Come On England! How Globalization is Transforming Attendance Patterns in English Football Joshua A. Stein Faculty Advisor: A. Erinç Yeldan April 23, 2008 ***Submitted to the Department of Economics of Amherst College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Bachelor of Arts with Honors*** Abstract This thesis study suggests a relationship between the structural shift in the English economy of the late 1980’s and the early 1990’s and the demographic shift in attendees of English Premier League Football matches. This thesis’ methodology employs Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology to construct areas of fan support for each of the Premier League teams, building upon the research of Simmons (2006). This methodology offers an innovative way to calculate team support, using the most recent demographic data available. As a globalized economy redefines the football industry’s role, white-collar professionals are shown to be crowding out blue-collar workers at football stadiums. A second-order relationship is found between socio-economic classification and attendance. Income, distributive, and regional effects are explored, and, in the end, English Football is classified as a normal good, which stands in contrast with prior studies. Keywords: Sports Economics, English Football, Globalization, Attendance Patterns 2 Some well-deserved acknowledgments… I would first and foremost like to thank my parents, who continually reminded me that I did not have to complete this endeavor and who would have been proud of me either way. I hope to grow into the man who will continue to make them proud. I would like to thank my brother, Alex, for his always-timely advice and support and for his help with the Calculus. I am very lucky to have such a nice, understanding, and talented brother. I am deeply indebted to Professor Erinç Yeldan. It is because of him that I developed a love of Turkish football and finished this thesis study. Hasta Siempre La Fenerbahce! I would like to thank Professors Jessica Reyes and Frank Westhoff, who played invaluable roles during the conception and execution of this study. Their insight was incredible, but it was their kindness, loyalty, and perspective that made this project so valuable to my growth as an academic and as a person. I wish to express my gratitude to Andy Anderson. It was only through his patience with me while I floundered through the GIS software that I was able to extract such original data for the study. I would also like to thank my friends and roommates who always lent an ear. Yes, I realize that you probably didn’t actually listen to what I said. No, I did not honestly listen to what you said either. But during this lengthy and challenging project it was so important to have others around. Finally I would like to thank Jeanne Reinle. You made the sometimes- isolating experience of writing a thesis as painless as possible. I will miss your wit and humor. 3 A Short Prologue… On February 6, 1958, as Manchester United was returning home from a victorious European League clash against Red Star Belgrade, its plane crashed during a failed take- off attempt at a Munich airstrip. Eight Manchester United players and 15 journalists were killed in the accident. Fifty years later, football fans from across England still mourn the loss of this iconic bunch of English footballers. This February, large memorials were unveiled at Old Trafford, Manchester United’s home ground, and their arch-cross-town rivals, Manchester City, joined the team in commemorating those whose lives were lost before participating in a lively derby. The day was sobering yet celebratory: those assembled appeared satisfied with the modern club’s commemoration of its fallen icons. Yet just 10 miles to the north of the events at Old Trafford, FC United of Manchester was busy preparing at its ground, Gigg Lane, for its upcoming fixture against Skelmersdale United of the Northern Premier League. The impending game had important title implications for FC United, a club formed in the aftermath of the American Malcolm Glazier’s 2006 hostile takeover of the original United. Some Manchester United fans had become, as they described it, “disaffected and disenfranchised1” after the takeover and had thus started a club that embodied the traits that had attracted them to Manchester United in the first place. According to FC member Mark Cannon, “The general over-commercialization stole the soul of Manchester United, making it a very sterile [stadium]. You can’t really go in and enjoy yourself anymore or 1 According to the FC United of Manchester Official web site, http://www.fc-utd.co.uk/manifesto.php/ January 11, 2008 4 enjoy football.2” Cannon continues by arguing that FC United offers a chance to desterilize and decommercialize football by bringing it back to its roots. Back in ’58, Manchester United was a smaller, less prestigious club, and European football was a smaller, less profit-driven industry. There was no common stock available for an ageing Tampa businessman to purchase, and, if there had been, Glazier would have viewed such an acquisition as a poor investment. Football fans were blue-collared, and commercial ventures played negligible roles in investment decisions. Owners were traditionally lifelong supporters who had done well financially and wanted to give back to their community by supporting their team. Fans went to watch top-flight matches to support homegrown talent –those individuals whose skills on the ball kept them out of the same factories and mines their fans worked in. Fans were lively and boisterous. The atmospheres at stadiums across England were a far cry from the funeral3 experiences common today. So when the memorials were unveiled at Old Trafford, even those preparing at Gigg Lane could appreciate the inherent meaning in the commemorative sculptures: they recalled lives lived in a simpler time when glory was defined by a team’ on-field successes rather than by owners’ riches. The sculptures also recalled a fan base that loved football at its most basic level: a working class that venerated its everyday champions, the very fan base currently marginalized by today’s globalized football industry. 2 Fan Mark Cannon during an interview on a segment entitled “FC United of Manchester on FIFA Futbol Mondial, broadcasted on GOLTV, February 17, 2008. 3 Manchester United longtime manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, used this term to describe the fans at Old Trafford during a January 1, 2008 match-up with Birmingham City. United nearly lost valuable points on the league leaders at the time, Arsenal, with a lethargic display. Ferguson’s comments recalled those made about United’s bourgeois fans by former captain Roy Keane in 2000. Responding to a reporter’s question about fans’ apparent disinterest during a match, Keane had called United’s following the “Prawn Sandwich Brigade.” 5 I. Introduction Football is the pre-eminent entertainment industry in the world. Over 715 million individuals watched the 2006 World Cup final in Berlin, and millions more followed it through Internet, radio, and newspaper sources4. Over the past two decades the football industry has undergone numerous fundamental changes, both in the product it offers and the type of consumer it attracts. These changes are particularly apparent in England, where association football (soccer in the U.S.) was invented. Some of the best club teams in the world compete in England5, and the English Premier League, the nation’s top division, has one of the most international followings of all football leagues.6 It is therefore no coincidence that the English Premier League has experienced many of the fundamental changes replete throughout the industry. England –a socially liberal society with a resurgent market-based economy –reverberated with the impacts of the reinvigorated liberalism of the late 80’s and early 90’s. The Cold War ended, Thatcherism reignited the English economy, and England experienced a large demographic influx of immigrants. The Premier League itself was conceived in the early 90s by the nation’s leading clubs in order to profit from these changes. As such, the English football industry, and specifically the Premier League, serves as a case study of the effects of consumerism in a globalized society, where goods and individuals move freely across borders. 4 To place that number in context, the Super Bowl averages about 180 million viewers worldwide each year. 5 In 2007-2008, 3 of 4 semi-finalists in the pan-European Champions League tournament were English clubs. 6 The League recently passed a resolution to begin playing matches overseas beginning in 2012 to further consolidate its influence in lucrative foreign markets, including the U.S. 6 When Francis Fukuyama (1993) and Samuel Huntington (1989) penned their now famous, controversial, and competing essays on world political ideologies after the fall of the Berlin Wall, they were both reflecting on a new world order. Both argued, albeit in vastly different ways, that new, previously marginalized forces had replaced nationalistic sentiments in linking societies together. These forces had been repressed in the Cold War period, but were now beginning to impose themselves globally. One such force was an ever-expanding consumer culture, spawned from globalization7. Individuals started to define themselves by what they consumed and how their consumption mirrored or differed from their neighbors. With increased social and geographic mobility, individuals began to discover new ways to associate with and relate to others through their consumption patterns. This change was pervasive in English society. Englishmen from across the country began moving domestically to meet the structural challenges of a post- Fordist8, de-industrialized economy, and individuals from the rest of Europe and beyond started immigrating to the nation in search of better employment.