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Apocalypse South Judgment, Cataclysm, and Resistance in the Regional Imaginary

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Apocalypse South Judgment, Cataclysm, and Resistance in the Regional Imaginary Apocalypse South Judgment, Cataclysm, and Resistance in the Regional Imaginary Anthony Dyer Hoefer THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS • COLUMBUS Copyright © 2012 by The Ohio State University. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hoefer, Anthony Dyer, 1978– Apocalypse south : judgment, cataclysm, and resistance in the regional imaginary / Anthony Dyer Hoefer. — (Literature, religion, and postsecular studies) p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-1201-1 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8142-1201-8 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-9303-4 (cd-rom) 1. Apocalyptic literature—History and criticism. 2. Apocalypse in literature. 3. American literature—Southern States—History and criticism. 4. Faulkner, William, 1897–1962—Criticism and interpretation. 5. Wright, Richard, 1908–1960—Criticism and interpretation. 6. Kenan, Randall—Criticism and interpretation. 7. Allison, Doro- thy—Criticism and interpretation. I. Title. II. Series (Literature, religion, and postsecu- lar studies) PS374.A65H64 2012 813'.009353—dc23 2012006529 Cover design by James A. Baumann Text design by Juliet Williams Type set in Goudy Old Style Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z39.48–1992. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 In memory of John Cobb and Larry McGehee, two great teachers who were there at the start. And for Kate and Cora, without whom I could not have gotten this far. Contents Acknowledgments vii Introduction Tracing the Apocalyptic Imaginary 1 A Note on Structure 14 PART I Chapter 1 Southern Jeremiad, American Jeremiad: Region, Nation, and Apocalypse in Faulkner’s Light in August 21 “A walking pollution in God’s own face”: The Apocalyptic Logic of Blood, Contamination, and Purity 24 The Apocalyptic Ritual of Lynching 37 “Lincoln and the negro and Moses and the children of Israel”: American Millenarianism and the Burden Narrative 44 Percy Grimm: Nationalizing the Southern Apocalyptic Imaginary 48 Modernism, the Cataclysm of Meaning, and the Possibility of Revelation 51 Chapter 2 “Tearing Down the Temple”: Prophetic Time and Richard Wright’s Eschatology of Resistance 61 “We git erlong widout time”: The Ahistorical Condition of Jim Crow 66 Typology and the Apocalyptic Structure of Uncle Tom’s Children 77 Revising the Teleology: The Possibility of Rupture, Revelation, and Rebirth 85 Conclusion: Writing New Endings 95 vi • CONTENts PART II Chapter 3 “Some Say Ain’t No Earthly Explanation”: Excavating the Apocalyptic Landscape of Randall Kenan’s Tims Creek 101 Tims Creek and the Eschatology of Place 104 Apocalypse as Alternative Discursive Space 111 The Possibility of Revelation: Excavating Apocalypse 120 The Uses of the Past 128 Chapter 4 “An’t It Time the Lord Did Something?”: Vindication and the Practices of Place in Bastard Out of Carolina 130 The Limits and Restraints of Southern Spaces 133 The Boatwrights’ Attempts at Narrative Resistance 138 The Alternative Narrative Space of Apocalypse 145 Epilogue Apocalypse South, Redux— Searching for Meaning after the Flood 154 “Playing the Blame Game”: Condemnation and Scapegoating after the Flood 156 Katrina and the (African) American Jeremiad 160 The Possibility of Revelation and Renewal 162 Justice, Deliverance, and Resistance 168 Bibliography 173 Index 182 Acknowledgments During the years that I’ve been thinking about the questions and problems addressed in this book, I’ve been fortunate to belong to several intellectu- ally rich communities and to have the friendship, guidance, and support of many kind, smart people. Without their generosity, insight, advice, men- toring, feedback, poking, prodding, and cajoling, this book would not exist. At Wofford College in Spartanburg, South Carolina: I owe particular debts to Bernie Dunlap and Talmage Skinner, as well as the late John Cobb and Larry McGehee. The department of American Studies at the University of Alabama helped begin my career as a scholar and teacher; in particular, Stacy Morgan is due much appreciation. At LSU, the mem- bers of my dissertation committee—Brannon Costello, Edward Hender- son, Katherine Henninger, Jerry Kennedy, and Rick Moreland—provided exceptionally useful comments on the earliest versions of this project; thanks also to Anna Nardo, who did more to improve the quality of my writing than any one since elementary school. No dissertation advisor could have been more gracious with his time than John Lowe: over the last eight years, he has shepherded this project though all of its many stages, beginning with an essay written for his “Native Sons/Native Daughters” seminar in 2004. I’m also grateful for the support, friendship, and thought- ful discussion provided by all of my LSU colleagues and tailgate team—in particular, Courtney George, Scott Gage, and Scott Whiddon. From my time at Georgia Tech: thanks to my fellow Brittain Fellows Jürgen Grandt, Matt Paproth, Jen Parrott, and Nirmal Trivedi. Thanks also to the entire vii viii • AcKNOWLEDGMENts crew from Success Programs (now the Success Center), particularly Eric Moschella for his friendship and guidance. For the last two years, I’ve had been humbled by the generosity, com- mitment, and vision of my colleagues in the Honors College at George Mason University—simply the best team I’ve ever joined. Particular thanks to our fearless leader and dean Zofia Burr, who took a chance on me and then made it possible for me to take this project across the finish line. Much appreciation to my great and wonderful students, who never cease to challenge and impress me. I owe a singular and strange debt to my friend Mason Brown. Eight years ago, he made a compilation CD (when one still did such things), filled with strange and creepy blues, gospel, and folk tunes. He called it “Apoca- lypse Southern,” and everything began when I played it. Many thanks to the great team at The Ohio State University Press— Sandy Crooms, Eugene O’Connor, and Ed Hatton. My greatest debts, of course, are owed to the members of my family; I was born into a family in which love, encouragement, and thoughtful dis- cussion were the norm, and then, I had the good fortune to I marry into another one. Thanks to my parents, Nancy and Anthony, and my siblings, Paul and Emily, for supporting me throughout my career – and for not blinking when I told them I’d likely be in school for all of my 20s; thanks to my parents-in-law, John and Len, for their support – and for not blink- ing when their daughter brought home someone who’d been in school for all of his 20s. Finally: Kate, I could not have done this without your love, patience, and encouragement—I’m lucky and grateful to have you as my partner. Cora, I hope that one day you’ll read this, understand what I was doing on my laptop all those nights, and maybe even enjoy it. In the mean- time, though, please don’t color in this book. The Great Question before us is: Are we doomed? The Great Question before us is: Will the Past Release us? The Great Question before us is: Can we Change? In Time? And we all desire that Change will come. —Tony Kushner, Angels in America, Part Two: Perestroika. Act I, Scene 1. Introduction Tracing the Apocalyptic Imaginary Fear the hearts of men are failing These our latter days we know The great depression now is spreading God’s word declared it would be so I’m going where there’s no depression To a better land that’s free from care I’ll leave this world of toil and trouble My home’s in heaven I’m going there In this dark hour, midnight nearing The tribulation time will come The storms will hurl the midnight fear And sweep lost millions to their doom I’m going where there’s no depression To a better land that’s free from care I’ll leave this world of toil and trouble My home’s in heaven I’m going there I’m going where there’s no depression To a better land that’s free from care I’ll leave this world of toil and trouble My home’s in heaven I’m going there ­ —The Carter Family, “No Depression (in Heaven)” The Carter FamilY recorded “No Depression (in Heaven)” in 1936, the same year that Dorothea Lange photographed “Migrant Mother” and that James Agee and Walker Evans first began the project that would become Let Us Now Praise Famous Men. Though the song was a selec- 1 2 • INTRODuctION tion from a popular shaped-note songbook rather than an original com- position, it remains among their most notable and frequently covered.1 But the Carters were no gospel act, and their professional aims did not include an evangelistic mission (Malone 93). Nonetheless “No Depres- sion (in Heaven)” takes on a specifically religious theme: it employs the cosmology of evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism in an effort to make some sense of an experience that is all but incomprehensible in its scope and complexity. Facing instability wrought by drought, foreclosure, plummeting tobacco and cotton prices,2 and the early stages of the Great Migration of African Americans from the South,3 the Carters’ audience tuned their radios to 650 kHz and sought solace in a signal broadcasting from Nashville’s WSM to homes across the South (and, at night, across the entire continent). By casting the contemporary crisis in the familiar words of Scripture, Carter Family songs like “No Depression (in Heaven),” “The World is Not My Home,” and “Can the Circle Be Unbroken?” reconfigured chaos as the realization of prophecy.
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