The Tajik Women's Experiences of Their Husband's Migration

CEU eTD Collection

The Impacts of Migration: The Tajik Women’s Tajik The Migration: of The Impacts Experiences of Their Husband’s Migration TheirHusband’s of Experiences In partialIn fulfilment for the degree Masterof Arts of in Gender Studies Supervisor: Professor Eva Fodor Department of Gender of Department Central European University Central European Sayyokhat Dushanbieva Budapest, Hungary Submitted to Submitted

2014 By

Studies

CEU eTD Collection migrationlength however, relationship; theemotional createhardship. can ofthe length of husbands return home causes whose level an inwomen’s ofautonomy, increase describe The interview Dushanbe. thedurationwomeneducation, and ofmigration. The variedinage, their husband’s of gender and roles whose The families absencemeninthepatriarchal stay inTajikistan. society of Tajikistan Abstract

women.analysis Theisbase the decision is oneof thehighestcountries migrant sending

reveal severalasreveal problemswithlabeling women leads to - making process or role of women inDushanbe.making ofwomen process orrole . The autonomy women. The of

changes inso d ontwelve in cial and organization familial cial

- depth interviews thecapitaldepth ofwomen in city, i

varies with age, financialvaries withage, stability . The majority of migrants. The majority of men, are new

roles remainroles

‘left behind , specifically

Men’s labor migration Men’s stable , ’

which affects

the autonomy the even

and does not

after the the

their CEU eTD Collection deeperthink and persevere. Ialso thank to wish manyemails guidance, andI Evaam for thankfuladvisor, Fodor, to mytime her interviewees,w research MyLaylo sister, provided a constant source ofmotivation. First andf Acknowledgments

during my oremost, I oremost, ,

and hose ,

and for her travel to Dushanbe.I to toexpress like my travel wouldalso appreciation my to Benjamin Tjaden

time and time would like tothank like would the rest family the ofmy

suggestions

contribution , whose during thecourse ofmy thesiswriting. my

, madedifference a inthe outcome

who dea thoughtful ii rest mother, Lalimo, mother, rest who

supported and supported

comments and discussions helped mecomments to anddiscussions

helped me tocarryhelped me outthe for her se eyesse and words prompt replies s

of thisresearch.

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Appendix Conclusion 4: Chapter Analysis of Migration AutonomyMen’s and in of Dushanbe Women Data 3: Chapter and Methods Migration in 2: Chapter Tajikistan 1: Chapter Theoretical Framework Introduction Acknowledgments Abstract 4.7 Longevity 4.7 The Autonomy Women’s of EffectRemittances4.6 The of Autonomy on Women’s Force Labor 4.5 Participation Women’s Access to Information4.4 4. Raising theChildren4.2 Decision 4.1 Behind’? and 2.2 Tajik Migration:Are ‘Left Women Women Gendered A 2.1 Migration: topath strengthenmasculinity one’s Longevity1.7 The women’s changedroles of Use Remittances 1.6 The of Participation Force 1.5 Labor Access to Information1.4 Freedom Mobility1.3 of Childcare 1.2 Decision Making 1.1 3 Freedom 3 Mobilityof

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...... - Making of Financial SpendingMaking ofFinancial

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Contents

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57 56 53 50 48 45 42 40 36 32 29 26 23 20 17 14 13 11

9 8 6 4 2 1 ii i

CEU eTD Collection deepenautonomy dominance. depend their or ontheir husband’s research theeffects ison ofmen’s autonomy,wiveswhether migrationonwomen’s of migrants traditional did men. But theSoviet Union,andthe the break rise of affected ofreligious the conservatism and leadership,socialism in their nation, built prosperityattainededucation, and high as level of insight analysis. the subject into w of Tajik ofdiscussion of men’s theeffects migration, theexperiences provide ofTajik a women different Unlike cases are intheir homes, women aslacking where displayed isolated agency inthe provider,gendering while women the the space processt for implies InBoehm society,gendered theTajik is 2008). migration thecasepredictions Ta ofoutcomes in of non relations. migration The literature on Tajikistan results inchanges,effecting thesocial f leave experience in Hermonth. not aunique husband’sis as become occurrence, migrationcommon migration has a yearsher every husband’swhoreturns migration, for homeonce in twoor aofone three visit Introduction - migrant family the differences world, around members but the of to work as laborers unskilled to work in Migrationboth ‘gendered’consideras‘gendering’ isand (Hondagneu motherMadina, of inhera fi fifties, migrant. differently your alabor if husbandis isnothingmigrated.least amemberSoit new. People has who Oh you is,everyone knowit how haveexperience such asmine.at Allthefamilies hasan

norms of roles gender inequality that dominate the the lives of Tajik people.the livesof The majoritywho ofmigrants men, are

provides rich analysesrich provides of Russia. The absence TheRussia. men inthe patriarchalsociety of of jikistan. jikistan.

omen tookstrong presenceinthe development of ve children, shared her experiences of fifteen yearsfifteen experiencesve shared children, her of of 1

ormation, familial

that

nowadays compliments male masculinitycompliments of

the effects men’s migration on the of

o deepen their autonomy.o deepen organization,

the do not . Thus, the interest . Thus, ofthis

effects puzzle theeffects puzzle

- look at you look Sotelo 1992, Sotelo pre

and gender dominantly a

CEU eTD Collection problematic. migration butthe complexity oflongr distance back county tothe host asofmen’s tocontinuetheirautonomy a work. result Women’s increases the effects onwomen ofmen’sinDushanbe migration as are ofpermanentmenleave nature I duration ofmigr their husband’s ag interviewing husband’s whoexperienced migration. women their The twelve respondents in vary discussing Chapter men’s 3 migration. present chapter this wit in ofthecontext research.Moreover, disc the this effects onwomen ofmen’s leftshows migration behindand following th presentation. The the rolesa ofand fatheris a mother men’sincrease ofcarr migration women theirautonomy levelbutthe responsibilities of Dushanbe, specifically focusing ofautonomy onthelevel ofnon present the measures of women’sanalyze autonomy andpresent findings. the measures of the e, standard of living, educational and employment backgrounds, ethnic groups,e, ofeducationaland backgrounds,ethnic standard living,andemployment the research. Chapter 2 The purpose

of this research is to presenteffects ofmen’sof thisresearch isto migration onwomen the in

provides thebackground informationprovides familiarize to thereader with the h theanalysis theuse ofwomen problematizing eoretical ofChapter framework 1 ation. The followingation. The chapter 4is challenging

presents the data and methods, which waspresents thedata which collected and methods, by

ussion ofussion thegendered processes elationship between elationship thehusband . The structurethisresearch isbased. The onthe of 2

the gap for and conducting reasons

presents thefindings onthe - migrant wives. As a result wives. of migrant the core thisresearchthe of where I c as ‘left behind’as when onclude by statingonclude that

of migrationalso is and wife is ying out CEU eTD Collection authority familythe wife extended where ofthe increases, men transfershousehold performed totheir extended by family productionMassey (Durand and 2004). authority,the role of maker whoperceives thedecision affairs, inregards tofamily and spending migrationa Mexicanmale of householdUnitedStates wife’s increases head aut tothe autonomyauthorityand and inmany ontherolea take instances ofdecision their genderingwomen and sideprovidesaautonomy, deepen space toacquire their“enhance and Boehm 2008).While Migration has b arguments onmigration. and views by empirical offered research pre changes are roles inwomen’s permanentreturnI ortemporaryspouses. upontheofBefore their effects on ofTajik men’s migration relations and familial organizatio Tajikistan process either by ofmigration phenomenon. Even migrants themajority though ofTajik are behind and the event recorded ofmigration was act, referring as men’s towomenas followers passive or left Chapter1: sent an analysis effectssent ofthe onwomen an in ofmen’s migration agenc The literaturegendered has emphasized the onmigration natureofsuch International a move Migrationis is yand well only

a society patriarchal where affectsformation, men’s migration thesocialgender TheoreticalFramework een gendering” as “gendered both and (Hondagneu identified later

- the did being” ( being”

gendered highlights the migration the analyses activewomen’s role of became Datta andDatta Mishra not migrating, ns, pressuring resultingI and aim toinvestigate inchanges. the

their wives who donotmigrate,their wives who However, ment

migrating independently

of peopleacross national borders.

2 2011, 463 2011,

in other cases theheadrole of the of ). Women experience). Women developmentin does not

characteristics of ‘ characteristics of

men, women are involvedmen, women inthe at the time of migration. Theat the time

Dushanbe,

experience an improvement and examinewhether the

, a

or with their families.or with

part ofsuch part - maker. The -

I discussthe will Sotelo 1992, Sotelo male the movement the For a time long ’ , the onomy andonomy . CEU eTD Collection employment environment wherewomen’sfrom ofKeralaarrangements living city, differsDushanbe Keralareflectswhere dominates the butthe agricultural men’sflow theTajik society, migration reliant thesupport family andindependentoftheir from extended (Gul that were by originallywomen performed Overtime, of become migrant men. self households andexperience performmanagement responsibilities finances the more and of household tasks andisolation increasing argues lead thatmen’s migration towomen’s empowerment, result ( index target study,Kerala, ofher holdsa of partdevelopment highest inthe topfive states ofhuman region) focuses onthe impactson thehouseholds (1993). left ofmen’s The behind migration Leelaof men’s migr Gulati thestudy in diverse. Atthesame results, even opposite applying, majority of women applying ofpossibleeffects the toTajikistancomplicates migration predictions ofmen’s on men’s migration onwomen thatstay which a in set provides ofdiverseoutcomes, behind Banerji1991, Shahzada 2008,350,Brink a in her autonomyand “as living freedom, as long theyinanextended are family” (Desai and Indi In women’sexperiences husband’s thestudyof migration oftheir inthe thefocus who

the interpretation of ruralthe interpretation toanalysis areas ofDushanbe a HDR 2011 literature,

reside inDushanbe are diverse comparedagricultare diverse tothe time,

that I that across came findings, ), and migration), takes various

their mobility theirtheir outside W homes (1993). inthe spheres

the linebetweenan and urban challenging rural area be can todefine.

as the conditions betweenandasrural areas urban the are the very .

ation from Keralaation from(South , placed

nd Khadaker 2004). The debate on theeffectsnd KhadakerThe 2004). debate of

3 on ruralas aon areas largerspace of ural production

types , not limited tounskilled , notlimited

- and living with extended and withextended living West India) West toWestAsia (Gulf ing would lead tomisleadingwould

ati 1993). Herati 1993). study of in the break of analysis omen . Gulati

women’s women’s

and . In - CEU eTD Collection gainWomen land andwith different the familycome authorityover use ofthe incontact independent hou Unat thestudy in effects ofmigration the emancipation argues on ofTurkish women that studies thatmen’s migration andformation of nuclearare families linked. positivelyAbadan migrationcontextualization as the women, and outcomesof castemight theabsence men’s provide Tajikistan systemdifferent in instit the manage women ofthecaste upper authority (2011, 471 women either husbands spoke regarding th totheir laborers of management and the and control as ofremittances, well as in taking regards in decisions as tohouseholdclothing, offoods affairs, and management inBihar andfarmaffairs of Women thehousehold (2011). became more involved in rural investigate Bihar abroad. Amrita experiences womenhigher perceive levelofautonomy, inotherscontinues men’s influencefrom 1.1 the development is of Kerala families Decision Making utions aroundutions theglobe portray The literature onmigration Men’s migration impacts women’s . Her the example toshow differences study also an amongst serves ment of financ ment of Datta and sehold emerge result interpretations whiledifferent infamily formations (1977). ). Their

whether experience change women es ( Sunil did not

study alsostudy touch strong, Datta andDatta Mishra

Mishra

the

reportchange a

playsan presentscommonlyshared different a experience throughout

farm. However, the complexity ofstudyingtheeffects ofmigrationthe on thesociety. womenin ofsubordinatethere are still position

being

in the studymigrationof the ofmale impacts on

important responsible forhiring theuse ofthe oftheresponsible land, ecision

upon thediscussionof system, caste where

2011, 471 2011, 4 ,

while 52% of women of lowerwhile 52% caste tookon ofwomen of e inlaw decisions, orthe parents - making responsibilities. making responsibilities. Datta andDatta Mishra

part ). The thetraditional in variations

in the analysis. s

in decision

also sho also - making and making

children’s education women;

In w

some some

that 52% of

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even though w omen -

CEU eTD Collection physicalof decisionwork and more Inwomen Syangja areas thedistrict“more of they perceived empowered” since perform less oni households, major decisions savings, and food agriculturalIn spending activities, (2012,118).caseof Yemeni the migrant experience that womenincompariso ofmigrant households that women experiencein nuclearempowerment they if livefam level ofdecision Maharjanet al.inthe study oftwo remittances 1997,327), (Louhichi ex property to57%,all frominurban inruralEgypt. areas 37% While of decide onthean ofthe familyfrom increasefamily budget,control 37%to86%,and showing (1997). The re author Unat’s analysis nuclear families thereasons accumulateforpurchase savings a house. of nuclearthe cities,families which issharedamongst more in migrants extended family (Abadan ispresent when involves majordecisions it suchas engagement, marriage, education,etc. ofof itsuse. Evendecide migrantwomen though onthechildren households oftheir parenting governmentwell agencies,as asremittances having control ofautonomous decision and tended family persist Louhichi’s results wivesshowssimilar ofEgyptian toAbadan study ofmigrants also

greaterof decision level ,

- where women gainwhere thedecision authority women budget ofand family’s over property making, which leads Themaking, their to also empowerment emphasize (2012). authors veals that74%of women controlremittances have veals use over of the and in regardsfinancialdecisions,no control and over tothe26% said of other market failurescause event the ofmigration. nvestment

implies theimportanceimplies of rural districts in Nepalrural state in districts - - - making, measured inthechildren’s areas of education, Unat 1977,49 making, but

are not However, 5 n towomenof no

- made inthe absencemen(Myntti of 1984). 50). The

not

have

for thatalready thefamilies reside in specifyinglocation. However, the author speculates the emergenceauthor of control ofnon

that ilies, andilies, intheir study show n - women experiencegreaterwomen migrant households migrant

in Tajikistan who in Tajikistan areas, -

farm investments the role ,

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of the

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CEU eTD Collection s Jetley’s study the impact of ofmale migration (rural employment, independent 113).etc. Surinder marriage, contribution ofhisfinancial (2009, children isstronger than children’schang life As Abadan responsibility management, financial or support of making withtheir son wherediscussion whohave educational women limited bac supremacyandmale continuedominancywomen. over son (2009,112).children, Through specifically male children, men establish gendered migrant or purchase ofproperty lay absence, their parents a with their husband in men’s power control ofinvestment, anymoney property a largeamount of item or that requires solely reside concept Dushanbe to property by men,showing that of family The property(2009). (Maharjanet 1 imilar resultsimilar totheeffects ofmen’s migration, and international children where during women .2 .2 Childc The migration inmothers ofand menresults children livingas well behind. as Children

and taking ontheir - Unat observed theconsultaUnat observed are al. 2012, 121), which thedecision Khalaf alsoholdonto al. 2012,121), thatmigrant observes men re involved inthere process involved ofmen’s ,

or women or s , as both are family., as of theformation both a ing decisions, Khalaf thata involvement raisi wife’s ing in observes ,

s it is important to untangle to relationdetermine isimportant it complex and the whether

(2009, 114 (2009,

of a heispresent children’s migrant to thedecision husband, but in

do not in the

tasks. Khalaf

women research on migration discusses research onmigration

hands of men, who either ofmen, decide whenhands their ) that act because independently discusssuchmatters theyto want tion of with tion extended familywith women do not

could father’s beseenas replacing sons their

analyzes analyzes

actin applying However, independently. such 6

migr ing how - urban) on rural females in India onruralurban) femalesin shows

women ation, in some instancesation, replacing insome However, the

kground share the financialkground share the decision

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the control ofinvestme

gain

Khalaf also brings also Khalaf another ing

experience innew tasks.

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CEU eTD Collection migrant gain finances controlchildren’s householdswomen future over and their by “influencing households study atype’ ‘modern edu of andSadiqi Enaji’s ofMoroccan analysis Europe to showthat migrants child between(Caldwell a link men’s positive 1986). migration There and education. is children’s giving whetheron their preferences sex, concern it based of migrant householdsshowed nodifferencedaughters, intreatmentoftheir sonsand without wherewomen a have ofautonomy strongthereisadecline level inmortality. women Moreover, analyzes women’s mortality autonomy t between and thatin thelink rates,and argues “when relatively is position good, women’s 186). sousuallyisthatofchildren” He (1986, 349). The st and and autonomyinregardstheir children’swell“long to indailydecisions term observeIndia migrant attain wholiveinnuclear mobility thatwivesfamilies householdsin of protector inhis family ofand the families 1997), go through areas inmigrant householdsexperience mothers indisciplining their difficulties as children, they the time of womenupbringing, inurban of where 61% Louhichichildren.study women’s intheofEgypt authority discussesoverchildren’s their eventually continue responsibilities. men’s men’sthe work migration take previously bychildren onwhere performed (1987), male men as Inresult of men’s the mi . Father’salso ofTajikhe crucialcontext family, isperceived role as isinthe a where

Egypt their husband’s migration,their husband’s challenges butwith (1997,327 “ atus of women atus ofwomen psychological andacademic problems

an exampleofa patr is linked gration higher womenauthority developed inraising their absence,

to the iarchal societystand as where men cation thanreligious,cation or short

the protection is weakened. andBanerji is the protection also Desai

well being ,

and 51% inruraland 51% areas 7

”

in the absence ofthei

their s their health or their education ortheir s theirhealth

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expressed higher authority in - 28). Particularly inurban 28). - terms (2004, 73). In (2004,73). terms r fathersr (Louhichi

protector ren

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ir CEU eTD Collection organizations (Louhichi1997) ofresponsibilities shopping,for going paying bills, governmental tothe market,anddealing with husband’s migrationfreedom experience an inthe toperform increase ofmovement families the interpretation of a Mishra an incr presence of children’s school and mobility Bihar inrural mobility under ofmen. was the supervision mobility their inthe absence husbands, intraditional rural of even where settingswomen’s 1.3 their side. develops between thechildrenand t parents old reach when they their parents their sothey children afuture. investin have better Children al. 2011 are seen thetypethe migrant’s choice education”womenwish chias for to that their of mongst the upper caste wom mongst caste theupper Freedom of ease ofmobility, intheir level compared tohalfcastefrom ofwomen upper

Women gain thecourseWomen thei in autonomy of Migrationas aof also can facilitation change. serve Therewomen’s isanincrease in 2011, 467 ). The betweenchildren’s relationship future and parent’s compared tothose as

financial“guarantee future of security”2004,73, inthe (Sadiqiand Enaji a

caste where from system, women u ), to which the explanationinthe lesser possible ), towhich experience ofmobility Mobility

the

visited their visited increased;

effects of men’s migration bring effects migration ofmen’s

living within

en lays . However, the independenceinthe responsibilityfamily affairs of

age, they went to the doctorthey went(48%), (45%), the totheir to tothemarket relatives (9%, 4%) (2011,relatives 4%) 467 (9%, heir father who migrateswho heir father

in the discussion ofin the discussion their living arrangements.Once

and it will be interestinghow the be toconsider relationshipand will it - laws.

Datta andDatta Mishra

8 pper andgroupsall experience Muslim lower

r daily activities. Egyptianr dailyactivities. after women their s

different results towomendifferent ofnuclear , compared totheir ,

display ). well They They are also caretakers theirare of

t - hat women’s independenthat being also

observe is strong, thus thus is strong, ldren because sons

mother whoby is ( Datta and

Mondain the again, d

CEU eTD Collection conditions (2004). Women’s and power and risesbecome confidence familiar asknowhow they Bangladeshi and in women’s migrantdiscuss workers the status, changes responsibilities perform tasks. men’s tasks. re deal theabsence The with husbands and oftheir (1993,145). access experience information to of “properlyempowered inthe ordinary course become butargueswomen inmigrant more women these thatif mobile, were households changes women placeexperiencer where take new ofhome, while responsibilities thepublicsphere menperform 1. isaquestionedresponsibilities be thatwill observed. are of responsibilities as theirfamilywith the tasks,of coursecases help member reverse on of claim increases question remains women’s whether intheabsence mobility husband diminishes their of portray levelmobility, a higher of compared to ofo the husband, or theextend Louhichiwhich inrelation thetraditional to practices identifies and believesofthe family and when becomesvisitinggoing it oftheir friends, the ofor personal matter desires out, family does not sponsibilities aresponsibilities beneficiary for level one’s of 4

present, but do women inDushanbe orindependently help dowomen present, ask but for Access toInformation

Women experienceWomen level stronger ofself The labor genderedinmanyassigns of division oftherealms instances women tothe

reflect ofmovement the of freedom personal

since their responsibilities rise. Livingresponsibilities since familieswith extended their eases women’s burden Shahzada and wives caseleft KhadakerShahzada of behind inthe of study

verwork put on women (1997, inDushanbe 332).verwork put Women onwomen already

of things” that men occupy, women wouldof things” better thatmenoccupy, women Datta andDatta Mishra - 9 confidence as they improve their skills and skills asconfidence their they improve self

esponsibilities andesponsibilities roles -

esteem andconfidence tocarry onthe

wish . Women experience. Women lessfreedom . At the time ofmen’s migration, . Atthetime ’s or Louhichi’s butthe studies, ’s or carry ontheir oldan carry . Gulati observes that ,

living d new

CEU eTD Collection since andchanges. won’t he wouldleaveaffect soon major is aparadoxicalhis actions were a raises act questionwhether tothe like and ofhiswife just (Gulati 1993,31).The changeshusband brought her by from the religiously forinsists” her towearscarf a (1993, 23 migrantwho expressed resulted the migration husband’s Saudichanges from Arabia, to her greater mobility and independence.Gulati quote hajj” (1984). sphere, interpretationIslam, oftheir homeand ofwomen inthe placing realms s instance discussesthe Myntti new where pattersseclusion homewith relig of migrants return mi assist provide women and menthat networks migrate. wish may to influence Sotelo’sanalysis their ofthe experiences ofMexican Ininformation results inwomen’s rise of involvement. some decide political independentlywhich that women householdsdisplay from migrant participation, a where political “84% wives ofthe of the society andeconomic might Abada influence their ideology. political, social over remittances the use and of to performwereandcarried innuclear the tasksthat men, outby grationgainsthe circumstanceswomen networkschange. andto ifmight access

if women wishmigrate to (1992, are 405).that Researchnetworks a shows source of Men’s migrationalso can resultinchangesForleading isolation. further towomen’s

“insisting that his wife his “insistingwomen wear long wear whiterobesandonthe that as scarves, such help in “persuading husbands about women’s wishmigrateabout to help “persuading women’s in husbands so - 32). For the short visit, For visit, 32). theJama short Nevertheless,

are shaped by gendershapedcasesare by shows where

there where migration areaffects also men’s instances women’s ,

even inthevillage thepeople though holdconservative views decision

party (1977, 52).levelofaccess Greater toback” to - Hameeda’s husband takes her out for movies, andHameeda’s husbandtakesfor “never her out - making

10 s

(2004).

an interviewee, a Hameeda, wifea Muslim of

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associated”paid economichowever might activities, withher financial her contribution Labor Force Participation Men’s various migration effects leadsBinzel labor force to women’s on participation.

domestic work and raisechildrendomestic the work

Bringing in comparisonBringing atus of urban(199 atus women number of number areas, valent after even migrants,

the wives takethe wives ontheir women wageworker

their time in Russia might Russia views affect towardstheir in time their

previous researchprevious shows done inTajikistan

the migrants’ , ort 7, 331) result ofwomen inthe lowparticipation in 7, 331)

and 11 - (

sleeved( blouses” ILO

or familyInthe absence work of (2011).

an s

. The authors. The husband’s share of increase family ofunpaid work inrural 2010, 37).

return where women arewherereturn women ,

the income effectthe income ofremittances

However, incomparisonHowever, to state that women’sstate status “is that Gulati In addition,

labor, which results in labor, 1993, 31) thatportray fusal work to that

perceived to perceived

the social

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CEU eTD Collection 72 gendersince assignment”, role thepowerful spherescontinue households and butaslong iscommon their they work role “ resumewomen headed by household themlooking afinancial contribut for job,whose crucial the well for Women’s e “almost three likely more (Lokshin times wages” and towork for more work, likelywho as butthosethatpossesssmalllandsare ownlarge lands women towork, affectingwomen’s salari participation their age increaseseducational background, with andan of intersection categories supervision over ( thefamily activities opportunities forinthe cities and women women economic activities. 473 work” and households thatareIndia(lowercastes) economicallyuponwomen’s in secure “look down onwomen’sbase, subordination men.Some womenresults to where ofmigrant pressure scale views continue (ILO theautonomy traditional 2010).tohold The women on of differenceexpectation oftraditional women view inthedepending of onher their husbands their when but autonomy becomesreturns problematic thehusband and findsthe differen the laborwomen force might whotookparttheir husband’s in prior even migration provide - 74). With men’s74). With - 74 ). Themigration literaturewomen’s autonomy showsthatas increases onmen’s sodoher t outcomes in regards to the gender holdimportant rolesintheabsence totheWomen inregards roles. of t outcomes do not conomic contribution is important isfor sphereconomic thegrowtheconomic contribution of the butalso

go on thefarmconditions towork if - being ofmanyfamilies. and Sadiqi Ennaji statebeing that the Duran migration, ed of employment. age Women educational and backgroundare strong d

and Massey

women can afford to schedulewomenafford can 2004, 8).

portray how the created migration ofportray men more job

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in the study indicates ofremittances ofimpacts laborMexico a in participation onfemale do not - Unat and light howwomen bringsinto women’savoid ofconsumption of level “work Another aspectmigration ofmen’s related isto

receiveremit

Remittances tances Even cases (2007,7). insome though remittances women’s affect

cases,

- employmentin paid la

the insufficiency of remit insufficiency of the

bor, as theremittancesbor, a source ofincome become selves withmoreinhand. time The involvement ofselves - enjoyable work (2006, 225). Kim alsoobservesenjoyable work (2006, 225). 13

informal 1992). sectors Dorantes (Sotelo does not

the use

ttances to establish attances business toestablish

further develop how it reflects developfurther howit on remittances and how it remittances and how tancescauses women to

boys, affects

et CEU eTD Collection socialjobs, accepta return”authors 293). Theemphasize availability thattheconditions (2010, necessary of skills, of women’s levelautonomyclaim of that andtheir autonomy afterthe “mayeven men persist migrant villages householdsin56 ofSout the stability women’snew roles. of question of thelongevityof women’s autonomyneeds shared and others between nations being specific toaregion and The 1.7 financialtheir husbands. contribution of remittanceswives inDushanbe bymigrant’sanalyzeauton and iftheir source for ofincome manyaround families thecountry.It determine theuse important to is of (2007, 14).compose Remittances a largepercentage Tajikistan’s GDPandserve national a of living and between level and ofownership non themigrant productive major ofobserved differences standards sources, and were no of inthe comparison al. 2007).Agardjanian et husbands keep women disadvantagesfinancial iftheir contribution is maygreatereconomic role provide responsibilities women misguidedher independence. and evaluationof Ye Willis - The on effect migration ofmen’s Women’s improved level ofindependent makingautonomy serve decision can anda as headed households claim thatofmale outmigration headed households provides withmore women Longevity of women’s roles Longevitychanged ofwomen’s

that mayprove to bea nce of change of nce dependent on them, which doesdependent not onthem, which

al. findthat the fin s

and employment helpwomenemployment topursue changesand intheirlives

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to freedom to ancial resourcesancial are from migrants not - migrant seldom 14

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oh in the study of ruraland of oh inthe study poverty investigation asprovidesinvestigation a it lookinto

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(2000). Some women(2000). saw Sometheir n’s migrationalso can resultin

minance in the household remain minance in

control thei when criticism in thesociety(Rooij rn living with their extended families duringrn living migration, withtheir not extended families husband’s are not i j

2000), or older onthetasksfathers sonstake performed by their to prior - Unat 1977). Inwomen 1977). Unat gain some buttheir casesindependence actions

easilyreturnedwas before tohowit r husbands

“double responsibility”as “

temporary ch

return

2000, 15). Taylor thathusband’s also observes

even afterhemigrationeven from returns (1984). 15 . Brink observes independence. howwomen’s in

ired dothela personnel to anges in women’s role. Van Rooij anges role. Van inwomen’s Datta and Mishra

when their husbands return theirwhen husbands ,

which co just to“concedejust totheir wives’ burden” and expressed thatburden” and uld result intheir uld

2011). 2011). nd work and Tajikistan? Nevertheless,

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ty ty in the

CEU eTD Collection interpretation migration are organizations. there are of break Unionand Soviet a ofthe rise did men, whoalso actively state. contributedcommunist ofa tothe building were of and socialism oftookpart attaining thedevelopment part in of level high the analysis will providea ofTajik interpretatio women different education seclusion the realms and from sphere, isolation ofthe public who upo especially ofwomen Acommonbuilt environment areas. left inurbanbehind is misleading of assumption what effectsofmen’s arepossible migration onTajik women, W only which upontheurbanareas, displays in comparison few ofoutcomes. touch thedifferences the effects onwomenpresentofexamination rural ofmen’s left and migration behind an areas, Tajikistan, specifically Dushanbe.T complicates the andassumptionofoutcomes speculation migration possible from men’s in various regionsof men’slefteffects behind andthemigration onwomen presentation ofthe many and same inothers sharingresults instances the

hile inmanyanalysis womencases of the the effects of The literature analysis, left effectofmigrationrich in onwomen behindprovides a onthe

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s very crucial but theoutcomes but of crucial microvery

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men’s migrationmen’s onwomen which inDushanbe, ischa

different analyseseconomic and political sidestothemacro of outcomes of

he majority of he majorityof of religious different might conservatism of indicate outcomes

present Tajikistan, besides theinternational Tajikistan, 16

literature

them isolated intheir homes provides a -

levelchanges ofcomplex imply having findings. opposite The of study

that Icame researchingacross in that for n. Tajik women inDushanben. Tajik - do not laws living arrangements laws living llenging toresearch as

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The concept of migration revolves around a complex understandingThe revolves concepta ofmigration aroundreasons complex why of for - 1997), resulting in thedeathpeople (Ranjbar1997), resulting ofupto100,000 in 200 One macro Tajikistan isconsidered poorest Asia. The the state inCentral national transition to MigrationTajikistanin igration flow. - level theory of migrationthe ‘push is level theory

LaborForce be in2004to Surveyin7.4%,and stated Tajikistan

Tajikistan because highTajikistan unemployment. of

to any otherany country inthe world to

17 ainous and ainous

- and

or, where leave people their lacking natural productive - pull’ model,the pull’ whichemphasizes depends 9). The devastated9). Massey et al.1998) - ( year long civil war Ratha et al.2013,

on the The push The - and

- . - CEU eTD Collection decision income. tomaximize Thecenters theoryon thewage between differentials theoriginal ofexamination micro international migrationprovide a the bigger picturereasonsmigrate for why peoplean but determinant ofinternational migration visa debate.Tajik migrantsasRussia, thePost The majority of for leave differentreasons cause the serve ofmigration same a and for r as migrationa global result ascapitalist ofthe ( structure th remittances (Pira (USD 40) (USD43)income 119Somoni in2003and150Somoni inreal2007 terms was and in2011( increased 1236 toUSD and strong for to people ‘push’ searching aetreveal for al.2008,47). job(Brown The statistics that unemploymentserves as a revealed their homecountry, that60%were unemployed ofmigrants in whi where lived inless than $1a oftheFrom day 2009, population 53% (Ranjbar 3).awas it study, ca the measures laborBased include migrantsthe didn’t calculations(2013,3).a into survey on e demand economies, ofworld international theindustrial whilesystem the views theory rried out by the UN Tajikistan Living outbyrried UN theunemployment Tajikistan composed the 48%, Standards, in2008 - - pull pull free regime,a model etchacost rising al2013,3). ofliving The serve On the micro Another theory, thesegmented labor markettheory migration tobebasedconsiders on The wage isthe second between Tajikistan differential andcondition ofthe Russia push model. The provided that data by the theUNGNIcomposed shows of2005USD458

are

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( Cza Data

ika and deika and Haas 2014 conomics migration consider as an individual

2014 18

), while theaverage monthlycapita per s Massey

as a reasonforas migration, a people’s whose

et al.1994 elevance to theNorth elevance to ) . The macro - Soviet state operatingSoviet ).

These theories include le 15.6% were - level theorieslevel of

- South South

on a - CEU eTD Collection the urban migration, therising costand oflivinginsufficiency wage the tocover costs, the of disasters have levelofinternational lower In migration(Olimov andOlimova 2012). relation to covercost, peoplevillages migrate thethus internally. The thathav whether ofextreme orinternational,natural internal where affordscase can’t disasters inthe migration and Olimova, districts thatareaffectedenvironmental degradation showthe highest by of level factors reason another become a have migrate. to research Accordingby conducted Olimov to whereagriculture serves as the et al.,1998,17 bigger thereasons picture into minimize therisks from the country oforigin’s marketfailures looking atdecision as migration of a an conditions thatleadtomigrate, people which m hard physical work. migration, formi butsuch migration is reason Another theoryinternational migrationonthehumanselective capitala of focuses process of as migrants3), which has 2009, tomore (Ranjbar increased than2million observedIn was 2009it estimated inTajikistan. that1.5outofseven milli migrants havehome countries, thenotbeenraise eventuallywages would intheir suchresults th this While and country host and measures thecost igration migration considers as a household decision Incontrast e theneoclassical to (2012, 9). They(2012, of that 9).thealso level reveal eory thatthedeparture applicablesufficientcould be totheprediction number of of ).

In applying the

associated forcing with conditions to people a of mainsector employmentenvironmental the for people,

theory of conomics -

benefit analysessuchbenefit ( action of isolated individual, who aims to maximize income and whoaims tomaximize isolated individual,

w economics ofmigrationw

helps to analyze the case of Tajikistan. Instead toanalyze casehelps Tajikistan. the of of nimalistic considering migrants Tajik for the leave 1

9 and human capital economicsand human new theory, of the

distraction

in response tomarketfailures and ,

the new e new the

servesas a course migration, of e a high levele aofnatural high s in unofficial statistics to the case Tajikistan to the of Douglas et al.Douglas 1994 et conomics providesconomics a on people were

migration

( Douglass Douglass ). . CEU eTD Collection education, cult such as the (JICA 2008,13). reasons Various examinedinrelation been female have decline to inhigher for attendance university degreefrom female decreased 34%in1991 Infemales concern. thesecondary has a been educationat deterioratedof the time Tajikistan’s transitionindependence to and attendance of prevents thenon 22.3% ofmigrantshigher et haveeducation (Brown al.2008, 74.1%, following 10.8%5.4% and (Brown49). agriculture byetEven trade though al.2008, Migrant sectors butthe majority work men occupyvarious household and (Olimov Olimova 2012,23), becoming a normal inp occurrence was2007 it determined atleast onefamily that inevery hasfor member third migrated labor 76% re emphasize that93% ofmigrantsare arewhere theage 66.7% of16 men, between suchmigrants in phenomenon, itremainsmen. The present been the domainof statistics have 2 Dushanbe. plans topurchase playeda house significant rolesin unemployment, risingc challenges. responde The population growths, offood ofresources,create careless supply and shortages social economic absence efficientand mo insurance of .1 Gendered.1 Migration: one’s masculinity Apathtostrengthen present the rural areas,migrate whopredominantlyIn et (Brown toRussia al.2008,46). International

- citizens fromcitizens level The competing onthesame thelocals. level with of

migration of Tajik peoplemigration of isdominatedfemale by Even though men. ost to accommodate to children’sost their standards,education, living and nts of this casents ofthis study indicate ural genderto boys value roles, religious rising education, believes, rtgage lead people Furthermore, systems tomigrate. the

education, females54% in2003 composed 20

reasons for

that thelow in

46) the jobmarket Russian construction

their husbands to migrate to their husbands from - income level, income - 92 to 25% in2003 92 to

sector

eople’s lives. , composing - 34 years34 and - - 04 04, and CEU eTD Collection ground oftreatment. equal interms There isalarge gendergap inthe 46). However, the equality legal does practice imply not onthe the ofimplementing the laws repre Opportunities’ wasequality tostrengthen the intheworkplace, implemented ofsexes Lawin 2005a Guarantees on‘State ofEquality andand between Women Equal Men discrimi Labor(ArticleLabor maternity 7of the Code), theand leaves (Articleand paternity Code), 46of the same(Article no work nor special declining 25), a preferences, gender work of place because (1994) promotes indifferent equality spheres the hierarchal patriarchal standinthe society. property as rights,ma aswell upon byInand thesocietyequal family.and society, women access theTajik men have to Tajik menbymen areabletheir therole tocontinue which of standards than areaffordable Mig inRussia. more so the moneyearned migrants thehome are by the to country expenses sent and where living the their wages toaccommodateare cover ofthe and notsufficient whole the expenses family, living market,received the income by lowcompared is local migrants tothe income of (Pirachaet al.2013,4). Since theTajika labor Russian migrantscheap as labor serve inthe while men domain of household responsibilities, occupy theeconomic activities. and marriage 43).norms and (Rokicka The believes women traditional 2008, tothe private place sentation in different brunches (JICA different and in ofstate preventionsentation power 2008, of discrimination The legal Tajikistan upholdthe equality rightsin of sexes. The ConstitutionofTajikistan The nation against women with youngnation against women with Code).Furthermore, child (Article155of theCriminal majority of migrants aremajority they migrants butrarely married, do withthem of their take families rriage,and butmena parentalhave care, higher divorce status in

of society: equalof society: equal rightforfor labor, payment

ration has becomearation for source ofmanhood a breadwinner, expectation built a breadwinner, labor forcelabor men between

workers. Thus

CEU eTD Collection and menwho become is “called 20). question” For into community (2008, onemigrate” thea must “to studied man, be community emphasizesmigrate thatmen are not,their masculinityexpectedand to those thatdo housework43). Deborah (JICA 2008, years15 women old“every and are 6% occupied only third ofthem whoare with men” not hold 20.3%of economicunproductiveness,also means whichof total populationabove that out holdhigherWomen inthe level number ofhousework expectations. back masculinethatcouldthe homearekeepsocial more not viewed thanthose upwith masculinitythose menprovide thatareforwell whereable shifts the to abilityfam toprovide for the associate work’ using practiceswhat ‘masculine’and is of ‘feminine’.Tajik For expectation, andsomething butcreated notfixed thatis ininteraction.People carry on‘gender social andZimmerma performances (West behavior.authors The argue that society,and they aretostructuresnaturallygendered accountable of constructions occurring ‘natural’ (1987). People male/female‘doing’ of undertake dichotomy the introducegender, thenotionof ofdaily product social and behaviors a establishing practices leadingeconomic productiveness to only and lowest women, attheages showingthe of20 Migration endorse labor and men enables masculinityby supportof to genderedMigration for masculinity. Zimmermannand Tajik menserves is their and West

with masculinity,isa strength symbol hardand whose physicalwork ofmasculine

a citizen ofthe country host gaincitizen levela higher ofmasculinity and power ily society.expected by asthe “ gender isnota Boehm in thestudyBoehm in inthe Mexican ofmigration by 25% (JICAby 2008,42). 25%

nn 1987

22 - se

29, when childbirth women and leave for , 29 ts

of traits

). It). a traditional reflectionsocial of is participation, 60%, composing whilemen

Through migration, themeaning of migration, Through , ”

nor roles, but rathernor roles, by created

men beingamen migrant labor - being

gender as of members

of their familiesof their their

family. CEU eTD Collection husbands. “behind”apply references and Iinterviews during conducted field my regardingrural left actively behindis of thelabeling as the wivesof present in migrants husbands (2010,920). theliterature discussion of view Her theproblematic developed in economicsocial well autonomy and women’s place as inUgweno aempowering women“an part with ofprovides strategy” that intheirwomen farms, husbands inUgweno Sheconsiders migrate whiletheir remain (2010). receiving attention. Caroline little Archambault o thetitle explores migrationgendered thewomen theaspect discussion, behind’ considers into ‘left have been not seen 2 othernew women freedom. experience many constantly instances call them.Evenmasculinizes ifmen migratecontinue for theytheir tohold authority labor and in (harassment poor xenophobia, living thepolice, countryetc.) conditions,host de from inthe families even(noprotection, iftheir hard job physicall especiallymigration areas, inrural serves as aand source ofincome toprotect menmigrate their In (2008).experience theTajik domination manycomparison to society their men’s for families, women the because disturbs gender thatwomen it out gain andmore roles, finds al power but theideamigrationeffect(Boehm Sheproblematizes that cana positive 2008,21). serve on .2 Tajik .2 and Women ‘LeftMigration: Women Are Behind’? The inclusion of women into migrationTheinto of inclusion womenarehas discourse Women been emphasized. long

passive followers,passive butrathermobile and

the concept the their families back home andtheir families control their back decision - being thattheywould trip. I will build uponArchambault’sI build studywill trip. of“left” and

to the Tajik women whodonotmigratewith their 23

in control oftheir agency. abor, low paying, and etc.) situation

not find if they migrate theynot findif with their f ‘left and why behind’

While thestudyof While - making, while - so CEU eTD Collection whereemployers refuse theconfiscate migrant’s topay passports, difficulties ofmigrants There working ‘forced inRussia. are numerous of examples labor’, conducted ofsituation Tajik migrant a ontheworkers study in2011thatexplicitly the describes Human Rights (fidh Internationalactively Thechallenges to Russia. all aware the of inlabormigration Federation for themselves, bearing. related either child reasons for towork or Moreo remain majorityindicated thatof inDushanbe. think migrating they ofinterviewees didnot The wo “a agencyIn lack 2010,293). ona of (Archambault part” woman’s withTajik theinterviews Such emphasis build interestingcase la the because participationforce thelabor presence. in of their isanindication Tajikistan political life has decline womensocialism 2008, 14). held Atthetime of highgovernmental levels in their positions but educationwith lower and wage healthcare and compared t serve well toprivilege their of wages,equal men challengedbutmigration have statuswith etc. violence women’s does not educational attendance, of economic presenceinthe decision and political importanc patriarchalrising practicesIslam and ofreligious of 3). The practices (JICA 2008, female affected me men whosemigrated particularly husbandsfor work ofwomen’s aspect this showed choiceto Inanalyzingpresents husband’sexperiences their migration ofTajik an thewomen of The transition from Uniontonationalindependencegreatly the Soviet inTajikistan 2013, 6 n and women, butwomenexperiencedand women, moren challenges clinging from values towards ). Eve ) and theAnti and ) s

an idea notchosebutwere thatthese tostay women did rather left, behind d n thoughrate theemploymentn women for for islower than mentheir , “constituting ofcivic lessthan30% servants” ( - being as does to masculinize men. Women dominate men.Women beingas does the tomasculinize sectors of beling as behind ‘left’ - Discr imination Centreimination “Memorial” (ADC

- as abandoned o men their income isunequalo mentheir income (JICA

their salaries. The workingtheir salaries. -

misleads theirexperiences.misleads ver, Tajik women are ver, Public Organizations of Public

Memorial) e, inequality

CEU eTD Collection representwhy the reasons fortheir remainin hometowns. women living ‘left resonate inDushanbebehind’ of tothelabel didnot migrant’sexperienc oftuberculosis). risks(cases The health the housing inmanywater, instanceswhichgas result electricity, norunning in offered or sites, orapartment illegally rentedwithoverpopulatedmigrants rooms migrantsas was and it observed majority limited are either the live ofmigrants inconstruc familie thelivi in Russia and progressive.Although Tajikistaninmany falls comparison behind the developmentacquired be discussed inthe debate ofTajikistan and as Russia theother one modern underdeveloped connote the (2010, rural environment” 923), whi the living inDushanbe. families standards Archambault of problematizestheuse of“‘behind’ to homes, andthey even be though not of representative they might all migrant families doportray migrantsIIreferring Russia. am in tothe women whom interviewed have a choose tomigrate? networks, domest relation hate Atsuch to violencewhy (2011). conditions,have social who built wouldwomen for themigrants.people were368 The study reveals and 2010,37 killed thatin injured medicalcase insurance inthe ofillness. Xe hours exceeding There regulations. thepolice, with aretheir problems statusandhousing, no conditions areand very demand intensive without hard physical weekends and labor working s inDushanbe. studyand The ADC by fidh Women who areWomen left ‘behind’ ng standards ofare Russia laborin experiences migrants of below tothe ic lives, and enjoy accessic lives, resources to education, water, care, (health etc.)

enjoy thanmajorityconditions living labor better of

nophobic attacksand servea nophobic danger are ontherise 25 ch still appliestothe comparison still ch of what would

Memorial claims thataccess housing to for es of women of migrantes of ofwomen households - as abandoned, asdoes it not

(2011, 16). (2011, nd visited theirnd visited

Adding tothat tion tion CEU eTD Collection Inotified that was looking not a forwere rightanswers sothattheinterviewees orwrong more take part activities. ineconomic twelve respondents predominantly wh women the university,graduates are Their whileothers ofprofessional schools. high varies occupation but respondents aspecific social notrepresent group do ofthe to variedexperiences their interviewsapproximately related inmany aspects. lastedthirty The for theiroldest in fifties.their age, While of duration standard living, ofmigration their husband’s agree sampling contacted,a causing of 1958). technique snowball tobe (Coleman interviewees respondents The next for recommendedinterviewees thesis. my more whomight Iwith womenfor research for my prior contacted a whorecommen am nativeofhave Dushanbeand pre c Ithe focusis based onan ofmy from researcharea urban chose the capital samples tocollect education of background, theirabsence, duration ofhismigration. husband’s the success As nor interviewedpart housewives, 2014. Toobtaina sample diverse ofrespondentsI ofeconomic backgrounds, and social husband’s migration. The theduration study of carried twoweeks was at outin April the end of Chapter3: ity Dushanbe ofTajikistan, - fortyand tookplace at minutes either the PriorI tothe interviews, myexplained interest thegeneral and ide youngestThe age, respondents varied in being Iconducted in Dataand Methods -

two women aretwo part - depth interviews interviews depth - as it hosts nuclear families ofdifferent nuclearas hosts families it andI practices. ethnicities - o were interviewed worko were ingovernmental interviewed organizations. Outof time andtime employees,predetermining fulltime without age, their

- existing kin relationship that helped me toget kinrelationshipexisting that helped contact in with twelvewhohaveexperienced women their

- time workers: one considers herself a one housewife herself but considers workers: time

responden 26

approximately t’s house work. orplace The of strata;

some are graduatessome a of dation of potential dation of

in their yearlyin their a of my thesis, anda ofmy thesis, thirties and

- CEU eTD Collection 1 specifically as interpretation a conclusion applymy true effects ofmen’s tousing ofthe 2013, 88). However,happened occurrence ofsuch instances nevertheless. decadea toserve from distance and thepresence interviewees, maintainan outsider (Rashid member like migrate. At times have shared theira experiences, wascommon asoccurrence it for tohave families a family servedchallenge at interviewees because atimes my took grantedfor identity and I assumed that which mightchallenging aas bean However, for foreignresearcher. my identity comfortableatmospherebefor acceptedasand theintervieweesin ‘one communities, ofus’ applicability onthethemes depend identified inthe analysis. their husbandsand migrated they adapted new roles. about their standardliving, of theimproved, whether w changes of theirend husbands. of Atthe changes, challenges, decision children, and thedurationhusband’s focused their occupation ofmigration. Questions their on any important p confidential.I want interviewees Outoftwelve be to onerecorded, didn’t towrite so down had responses anand agreement were thentranscribed recordedremain with thattheiridentity will languages,Russian of a mixture and sometimes relaxed intalking experiences. Theconducted abouteither questionnairewas their inTajik or

See Appendix The qualitativecollectedthrough data in The women describing interviews number by family, started thestructureof oftheir the My and Tajik identity ofculture knowledge served methe ofcreating benefits a

oints she raised details sheandI in oints once transcribed home. them returned

making, and reflection on their lives and their role ontheirmaking, lives andintheabsencereflection their and this,

interviews, Imy maintained bac

the respondentsa generalthe werequestion asked

27 - two, which toEnglish. then was Their translated depth in

The use of interviews andThe their use ofinterviews kground almost ofstudyingabroada for terviews with twelve women women withtwelveterviews

orsenremained thesame or since

insider also

does not

CEU eTD Collection 1 Table their lives. us throughchallenges highlights a interviews in patriarchal andposition women’s societ was not of the migrant my research whose focused onfamilies menare inactive home. marriageSincereturn most and forand return worknever back, permanently abandoning Panjbar(IOM women2009), 2009, but structuregive would possibly different migrationbehind Tajikistan because in and family thegeographical onwomen left location Lola Nilufar Shahnoza Maryam Firuza Sitora Manizha Mahina Zarina Sabrina Parvina Madina (pseudonym) Interviewee

understand interpretation andthe women’s ways oftheir positions migrations men’s affect

: Migrant Data from the Interviews: Migrant the from Data conductedinDushanbe, in Tajikistan

specifically andratheran was independent variable.Thisresearchanalyzed studied

workers return home and goworkers returnhome and work theirspecific back inRussia, time absence to ( Age approx. 30 35 35 30 35 40 40 40 30 30 50 50

)

2 (1F, 1M)2 (1F, 6 (M) 1M)3 (2F, 1M)2 (1F, 2 1M)2 (1F, 3M)5 (2F, children) s Family 1 (M) 1M)2 (1F, 1 1 1M)2 (1F, tructure (#of

( ( F M )

)

interpretations. Therecases where are many menmigrate

No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Part Yes No migration husband Worked p 28

Part

- time

- ’s ’s time

rior to

Part Housewife, Organization Government Organization Government Organization Government Organization Government Org Government Teacher Part Housewife, Organization Government Organization Government Organization Government Informal Occupation anization - - time time

years) absence ( h Migrant usband April yand helps

10 16 15 19 15 ’ 2014 2 2 4 1 3 3 1 s approx

CEU eTD Collection follow “determinism” “exp but appliestoone whocontext seen is “rational, as a self scientists, yet word,simple various domainsthatcontains areimportan economic owninterpretation doctrines, and its applying building tothe debates. ofautonomythe context and apply tothe philosophical, psychological, political, sociological and migration changed androles their husbands. permanent remain uponthe return of their wives examined inrelation women’s to labor remittances force longevity participation, and the of information. The men’s effect level migration autonomy andalso ofwomen’s will of the be focus iss around the develop ofDushanbe, the basisautonomy for whichin the women’s context measuring will ofdiscussion autonomyautonomy. howotherI researchwomen’s and will of level measure and Thi applied tothe Tajik context. migration fromfactors autonomy, the usingliterature onwomen’s upon thatare built different organize The intheir absence. my leading questionof research theeffects tackles labor ofmen’s patriarchal questionsofwho society ontheir begsresponsibil takes the theirIn familiesTajikistan, themigration behind.of men constant and theirabsence inthe Dushanbe Chapter4:

and husbands changed roles. Women’s autonomy rises at the time of theirandatroles. husband’s of husbandsthe autonomytime Women’s rises changed The of discussion autonomy spheres has various academia. occupied exami of Scholar International of temporary leaveoften to participants requires laborits migration nature

autonomy “to refers the righttoself orpower

Analysis ues ofdecision

of Men’s MigrationAutonomyand ofWomen in ressesgoals his/her own interests” and ( - making, raising the children,making, raising access the mobility and to s chapterI have will provide will a a followingstructure.

- determining actor” who social - government”, in while t to revise.t to According topolitical ities andities howdofamilies Gordon 1994,31 Gordon sociology, Autonomy does not ).

the is a

ne CEU eTD Collection productive that result intheir economic economicactivities power(B (1972, 87 marriages, restrictions, menstrual social positions, sexual restrictions, and preferential marriage of themembers. of Herdegree pluralfemale measuresautonomy lays of inthe discussion women,those societies have‘autonomous’ studies. Schlegel thestudy of in used amongst somethatare thescholars, research tools totheir case new contextualized adds determine independence ofdecision women’s connection against withothers,them” rather ( thanincompetition “retain a ofself sense self mothering and her doings( beyond does not mortality rate( women’s result inlesser autonomy could lead discrimination against them,and tothe decline of 688), which ultimatelyItrights. human describes people’s hasbee movement andmobility,access knowledge to information, and making familyaffairs, inregardstotheir independent authority freedom decisions, tomake of “control theirstanding womenhaveequal decision over ownin lives”, withtheir husbands provide interpretation similar of autonomy, ofin the discussion women which isdefined as involves “e to make decisions affairs. equality ofone’s Followingautonomy that, amongst people of Autonomy psychological, toone’s technical refers gain social and material capacity toand use it

The literature on the discussion ofThe women’sa literatureautonomy items wide discussion providesto range of onthe

“equivalencemen” aboutwoman’s butrather authority toa and independenceofher - 93 qual decision ). Others co). Others Potter and Volpp1993,151 and Potter - direction anddirection self - nsider women’s autonomy controlto bedetermined byfertility, her over making”(Dysonand Sathar and 1983,45). Moore Jejeebhoy also sixty - six Schlegel 1972, 23). 1972, Schlegel - determination thatgrowshelp of determination withthe

matrilineal societiesonly discovered that fourteen of

). When discussing autonomy women’s personal it

who are notcontrolled - making. While certainmaking. While 30

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n proposed thatann proposed increase in by their male familyby their lumberg 1984,72 measures are commonlymeasures

). affiliation and

- 86 ).

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, Dysonand Moore - ubordination menbecause to oftheir inmany spheres making,

child care, mobility,child care, access information, to

ll rangell and household (Dyson affairs” and Moore 31

1983

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labor force lives,

CEU eTD Collection Inperception Tajik society. of the makingnor are infamily affairs, only the providers, their educationcareer goals. and mendonotsolely Thus, of the possessthefull decision control that wereoftheirTajik womencontrol husbands actively the the under took statesocialist affected women’ssubordinate around andunlikemany position women theworld gend make independent decisions. relation men’s to women contribution financial but experience presentthe dominance is husband fro oftheir whether decisions the make in women autonomous of time migration their husband’s governmental int but organizations, duties suchas offinancial andde market, bills shoppingfor concerns, the inthe paying 1993 in the farm, public affairs. take women making Some theresponsibility ofeverydayand decision inthe home 4 household. environment casestudy ofthis donotpossessthetitle thehead as autonomouswomen o thatautonomypoint private and publi changes migration.insight the an into Moreover,measures caused these by men’s provide .1 .1 Decision erof their expecting roles the tobethefamilies. breadwinner history However, men of ). Before migration inthe majoritymen perform men’s households inDushanbe of the Tajik menare be tradition theheadfollowing theof to household, perceived thelong of Male labor migration

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heir absencewomen take onmen’s women’s role in the decision women’s inthe role

m miles awa m miles 32

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to Russia to Russia was was - CEU eTD Collection study power of structures, the positioning advantaged of disadvantaged and in the hierarch and class that are categories one’s of self 1241).(1991, The use of intersectionality applicableis to the that women experience is shaped by other dimensio inter dimensions blackof women’s employment experiences” ( intersectionality resulted from identity politics that failed to consider the difference within agroup (1991). 2 some level ofautonomy. everydayfood expenses, makingspendi of decision discuss their dailyactivities. Even though jointly decide onthefinancial they spending, the everyday autonomous viaSkype resultslimited communication onher on legal portraying terms inRussia, case a tothe majority different of experiences labor labor, skilled migration Sitora’s forhusband hard employed andis husband’s example ofthe effectcommunication onwomen’s of the possibility hiswife’s tohave oftheeffect decisions. husband an on Sitora’sexperience isan making genderage and experiences interact forming her thatare of fromolder different women age. decision other would take independently decisions re not ask autonomous decision making stated “ youngA migrate Maryam,whose interviewee, husband has

Crenshaw introduced the term intersectionality sectionality in the context of ?” The possibility of their young The possibilityof their?” marriage inexperience and ofknowing and howone the . The more frequent is thecommunication is betweenhusband. The frequent thehigherwife more is theand the The frequency comm of The longevity experience ofinternational migrationaffects of women’s - making was . The discussion of intersectionality. The discussion addresses Maryam’s experience, where her to “denoteto variousthe ways which in race gender and interact to shape m the

violence against women examined and howfundamentally “violence the unication also an shows unication effect autonomous onwomen’s yes

[I ask my husband in decision making], making], ask[I husband my indecision

sults in husband’s stronger role in his wife’s inhis inhusband’s strongerrole sults

and used the concept in order addressto the problems ns “of their identity than just gender, for instance race 34

ng could serveas onutilities of examples Crenshaw decision d for a yearforreply ad toher in - making 1989, 139). Further, appliedshe Tajik migrants.Tajik Her other women’s. Unlike decision - decision making how canhow you T y. he term

, as they - decision making ultiple 2

. - CEU eTD Collection effectthese womencommon thatwas shared a related ofmigration toinfrequent financial decided oneverything contributed “ also approves my thoughts she order asked husbanda tomake decision], her in financial seldomand“ contribution is his family. Another workeducational thenremained recentlyfor financially and lowskilled purposes helping started yearschangedand whoat intheher past the beginning husband seven left migrant for end that her and decisions she are autonomous Aninterviewee,Mozambique. Shahnoza with greaterresult thatYabikua etal. influence, observed presence inthe decision family his making. to ismen’scontribution financial The regular stronger more ishis the data resulted twopossible environments labor fromwomen migration and men’s their et husbands al.2010). wereanalysis Based unsuccessful ofmy migrants onthe (Yabiku affe husbands migrants’ were ‘unsuccessful economic husband’s outcomes migrationTheywomenwhose of their (2010). observed that autonomous de Yabiku etal.of theexamination thelinkbetween in men’sand laborwomen’s migration ” when the decision is already” decision when is taken. the cted women’s level of autonomy,cted levelattained women’s greater women a of levelofautonomy meaning when Thewomen’s level financial contribution autonomous effects ofmen’s sometimes cisions making that indicate anincrease autonomy relatestothe inwomen’s interviewee, (secretary), a mother of two young oftwo a (secretary), whoseinterviewee, children mother husband’s . ” ” and she” “

- Despite their difference, age experien making.regularity migrant’s The contribution of becomes associated . ”

Parvina a experience, alsosimilar expressed husband whose never sends money when hesends wants money -

who didn’t send remittances in a year send remittancesa ( who didn’t in [talked to him about him her decisions] to [talked - She also stated that her living conditions stated thatherconditions She living also a mother ofa precisely one mother child,and shortly answered

does not 35

consult her husband, rather “ he memy trusts andsupports

in the study of villages of ofvillagesin the study of ce oftheirmigrationce husband’s ” stated that“ and autonomously decision very rare 2010, he knowsthe at he ’s decision decisions, and have not 299), 299), - making

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2013 migration of TajikIn menresults children intheirwives and staying behind. ). Even theinterviewees though nts who build familynts whobuild abroad (IOM speculate an divorcesince theabsence affectto communication, thelackspeculate of does not does

apply that migrant’s irregularapplycontribution i thatmigrant’s

did not consequently 36

areabandoned onin studiesconducted wives

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did not n women of whoexperience migrantn women authority households inthe higher short

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me;

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they treat me as their father andamother. theirfather They treatme they as 37 did not did

eight stated thattheir oftwelvewomen out

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of father’s migration affects his relationship to his children, his to of father’saffects quoted and above, relationship as migration his the would not

lead toanylead changesand ofthem, as Maryam one isions. Other interviewee,Sitora by isions. Skype using video calls

”hernot ofrecent Herexperience husband’s is migration of even, ” The indicates discussion ofmore that children

s her husband’s migration of a years hermigration husband’s of a now and his since 38

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manydaughters recognizefamilies could that care 39

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istics donotserveaistics direct as statingthatall thewomen argument of migrant householdsstart

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do anything without money.do anything without - being and education asbeing theprimary and remittances. education usea Manizha, of financial Tajikistan, - being of their children. Agardjanian being of

spending. My old 48

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nts supplyfor financial resources short the remittances, Thankfully,

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CEU eTD Collection study offemale but remittancesused totake could away undesirable be time from jobs. differences.basedsex ontheir children’s interviewees oftheir spoke their daughters (2006),which Salvador inEl girl’s ed education foodAcostagrowth andobserves remittances then household and items. that increase personal theremittances preferencesbut controlfor distributed is thatwives their children’s that regularly send moneyhome for Migrant children” and(1984, food husbands 72). “maybe” showingaofspending difference in contrast by income oftechnology, to spent and items menonalcohol, “perhaps toys sex some an incomewomen controlled nutrit isspent oneducation, by Iuse that thing theremittancescare myself. andI ofthat for can take formyworkwork isusually andmychild’s education husband’s andtransport The onchildren’s remittancesare well spent future and well inatime educational as an incomewhoworks than replace effectto wage. purposes her Manizha, Theher remittances husbandspentforemost onher by werechildren’s well sent Therean increaseremittances between link and isno of decline laborwomen’s force, of household payment andfood, donotgetcheapermoney. andthings clothes more but They expensive. need require My paymentyearlybasis. daughterattend on myHis remittancestowards children’s My areusededucation. andthat sonstudies ucation and do not affectgave andas boys useucation donot women ofremittances more preferenceson to restaurant,

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do not resonate the menwho ontheir spend the do notresonate their income

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no distinctions in theuse in ofremittanc no distinctions

- being and asbeing Shahnoza and does not does 49

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a informal and declineinwomen’s ion, andother “basic human rights” s am edical college, who also needsedical also college, who indicates, ” Blumberg” how discusses Dorantes

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ices. ices. Thus, .” The return of migrants are not permanent of.” return migrants The not are asthey did not

men migrate continue thefinancialmen that support they to back toRussia - 3

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the workofbothparents month abroadandstays heren forthree relaxed monthsIfeel because Iam migrated. Asa Of absencedo inhis neededand if anelectrician in fixesbrings I of work thehouse, andeases theamount He tookhisrole andrespons my andhelptasks with upnow alot grown absence. He remain preferredroles andtakethewayhasbecome it everything ontasks, and to feels like He [herhusband] migrant The

course, presence olderto thewho benefits children inthe house of servesofparents

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ation affects self women’s 52

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CEU eTD Collection women portray parenting, perform where independent rolemother and they ofthe the a mother. deterioratingIn evident is in suchfamilies. relationship theautonomy thechildren, ofraising is irregular,greater women independence dec hold inthe relatesIn ofthe husband. tothefinancialcontribution families contribution where thehusband’s living in sphere.consequentlymigration And during more theirbecomes their husband’s role autonomous and take inmanymobilitycaseswomen force part a intheof labor andlevel inthe public show Dushanbecertain enjoy ofshare level of the conservatismthegapand civil war risedeepened ofinequality.residing of Women in on theeducationalachievements, andof the thebuildingstate, communist butthe consequences andsocialism, break before Union,women, the Soviet as ofthe we the bearingchildren, However, well as of during as thehousehold responsibilities. thestate on thebehalfof the headonthe of household.otherforemost the Women, hand, assigned are to their tothe reassignment husbands lead donot of roles. level ofautonomyduring labor increases husband’s migration, and their thetemporaryreturn of measured spheres. oftheprivateandanalysis bypublic thedomains reveal The th women aroundvaries butthe autonomyinDushanbe Tajikistan indiscussion, women was of increase theimpactWhile ofmen’s geographical a temporary move has certain changes, natureon the Conclusion The onthedecision influence ofhusband makingof non The society roles gender assignscarry inTajik ofthe ontherole and menprovider, to ac T

of women’s responsibilities a responsibilities of women’s nuclear families. nuclearfamilies. he laborTajikistan. results migration inchangespatriarchal of men society inthe of

nd autonomy onpermanenttakes e with their husbands when it comes to thedecision when comeswith their husbands it to

ision - making of financialmaking of concerns, but - migrant women in Dushanbemigrant womenin ll as men, equally asll men, participated ffect. The positioningffect. of at women’s - making t CEU eTD Collection IHere focused onan capital, urban Dushanbe, which migration, isfocused between onrural or andurbanenvironments blurstheline leave migration, for emotional natures inquestioning ofthe results ofmarriage. purpose on permanentthelong and absence relationship distance physical but nature, of theand temporary and inthe men their absencefewer result visits of remittances replace aretheir notused to wage, rather invested intheir children’sfuture. The living. Women’slabor forceintheabsencesecurity, increases participation financial but of even husbands aretheirenough standar ifthefor sentby financialresources their migrant Theresponsibilities. majority ofnon low education i employed. of intersection theeducational The backgroundasgender a statusand place women of women’s laborthelevel participation, force ofeducation plays inwomen’sa choice part tobe aware and ofinternationalthepolicies news greaterlead totheirpublic affairs. role also intheprivateand become leadership more Women showedaccess that women’s information to men, increases which intheabsencemight oftheir to older women. Following autonomy measurewomen’s another of inD youngerhow is applicableexperience as wivesautonomymovement shows compared it less in Inbased ofthelevel ontheir terms sex. ofmobility ofgenderthe intersectional analysis age and the son,women ofhouseholdsshowed migrant nodifference oftheir children inthe treatment the long has distance Unlike the many barriers.practices for ofproviding more thewell intervieweesSome indicate

The Tajik study non of n less desirable jobs, thus they jobs,thus n lessdesirable tobe prefer with occupied household fills afills gap inthe literature d oftheirpresence communicative husband’s through systems,but - migrant Dushanbe, in remain womenthat - migrant wives indicated their desire to continue indicatedmigrant working their wives desireto

of immigration ofIn thehostcountry.relation to .

where migration is a common occurrence.wherea migration is common This studycorrects aintheliterature,This bias for 54

changes ofwomen’sresponsibilities

ushanbe, theanalysisushanbe,

while their husbands while their - being of d of d of This . CEU eTD Collection of interviews increasesecondis to recommendation thedat the changingand increased roles inDushanbe, autonomy ofwomen ingeneral. orTajikistan analysis an totake approach wouldbe from sideand the husband’s integratetheir view towards but further analysisgenerate isnecessary adiscussion. to bigger research ofmen’s themigration ontheautonomy tackled effects Tajik non of a larger group.larger

and its toverify

applicability tothe

a pool. T a pool. larger 55

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One recommend an in recommend

re commendation forcommendation further - migrant women, - depth study

in - depth A

CEU eTD Collection your12. Howconditions didlivingchangeyour since migration? husband’s 11. 10. you 9. Did you were thelaborWhat thinkofjoining ever decided market? hisviews todoso? if youryour 8. How to didrelationship childrenchange? youryou7. Did yourrelatives was help husband outwhen you did 6. What theremittances spend first place? the onin in ter your5. How regular washusband’s contribution thewell to youryour 4. How react didneighbors newroles? to youyour 3. Do newrole? like InterviewThe Questionnaire Appendix 2. 1.

roles to himself and made everything go back to how it was? roles and itwas? tohimself everythinggo made tohow back youryourDid came Didhechange husband roleabroad? reassign when new back from the youDo youyour to were husband usually talkover absence? if inhis a totake decision What responsibilities didyou responsibilities What take? youryourHowyour didlife once change husband (what thechanges migrated in were migrate? youyou did When migrate? How did husband come    ms of raising the children)? ms ofraising children)? the

Improve/worsen/remain same? the Were thereany challenges? stays the children? and back after looks Did

youyourconsideredto also migrate, (while ever instead migrate he of or husband

to the decision for yourto the decision husband for to

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role)? role)?

CEU eTD Collection BBC.“Tajik Face13th. Women 2012. Asia,October Divorce News: Epidemic.” LeftArchambault, “Women Migration, Caroline. Behind? 2010. SpousalSe Agadjanian,Arusyak Victor, Sevoyan Adebusoye, “Labour Paulina. 1993. Migration Acosta, Pablo.2006.“LaborSupply,Internationaland SchoolRemittances Attendance, from Abadan 101 East. “Tajikistan’s 2013. August Missing AlJazeera Men.” video, English 25:10. 2nd. Bibliography http://www.bb Autonomy inUgweno, Women ofRural Tanzania.” Rural Armenia Periphery:LaborLivesImpact Men’s The onWomen’s of Migration Aspirations in and Sogner, 319 andDemographicPosition Change, 3903, Migration: Salvador ofEl The Case Emancipation Women ofTurkish 10 April 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/10 Accessed at - Unat, Washington, Bank. The DC: World

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