia Kyeyago Ouma

Contributions This research contributes to current research on social media use in government and how the media can be further deployed to enhance service delivery, while assisting government institutions in the development and assessment of social media services. The study also provides fi ndings that can be used as a checklist for planning and implementation of social media innovations in government. Policy Recommendations

As seen from the benefi ts gained by the case studies, future implementers of social media need to understand the different types of platforms available and how they can benefi t from them to the maximum. This will enable more engagement and infl uence on the possible potential these media these media have to engage and the public even more. Furthermore it is important that Government organizations develop social media policies to ensure good implementation and adherence. Institutions should consider designating staff to manage the social media to ensure sustainability of the tools. It is important that government agencies should prioritize and budget for social media initiatives in form of technologies, staff and information as major inputs to social media implementation. The future success of the social media implementation is very dependent on the establishment of good policies, strategies, good leadership, trust and good tools for measuring value addition. Conclusions

This paper has presented the experiences of two key public organizations in the UK and Uganda in applying social media for the enhancement of public participation in their core activities. From both experiences, social media can enhance service delivery by boosting the operational capacities and responsiveness of governments in ways that the traditional approaches have not been able to. The real time opportunity for participation and feedback of the social media provides government tools to pilot, experiment and redesign services before they are fully implemented. Additionally, social media provides a more effi cient channel to deliver public information, goods and services and can be used to identify new ways of collaboration in the creation and delivery of public goods and services. Social media presents opportunities of transformation service delivery through the open discussions; and help to understand and anticipate user needs at various stages in service design and delivery of services. Social media are seen to be additional service delivery channels which can bridge the gap of common digital divides. The relative ease of reaching out to individual users should help public service implementers segment populations to tailor services based on their individual needs and potentially reduce costs of service delivery. Limitations and future research

The study is limited to two study cases with differing government IT environments and infrastructure levels, so the results may not be generalized. Future research should look into deeper analysis of service delivery and how it is affected by social media application and deployment in the private sector. It would be good for researchers to look into how feedback obtained from the social media can be used to improve policy, decision making and service delivery implementation. Further more questions on what metric can be used to assess effectiveness of social media in service delivery.

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Uganda Management Institute

Open call for Papers The Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies

Full paper

We are pleased to invite you to submit your manuscripts to the Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies (UJMPPS). The Journal accepts manuscripts from subscribers throughout the year. It accepts original theoretical and empirical research articles, essays as well as reviewed articles and books related to management throughout the year. The article submitted should not have been submitted in any other journal. UJMPPS is a multidisciplinary internationally peer-reviewed journal publishing a wide range of articles in the fields of public administration and management, governance, leadership and public policy. UJMPPS is dedicated to increasing the depth of the subject across the Management Discipline. Thus the journal covers all management related subjects and welcomes submission of manuscripts that meets the general criteria of significance to management discipline and scientific excellence. The journal welcomes; x Original articles in basic and applied research x Case studies x Critical reviews, surveys, opinions, commentaries and essays The journal has a distinguished editorial advisory board with extensive international scholarship and this ensures that the journal maintains high scientific standards and has a broad international coverage. A current list of the editorial advisory board and journal's editors can be found at www.umi.ac.ug. We invite you to submit your manuscript (s) to: [email protected]; and or [email protected] for publication. If for any reason submission through the above addresses is not possible send your submission to the Chief Editor – Proscovia Namubiru, PhD, [email protected] and or to the Managing Editor-Rose B. Namara, PhD, [email protected] as an MS-Word file attachment. Once a manuscript has been received, it will undergo a rigorous peer-reviewing process before acceptance. Normally a paper will normally be referred back to the author with reviewer’s comments before a final issue is submitted. Once fully accepted, the paper will be published in the next issue. Any article submitted should meet the UJMPPS guidelines. The Editors reserve the right to reject any submitted article which does not conform to the guidelines. Copyright Assignment: All articles should be accompanied by a covering letter in which the author(s) state(s) that the article has not been submitted or will not be submitted, or published or is not being considered for publication elsewhere in any form. Papers will not be passed to the publisher for dti l ihthb i d

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Manuscript submission Guidelines

Manuscript Specifications

Length and layout of the article x Articles should be within the range of about 3,500 to 4,000 words excluding references. Articles should include an abstract of 100-200 words. The article should not exceed 20 pages x Notes or book reviews are expected to be shorter than this, i.e. 1500 to 3000 wards. x Titles of articles should be brief, attractive and accurate in describing what the paper is about. x Headings and sub-headings within the text should be short and clear. Avoid too many levels of sub-heading, only three levels are enough. x The articles should contain a relevant and suitable abstract in English of 150-200words x The article should be submitted ready for press-edited and carefully proofread. Readability, fluency of style and clarity of exposition are essential x Submissions with tables, figures, appendices etc. should contain a shorter text often they are taken into consideration when determining the length of the paper. Notes and sources should be placed under each table/figure. x Number all tables, figures (or similar items) following the official referencing guidelines. Be sure to use a uniform/consistent approach for citing such items and for presenting their captions. x Key words should be provided at the end of the abstract x Foot notes and end notes are note encouraged, can only be used where it is very necessary Composition of the article x Introduction –stating the context, what is already known, the gap to be filled and how the article will fill this gap? This provides rationale for the article x Literature-practical, procedural, theoretical information, the reader need to read and appreciate the study. Details of what is already known and concluded in relation to the knowledge gap and summary of existing contribution x Methodology or research process-describing how the study was conducted x Findings-surprises and non-surprises either from secondary or primary data sources x Discussion –highlighting findings, engaging other scholars, explaining the differences or similarities and the likely implication to this specific case and wider management literature x Conclusion –should be appropriate to the article and in line with the research question x Reference

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Writing Style x For the main text, use Times New Roman, 12 point, 1.5 line spacing. x Use single quotation marks. For quotations within quotations, use double marks. Indent quotations of more than 40 words, without quotation marks. For quotations from other publications, always provide page number(s) for the quotation, however short. x When using an acronym for the first time, the full name should be provided (with the acronym in parentheses). x In the text, spell out numbers from one to ninety-nine, use numerals for 100 and over (but when they appear in one phrase, use all numerals, e.g. 'between 85 and 110 …'). x Spell out 'per cent' (not 'percent') in the text. The symbol % is acceptable in tables.

References The Ugandan Journal of Management and Public Policy Studies use the American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines. A brief explanation; In text referencing x Citations in the text usually consist of the name of the author(s), the date of publication and page number if using a direct quotation. x With quotations of less than 40 words are set out within the body of the text, enclosed with double quotation marks “ ”. Quotations of more than 40 words should be set out in a block, commenced on a new line and indented 5 spaces from the left hand margin. Quotation marks are not used. x Page numbers are not included when you summarize or paraphrase someone’s work. Reference List The reference list at the end of the work contains the author’s surname and initials, title and publication details. These include the edition, place and date of publication. For electronic resources, this can include website addresses, and the date the material was retrieved. The reference list must be set out: • in alphabetical order using the surname of the author • if there is no author, use the title of the material • italics are to be used for book and journal titles, websites, and also the volume number of journals. The issue number is not written in italics. • lines following the first line of entry must be indented 5 spaces.

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