ISSN 0258-2244 July/August 2010 Volume 9 No 4

SA’s peatlands facing extinction 11th International Symposium on River Sedimentation (ISRS) 6 to 9 September 2010, Stellenbosch, SOUTH AFRICA

Sedimentation and Sustainable Use of River Systems

Organiser: University of Stellenbosch Sponsors: International Research and Training Centre on Erosion and Sedimentation (IRTCES), World Association for Sedimentation and Erosion Research (WASER), UNESCO, ICOLD, IAHS and South African Water Research Commission (WRC) Secretariat: University of Stellenbosch Permanent Secretariat: IRTCES

Visit the symposium website: www.civeng.sun.ac.za/isrs Deadline for registration is 31 July 2010 CONTENTS

4 letters 5 upfront

Wetlands For peat sakes – Can SA afford the demise of its natural carbon 14 & water stores for the sake of short-term economic gain?

Water history 22 Nqweba Dam – supplying water to the thirsty Karoo

Water and health 28 Pain – the price our daughters pay for water

Water technology 30 Namibia’s Trekkopje – A desal plant built tough

Capacity building 33 Learning and capacity building – building a two-way bridge

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthly Water kidz magazine on water and water research 36 Biodiversity: Taking care of creatures great and small published by the South African Water Research Commission (WRC), a statutory organisation established in Last Word 1971 by Act of Parliament. 38 Water gathering attracts over a thousand Subscription is free. Material in this publication does not necessarily reflect the considered opinions of the mem- bers of the WRC, and may be copied with acknow­ledgement of source.

ISSN 0258-2244 July/August 2010 Volume 9 No 4 Editorial offices: Water Research Commission, Private Bag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa. Tel (012) 330-0340. Fax (012) 331-2565. Cover: Peatlands, South Africa’s premier natural water and carbon stores, are threatened as never WRC Internet address: before. See article on page 14. http://www.wrc.org.za Editor: Lani van Vuuren, E-mail: [email protected]; Editorial Secretary: Mmatsie Masekoa, E-mail: [email protected]; SA’s peatlands facing extinction Layout: Drinie van Rensburg, E-mail: [email protected] The Water Wheel July/August 2010 3 Letters

Letters to the Editor

Gariep Dam: a few insights

our article on the Gariep Dam in sure whether the name Gariep is Dam locations were determined by behind the dam. All dams deflect under Ythe latest Water Wheel (May/June absolutely accurate as it has always the Department of Water Affairs and we the pressure of the water and measuring 2010) refers. I came on to the project in been my understanding that the Gariep as consultants had no say in the choice. these deflections is one of the best ways May 1963 in the London design office of was that section of the Orange River We did challenge the choice of dam and of determining whether or not the dam is Sir Alexander Gibb under the direction downstream of the confluence with our analyses showed that a curved grav- behaving correctly. of Dr Henry Olivier and after a spell in the Vaal. It may be worth checking this ity dam would be about 30% cheaper. I would comment also that the case the design office came out to the site in one. Not that I do not like the name as However, to quote the then Secretary of study of the Orange River Project by 1967 and stayed until initial commis- I actually object to dams being named Water Affairs, “arch dams are the flavour the World Commission on Dams con- sioning in August 1971. So I have a few after politicians. The Americans get of the month” and so we had to design tains a number of factual inaccuracies insights and comments that may be of round this in 95% of cases by naming a double curvature arch in a valley that which I tried to get them to correct but interest. the reservoir or lake after a politician is much too wide for that type of dam without success. (The same holds true There were two consulting teams while the dam retains its locality name. hence the large gravity abutments you for the study of the Indus Basin Project involved. IORCC as you mentioned, which That is why their dams have such lovely refer to. Even then the double curvature in Pakistan with which I was also did the townships and the French part of names such as Hungry Horse, Grand arch is thick by normal standards and involved). So I remain sceptical about the consortium did the arch dam. The sec- Coulee, Oahe, Fort Peck etc. had to incorporate a special heel struc- the report. ond firm was a British/South African team The scope of the project as outlined ture to make it work. It all added to the Robert Blyth, Newlands of Sir Alexander Gibb and Partners and in the 1962 White Paper was far greater cost. An artist’s perspective of the curved Hawkins, Hawkins & Osborn who oper- than has actually been implemented gravity dam was every bit as elegant as Be careful of ‘tamed’ ated as Gibb Hawkins and Partners (GHP). since. This is particularly true of the the present dam. The Vanderkloof site rivers We were responsible for all the hydraulic extent of the irrigated areas to the west. is much more appropriate for a double structures including the spillways and all There has been virtually no transforma- curvature structure. read your excellent article on ‘Gariep - the other outlets and control structures. tion of the desert. It is also worth bearing Your reference to the February 1967 IThe dam that tamed the Great River’ We also developed the operating systems in mind that Gariep Dam is the major flood is rather confused. The flood peak in the May/June 2010 issue. 3 for the spillways. IORCC led the site team regulator but the canal supplies would was 8 500 m /s as you stated. However, While it is true that a dam provides at Gariep and GHP led the site team at always come from the Vanderkloof Dam the reference to the 150 mm of rain in 12 a greater measure of regulation of the Vanderkloof. and the Orange Fish Tunnel. The only hours refers to the design storm and the flow in a river, I am concerned that the 3 When we started the dam was water supply from Gariep was a provision 31 350 m /s to the peak flood for which public has a misconception that a dam called Ruigtevallei and the Hendrik for a pipeline to Bloemfontein which was the spillways were designed. Hopefully “controls” or “tames” a river. The main Verwoerd name came later. I am not never implemented. we will never get that but the dam will function of a storage reservoir is to handle it quite safely. The 1967 flood store water in periods of surplus flow did very little damage except to flood and release it during periods of low the right bank cofferdam where the flow and high water demand. Many foundations of the dam were still being reservoirs are able to reduce flood peaks excavated. by virtue of the temporary storage of We also managed to persuade Eskom water above the full supply level. There to enlarge the hydro-electric station from is a point at which the flood is so large the original 62 MW to 360 MW which has (extreme) that the degree of flood peak proved a very wise decision as it helps reduction is relatively small. The public with the efficiency of the high voltage often has the misconception that those power line to the Cape and can generate downstream of large dams are no longer short-term peak power. prone to flooding and we see many I need to dispel a popular myth about instances of illegal developments within the pressure of the water against the dam the floodplain. I therefore consider it wall. It is purely a function of the depth important that we always qualify our of the water and has nothing to do with statements in the media regarding the vast volume of water that the dam the effectiveness of dams and point retains. Yes, the wall does deflect under out their limitations in “controlling or the load but if you placed a strip of water taming” rivers. 90 m deep and 1 m wide against the face Paul Roberts, Secretary: South of the dam the effect would be exactly African National Committee the same as having 70 km of water on Large Dams

4 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Upfront

New WISA division Rural produce Water by caters for small found to be numbers sewage works hazardous to R1,4-billion – The monies new division aimed at building rela- human health owed by municipalities to water tionships between various stakehold- boards in May 2010, of which A esearchers have expressed concern ers in the small wastewater treatment R704-million is debt in arrears. over the safety of fruits and veg- works sector has been established under R The water boards owed the most etables grown by subsistence farmers the auspices of the Water Institute of are Bloem Water, Botshelo Water, where minimal water and sanitation Southern Africa (WISA). Bushbuckridge Water, Lepelle infrastructure exists. The tomatoes and irrigation water The Small Wastewater Treatment Works Northern Water and Sedibeng This after studies of tomatoes grown by samples were tested for a host of (SWWTW) Division, which was officially Water. small-scale farmers in Limpopo showed bac­teria, including faecal coliforms, launched in Durban earlier this year, will 38 – The number of water treat- them to be riddled with disease-causing pathogenic E. coli, Staphylococcus, deal with issues and best practice around ment systems which obtained bacteria and opportunistic pathogens. Salmo­nella spp. as well as several viruses both package plants (i.e. plants built the Blue Drop Award for the 2010 Researchers from the universities such as rotavirus and hepatitis A. A off-site prior to implementation) and small assessment cycle. A total of 94% of Johannesburg and Venda examined variety of opportunistic pathogens were (< 2 Mℓ/day) sewage plants constructed (787) of the country’s water treat- tomatoes from communal farming fields in identified from the food products as well on-site. According to SWWTW Chair ment plants were assessed. the Vhembe district as well as the river water as the water sources and indicate the Dr Valerie Naidoo, previous engagements 87% – The percentage of the used for irrigation. Communities living in potential risk of infections and diseases between authorities and operators of global population who gets their the district consume fruits and vegetables such as meningitis, bacillary dysentery, small plants have highlighted a certain drinking water from improved such as tomatoes and cabbages which are typhoid, respiratory infections, urinary level of frustration, distrust and confusion sources. grown in community field farming projects. tract infections, pneumonia, gastroen- relating to regulation, standards, and 751-million – The number of The farming fields are irrigated by water teritis and food poisoning. “This could roles and responsibilities of professionals people worldwide who share from nearby rivers, which are surrounded have serious consequences if hygiene, working in this field. “The new division their sanitation facilities. In by settlements and used by cattle and other water and sanitation infrastructure and aims to build relationships between the sub-Saharan Africa 31% of the domestic animals. No toilet facilities exist practices are below standard in these various roleplayers, which will ultimately population share toilets. resulting in people having to defecate in the communities,” say the researchers. lead to better consensus with regards to 200 000 Mℓ – The volume of open. When it rains these wastes are washed The study was presented at the bien- designing, managing, operating, maintain- bottled water produced every year into the rivers. People also use the rivers for nial conference of the Water Institute of ing, supplying and regulating small in the world. drinking, bathing and recreation. Southern Africa in Durban in April. wastewater treatment works. At the same 21 – The number of towns in time this will lead to improved protection South Africa where rate payers of the environment and society through Municipality takes ownership have declared disputes with local responsible application and maintenance municipalities over non-delivery of of wellfield of appropriate technologies.” services. In 24 towns rates and taxes The division, which is made up of verstrand Municipality has taken owner- monitoring, and modelling systems for are being withheld and instead ten members and a chairperson, has ship of a wellfield that is set to signifi- monitoring abstraction impacts. being paid into trust accounts. O undertaken to provide a number of activi- cantly augment its existing water supply. The Overstrand area has seen a 90% – The percentage of waste­ ties, services and initiatives to this specific The wellfield, which yields 1,6 million huge increase in annual water demand water in developing countries community within the sector. Among cubic litres of high-quality water a year, in recent years – from 2 million m3 in that is discharged untreated into others, the division will be scrutinising was officially handed over by Umvoto 2000 to 4 million m3 in 2008. This while rivers, lakes or oceans, according the newly-endorsed Department of Water Africa in May. The earth sciences consul- the local De Bos Dam can only provide to the UN. Affairs package plant guidelines and the tancy originally sourced the wellfield six an allocation of 2,8 million m3/year to 672-million – The number of Water Research Commission Process Design years ago, implementing a ground- the municipality. To overcome water people who will still lack access to Manual for Small Wastewater Treatment breaking modelling, monitoring and shortages the municipality has embarked improved drinking water sources Works and facilitate the rollout and review management system that has received on a two-pronged approach, namely in 2015, according to a report of the documents by the sector. Members local and international attention. conserving existing water supplies while released by the World Health will also look at the formation of a package The project incorporates a sophisti- searching for alternative water sources. Organisation and the United plant supplier association, which will cated telemetry system that enables the Interventions have included reducing Nations Children’s Fund. allow the division to engage the numerous municipality and Umvoto staff to monitor water leaks, clearing alien vegetation, 98,4% – The score achieved professionals more constructively when the system from the comfort of their rolling out community awareness by Johannesburg Water in the seeking feedback for a number of planned offices. Should there be any potential campaigns, and encouraging water-wise 2010 Blue Drop assessment. activities. problems, the system automatically gardening. In addition, millions of litres Johannesburg achieved the high- For more information, visit: sends an SMS alarm message to staff. The of treated effluent are now being used to est score in the country. www.wisa.org.za/TDSWWTW project also incorporates satellite image water the local golf course.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 5 Upfront

Water on www.cbd.int/protected Water International Conference Centre in the web This newly-launched website for the Diary Pretoria. Visit: www.conference.csir.co.za/ programme of work on protected areas under the Convention on MINE-WATER www.isarm.net Biological Diversity provides impor- SUSTAINABILITY SEPTEMBER 5-9 The worldwide Internationally tant information, e-learning tools and JULY 27-28 The International Mine Water Shared Aquifer Resources forums for the community of experts The Sustainable Water Resource Association’s Annual Conference will Management (ISARM) Initiative working on protected area networks Conference and Exhibition will be held take place in Nova Scotia, Canada. The is an initiative of UNESCO and around the globe. The website also at the CSIR Convention Centre. Visit: theme for the conference is ‘Mine Water the International Association of provides information on the values www.waterresource.co.za and Innovative Thinking’. Visit: www. Hydrogeology (IAH) aimed at and benefits of protected areas, as imwa2010.cbu.ca improving the understanding of well as access to over 1 000 tools and LIMNOLOGY scientific, socio-economic, legal, resources sorted by goals, searching AUGUST 15-20 WATER QUALITY institutional and environmental through specific topics and types as The 31st Congress of the International SEPTEMBER 5-11 issues related to the management well as language and geography. Society of Limnology will be held The theme of the 2010 World Water of transboundary aquifers. Since its in Cape Town. Enquiries: Prof Johan Week in Stockholm, Sweden, is ‘The start in 2002, ISARM has launched www.peatsociety.org Grobbelaar (Congress Chair), Tel: (051) Water Quality Challenge’. Visit: www. a number of global and regional The International Peat Society is an 401-2263; E-mail: grobbeju.sci@ufs. worldwaterweek.org initiatives designed to delineate international non-governmental and ac.za or Visit: http://sil2010.ufs.ac.za and analyse transboundary aquifer non-profit organisation with 1 412 SEDIMENTATION systems and to encourage riparian members from 29 countries. It is SCIENCE SEPTEMBER 6-9 states to work cooperatively toward dedicated to fostering the advance- AUGUST 31 – 1 An International Symposium on mutually beneficial and sustainable ment, exchange and communication SEPTEMBER Sedimentation and Sustainable Use of aquifer development. of scientific, technical and social The 3rd CSIR Biennial Conference River Systems will be held in Stellenbosch. knowledge and understanding of the with the theme ‘Science: Real and Enquiries: Marechia Basson; E-mail: msb@ wise use of peatlands and peat. Relevant’ will take place at the CSIR aspt.co.za; Visit: www.civeng.sun.ac.za/isrs

6 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Upfront

Freshwater info a keystroke away with new Web resource

reports Dr Helen Dallas of the Freshwater Rivers Database – the national data historical records; examining biotope Consulting Group (FCG) at the University management and storage facility for preferences of specific taxa; assessment of Cape Town. “Availability and accessibil- river health data collected in South of water quality guidelines and input into ity of these documented studies are often Africa. The Rivers Database was the Ecological Reserve; determination of problematic since much of the early work originally developed for the River Health macroinvertebrate reference conditions; was published in reports that are not Programme (RHP). “Access to the Rivers development of conservation targets; and readily available.” Database is free and readily available determination of the geographic distribu- Many recent studies use historical via registration on the Rivers website tion of taxa. data from earlier studies, which enable (www.riv.co.za/Rivers). Once registered By linking the two information comparisons of biological and/or physico- and logged on, users can select ‘Biobase’ databases, valuable data in Biobase chemical data between current and on the menu bar,” explains Dr Dallas. has now become available to all users. historical conditions to be made and the “There is also a user manual available To further enhance the value of the degree of change in, for example, water for download from the Biobase menu bar data, Biobase sites within 5 km of RHP quality, to be ascertained. In 1998 a data- option.” The user manual, developed by sites are indicated in the Rivers Web valuable new data resource for fresh- base was developed comprising biological the FCG and Soft Craft Systems, is also application. “By combining the entry Awater practitioners is now available. (macroinvertebrate) and physico-chemical available in hard copy from the Water point for the two databases, both the The resource, which takes the form data derived from documented studies of Research Commission. RHP practitioners and all other water of a Web-based database, ‘Biobase’, for riverine ecosystems within South Africa. The database, which collates a vast sector contributors will benefit by the first time makes historical freshwater This first version of Biobase used Microsoft amount of information pertaining to having access to the Biobase and the data available electronically in a single Access 97 as a software platform. Unfortu­ riverine macroinvertebrates and physic- vast amount of historical information it catalogue. nately, the software became obsolete chemistry, has several useful applications. contains,” says Dr Dallas. “The data in the Research on the ecological aspects of resulting in the database becoming These include, among others, deducing Biobase are of huge value, particularly rivers in South Africa began in the early inaccessible to most users. ranges of different physic-chemical as it would be logistically and financially 1950s and was followed by a number The Biobase has now been upgraded parameters for different taxa; assessing impossible to obtain a similar set of data of studies in the following decades, to run on the same platform as the changes in community structure using today,” concludes Dr Dallas.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 7 Quest for biofuels ignoring biosecurity impacts – CSIRO mportant biosecurity issues are becoming more aware of the risks New tools to Ibeing ignored in the global push associate with invasive species. “It is to develop new non-food crops for crucial that this new awareness leads to tackle biofuels and industrial and pharma- a revision of current biofuel legislation wetland ceutical uses. so that the biosecurity risks caused This is according to a report by mandatory targets for replacing degradation published by Australian science body, fossil fuels with renewable energy are CSIRO. The report, compiled by repre- addressed.” sentatives of ten developed countries The report stresses the role of science who attended a recent biosecurity in developing and regulating sustain- new set of integrated tools to impacts from pollution and erosion in summit in Canberra, focuse on the able crop-based biofuels. It also high- improve the management and reha- catchments as well as from excessive broad biosecurity consequences of lights the need for a global vision for A bilitation of South Africa’s wetlands are water abstraction, loss of vegetation the twenty-first century non-food future agricultural development around now available from the Water Research cover, climate change and land use agriculture. biofuels and international standards Commission (WRC). change. Up to 60% of the country’s “The exponential growth in non- and certification for the industry to The so-called WET Management Series wetlands have already been lost to food crops could compromise conven- avoid repeating the environmental of handbooks stems from the National degradation. tional agriculture if it ignores issues harm previous agricultural ‘revolutions’ Wetlands Research Programme, an initia- It is hoped that the WET Manage­ such as the potential invasiveness of have caused. The report also recognises tive of the WRC. A number of partners ment Series will do much to safeguard new crops, the effects of abandoned that developing countries will need contributed to the compilation of this the wetlands we have left. The series of plantings of trial crops, new pests assistance to develop best management set of tools, including the Department booklets offer a sound scientific basis for and diseases and pest management,” practices, protect their environment of Environmental Affairs, the South planning, implementing and evaluating reports CSIRO Entomology Scientist and undertaken risk assessments. African National Biodiversity Institute, wetland rehabilitation, providing Dr Andy Sheppard. “While it is clear that biofuel-based the Department of Water Affairs, Mondi guidelines to develop an overall plan- According to Dr Piero Genovesi rural industries can be beneficial, new Wetlands Project, provincial conserva- ning framework; assessing the condition from the Italian Institute for non-food crops must meet the triple tion agencies, universities and private of catchments and individual wetlands; Environmental Protection and bottom line – people, planet, profit – enterprise. assessing the functions and values of Research, the European Union is criteria,” concludes Dr Sheppard. Wetlands are fascinating and dynamic individual wetlands; evaluating the ecosystems that provide indispensable need for rehabilitation; identifying why ecosystem services. They constitute about wetlands degrade and what rehabilita- 7% of South Africa’s surface area and sup- tion interventions are appropriate; guid- port a range of ecosystems and services. ing the selection and implementation of Because wetlands are transitional rehabilitation methods; and monitoring between aquatic and terrestrial ecosys- the success of rehabilitation projects. tems, they are vulnerable to impacts on To order any of these booklets both. In addition to direct impacts, such (Report No: TT 334/09 to TT 343/09) as draining for pastures and crops, or the contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330- construction of infrastructure such as 0340; or E-mail: [email protected] or roads that impede and concentrate water Visit: www.wrc.org.za to download a Samantha Setterfield flows, there are also several ongoing free copy.

Water diary E-mail: [email protected] or Visit: www. E-mail: [email protected] DAMS (continued) iah2010.org SEPTEMBER 28-30 INDUSTRIAL WATER The 2nd Int. Congress on Dam Mainte­ GROUNDWATER WATER SEPTEMBER 22-23 nance and Rehabilitation will be held SEPTEMBER 12-17 SEPTEMBER 19-24 The WISA Industrial Water Conference in Zaragoza, Spain. Organised by the The 2010 Congress of the International The IWA World Water Congress & will be held at Maccauvlei, Vereeniging. Spanish Society of Dams and Reservoirs Association of Hydrogeologists Exhibition will be held in Montréal, Enquiries: Joey Swart (Conference Chair); in collaboration with the Ministry of will take place in Krakow, Poland. Canada. E-mail: [email protected] Environment of Spain. Visit: www. damrehabilitationcongress2010.com

8 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Report a wake-up call to countries’ Global failed efforts to secure biodiversity

event he outcome of a recent study report- target to reduce biodiversity loss has not highlights Ting on the failure by world leaders been achieved. to make good on their commitments to “Our analysis shows that..biodiversity plight of reduce the global rate of biodiversity loss is still being lost as fast as ever, and we migratory by 2010 should be used as an opportunity have made little headway in reduc- for countries, such as South Africa, to ing the pressures on species, habitats birds benchmark themselves against global and ecosystems,” said lead author Dr progress. Stuart Butchart, of the United Nations This is according to South African Environment Programme (UNEP) World researcher Prof Melodie McGeoch, one Conservation Monitoring Centre and of the 41 co-authors of the paper, Global BirdLife International. “Our data show housands of people in more than 40 opportunity to draw international atten- Biodiversity: Indicators or Recent Declines, that 2010 will not be the year that Tcountries across the globe participated tion to migratory birds around a central published in the journal Science earlier biodiversity loss is halted, but it needs to in an UN-backed event in May to cele­ theme each year. The focus on the most this year. The paper found that specific be the year in which we start taking the brate World Migratory Bird Day. threatened migratory birds in 2010 acts targets made by world leaders through issue seriously and substantially increase The day, held on 8 May, celebrated as yet another reminder to governments the 2002 Convention on Biological our efforts to take care of what is left of the beauty of bird migration and drew that more needs to be done internation- Diversity (CBD) have not been met, and our planet.” attention to the threat of extinction ally to conserve these species across that there is instead an alarming decline “Since 1970, we have reduced that some species of migratory birds their migratory ranges,” said Executive in biodiversity worldwide. animal populations by 30%, the area face as a result of human activity. Secretary of the Convention on Migratory Prof McGeoch, a scientist at South of mangroves and sea grasses by 20% “The threat of extinction faced by Species, Elizabeth Maruma Mrema. African National Parks and an associated and the coverage of living corals by individual bird species is a reflec- Some prominent examples of of the Centre of Invasion Biology (CIB) 40%,” reported UNEP Chief Scientist Prof tion of the larger extinction crisis migratory birds in crisis include the at Stellenbosch University, contributed Joseph Alcamo. “These losses are clearly threatening other species and the slender-billed curlew, the northern bald insights about the influence of invasive unsustainable, since biodiversity makes natural diversity that underpins ibis, the sociable lapwing, the waved species on global biodiversity along with a key contribution to human well- all life on Earth,” reported Bert albatross and the orange-bellied parrot, colleague, Dr Di Spear, also of CIB. being and sustainable development, Lenten, Executive Secretary of the all of which are migratory and listed as Compiling over 30 indicators, including as recognised by the UN Millennium African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird critically endangered. The birds face a changes in species’ populations and risk Development Goals. Agreement and initiator of the World range of mainly human-driven threats, of extinction, habitat extent and com- The results from this study fed into Migratory Bird Day campaign. of which agriculture and invasive alien munity composition – the study found no Global Biodiversity Outlook 3, the flagship An estimated 1 227 or 12,4% of the species are the most important. Hunting evidence for a significant reduction in the publication of the CBD, released in May, total 9 865 bird species in the world are and trapping, logging, urbanisation, rate of decline of biodiversity, and that when government representatives from classified as globally threatened, and 192 pollution and fisheries are also significant the pressures facing biodiversity continue around the world met to discuss the of these are considered critically endan- threats, with climate change increasingly to increase. The synthesis provides 2010 target and how to address the gered. “World Migratory Bird Day is an becoming a factor. overwhelming evidence that the 2010 biodiversity crisis.

Demand for frogs rising in West Africa

he demand for frogs for human Thirty-two traders between them handled exclusively for the Nigerian market. There, trade in frogs is unsustainable, e.g. in Tconsumption is rising dramatically in around 2,7 million frogs per year, most many fishermen have recently switched Burkina Faso, western Cameroon and parts of West Africa. This is according to a originating from the northern savan- to catching frogs, not because of their eastern Nigeria, local people are report- report in the latest Bulletin of the Wildlife nah regions higher profits, but ing decreasing catches of frogs. While Trade Monitoring Network (TRAFFIC) . of Nigeria because frogs can frogs are clearly an important food source In Burkina Faso, almost all frogs and from be sold in batches, in the region, currently there are no collected are consumed locally, with the neighbouring providing a lump regulations in any West African country African Tiger Frog (Hoplobatrachus occipi­ Benin, Chad sum of income – governing the harvest. talis) the most frequently eaten species. and Niger. around US$20 per The authors have called for investiga- Frogs are usually sold to market traders In Malan­ sack. tions into the farming of large species, such who fry the specimens for sale. ville, Benin, There are as the African Tiger frog in West Africa in In Benin and Nigeria, frogs are trans­ frogs are already indica- order for wild populations to be protected ported to south-west Nigeria for sale. collected tions that this and to provide a source of local income.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 9 Global news

Scientists study ecological impact of Katrina

urricane Katrina, that the levels of lead Hwhich caused frequently exceed widespread devastation regulatory threshold, in 2005, has left behind further research significant ecological showed that many damage, according to of the contaminants Algae advances US scientists. were present in high as ‘green’ The study, published concentrations before in a special issue of the storm season and alternative for Environmental Toxicology that lead may have improving water and Chemistry, reveals posed a significant how chemical concentra- risk to New Orleans quality tions across coastal areas residents for years varied, but within New Orleans elevated studied 128 sampling sites from across before Hurricane Katrina. The results lgae could be put to use as an eco- concentrations of lead, arsenic and other the city. Maps were then compiled from also revealed elevated concentrations Afriendly option to remove nitrogen chemicals were found, particularly in the resulting data to reveal chemical of arsenic in surface soils and flood and phosphorus in livestock manure runoff, the most disadvantaged areas of the city distribution across the city. sediments across New Orleans, caused reports US scientist Walter Mulbry of the following Hurricane Katrina. Elevated concentrations of arsenic by sediment deposition or from flooded Agricultural Research Service. The Hurricane remains the costliest and lead were demonstrated to exist buildings materials. In 2003, Mulbry set up four algal turf and deadliest hurricane ever to hit the throughout New Orleans, with the “Our evaluation of contaminants in scrubber (ATS) raceways outside dairy barns US. When the category five hurricane highest concentrations observed New Orleans was critical in determining in Beltsville, US. The shallow 30,5 m raceways hit land, the resulting surge extended in soils from the poorer sections of whether storm surges and resultant were covered with nylon netting that created six miles inland, breaching the levees the city. The team also discovered flooding altered chemical concentrations a scaffold where the algae could grow. of New Orleans and causing flooding that lead concentrations exceed the or distribution,” concluded Dr Cobb. “Our For the next three years, from April to to 80% of the city to depths of 6 m. regulatory threshold for safety, with results show how long-term human December, a submerged water pump at the Around 1 800 people died, with at least the highest concentrations found in health consequences in New Orleans end of the raceways circulated a mix of fresh 700 declared missing and one million the older parts of the city. This poses a are difficult to attribute to chemical water and raw or anaerobically digested people displaced. significant health risk to the residents deposition or redistribution by Hurricane dairy manure effluent over the algae. Within To discover the impact of chemical who returned to their homes following Katrina and Rita, yet reveal how chemical two to three weeks after the ATS system contamination, Dr George Cobb from evacuation, especially children. contamination is a historical problem for was started up every spring, the raceways Texas Tech University led a team who While the team’s findings indicated old cities in the US.” supported thriving colonies of green filamentous algae. Algal productivity was highest in the spring and declined during the summer, in Ocean salinities show an intensified water cycle part because of higher water tempera­tures and also because the raceways provided vidence that the world’s water cycle Durack. “These broad-scale patterns of As the near surface atmosphere warms snails and midge larvae ample opportunity Ehas already intensified is contained in change are qualitatively consistent with it can evaporate more water from the to graze on the algae. new research by Australian scientists. simulations reported by the Intergovern- surface ocean and move it to new regions Wet algae was harvested every 4 to 12 The stronger water cycle means arid mental Panel on Climate Change. While to release it as rain and snow. Salinity days, dried and then analysed for nitrogen regions have become drier and high change in salinity would be expected at the patterns reflect the contrasts between and phosphorus levels. Mulbry’s results rainfall regions wetter as atmospheric ocean surface (where about 80% of surface ocean regions where the oceans lose indicate that the ATS system recovered 60% temperature increases. The study shows water exchange occurs), sub-surface water to the atmosphere and the others to 90% of the nitrogen and 70% to 100% of the surface ocean beneath rainfall-dom- measurements indicate much broader, where it is re-deposited on the surface as the phosphorus from the manure effluents. inated regions has freshened, whereas warming-driven changes are extending salt-free rainwater. He also calculated that the cost for this ocean regions dominated by evaporation into the deep ocean,” he reports. “Observations of rainfall and evapora- capture was comparable to other manure are saltier. The research also confirms that The study finds a clear link between tion over the oceans in the 20th century management practices – around US$5 surface warming of the world’s oceans salinity changes at the surface driven by are very scarce. These new estimates of to US$6 for each pound of nitrogen that over the past 50 years has penetrated into ocean warming and changes in the ocean ocean salinity changes provide a rigorous was recovered and around US$25 for each the ocean’s interior changing deep-ocean subsurface which follow the trajectories benchmark to better validate global pound of phosphorus that was recovered. salinity patterns. along which surface water travels into the climate models and start to narrow the To read more about this research Visit: “This is further confirmation from the ocean interior. wide uncertainties associated with water http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/ global ocean that the Earth’s water cycle The ocean’s average surface tempera- cycle changes and oceanic processes both may10/algae0510.htm has accelerated,” notes CSIRO scientist Paul ture has risen around 0,4°C since 1950. in the past and the future,” says Durack.

10 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Global news

Unprecedented warming threatens Lake Tanganyika

ake Tanganyika’s sur- reaching 26°C in 2003, Lface waters are cur- the date of the research- rently warmer than at ers’ last measurement. any time in the previous The researchers used 1 500 years, according to sediment cores from the US researchers. lake bed to reconstruct The rise in tem- the 1 500-year history of perature during the the lake. The cores were Household 20th century is driving a analysed for chemicals decline in the productiv- produced by microbes detergents may ity of the lake, which and left in the sediments form harmful hosts the second-largest to determine the lake’s inland fishery in Africa. past temperature substance in “People throughout and productivity. The wastewater south-central Africa instrument record of lake th depend on the fish from Lake Tanganyika phenomenon driving something local temperatures from the 20 century agrees cientists are reporting evidence that as a crucial source of protein,” reports that has a huge potential impact on the with the temperature analyses from the Scertain ingredients in shampoo, deter- Prof Andrew Cohen of the University of people that live in the region and on the core, reports Cohen. gents and other household cleaning agents Arizona. “This resource is likely threatened animals that live in the lake.” As Lake Tanganyika warms, the upper may be a source of precursor materials for by the lake’s unprecedented warming The annual catch of Lake Tanganyika waters become less dense. Therefore, formation of a suspended cancer-causing th since the late 19 century and the associ- fishery is estimated at about 198 000 stronger winds are required to churn the contaminant in water supplies that receive ated loss of lake productivity.” t/year. The nations of Burundi, Tanzania, lake waters enough to mix the deeper water from sewage treatment plants. This is the first detailed record of Zambia and the Democratic Republic waters with the upper layer. As a result, The study sheds new light on possible temperature and its impacts on a tropical of Congo border the lake, which is the the upper layers of the lake are becoming environmental sources of this poorly African ecosystem that allows scientists longest lake in the world and the second increasingly nutrient-poor, reducing the understood water contaminant, called to compare the last 100 years with the deepest. lake’s productivity. NDMA, which is of ongoing concern previous 1 400 years, says Cohen. The Lake Tanganyika’s surface waters are Other lakes in Africa are showing to health officials. William Mitch and team attributes the lake’s increased tem- its most biologically productive part. For similar effects to those the team found colleagues from the Department of perature and the decreased productivity the 1 400 years before 1900, those waters in Lake Tanganyika, says Cohen. The find- Chemical Engineering at Yale University th during the 20 century to human-caused were no warmer than 24°C. Since 1900, ings have implications for lakes in more report that scientists have known that global warming. “We have got a global the lake’s surface waters have warmed, temperature climates. NDMA and other nitrosamines can form in small amounts during the disinfection of wastewater and water with chloramines. Climate threatens trout and salmon Although nitrosamines are found in a wide variety of sources – including processed rout and salmon are among bine to affect both species. As both meats and tobacco smoke – scientists Tthe world’s most familiar salmon and trout favour cool water, know little about their precursors in water. freshwater fishes, but numbers they face potentially major problems Past studies with cosmetics have found have fallen over recent decades – if climate warming continues as that substances called quaternary amines, in some areas, dramatically. expected in the next few decades. which are also ingredients in household Pollution, habitat loss and “Huge efforts have been put into cleaning agents, may play a role in the over-fishing have all been bringing salmon back into Europe’s formation of nitrosamines. blamed in the past, but new formerly polluter rivers such as the Mitch’s laboratory research showed evidence from Cardiff University Taff, Thames, Clyde, Seine and Rhine, that when mixed with chloramines, some in the UK shows that climate so these results are a major worry,” household cleaning products – including change could be a major factor, reported Prof Ormerod. “Salmon shampoo, dishwashing detergent and putting both species at risk. The scientists trout numbers by 67% between 1985 and trout fishing also generate many jobs laundry detergent – formed NDMA. Sew- studied populations of young salmon and 2004 – even though the river itself and large economic benefits. In Wales age treatment plants may remove some of and trout in the River Wye in Wales, became cleaner. alone, salmon fishing contributes around quaternary amines that form NDMA. How- traditionally one of the UK’s best angling The fish were hardest hit follow- £90-million annually.” ever, quaternary amines are used in such rivers. Prof Steve Ormerod and colleagues ing hot, dry summers such as in 1990, A paper on the findings has been large quantities that some still may persist from the Cardiff School of Biosciences 2000 and 2003. The results suggest that published in environmental journal Global and have a potentially harmful effect in the found salmon numbers fell by 50% and warmer water and lower river levels com- Change Biology. effluents from sewage treatment plants.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 11 Company news

Groundbreaking study examines climate change effects on dam yields onsultants have concluded a first- caused by climate change,” explains • Daily minimum and maximum Cof-its-kind study for the Metolong Darryn Knoesen of Jeffares & Green’s temperatures for each scenario; Authority in Lesotho to research the Earth Sciences division. • Soils information; and potential impacts of climate change To provide the Metolong Author- • Land cover information, which was as- on the long-term yield of the proposed ity with information on the possible sumed to be under natural conditions. Metolong Dam. impacts of climate change on the yield of Arcus GIBB and Jeffares & Green were Metolong Dam, the study team modelled Resulting future inflow scenarios for Meto- appointed to look at the possible effects the behaviour of the dam for a range of long Dam suggest that, in the intermediate of climate change on an infrastructure different future situations. Each of these future (i.e. 30 to 50 years from now) the that will need to stand for at least the assumes an alternative set of inflows to average inflows to the dam are likely New desal plant next 100 years. the dam based on the climate change to increase moderately to significantly, “The issue of climate change and its scenarios developed Climate Systems together with some increase in variability. augmenting impacts on water resources is not new, Analysis Group (CSAG) at the University of This means that the available long- town’s water but planners are increasingly concerned Cape Town. The result of the analyses is a term yield of the Metolong Dam is highly about the possible negative impacts of range of possible changes in yield which unlikely to decrease in the intermediate supply climate change on the utilisable yields can be used by planners as an indication future. In this case, therefore, no special from dams and water resource systems,” of future trends. adaptation measures will be required to ater supply to Knysna has been reports Gerald de Jager, Associate of Inflows used for the analyses were account for the impacts of climate change Waugmented with the supply of a Jeffares & Green and a key member developed by the School of Bioresources on the yield of the dam over a 50-year 2 Mℓ reverse osmosis (RO) water aug- of the study team. “Emphasis is now Engineering and Environmental Hydrol- planning horizon. mentation plant by VWS Envig. being placed on the need to implement ogy at the University KwaZulu-Natal However, since projected inflows to The fast-tracked project was commis- special adaptation measures to mitigate based on CSAG scenarios and using the the dam, as well as their variability are sioned in April. The heart of the plant such impacts and to consider how such daily time-step ACRU hydrological model. expected to increase, design engineers consists of three RO skids. Due to the fast efforts can fit within the mainstream of Inputs into the ACRU included, among should account for the possibility of delivery times required, the skids were developmental strategies. We are now others: associated increases in the magnitude manufactured by a sister company of taking into account the fact that the • Daily rainfall for each climate change and the severity of extreme flood events VWS Envig in Spain. The remainder of the useful life of larger water infrastructure is scenario; in the future. system was manufactured and procured often measured in multiple decades, and from the Cape region. investments that are made today will still 250% “The skids are fitted with energy Average

be operating under new climates of the ) CCC recovery turbines to utilise the energy 200% CNRM twenty-second century.” ECHAM in the brine and thus save on electricity The proposed Metolong Dam will Present GISS 150% IPSL consumption and reduce the carbon foot- be located on the South Phuthiatsana print of the plant,” reports Abrie Wessels, River in the Lesotho Lowlands, some 100% VWS Envig GM, Cape region. Raw water 35 km outside Maseru, and it forms is sourced from beach wells at Loerie Park part of a larger US$370-million project 50%

Sports Ground near Knysna lagoon. that includes treatment and convey- of (as % inflows Average The plant was constructed at the 0% ance infrastructure to supply water to Present Int. future Dist. future Knysna Wastewater Treatment Works. domestic users as well as for industrial Time horizon

This allows the desalination plant to take use, particularly textile factories. Inter- Averages of possible future inflows to Metolong Dam. advantage of the existing infrastructure national funding has been secured for

and blend the outfall from the conven- the design and construction of the dam. ) 250% Average tional sewage treatment plant with the The Metolong Authority is the project CCC

Present 200% CNRM reverse osmosis brine. The blended water implementing agent. ECHAM will have a salinity lower than that of GISS “Estimates on dam yields are tradition- 150% IPSL seawater and thus the cooperation of the ally based primarily on historical climatic two plants is a major benefit. behaviour and the observed occurrence 100% The drinking water from the plant of precipitation and stream flows in will be pumped back into the existing upstream catchment areas. However, 50% Knysna potable water reticulation system.

scientists and engineers are now of as % (CV, of inflows Variability 0% VWS Envig will operate and maintain developing new ways of assessing yield Present Int. future Dist. future the plant for three-years for the Knysna Time horizon and, in particular, the possible impacts Municipality. Variability of possible future inflows to Metolong Dam. of precipitation and stream flow changes

12 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 New reports

New from the WRC

Accordingly, a reflective assessment Report No: TT 404/10 re-design of the WFD for furrow irrigation process is proposed that involves a multi- Guidelines for Facilitating Cooperative and using the WFD to act as a passive agency workshop in which representatives, and Adaptive Management of Freshwater lysimeter for soil solution monitoring. both individually and collectively, reflect on Ecosystems (DJ Roux; K Murray; L Hill) Effective Groundwater Management in Namaqualand: and score the factors affecting cooperation. Report No: TT 379/08 Sustaining Supplies Guidelines for Facilitating Kevin Pietersen, Rian Titus & Jude Cobbing Cooperative and Adaptive Management Development of a Model for Determining of Freshwater Ecosystems Report No: 1529/2/09 Dirk J Roux, Kevin Murray & Liesl Hill Affordable and Sustainable Sanitation Water Education and Training: WET- Demand in Dense Settlements of South Programme (M Hlophe and MD Venter) Africa – User Manual and Guidelines for the This water education manual emanates SHAPE Model (Richard Martin) from a WRC-funded project which tested The SHAPE (Sanitation and Housing TT 418/09 Report No: TT 418/09 a membrane technology unit for the TT 404/10 Applied Priorities Enquiry) Model presents effective treatment of groundwater in the costs of sanitation and housing services Effective Groundwater Management in This publication, funded by the WRC Madibogo village, in North West. During in such a way that any variable may be Namaqualand: Sustaining Supplies and the World Wildlife Fund South the project the need to inform community considered in real time, so that beneficiar- (Kevin Pietersen; Rian Titus; Jude Cobbing) Africa, targets those responsible for the members about water and water treat- ies may make informed decisions. For the Supplying water becomes difficult in arid management and conservation of fresh- ment issues was identified, culminating in first time, this model allows for a compara- environments with limited surface water water ecosystems. The guidelines therein the development of the WET-Programme. tively accurate and groundwater resources. This is particu- acknowledge the general complexity of The manual tackles various issues in a user- estimate of the larly true in the region of Namaqualand. Development of a Model for Determining freshwater ecosystem management. This Affordable and Sustainable Sanitation Demand friendly way, including the water cycle, actual cost of all in Dense Settlements of South Africa In response to this challenge, the WRC complexity, and the associated unpredict- water purification and storage of water, components of USER MANUAL AND GUIDELINES has supported a number of groundwater ability, is not only a characteristic of natural responsibilities of users of water and water a housing pack- for the research projects in the region over the systems. It is also acutely associated with SHAPE MODEL policies, such as the concept of Free Basic age (i.e. stand last few years to build up a knowledge the realities of the multi-stakeholder envi- Richard Martin Water, among others. size, servicing, base aimed at successfully exploiting the ronment and overlapping organisational house size, groundwater resources of the region. The cooperation. This demands participative Report No: 1428/1/09 and standard purpose of this guide is to translate the sense-making, effective coordination and Methods and Guidelines for the Licensing of fittings and scientific and technical knowledge gained multi-dimensional cooperation. These of SFRAs with Particular Reference to Low finishes). through research on the hydrogeology guidelines suggest practical steps for Flows (GPW Jewitt; SA Lorentz; MB Gush; This report TT 379/08 of basement aquifers into a user-friendly someone interested in facilitating useful S Thornton-Dibb; V Kongo; L Wiles; J Blight; serves as the format for use by the Department of Water change towards a purposeful learning and SI Stuart-Hill; D Versfeld; K Tomlinson) user manual and guidelines for the model Affairs, local authorities and end-users. adaptation process to achieve this. This project arose in response to a realisa- software which is available on the WRC tion that the low flow components used website: www.wrc.org.za/ResearchRe- Report No: TT 420/09 Report No: 1574/1/10 in assessing streamflow reduction activity ports/ProjectSoftware/SHAPE A Reflective Assessment Process for Promo- Adapting the Wetting Front Detector to (SFRA) license applications was in need ting Multi-agency Cooperation: Towards Small-scale Furrow Irrigation and Providing of review and refinement. Furthermore, miniSASS Achieving Cross-sector Policy Objectives for a Basis for the Interpretation of Salt and there is increasing concern regarding The latest version of miniSASS is now avail- Conserving Freshwater Ecosystems Nutrient Measurements from the Water the potential for large-scale land use able for download from the WRC website (DJ Roux; K Murray; L Hill; HC Biggs; Sample (RJ Stirzaker; JM Steyn; JG Annan- change, and associated potential water for use to monitor the health of a river and CM Breen; AL Driver; E Kistin; M Levendal; dale; GT Adhanom; M vd Laan; CM’Marete) resources impacts, driven by factors, most measure the generally quality of the water KH Rogers; H Roux) The wetting front detector (WFD) was notably the need to improve livelihood in that river. The scoring system uses the Formal South African cross-sector policy originally developed as a simple irrigation security through improved dryland crop composition of macroinvertebrates (tiny objectives exist for conserving freshwater scheduling tool to fill a perceived gap in production and the recent interest in insects) living in rivers and is based on the ecosystems. These need to be achieved by the market. The FullStop WFD is a funnel- large-scale biofuel production. Thus the sensitivity of the various animals to water multiple agencies, each with their own shaped device that is buried in the soil and aims of the project considered the need to quality. To download go to www.wrc.org. roles and responsibilities. The nature of the provides a visual signal when the soil water improve the existing modelling tools for za/Pages/DisplayItem.aspx?ItemID= objectives requires effective cooperation suction falls to 2 kPa during an irrigation hydrological analyses of land use change, 8726&FromURL=%2fPages%2fDefault. between these agencies. Cooperation is event. Thousands of units have been sold but also the need to develop manage- aspx%3f. For hard copies, contact Publica- multi-faceted with many factors needing worldwide. This project report focuses on ment protocols to utilise these. tions at the WRC. to be in place for it to be effective. areas requiring further work, including the

To order any of these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340; fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 13 Wetlands

For peat sakes – Can SA afford the demise of its natural carbon & water stores for the sake of short-term economic gain?

og, mire, fen. These are only Peatlands are known for their abil- some of the terms used to ity to mitigate global climatic impacts describe what is arguably through their capacity to store car- Bthe most intriguing and remarkable bon. They also act as huge stores of Despite local and international efforts, wetland-type in the world. water – around 10% of the world’s South Africa’s peatlands continue to be Peatlands refer to those wetland freshwater is contained in peatlands. threatened by an array of social and ecosystems characterised by the Furthermore these wetlands are economic pressures. Lani van Vuuren accumulation of organic matter (or hotspots for biodiversity and home to peat) derived from dead and decay- many endangered species. investigates the importance of these ing plant material under conditions Millions of people live in and natural water and carbon stores. of permanent water saturation. depend on the world’s peatlands for Globally, peatlands are extremely their livelihoods from grazing cattle widespread, covering an estimated and harvesting reeds to cultivation 3% (4 million km2) of the terres- and catching fish. Unfortunately, trial and freshwater land surface. these wetlands – like other natural

14 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Wetlands

“We still know very little about the vegetation composition, structure, and functioning of these swamp forests due to their remoteness and inaccessibility.”

peatlands are mainly formed by reeds, sedges and grasses. This is sig- nificant, as it contributes to a much slower peat accumulation rate. In South Africa peat accumulates at an average rate of only 0,5 mm to 1 mm a year compared to a world average of 1 mm to 2 mm a year. Most of our peatlands are less than 10 000 years old. Eleven peatland eco-regions have been described and occur mainly in the (wet) eastern, central and Lani van Vuuren van Lani southern parts of South Africa. More systems – are subject to increased Above: Peat can hold than 460 peatlands can be found in exploitation and degradation. Glo- up to a 1 000 times its these eco-regions, the vast majority bally, peatlands are being destroyed weight in water. (60%) occurring in Maputaland. The at a rate of about 4 000 km2/year largest peatland in the country is the mainly as a result of agriculture, Below: The degradation Mkhuze Delta which, together with forestry and peat extraction. It is and draining of the the Mbazwana swamp forest, form estimated that a quarter of all the palmiet peatlands of the largest mire complex in South peatlands on Earth have already Goukou in the Western Africa (about 8 800 ha in extent). been destroyed. Cape have led to severe Also to be found in this region is erosion and washing South Africa oldest peatland – the Unique wetland type away of precious Mfabeni Mire, which at 45 000 years agricultural land. old, is one of the oldest active peat accumulating wetlands in the world. y far the majority of peat- Blands occur in the Northern Hemisphere and less than 1% of the world’s peatlands are found in south- ern Africa and South America. In South Africa, peatlands are a rather rare and unique wetland type. It is estimated that only about 10% of South Africa’s wetlands contain peat. Still, despite the low global per- centage, South African peatlands are to be found in a variety of landscapes contributing to a rich diversity of peatlands and mires, explains South African peatland expert Piet-Louis Grundling. “These vary from the interdune tropical swamp forests on the east coast to percolation mires in the interior on the southern African plateau and the palmiet peatlands in the Cape Fold Mountains.” While in the Northern Hemi- sphere, most peatlands consist of Sphagnum moss, South African Japie Buckle

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 15 Wetlands

Top left: A peat fire Research has shown that these wet- in a swamp forest as a lands – through their water purifica- result of the lowering of tion function – reduce algal growth the groundwater table. thereby reducing the city’s water The fire causes the roots treatment costs. of the swamp forest Rural communities have long trees to burn causing relied on peatlands to provide them them to fall over. with clean drinking water and, his- torically, small wells were dug on the Bottom left: edge of peatlands and fenced off to Sphagnum moss, prevent muddying by livestock. Peo- seen growing here in ple also use peatlands for subsistence Maputaland, while the agriculture and grazing of livestock. main contributor to In addition, the reeds and sedges peat in the Northern that grow on peat have traditionally Hemisphere, is rare in been harvested and used for weaving South Africa. and thatching. These activities are sustainable when undertaken on a small scale, but with larger economic pressures Ricky Taylor Ricky South Africa’s peatlands are being degraded at an unprecedented rate. Today, around 40% of the rehabilita- tion of Working for Wetlands (WfW) is centred on peatlands. Agricultural and forestry activi- ties have traditionally been the greatest threats to South Africa’s peatlands. Forestry, a stream-reduc- ing activity, targets the high-rainfall areas where peatlands are normally found while in agriculture wetlands were, until recently, viewed as ‘waste- lands’ of no value unless drained, excavated or cultivated. The important role of peatlands as part of the natural landscape is often not realised until it is too late. The Cape Fold Mountains are home

Ricky Taylor Ricky to a unique set of wetlands charac- terised by palmiet and peat. These Benefits forgotten In the Tshwane Metropolitan wetlands play a crucial role in flood Area intense rehabilitation has attenuation, trapping sediment and part from the rich biodiversity restored the Rietvlei wetland com- slowing down water flow. When cul- Athey support, their water filter- plex which had lost much of its tivation and urban infrastructure led ing and storage capabilities are per- function due to past agriculture, to the draining and degradation of haps the most important functions water abstraction and peat mining. the peatlands, it severely altered their derived from peatlands in South flood attenuating ability leading to Africa. “Peat acts as a sponge, storing “While it is recognised that the local severe erosion and the washing away water for long periods and releas- communities depend on this ecosystem of precious agricultural land. ing it in times of low flow when the for survival, the continued damage to Tens of thousands of tons of peat downstream water requirement is at swamp forests will not only destroy the have been extracted from South Africa’s karst fens outside Ven- its peak,” explains Grundling. “Peat ecosystem and its biodiversity, but also also acts as a natural filter, making tersdorp and Potchefstroom for the it highly effective in removing sedi- the subsistence base of the communities mushroom and horticulture indus- ment, pollutants and pathogens.” depending on them.” tries. Historically, more than 90% of

16 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Wetlands

peat used in the mushroom sector Limpopo Plain Peatland eco-regions was mined locally. However, thanks Bushveld Basin of South Africa to a decision by the South African Mushroom Farmers Association Central Highlands (SAMFA) in 2007 to cease the use of Highveld South African peat local demand has Cape Fold Mountains dropped significantly and only two peat-mining operations remain. Southern Coastal Belt Since peatlands are interdepend- Lowveld ent on the surrounding landscape they are vulnerable to not only direct Great Escarpment Mountains impacts but indirect influences as well. Natal Coastal Plain Excessive groundwater abstraction has caused the Bodibe peatlands in Eastern Coastal Belt North West to dry out. Burning for Eastern Uplands grazing by the local community caused the peatlands to start burning. While multi-million Rand rehabilitation

Peatlands and climate change

eatlands are a critical part of the Pglobal climate regulation system. Acting as organic sinks, these wet- lands store at least 550 gigatons of carbon – twice as much carbon as the biomass of the world’s forests. When peatlands are cleared or drained, the organic carbon that was built up over thousands of years and is normally under water, is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into efforts managed to temporary cease carbon dioxide which is released into the fire, the peatlands are now burning the atmosphere. again. Not only is the local community It is estimated that the present exposed to smoke from the fires, it is clearing, draining and setting fire to also endangering their lives as well as peatlands emit more than 3 billion the lives of their livestock. tons of carbon dioxide every year – equivalent to 10% of global emissions New onslaught from fossil fuels. There are strong international calls to preserve remain- he country’s hunger for ing peatlands to not only protect the Tresources and commodities is biodiversity and ecosystem services putting many previously untouched they support, but also to prevent peatlands at risk, especially in the Highveld and Central Highveld more carbon dioxide from degraded peatland eco-regions. Uncontrolled peatlands entering the atmosphere. It exploration for diamonds and coal is believed that investments in con- has already caused damage to many servation and restoration of peatlands peatlands in these areas. Among

can be up to 100 times more cost- the peatlands under threat from Grundling Piet-Louis effective as other carbon sequestration prospecting and mining licence At around 45 000 years old the Mfabeni Mire on measures. applications is the Chrissiesmeer South Africa’s east coast is one of the oldest active Lake District, Wakkerstroom, the peat accumulating wetlands in the world.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 17 Wetlands

given carte blanche to prospect as they please,” says Grundling. “Per- mits are being issued without due consideration for the environment or the long-term needs of society in terms of water. These mines compete directly with wetlands and impact severely on water quality and quantity.” Short-term gain, long-term loss

n the east coast of South OAfrica, peatlands are steadily being destroyed through uncon- trolled activities of local communi- ties. Encroachment by local farmers

Piet-Louis Grundling Piet-Louis increasingly threatens the survival of the country’s peat swamp forests. Above: Starved of Grundling explains that swamp water as a result of forests are highly threatened eco- excessive groundwater systems in South Africa, being the extraction, the Bodibe second-rarest forest type in the peatland in North West country. It is only found in isolated has burnt for several patches from the Mozambique years. border to just south of the Msikaba River, in the Eastern Cape. “We still Left: Bananas growing know very little about the vegetation in an area that was composition, structure, and func- previously swamp forest tioning of these swamp forests due to in Maputaland. Note their remoteness and inaccessibility.” the commercial scale of But will we ever get the chance to the plantation. study them? Every day more of this unique habitat – a haven for sev- eral rare species – is being drained, burnt, and farmed. Fields of bananas, amadumbes and other crops – some up to commercial scale – are becom- ing a common sight, some being planted inside proclaimed conserva- tion areas. After a few years the sites become unsuitable for cultivation, so that the damage steadily affects new areas. Aerial surveys have also revealed an increasing number of community Eucalyptus woodlots.

Ricky Taylor Ricky The trees tap into the regional water table of the primary aquifer, resulting Verlorenvlei Ramsar site and the migrates from Ethiopia. The other in the desiccation of the wetlands, Lakenvlei Wetland Complex. South African peatland frequented by and in some cases, the burning of One of South Africa’s larger peat- this shy bird, the Watervlei mire, on the peat. lands, Lakenvlei, provides an impor- the Drakensberg escarpment, will be This is not only affecting the tant habitat to several important inundated by Eskom’s Ingula Pumped cover vegetation but also the hydrol- species, such as the rare white-winged Storage Scheme. ogy of the peatlands. The peatlands flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) which “It seems mining companies are are an important source of fresh

18 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Wetlands

water and thus draining them inad- vertently affects the water supply of Mining for mushrooms the local population, especially in times of drought. eat mining has resulted in the severe degradation of wetlands, especially those outside Ventersdorp, “Peat as a resource for clean drink- Potchefstroom and Tarlton. In South Africa peat extraction is quite a simple process. Since our deposits ing water is probably much more P important than any of the other uses, are relatively young and usually occur close to the surface, the water table is lowered. As water drains from especially in remote rural areas. Its the peatlands the peat is excavated using small excavators. For larger deposits larger excavators on barges value in terms of commercial exploi- are used, which can take peat out to a depth of 7 m to 9 m. tation must be weighed up against Historically, the greatest consumers of local peat have been the horticulture (potting soil) and mush- the value of permanent and clean room sectors. Its water holding capacity and structural properties make peat an ideal casing material for water,” says Grundling. “While it is mushroom growing. recognised that the local communi- In consultation with conservationists and the government, the South African Mushroom Farmers ties depend on this ecosystem for Association (SAMFA), which represents the vast majority of the sector, has made an active decision not to survival, the continued damage to support the use of local peat. It is reported that today, none of the large producers of mushrooms use local swamp forests will not only destroy peat. Instead Sphagnum-based peat is imported from countries such as Ireland and Germany where it is the ecosystem and its biodiversity, but removed to make way for, for example, housing developments. also the subsistence base of the com- munities depending on them.” “We as an industry simply do not believe that depleting natural resources can be a sustainable practice, The Water Research Commis- we needed to find a workable alternative,” explains SAMFA Chair Ross Richardson. “Our decision to look sion (WRC) is funding projects towards the Northern Hemisphere for a solution is not the perfect answer in the long term, but because worth several million Rand in peat- of the abundance of peat there, we believe that it is the only solution for our industry until a suitable local lands, including the Mfabeni Mire. substitute is found.” According to Director: Water-linked As a result local peat mining has fallen drastically, and there are only two peat-mining operations still Ecosystems, Dr Stanley Liphadzi, remaining. There are still mushroom producers in South Africa who use local peat, but they are believed to the knowledge gained through these make up far less than 5% of the sector. The Sphagnum peat is also of higher quality than South African reed- projects is contributing significantly based peat leading to increased production. to the international peatlands knowl- The move to use international peat has resulted in a 10% cost increase of mushrooms, mainly as a result edge base. of import and transport costs, but, says Richardson, this has largely been accepted by retailers and consum- Among others, WRC research has ers. At the same time, the sector is supporting programmes investigating effective casing alternatives to shown that water from the Mfabeni Mire flows into Lake St Lucia, pro- peat. This has proved easier said than done, however, with cost playing a major role. “If we can find a suit- viding freshwater refuge for biota able alternative material the South African mushroom sector will be one of the first in the world not to make in times of drought. “With looming use of peat at all,” notes Richardson. climate change wetlands such as this will play an even more important role in maintaining the biodiversity of this World Heritage Site,” notes Dr Liphadzi. “We cannot afford for such a system to be degraded up to the point where valuable ecosystem Fisheries (DAFF), Water Affairs Peat extraction is now a listed services are lost.” (DWA) & Environmental Affairs activity under the National Envi- Among others, current research (DEA). However, the lack of capacity ronmental Management Act, which is focusing on quantifying the water to apply the legislation and regula- means that any intention to extract balance of the peatland, the contribu- tions are contributing to the present peat must be foregone by an Envi- tion of freshwater to Lake St Lucia and exploitation of South African peat- ronmental Impact Assessment. Even evaluating the effects of climate change lands. Action is further hampered this admirable legislation does not and land use on the water flux. by the apparent inter-provincial appear to have improved matters. variations in interpreting and imple- It is reported that the challenges co-governance mentation of applicable legislation regarding coordination between quagmire and policies. national departments as well as provincial departments which must etlands are adequately “The major problem of peatlands is the lack implement legislation results in a protected under the leg- of skilled resources on the ground. When situation where our peatlands are islation of the Depart- culprits are caught in the act, it becomes at risk. The Peat Working Group mentsW of Agriculture, Forestry and (PWG) was established in 1997 to difficult to obtain convictions.”

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 19 Wetlands

monitor and/or co-regulate peat areas. While they rake in huge mining in South Africa. While the profits, the affected community PWG did not have an official stand- loses the benefits of an ecosystem ing, it was an informal arrangement they depended on for hundreds that handled peat mining-related of years. issues and applications. The PWG At the time of writing, there did manage to stop several illegal was a draft Memorandum of peat-mining operations. However, Understanding (MoU) regard- this group is no long functioning. ing cooperative co-governance The major problem of peatlands awaiting signature by the relevant is the lack of skilled resources on authorities. This is seen as a posi- the ground. When culprits are tive step in the right direction. caught in the act, it becomes dif- The MoU aims to formalise legal ficult to obtain convictions. Achiev- mandates and protocols between ing cooperation between State Working for Wetlands, DWA, departments in these cases is often DEA and DAFF, developed to a nightmare. formalise wetland-related reha- The management of subsist- bilitation funded by WfW. ence farming on communal land South Africa’s peatlands should is a grey area and, in many cases, a be regarded as non-renewable. political hot potato. This is situation It is hoped that efforts to protect is exploited by unscrupulous devel- what is left will succeed and so opers who drain and cultivate large prevent the extinction if this pre- tracts of peatland in communal cious natural resource.  Piet-Louis Grundling Piet-Louis

The illegal and uncontrolled expansion of Eucalyptus plantations pose a severe threat to wetlands in Maputaland. The trees tap into the regional water table of the primary aquifer, resulting in the desiccation of wetlands.

Peat swamp forest is one of the rarest wetland types in South Africa. Uncontrolled draining and cultivation of swamp forests have brought them to the brink of extinction outside the boundaries of conservation areas. Note the lighter green areas (bananas) within the remains of the swamp forest. 20 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Wetlands

Below: Peat is extracted in the Mooi River catchment using excavators.

Bottom: Restoration of the peatlands in Rietvlei Nature Reserve is saving the City of Tshwane millions of Rands in water treatment costs. Piet-Louis Grundling Piet-Louis Lani van Vuuren van Lani

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 21 Water History

Nqweba Dam – Supplying water to the thirsty Karoo

In March 2008, the Nqweba Dam spilled for the first time in 22 years. SanParks

For more than 80 years, the Nqweba Dam the supervision of CH Warren, an War had just ended, and obtaining (formerly known as Van Ryneveld’s Pass engineer with the Cradock branch plant and materials proved exces- of the Irrigation Department. The sively difficult (almost everything Dam) has been the main water supply to results of this survey showed that a had to be imported) and expensive. Graaff-Reinet, in the Eastern Cape. Lani van scheme was feasible and a detailed The Irrigation Department, who at Vuuren takes a look at the history of this survey followed. In 1919, an Irriga- that time had quite a few big water tion District was proclaimed under schemes under construction, includ- water engineering marvel, one of the first the Irrigation and Conservation of ing the Hartbeestpoort Dam, decided large dams to be constructed in South Africa. Waters Act of 1912. Under this Act to tighten its belt and loans were held farmers could apply for easy loans back for new schemes. and obtain engineering assistance to The lack of funds meant that construct large water schemes. from November 1920 to July 1921 he idea of constructing a Irrigation Department engineer the only construction that could be dam across the poort at the KR Shand was promptly seconded done at Van Ryneveld’s Pass was the Van Ryneveld’s Pass on the to the site as Resident Engineer. The erection of quarters for staff and TSunday’s River outside Graaff-Reinet scheme was to comprise a concrete employees, installation of water sup- was discussed among eager irrigators storage dam a little less than two ply and construction of works roads. and thirsty townsfolk for many years. kilometres north-west of Graaff- But it was not until 1918 that any Reinet, three pick-up weirs and Staff housing attempt was made to investigate the about 97 km of canals. possibilities of a storage scheme here. The Van Ryneveld’s Pass Irrigation nlike many other large dam In that year, a preliminary sur- Board was eager to start construc- Usites at the time, the Van Ryne­ vey of the basin was made under tion, however, the Second World veld’s Pass Dam site was quite close

22 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Water History

to a town, “a 20 minute walk” as Shand put it in an Irrigation Depart- ment magazine article in 1924. As a result not nearly as many amenities were required as at other dam con- struction sites. As was typical of that time, one’s position and one’s race very much dictated what lodgings one would be Left: Workers afforded on site. All white (skilled) drilling rock during quarters were constructed of brick excavations for the under an iron roof. The married foundations. quarters consisted of pairs of semi- Far left: Donkeys detached cottages with flat roofs while haul sand during the single quarters comprised single excavation of the dam. rooms with small kitchen attached. About 27 432 m of The staff (mainly engineers) lived in soil were taken out by means of donkeys and single cottages with pitched roofs. Graaff-Reinet Museum Graaff-Reinet scrapers. All the houses had water laid on to near the kitchen door and were sup- plied with electric light. out by means of donkeys and method was confined to that por- Black employees, who made up scrapers. “This method proved very tion of the excavation close to the the whole of the unskilled work economical as long as the scrapers riverbank. At the far end, inclines contingent, were housed in two could be worked at right angles to and light track were put down and brick compounds, each capable of the wall of the dam, which meant cocopans hauled up the inclines by accommodating 200 men. When that a load was taken out going means of donkeys and then pushed the number of black staff rose to 700 and coming, dumping both up and out through the cut in the riverbank. between July-November 1923 the downstream,” wrote Shand. The riverbed did offer some extra men had to be accommodated After going down 3 m the pull resistance in the form of large in huts made of cement bags. up became too steep; a cut was then boulders, up to about a cubic metre, which had to be removed with pick and shovel as the pur- The dam now forms part of the Camdeboo National chase of a steam shovel proved too Park, and these days it is more noted as a tourist inhibitive. The donkeys were later attraction than a main water supply. replaced with large mechanical plant. Practically all the machin- ery on the works was electrically All white employees paid rent made in the riverbank, scrapers driven, the power being generated and contributed to a special medical taken through this and dumped at a central power station located fund. Black employees did not pay in the riverbed. This meant a long alongside the railway siding for rent but did contribute to the medi- haul and an empty trip back, so this easy handling of coal. Excavation cal fund. Water was obtained from a 136 kℓ service reservoir above the camp supplied by a small pumping plant on the riverbank. A sanitary service removed sanitary buckets and rubbish twice weekly. Donkey and leg power

start was made on the founda- Ations of the dam in July 1921. Excavation work was carried out in The three main irrigation outlet valves four sections: left flank, base excava- are placed on the tion, river section and right flank. downstream side of About 27 432 m of soil were taken Museum Graaff-Reinet the wall.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 23 Water History

was completed at the end of ground surface level, the trucks September 1923. were run out on the side of the A hero’s Concrete work started in excavation, and concrete tipped burial November 1922 and by November down chutes into trucks at a 1923, 52 754 m3 of concrete had lower level. ne famous name connected been placed. The great part of this These trucks ran on rails resting Owith the Nqweba Dam is that of concrete was placed by means of on gum poles which, in turn, were Gideon Scheepers. Among others, tip trucks; when work was below carried by the shuttering: a day’s the Boer Commandant participated work was shuttered off in pockets in the battle of Magersfontein and 4,2 m by 5,5 m wide by 1,4 m high. escaped when General Piet Cronje Once the wall reached ground surrendered at Paardeberg. He further surface level, the trucks were run out led a commando of 150 men to take directly on the shuttering. on British forces in the Cape Colony The steel shuttering was built into Graaff-Reinet Museum Graaff-Reinet panels 6 m by 3 m and 4,6 m by 3 m during the South African War (1899- for the upstream and downstream 1902). Becoming seriously ill he was faces respectively and was used only captured on a farm in Prince Albert on these faces. The upstream panels in October 1901 and sentenced to weighed about 227 kg and were han- death by firing squad in Graaff-Reinet. dled by cranes. When a crane was Scheepers was executed on 18 Janu- unavailable these panels had to be ary, 1902, and buried in an undis- lifted by ‘sheer legs and chain blocks.’ Left top and closed location. Legend has it that his bottom: The dam The dam was completed towards remains now lie under the waters of under construction in the end of 1924. In total, nearly a the Nqweba Dam. July 1923. More than quarter of a million bags of cement 700 men worked to were used in the construction of the construct the dam in wall and over 80 km of steel rods less than four years – a record for that time. were cut, bent and assembled and placed in the superstructure. Below: Nqweba Work on the canal structure was Dam (formerly Van kicked off early in 1924 and super- Rynevelds Pass Dam) vised from the dam. The scheme was was one of the first large dams to be constructed for around £400 000, the constructed in South costs of the canals being a fifth of the Africa in the 1920s. total cost of the scheme. SanParks

24 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Water History

The water woes of Graaff-Reinet

he fourth-oldest western settlement The very system by which Graaff- municipal board to investigate possible Tin South Africa, Graaff-Reinet was Reinet was supplied with water also schemes. established by the Dutch occupiers of became an increasing source of dissatis­ After many investigations and much the Cape in 1786. As was common with faction to the people in town. The two discussion a plan was construed to sink many colonial settlements at that time, temporary dams in the Sundays River two wells at Mackie’s Pit and construct the site, on a loan farm belonging to were washed away every time the river a concrete culvert to carry the water by Dirk Coetsee, was selected mainly for its came down in flood, and both furrows gravitation to the mill; here the water defensive potential, being surrounded became choked with mud. This meant would be divided between the upper by the Sunday’s River on three sides. The that there was no water going into town and lower furrows. The fall from the town was named after Governor Cornelis until the dams were reconstructed and upper to the lower furrow would be Jacob van de Graaff and his wife Cornelia the furrows cleaned. This could take used to drive a turbine to pump Reynet. between a few days to a few weeks. 227 kℓ of water a day to a service reser- Despite its proximity to the river, For those inhabitants who did not voir. Water from this reservoir would be the problem of water supply remained a have wells or rainwater tanks on their used for household purposes as well as dominating theme in the life of Graaff- properties, this was quite a concern. in the case of fires. Reinet for centuries. In 1797, John They had to rely on so-called ‘brand- At a town council meeting in 1881, Barrow found the appearance of the dams’ or fire-dams for their drinking it was decided to carry out only part of town “as miserable as that of the poorest water. These dams were formed simply Gamble’s scheme – that wells be sunk village in England.” by a widening of the furrows into at Mackie’s Pit and a furrow constructed In the decades after Barrow’s visit squares of 3 m to 4 m and served, to to the upper furrow. The works were circumstances got a little better. As a certain extent, as drains. According completed in November 1882. A decision Graaff-Reinet grew into a bustling trad- to the Herald newspaper when these was then made to continue the works a ing centre a temporary dam of driftsand dams were cleaned “the accumulated little further so that they would be secure and brushwood was constructed in the filth which is exposed and thrown out against a flooding of the river (however, Sunday’s River. From this dam a furrow was sufficient to turn the stomach of the in-fighting became so bad that these was led to the outskirts of town, where it even a municipal commissioner.” plans were never completed). was channelled into a number of canals Decades of financial difficulty pre- By 1908, people were thinking in for distribution to the gardens of the vented the municipality from improving terms of a weir across the Sunday’s River town’s inhabitants, called erfholders. the situation until 1873 when the munic- and it was in this direction that further These erfholders used the water to grow ipal board decided to test the water from attempts were made to improve the produce, particularly vines. a groundwater source known as Mackie’s water supply of Graaff-Reinet, which The Graaff-Reinet In 1820, another dam and furrow, Pitt. Unfortunately tests revealed that the culminated in the construction of the Municipal Board at which became known as the upper dam underground water was connected with Nqweba Dam in 1921. The wells of the new town water scheme in 1884. and furrow, were constructed. The original the Sunday’s River. This meant that the Mackie’s Pit were covered by the dam. works then became the lower dam and municipal board could not use this water furrow. The making of a dam higher up in without consent of the erfholders, who the river would reduce the flow of water were entitled to all the water in the river into the lower dam so to compensate above the two dams. lower furrow users, a proportion of the During November and December water of the upper furrow was turned over 1974, heavy rains not only washed the district mill located at the top end of away the dams, but almost completely town and into the lower furrow. However, destroyed the lower furrow. The damage the volume of water from the upper furrow was considered to be permanent. Graaff- that should be turned over the mill was a Reinet applied to Parliament for a loan of contentious issue and conflict over water £12 000 to improve its water supply and between upper and lower sections of the in December 1875 Government Hydraulic Graaff-Reinet Museum Graaff-Reinet town continued for decades. Engineer John Gamble met with the

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 25 Water History

Engineering features

he dam consists of a mass concrete wall of gravity sec-

Graaff-Reinet Museum Graaff-Reinet T tion, straight in plan of the overspill type. The upstream face is vertical and the downstream face stepped (a novel feature at the time). These steps are staggered to break up water coming over the crest in case of high floods and so reduce the pounding action on the toe of the dam and foundation. No special provision was made to form a water cushion as it was antici- pated that a natural water cushion would be formed with a certain amount of surface material being scoured away, leaving a standing pool at the toe. The spillway over the main wall is 169 m long and an auxiliary spillway on the left flank 69 m long. A removable reinforced concrete

The dam spilling for the first time. The Sources downstream face is made up of staggered • Notes on some of the more impor- steps, which break tant irrigation and multi-purpose up the mass of schemes built and/or controlled by floodwater spilling the Department of Water Affairs, over the crest. September 1969, Compiled by the Department of Water Affairs • Van Ryneveld’s Pass Irrigation Scheme. Souvenir of the official opening of the works, 14th July, 1925 by the Van Ryne­ veld’s Pass Irrigation Board • Van Rynevelds Pass Irrigation Scheme in South African Irriga- tion Department Magazine, Vol. 3 No 1, March 1924 • From frontier to midlands: A history of the Graaff-Reinet Dis- trict, 1786-1910 by KW Smith • www.graaffreinettourism. co.za/index.php?page_ name=more&menu_id=1 Water from Nqweba • www.sahistory.org.za/pages/ Dam is no longer used places/villages/eastern- for irrigation. The dam Cape/graafReinet.htm falls within Camdeboo • Thanks to Graaff-Reinet Museum, National Park and Camdeboo Municipality and is a major tourist SanParks for photographs. SanParks attraction in the area.

26 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Water History

superstructure, 381 m long with However, the dam still provides a pedestrian walkway around 2 m much needed water to the town of Main features of wide, extends over the entire length Graaff-Reinet, and when the Van Nqweba Dam of the top of the wall. Ryneveld’s Pass Irrigation Board Dam type: Mass concrete gravity The main irrigation outlet valves was dissolved in 2001/02 the owner- are placed on the downstream side ship of Nqweba Dam passed on to section overspill type of the wall, and discharge into the Camdeboo Municipality. The dam Maximum height of concrete riverbed. As the dam also serves as a now forms part of the Camdeboo wall above riverbed: 33 m storage reservoir for Graaff-Reinet, a National Park, and these days it is Length of dam at crest: 356,6 m valve tower on the upstream side of more noted as a tourist attraction Crest width (overall): 3 m the wall draws off the water for the than a main water supply. Footway: 2 m town. Initially three pipelines served The future of the dam is uncertain, Maximum excavation depth: the town’s requirements. however. A safety inspection of the 14,4 m dam in 1998 classified it as ‘one of the (Original) gross capacity at full An uneasy future most unsafe dams of its size in South supply level: 78 843 Mℓ Africa’ as it is reportedly unstable Quantity of concrete in main under flood conditions. Investigations ike other dams in the area, wall: 99 392 m3 LNqweba Dam has lost much into various options are still being of its capacity due to excessive weighed to improve this situation – in siltation. This, in addition to an the extreme case the cost to decom- increase in soil salinity, has made mission the dam and replace it with irrigated agriculture a high-risk another source to supply water to activity in the catchment, and over Graaff-Reinet may have to be con- the years many farmers have gone sidered if the structural measures are out of business. found to be too expensive. 

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 27 Water and health

Pain – The price our daughters pay for water

The burden of carrying water is putting These disorders can cause severe University of Technology led by Prof South Africa’s rural women and children at impairment and functional disability, Paul Jagals, looked at the way water hampering quality of life. carrying is performed in rural South risk of a lifetime of pain and discomfort. This In South Africa, basic water Africa, with a view to identifying is according to a study by South African and services require a maximum accept- the potential health risk factors. UK researchers. Lani van Vuuren reports. able distance for a communal tap The study was funded by the Water no more than 200 m from a person’s Research Commission. house. This means that, even if peo- Data was collected from six vil- he regular carrying of heavy ple have access to an improved water lages in Limpopo’s Vhembe district, containers filled with water supply someone – usually a woman purposely selected to include a over long distances has long or child – still has to carry that water range of water service situations and Tthought to be potentially damaging from the tap to the door. In a rather environments which have different to the bodies of especially women unusual study, undertaken by physical effects or expose people to and children, yet few global inves- Jo-Anne Geere and colleagues of the different risk factors for injury or tigations have been undertaken in Faculty of Health at the University disease. Among others, the study this regard. In turn, muscoskeletal of East Anglia, in the UK, and a sought to identify the main carriers injury or disorders are a known team from the Department of Envi- of water, how this water was carried, risk factor in occupational settings. ronmental Health at the Tshwane what factors posed risk of injury

28 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Water and health

or disease and looked at the pain Millions of South symptoms experienced by those African women and carrying water. children spend hours a day collecting and A woman’s work carrying containers of water to the detriment he study again confirmed that of their health. Tcarrying water is the work of women and children, with very few males observed undertaking this task. Children as young as six were observed carrying heavy containers of water, weighing 19,5 kg on aver- age. “The weight of these contain- ers is quite significant, especially considering that the minimum body weight we measured was only Guy Stubbs 16 kg,” noted Prof Jagals. “The average weight of the people in the Children as young as six study was 49 kg.” were observed carrying The research team found that water. the characteristics of the terrain over which this water had to be transported very much dictated the way in which people carried it, whether on the head, by rolling the container along the ground or using a wheelbarrow. This study suggests that women and children are more likely to carry water on their heads, which focuses and transmits forces through the cer- vical spine. The average distance travelled was 337 m. The mean container weight as percentage of body weight for TUT head loading was 41,4%. It was not uncommon to find especially malnutrition and chronic illness, disability, as people with spinal pain children carrying more than half both prevalent in poor rural areas may experience difficulty carry- their body weight in water on their such as Limpopo, can reduce these ing water over long distance and heads and a mean container weight tolerances.” The mere lifting of this be more likely to continue to carry as percentage of body weight of up heavy load on to the head is a health water only if it is accessible close to to 77,8% was observed. When using risk, even for adults. home,” said Prof Jagals. equipment, such as wheelbarrows, Factors such as low taps (leading people transported up to 200% “It was not uncommon to find especially to awkward body positions), load of their body weight (up to five children carrying more than half their weight, an unwieldly load, physical containers). body weight in water on their heads.” obstacles, traffic, age and gender, are This water weighs heavily on the some of the other potential health risk heads and necks of those who carry Up to 70% of people interviewed factors identified during this study. it. “The weight of the water alone complained of spinal pain (pain These findings highlight the generates an average of 191 Newtons reported in the head, neck or back). potential impact that carrying water of compressive force through the Of interest is that the study found may have on health. “More research cervical spine,” noted Prof Jagals. “In that the distance walked by those is required to understand the physi- a healthy person this compression who reported pain was significantly cal risks of water carrying and so force may not exceed tissue toler- less than those who did not. “These reduce the burden on our women ances if applied briefly. However, results may indicate pain-related and children,” concluded Prof Jagals. 

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 29 Water technology

Namibia’s Trekkopje

– A desal plant built tough Keyplan

Southern Africa’s largest seawater several water supply options, includ- Above: The seawater reverse osmosis high-pressure pumps and energy recovery. The plant only consumes desalination plant, the 55 000 m3/d ing groundwater and surface water. However, these sources proved 4,1 to 4,5 kW of energy for every cubic metre of water Trekkopje plant in Namibia, is now insufficient to meet the mine’s initial produced, comparable to the best in the world. operational. Lani van Vuuren reports. 20 million m3/year requirement, and a decision was taken to develop a 2010. Thus, at the inception of the desalination plant instead. project, the desalination plant was irst announced in 2007, the “The availability and advances in designed not only to accommodate Trekkopje desalination plant, desalination technology, such as high the mine’s requirements, but also for situated near Wlotzkasbaken, efficiency membranes and energy possible future water supply to other Fabout 30 km north of Swakopmund, recovery devices, have made seawa- users in Erongo. was constructed to mainly serve ter desalination a viable solution for Areva Resources Namibia’s new water supply in mining applications Environmental Trekkopje Uranium Mine. Namibia where a high assurance of supply considerations is the world’s fifth-largest producer is required, reports Martin Pryor, of uranium, while also boasting Process Manager at Keyplan, which s the area of development is abundant resources of diamonds, designed and constructed the Trek- Ahighly regarded for its wide copper, silver, tungsten and lead. kopje desalination plant. open vistas and expansive desert However, Namibia has one of The Trekkopje desalination plant views, the siting of the desalination the driest climates in the world, and has become of great strategic impor- plant had to be carefully selected. water – or the lack of it – has been tance for the Erongo region and for An already disturbed site (an a significant inhibitor to develop- Namibia. Studies undertaken for abandoned borrow pit) was there- ment in the country to date. When the provision of water revealed that fore chosen for construction of Areva Resources sought to open there are insufficient water resources the plant. Any further disturbance its new opencast uranium mine in to provide for existing development to the area was minimised by, for Namibia’s Erongo region, it explored levels in the region much beyond example, prohibiting off-road

30 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Water technology

driving outside the designated Key features of the Trekkopje desalination plant construction area. The permanent 3 3 water pipeline and power line Desalination plant design capacity 20 Million m /y (54 794 m /d) traverse inland along an existing Desalination plant installed power 12 724 kW 3 quarry road to the Trekkopje mine. Intake system designed supply 45 million m /year Even the plant itself has been Eleven parallel UF trains 17 760 m3/d each built in such a way as to blend in Nine parallel SWRO trains 7 008 m3/d each (operating at 63 bar pressure) with its natural surroundings. “The Power consumption (desalination plant) 4,1-4,5 kW per m3 of water produced relatively flat nature of the area Power consumption (SWRO system) 2,58 kWh per m3 meant that the skyline would be Source: Keyplan easily broken by development. We therefore appointed an architect to • A 132 kV power line from the capacity of 55 000 m3/year the plant design the building in such a way Kahn sub-station to the desalina- is the largest ever to be constructed in that it would blend in with the natu- tion plant (Only the seawater southern Africa. ral slopes of land as much as possi- transfer pumpstation and desali- A seawater intake structure ble, used neutral colours and avoided nation process plant was installed was installed with 40 mm-inlet the use of, for example, face brick,” by Keyplan). screens which can be removed for Pryor tells the Water Wheel. cleaning or replacement. The intake 2 Furthermore, a 185 km lichen The seawater intake system is designed and brine pipelines were placed in a field is located to the north-east to draw in a volume of 15 076 m3/hour, 1,5 m-deep trench in the sea bed of the site. This field is considered which caters for a future potential rock, through the surf zone for one of the best expressions of these water demand at 45 million m3/year. which a 400 mm-long temporary lichens along the coast. The whole The carbon steel intake pipes each jetty was erected. In order to mini- area was demarcated and access received a concrete weight coating mise the potential marine ecology strictly prohibited. In fact, the pipe- on the outside and suitable corrosion impact of the brine disposal, dis- line now acts as an additional barrier protection on the inside. With its total charge via a pipeline into deep water to the lichen fields. Technical details

onstruction a high-tech plant in Csuch a corrosive environment was no mean feat. Among others, the engineers had to overcome a rela- tively unprotected coastline, where the water temperature and salinity levels vary; changes in water quality and delivery of the required quan- tity of fresh water over a distance of about 50 km to an altitude in excess of 500 m above mean sea level. “This is one of the toughest environments Keyplan in the world to work in,” notes Pryor. The overall project infrastructure consists of: • Two 1 200 m seawater in­-take pipelines and a 600 m brine dis- posal pipeline; • A seawater transfer pump station; • A desalination process plant; Top left: The low- • Three treated water transfer pressure feed pump pump stations and pipeline to the gallery for the seawater mine; reverse osmosis plant. • A 54 000 m3 terminal water stor- Bottom left: The age reservoir at Trekkopje mine; ultrafiltration feed and Keyplan pump gallery.

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 31 Water technology Keyplan

was specified. The marine intake desalination plant will pass through a The ultrafiltration 40% of the seawater is converted into works and brine discharge was con- set of screens less than 100 micron to plant and backwash treated water, while the remaining structed by M & R Marine. capture the fine sediment and organic piping. Eleven parallel 60% is returned to the sea. The plant debris. UF trains were installed was constructed in a modular fash- Pre-treatment each capable of ion to allow for future expansion to Membrane processes producing up to meet future commercial and indus- 3 ince the water quality of seawater 740 m /hour of filtered trial needs. Salong the Namibian coast is nutri- he desalination plant uses seawater. ent rich, has high plankton levels and Tultrafiltration (UF) followed by Post treatment and contains kelp forests, pre-treatment of reverse osmosis (RO) to clean the water transfer the seawater is required. In addition, water. Both the UF and RO mem- macro-fouling from mussels, crabs, branes, as well as much of the other he permeate from the SWRO is oysters, sea anemones and barnacles, specialised equipment, were sourced Tmarginally corrosive due to low combined with micro-fouling from from abroad. calcium and alkalinity. A limestone bacteria, slime and algae, greatly The UF membranes remove remineralisation filter containing restrict the flow of water along pipe- turbidity, plankton and bacteria in marble chips, followed by a small lines and in process equipment. the system. Eleven parallel UF trains dose of soda ash is used to ensure “Swakopmund is subject to an were installed each capable of pro- water of optimum quality. infrequent phenomenon ‘red tides’ ducing up to 740 m3/hour of filtered The stabilised water then flows and upwelling of low oxygenated seawater. Scale and fouling is con- into a 2 000 m3 small on-site pump water together with hydrogen sul- trolled by anti-scalant dosing, and a station surge tank before being phide from decaying organic material specially developed anti-scalant, with pumped overland to the mine which raises seabed sediments,” notes good biodegradable properties, was 50 km away. The water is transported Pryor. “When these events occur, the selected for this application. via two booster pump stations to a desalination plant is managed accord- The seawater (SW) RO proc- 54 000 m3 terminal reservoir at the ingly to ensure that effective water ess uses spiral wound, thin-film mine at an elevation of 520 m above treatment can be achieved.” composite polyamide membrane mean sea level. Three pre-treatment technologies elements. Nine independent parallel The plant started delivery in were selected. Firstly, irregular shock SWRO trains were installed. Follow- March in preparation for mine dosing of chlorine is applied to con- ing the UF, a lower pressure supply activities to begin, and Keyplan has trol biofilm and macro-fouling. The pump conveys water through a sin- been awarded a ten-year operations treatment of sulphides and upwell- gle pipe to the high pressure pump and maintenance contract to run the ings will also be treated by chlorina- and energy recovery devices. Each desalination plant. This project is tion. Secondly, chemical coagulation SWRO train has a design production set to pave the way for similar future using ferric chloride is used to assist capacity of 7 008 m3/day. developments in the southern Afri- in plankton and colloidal particle An overall recovery rate of 38% can region where water scarcity is a removal. Lastly, seawater entering the to 40% is achieved, meaning that barrier to development. 

32 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Capacity building

Learning and capacity building – building a two-way bridge CSIR

When it comes to conservation, there is much options, based on an understanding objectives, the project was enriched to learn from one another, as a recent project of environment potentials and limits, by two-way learning exchanges and of needs perceived by the people between researchers and university funded by the Water Research Commission of the country concerned. students; project members and com- (WRC) shows. Article by Inga Jacobs and This definition not only speaks munity members. Additionally, this Karen Nortje. to the ability to draft well-informed, approach produced holistic and relevant policy and developing imple- integrated findings as well as policy he loss of intellectual assets, mentation strategies, but also requires recommendations that were locally skills flight and the resultant that these take into account, and driven but also provincially, nation- institutional memory loss are are in fact, based on locally defined ally and regionally applicable. In so Tmajor threats to effective water man- needs. One WRC-funded project doing, the project sketched the social agement, particularly in water-scarce sought to do just that, but unravelled complexity of the issue at hand – mul- countries such as South Africa where the multiplicity of benefits of capac- tiple understanding of conservation. the onus is on the scientific commu- ity building for various individuals nity to find technological solutions. by ensuring that capacity building Challenging According to Agenda 21: “a funda- objectives are a focus of project conventional mental goal of capacity building is to design as opposed to a mere positive understanding enhance the ability to evaluate and byproduct. address the crucial questions related In fact, the most powerful benefit he project, ‘Knowing, Caring to policy choices and modes of realised was that by designing the Tand Acting (KCA): Making implementation among development project around capacity building Use of Socio-Cultural Perspectives

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 33 Capacity building

to Understand and Improve Con- planning occurs should be taken into Because of the need to map out servation’, headed by CSIR Senior account. In response to this state- the multiplicity of understanding Researcher Karen Nortje, aimed to ment the KCA project team took the of conservation, the project team develop a conceptual understand- research of freshwater conservation (comprising CSIR researchers and ing of: to the local communities of Hazyview students from the Department of • local socio-cultural perspectives and Bushbuckridge in Mpumalanga. Development Studies and Anthro- of conservation, which translated At the outset, the project ques- pology at the University of Johan- into the various ways in which tioned the implicit dichotomy of nesburg), used the notion of capacity people know and care about con- western-scientific understandings of building as methodology through servation, and the various ways conservation and local socio-cultural participatory, collective learning in which people act on this; and realities and the perceived moral approaches including focus groups, • how the conservation plan- superiority of existing conserva- theme-based interviews and partici- ning process is influenced by tion planning models as processes pant observation. the knowing, caring, acting of ‘teaching’ conservation practises The emphasis on a participative dynamic and local socio- to ‘uninformed local community process ensured locally-relevant cultural perspectives. members’. findings, and not merely a lit- erature review of scientific best When we learn from one another, be it community practice. In addition, it promoted two-way exchanges of informa- member or researcher, a bridge is built – one that tion on conservation and sharing connects science, policy and communities. of experiences of conservation practices. CSIR Senior Researcher There is a growing recognition that The view that society should be The KCA project had several Dr Inga Jacobs there is an implementation crisis in influenced by, and should adjust capacity building components. (wearing cap) with the field of conservation. Simultane- their knowledge systems, their values Firstly, students were employed to Anthropology students ously, there has been an ever-growing and behaviours in greater support assist with fieldwork research and Innocentia Mduli and realisation that solutions for this of conservation, is an enormous as such gained valuable hands-on Sibongile Bambisa crisis can only be found outside the socio-cultural and socio-political experience of conducting qualita- and Developmental conservation process and beyond challenge. While unsustainable and tive research in the field. Secondly, Studies student Marida the confines of the natural sciences. environmentally damaging practices interviews/questionnaires were Aucamp are guided For this reason, the broader socio- are rife at the local level, this view completed by several hundred school by a local woman to economic and political context within undermines the needs and chal- children and interactive participa- interview sites. which conservation management and lenges of local communities. tory exercises were conducted to cre- ate awareness around conservation practices. Thirdly, focus groups were held in communities where research- ers exchanged ideas with community members on conservation and the perceptions people have on it – in essence – we learned from them. Good learning experience

hrough research-focused Tmentoring, Marida Aucamp, a Development Studies Honours student, was able to base her Hon- ours Dissertation on the KCA project and worked side by side with the researchers, obtaining hands-on experience of qualita- tive research methods in the field, working with institutional representatives and communities.

CSIR Fieldwork development training

34 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Capacity building

was also provided to Sibongile Bambisa and Innocentia Mdluli, two Honours students in Anthro- pology. Acting in the capacity of translators, they also contributed substantially to the depth of project findings. “The experience presented me with a lot of learning opportuni- ties. Most of all, with the oppor- tunity to learn from experienced researchers how to do fieldwork; how to conduct interviews and focus groups,” notes Aucamp. For Bambisa it was also an eye-opening experience. “Doing research in the area was exciting, but difficult at the same time. As a Zulu woman, I found it hard asking some ques- tions, such as people’s age, edu- CSIR cation background and marital status. In most Nguni cultures nature which makes it difficult for Through a learning-by-doing Anthropology Honours it is forbidden to enquire about them to understand that nature is approach, multi-dimensional Student Innocentia your elders’ age and educational to be shared by all living organ- capacity building research frame- Mduli engaged in background as it is regarded as isms and that it should be looked works, such as the one exemplified a semi-structured disrespectful. However, such ques- after.” in the KCA project, have much interview with a curio tions had to be asked because I was value to offer the water sector. vendor. not there as a Zulu woman but as a Socio-cultural Qualitative research methods are student and a research assistant.” practices best able to operationalise such This project is a good exam- frameworks, and allow for the ple of where the WRC’s effort to he second capacity build- expansion in time and space of create the space of capacity build- Ting component of the project the background knowledge that ing in the field of water research involved conducting surveys and informs policy and planning has been immensely successful at participatory exercises with 231 pri- different levels. For the students, mary and high school learners. The In most Nguni cultures it is forbidden it has been a good learning experi- third capacity building component to enquire about your elders’ age and ence which will help them in their involved the sharing of experienced future careers as social scientists. around the wise use of water, the educational background as it is regarded For the CSIR team it has also been value of water, and the importance as disrespectful. rewarding to be able to share one’s of water to local communities. Here, own experience and knowledge, inter-generational reflections and processes. As we learn from com- but also to engage with commu- childhood stories were shared about munities, we are able to produce nity members and learn of the the nearby river. issue-relevant, impactful and sus- socio-cultural perspectives that In this instance, it was time for tainable solutions that are in tune often contradict scientific under- researchers to learn about socio- with the needs of communities. standing of conservation. cultural practices, belief systems, Social or collective learning, “It was interesting to go back the compartmentalisation of capacity building, or something where I did part of my growing up conservation and the non-linear resembling ubuntu? Whatever term and do research about something nature of the knowing, caring, act- we choose to give it, addressing simple that is actually compli- ing dynamic. Essentially, knowing capacity challenges in the water cated, water. I was an insider all about conservation may not lead to sector requires a two-way learning the way during the field work and caring, and thus may not necessarily approach. When we learn from one this made it easier for people to translate into acting. Other socio- another, be it community member communicate their thoughts with cultural, political and socio-eco- or researcher, a bridge is built – one me,” says Mdluli. “I learnt that nomic factors determine the nature that connects science, policy and some people put themselves above and sequence of this dynamic. communities. 

The Water Wheel July/August 2010 35 Biodiversity: Taking care of creatures great and small

n 22 May we celebrate the diver­ being discovered every day. These species A wealth of living things sity of life on Earth, from the tini­ are like little parts in a complex machine • South Africa has more than 20 300 est insects to the largest animals (the planet) – everything even the low­ species of flowering plants. one of thatO make our planet the special place it is. liest microbe plays a part in keeping this the six most significant concen­ From the hot arid deserts of the Sahara machine running smoothly. trations of plants in the world is in Africa, through the lush green rain­ We do not always realise it, but these the Cape Floral Kingdom, with forests of the South American Amazon, species, whether they be plants, animals or its distinctive fynbos vegetation. to the ocean depths and bright corals, our insects, play a very important role in our • The country boasts 243 spe­ natural world is a marvel of different land­ lives. We depend on nature for our food, cies of mammals. A total of 17 scapes, materials, colours and textures. water, and shelter – even medicines. Medi­ of these are threatened, includ­ Every year we celebrate the International cines such as painkillers, penicillin and ing the black rhino, pangolin Day for Biological Diversity to remind us inoculations are all based on natural organ­ and giant golden mole. The of the important role of the variety of life isms. Wild plants are also constantly being riverine rabbit, roan antelope on our planet in providing for our wealth, screened in search of new cures. and wild dog are endangered. health and well-being. To date, however, humans have not done • Of the more than 800 bird spe­ The Earth consists of many millions of a very good job in protecting bio­diversity. cies found in South Africa, 26 are distinct biological species – the product We are responsible for the fact that every threatened, including the African of four billion years of evolution. Accord­ 24 hours between 150 and 200 species penguin, Cape vulture, martial ing to the latest count, scientists have become extinct. This is mainly because eagle, bateleur and Cape parrot. described over 1,5 million species of ani­ of increased pressures on natural systems • In total, 370 reptiles and amphi­ mals, plants and algae, with new species due to human population increase, habitat bians occur in South Africa. • The country boasts 220 fresh­ water fish, of which 21 are threatened. There are more than 2 000 marine fish species. Source: Department of Environmental Affairs www.sxc.hu

36 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 Biodiversity words

Biodiversity: Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the number, variety and variability of all living things on Earth. Biological resources: Those compo­ nents of biodiversity of direct, indirect or potential use to humanity. Biome: A major portion of the living environment of a particular region www.sxc.hu characterised by its distinctive vegeta­ tion and maintained by local climatic destruction, overexploitation (such as and wood products that come from a sus­ conditions. hunting and fishing), pollution and the tainable legal source. We can also protect Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of introduction of invasive alien species. Once biodiversity by reducing our paper con­ plant, animal and microorganism com­ species and habitats are lost they can never sumption and using recycled paper. Every munities and their non-living environ­ be replaced. ton of 100% recycled paper saves 24 trees. ment interacting as a functional unit. South Africa is considered the third One of the biggest threats to the marine Endemic: Restricted to a particular most mega-diverse country in the world. environment is our insatiable demand for area, used to describe a species or 2 With a land surface of 1,1 million km – seafood. By dialling the SASSI FishMS organism that is confined to a particu­ representing just 1% of the Earth’s total land number, 079 499 8795 (in South Africa), lar geographical region. area – the country contains almost 10% of you can determine whether that fish on Habitat: The place or type of site where the world’s total known bird, fish and plant your plate is endangered or not. The South an organism or population naturally species, and over 6% of the world’s 6% of African Sustainable Seafood Initiative occurs. the world’s mammal and reptile species. (SASSI) has also created a seafood database Invasive alien species: Those species This is because of South Africa’s wide range containing information on the conservation which occur outside their natural range of climatic conditions and its many varia­ status of fish species (http://sassi.icecream­ and threaten the existence of native tions in topography (from narrow coastal lovestheweb.com/home.asp?m=7&s=2). plants and animals. plains, to steep escarpment, and large Source: WWF plateaus). What can the ordinary person in the street do to protect biodiversity? Well, according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) there are quite a few things. Firstly, if you are on holiday (even in South Africa) be careful of buying souvenirs made from skin, fur, bone, shell, beak or hooves, as these might be from endangered species. Secondly, question where your garden furniture or wooden flooring comes from – every year some 13 million hectares of natural forest are lost. It’s best to buy wood

Web resources www.sxc.hu http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ biodiversity/ http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolu­ tion/mass-extinction1.htm www.cbd.int/idb/ www.deat.gov.za www.unep.org/iyb/ www.wwfsassi.co.za

 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 37 Last word

Water gathering attracts over a thousand

ore than 1 300 delegates stimulated with a range of topics, institutional issues. In addition Mattended the WISA 2010 including potable and industrial to other conference activities, the Biennial Conference in Durban in water treatment technologies, week also saw the presentation of March confirming the conference’s wastewater treatment, education the 2010 Blue Drop Awards and the status as the biggest of its kind in and training, communication launch of the WISA-Netherlands southern Africa. Delegates were water supply, management and Water Partnership.

Deputy Minister of Water & Environmental Affairs Rejoice Mabudafhasi, WISA

President Kevin Pietersen and WISA CEO Junior Potloane at the opening session. All photographs by Lani van Vuuren van Lani by photographs All Kitty Foxon and Prof Chris Buckley of the Pollution Research Group at the University of KwaZulu-Natal with Ronel Augustyn of Sasol Technology R&D.

As usual the WRC stand attracted a great number of visitors. TC Nemutudi; Mulimisi Nekudzhiga; Zucharia Maswuma and Moloko Matlala, all from the Department of Water Affairs.

Mahadi Mofokeng and Wendy Ralekoa, both from the DWA.

Glenn Burton-Durham, PCI Africa; Lebo Rathebe, PCI Africa and Prof Bhekie Mamba of the University of Johannesburg.

38 The Water Wheel July/August 2010 The Forum for Young Scholars (YSF) in Transboundary Water Governance in SADC, in collaboration with the Young Water Professionals Gauteng Chapter presents its First Annual Symposium in association with WISA and IWA.

29-30 November 2010, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Pretoria

Call for Abstracts Exploring transdisciplinarity to address change in the SADC Water Sector: Establishing the role of social scientists in this vision

In order to address new and emerging challenges and complexities, such as climate change, increasing water scarcity, skills flight and social inequality, more integrated levels of ingenuity and expertise from a diverse set of disciplines are needed. Creating a balance between technical, natural and social science is critical to developing relevant and impact driven solutions for the water sector in the Southern African Development Community (SADC).

YSF, an issue-driven initiative by the Young Water Professionals (YWP) Gauteng Chapter invites you to its first annual symposium on the benefits of interdisciplinary collaborative exchanges in addressing change in the SADC Water Sector. This workshop offers a number of exciting opportunities to interested young professionals:

• It will bring together a broad spectrum of young scientists, from different backgrounds, to workshop the theme above. • It offers a theme-specific presentation opportunity to young professionals • It will offer an opportunity for inter-generational learning as a ‘community of elders’ or more experienced professionals will be present to engage young professionals on their work. • Publishing opportunities for selected papers will be explored.

We encourage the submission of abstracts that look innovatively at transdisciplinarity as a means to addressing the region’s emerging change and challenges, specifically targeting the following sub-themes: Climate Change; Acid Mine Drainage; Water and Health; and Governance.

Abstracts should be a maximum of 350 words, font size 12, Times New Roman and single spaced. Papers in each sub-theme should include innovations and experiences in water resources planning and management and river basin management at different institutional and spatial scales and in view of global changes.

Please email all abstracts to: Dr. Inga Jacobs: [email protected]

Due Date for all abstracts: 30 August 2010