Introduction: Robinson Crusoe, the Child, and the People

Notes

1 See Ian Watt’s Rise of the Novel, especially pp. 30–4, for his definition of ‘formal realism.’ The status of formal realism as the central component of a definition of the novel has been vigorously contested over the last few decades, perhaps most notably by Nancy Armstrong in Desire and Domestic Fiction. 2 On the subject of Crusoe’s individualism, see Watt, ch. 3, ‘“Robinson Crusoe,” Individualism and the Novel.’ A number of critics have discussed Robinson Crusoe in the context of colonial expansion, among them, Firdous Azim in The Colonial Rise of the Novel, in which she coins the term ‘sovereign subject,’ and Edward Said in Culture and Imperialism. For more sustained postcolonial readings of Robinson Crusoe, see Peter Hulme’s Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1497–1797, especially ch. 5 ‘Robinson Crusoe and Friday’ and Brett C. McInelly’s ‘Expanding Empires, Expanding Selves: Colonialism, the Novel, and Robinson Crusoe’ (Studies in the Novel 35.1 [2003]: 1–21). Robert Markley has challenged the Crusoe-as-triumphant colonizer reading recently, arguing instead that the sequels to Robinson Crusoe exhibit a strong anxiety and uncertainty over Britain’s status as world power given Chinese trade and military prominence in the period; see ‘“I have Now Done With My Island, and All Manner of Discourse About It:” Crusoe’s Farther Adventures and the Unwritten History of the Novel.’ 3 See, for example, Stephen Hymer’s ‘Robinson Crusoe and the Secret of Primitive Accumulation’ (Monthly Review 23 [1971]: 11–36). 4 Virginia Woolf remarked of Robinson Crusoe that it ‘resembles one of the anonymous productions of the race itself rather than the effect of a single mind’ (89); Ian Watt, in Myths of Modern Individualism: Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan, Robinson Crusoe, describes Crusoe as a ‘reflection of the virtues and vices of the English character’ and his story as ‘the epic of the stiff upper lip’ (171). 5 See J. Donald Crowley’s ‘Introduction’ to the Oxford World’s Classics edition of Robinson Crusoe, vii. 6 For a comprehensive discussion of the early evolution of the robinsonade, see Artur Blaim’s ‘The English Robinsonade of the Eighteenth Century.’ 7 Chartier describes ‘appropriation’ as a kind of popular usage of elite cultural materials, in which common readers, for example, take elements from elite literature, adapting and altering these elements to fit their own interests and needs. See Chartier’s ‘Culture as Appropriation: Popular cultural Uses in Early Modern France.’

159 160 Notes

8 See my own The Making of the Modern Child: Children’s Literature and Childhood in the Late Eighteenth Century (New York: Routledge, 2003). Some of the early, important studies setting the groundwork for my own and other similar studies include Isaac Kramnick’s ‘Children’s Literature and Bourgeois Ideology: Observations on Culture and Industrial Capitalism in the Later Eighteenth Century’ (Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 12 [1983]: 11–44); Alan Richardson’s Literature, Education, and Romanticism: Reading as Social Practice, 1780–1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Samuel F. Pickering Jr.’s Moral Instruction and Fiction for Children, 1749–1820 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993); Mary V. Jackson’s Engines of Instruction, Mischief, and Magic: Children’s Literature in England from its Beginnings to 1839 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989); and Patricia Demers’ Heaven upon Earth: The Form of Moral Children’s Literature to 1850 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1993). Philippe Ariès’ Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life (Trans. Robert Baltick. New York: Vintage Books, 1962), with its assertion that childhood as we know it did not exist before the Early Modern period, remains the touchstone for constructivist histories of childhood and children’s literature. 9 For Burke’s full account of this discovery, see ch. 1, ‘The Discovery of the People’ in his Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe. 10 Warnings about children picking up vicious habits or irrational superstitions (about ghosts and witches, most commonly) from the lower classes, especially servants, abound in the period’s children’s literature, pedagogical theory, and medical advice books. See my The Making of the Modern Child, 42–3, for an example of the psychological dangers writers for children believed the ghost stories of servants posed to children of the more privileged classes. 11 See Rosemary Sweet’s rich study of antiquarians, Antiquaries, for a full picture of the development of this field of enquiry in Britain. While Sweet demonstrates that studies of popular customs like Brand’s made up only a small and fairly late-arriving part of the field (local histories, accounts of the ancient Britons, and studies of ancient architectural ruins made up a much greater part of antiquarian scholarship), Brand’s work was enormously influential in his time. According to David Vincent, ‘The study of popular culture in Britain begins with the publication in 1777 of John Brand’s Observations on Popular Antiquities [which] attracted widespread attention and led to the founding of the Society of Antiquaries in 1784 with Brand as its resident secretary’ (‘Decline’ 22). 12 Charles does get the opportunity to demonstrate his acquired superior wisdom on a few occasions. For instance, when his uncle describes how the squabbling ‘petty sovereigns’ of ancient Britain were easily defeated by the Romans, Charles can apply a lesson learned from ‘a fable, which I read the other day. An old man observing his children to be always quarrelling, desired them to bring him a bundle of sticks, which while they were tied up closely together, could not be broken; but when the bands were cut, they were taken out one by one, and easily destroyed’ Notes 161

(17). Charles recognizes the childishness of the ancient Britons and is, unlike those mired in the ignorant past, able to move past it, in part at least because of the advantages of literacy. 13 See Susan Pederson, ‘Hannah More Meets Simple Simon: Tracts, Chapbooks, and Popular Culture in Late Eighteenth-Century England’ ( Journal of British Studies 25.1 [1986], 84–113) for an insightful study of More’s efforts at popular reform through the distribution of religious tracts. 14 Brand singles out such cruelties as bear-baiting and the shrove Tuesday tradition of ‘throwing at cock’ for particular condemnation as examples of popular practices dangerously out of step with modernity and that ‘we wish consigned to eternal oblivion . . . fit only for the bloodiest savages, and not for humanized men’ (I: 76). 15 David Vincent observes that John Brand – who sought to reform a dangerous popular culture – and the more Romantic-inclined Walter Scott – who sought to preserve a cherished tradition threatened by the onslaught of modernity – were more similar than different in their ‘approach to the material’ they studied. Both were informed by the same assumptions about their subject: ‘that the popular culture under investi- gation was fundamentally apart from and antecedent to that which the collectors belonged; and that its central element, the oral tradition, was in decline’ (23). 16 De Certeau points out the peculiar paradox of antiquarian studies of the people, which assert the childlike status of the people yet in which children themselves are generally conspicuously absent (‘Heterologies’ 131). 17 Robert Muchembled paints an even starker picture of a Church and State assault on the people in eighteenth-century France that infantilized and disarmed a once robust popular culture: ‘And the popular masses, in many ways, were terrorized and reduced to a childlike state, which made them all the more submissive. This childlike state was induced by the diffusion of a new mass culture, alienating and extremely different from their traditional view of the world’ (234). 18 De Certeau observes that the search for ‘a lost origin’ that character- izes the study of popular culture is predicated on ‘the elimination of popular menace’ in the present (128), which accounts for the silence in these studies on such dimensions of popular experience as sexuality and violence (131). These are, not coincidentally, two of the ‘funda- mental characteristics of popular culture’ that were ‘expunged’ during its transformation into children’s literature and culture (133). The association between a safe, sanitized model of rustic life and childhood is still deployed in political discourse today. As Henry Jenkins remarks of Hillary Clinton’s use of the village metaphor in the title of her book, It Takes a Village, ‘its evocation of the organic communities of small- town American life, depends upon the historic linkage of childhood innocence to pastoralism’ (12). 19 In his seminal study of European childhood, Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life, Ariès claims that much of what we take for 162 Notes

granted as ‘natural’ to the experience of childhood did not exist until the early modern period. His argument has been critiqued from a number of quarters; for example Nicholas Orme has identified characteristics of a distinct childhood in the medieval period, and Anthony Fletcher has argued that the history of childhood in England is characterized more by continuity than by change. See Orme’s Medieval Children (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001) and Fletcher’s Growing up in England: The Experience of Childhood 1600–1914 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008). 20 Alan Richardson traces the parallel ‘rise of the children’s and “popular” literature industries’ in the late eighteenth century to ‘a discursive and social matrix . . . which tended to equate child and laborer with “rustic” and “savage”’ (1994: xiv). The pedagogical impetus of the period was informed by this matrix of associations. 21 The celebration of ‘spontaneity’ as a lost, longed for quality innate to both the people and children is rightly, if cynically, exposed by de Certeau as disingenuous: ‘The child’s spontaneity is one thing adults are supposed to lack, but this divergence is a ruse that only increases adults’ confidence in their knowledge’ (132). 22 As Robert Rosenblum remarks in his study of Runge’s quintessentially Romantic paintings of children, they visually depict a similar sensibility to what von Arnim and Bretano express: ‘a state of natural innocence and religious purity so primal’ that it evokes ‘a sacred beginning to a radiantly new and magical world’ (9). Runge is part of the emerging trend to imagine a childhood both ‘natural’ and ‘primal’ in stark contrast to modernity and adulthood, a ‘subculture of authentic childhood, whose rules appear more and more differentiated from those of adults’ (14). 23 See, for example, Svetlana Boym’s The Future of Nostalgia, in which she describes nostalgia as a ‘response to the Enlightenment’ and as ‘rebellion against the modern idea of time, the time of history and progress’ (12; xv). 24 As Henry Jenkins points out, ‘The myth of childhood innocence’ that is still very much operational today relies not only on ‘a clear separation between childhood and adulthood’ with origins in the Romantic era, but also ‘upon our sense of nostalgic loss when we cross irreversibly into adulthood’ (14). 25 See Bettelheim’s enormously influential but now largely discredited study of the meanings and therapeutic value of fairy tales in child psychol- ogy, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales (New York: Vintage Books, 1977). 26 See Starr’s Defoe & Spiritual Autobiography (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965). 27 For his discussion of how working-class readers read Robinson Crusoe, see Rose’s The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes, esp. 104–11. For Preston’s discussion of Crusoe chapbooks, see his ‘Rethinking Folklore, Rethinking Literature: Looking at Robinson Crusoe and Gulliver’s Travels as Folktales. A Chapbook-Inspired Inquiry.’ Both these studies are discussed at greater length in Chapter 3. Notes 163

28 Marvel released a more action-oriented remediation of the novel in Marvel Classics Comics no. 19, which follows the aesthetics of the superhero comic more closely than did the Classics Illustrated version. Examples of Crusoe-themed comic book narratives abound and feature such cartoon protagonists as Captain Marvel (Captain Marvel Adventures no. 30) and Superboy (Adventure Comics no. 276). 29 Gillis cites German scholars Helga and Hartmut Zeiher as coining the term ‘islanding’ to describe the adult practice of developing and main- taining distinct, child-specific spaces and experiences (316).

1 Performing Crusoe and Becoming Crusoes: the Pedagogical uses of Robinson Crusoe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

1 The exceptions are Crusoe’s own three children, mentioned in one sen- tence at the very end of the novel, and possibly Xury, who is referred to as a ‘boy,’ but is likely an adolescent or young man given his ability to take the helm of a boat and later to skin a lion. 2 Ian Watt offers the following by way of explanation for the success of Robinson Crusoe as children’s literature: ‘no sex; no complicated plot; no sophisticated conversations – only a man in the position of a child, imag- ining how he can secure his daily needs all on his own’ (175). I do not con- test this assessment, but wish to propose a more elaborate consideration of how the novel was adapted to the pedagogical enterprise of the period. 3 The attention paid to Crusoe’s domestic arrangements in both the original and children’s abridgements is discussed at length in Chapter 2. 4 Most scholars now take the influence of Locke and Rousseau on eighteenth-century pedagogy and child-rearing as a given. See, for an early study of Locke’s influence, Margaret Ezell’s ‘John Locke’s Images of Childhood: Early Eighteenth Century Responses to Some Thoughts Concerning Education’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 17.2 [1983–84]: 139–55). See also, Christina Hardyment’s Dream Babies: Childcare Advice from Locke to Gina Ford (London: Frances Lincoln, 2007. This is an updated version of her 1983 study Dream Babies: Child care from Locke to Spock; and David Archard’s ‘John Locke’s Children,’ The Philosopher’s Child: Critical Perspectives in the Western Tradition. Ed. Susan M. Turner and Gareth B. Matthews. (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1998. 85–103.) For Rousseau in England, see W. A. C. Stewart and W. P. McCann’s The Educational Innovators, 1750–1880 (3 vols. London: Macmillan, 1967), although their assertion that ‘Few books have had a greater immediate effect on English educational thought than Rousseau’s Emile’ (I: 23) has been disputed more recently. 5 Rousseau famously called Robinson Crusoe the ‘one book which, to my thinking, supplies the best treatise on an education according to nature’ (III: 147). It was also the one exception to his general rejection of any reading material for Emile: ‘This book will be the first that my Emile will 164 Notes

read. For a long time it will alone compose his whole library, and it will always hold a distinguished place there’ (III: 184). 6 Maria Edgeworth’s two-volume Practical Education (1798), written with her father, Richard Lovell Edgeworth was one of the most successful educational treatises of the age, reprinted regularly well into the nineteenth century. 7 I became aware of Budden’s remarks on Robinson Crusoe from, and so owe a debt of gratitude to, Matthew Grenby’s The Child Reader, 1700–1840. 8 This edition also makes the curious choice to replace the novel’s first- person narration with a third-person account, perhaps to mediate the child reader’s identification with the character and to provide an authori- tative, omniscient narrative voice. The kinds of changes to the original narrative publishers of children’s abridgements made are discussed in greater detail in Chapters 2 and 3. 9 On the pedagogical futility of the precept alone, see, for example, Anna Barbauld’s essay ‘On Education in The Works of Anna Laetitia Barbauld. 2 vols. (London: Longman, Hurst, et al. [1825], 2: 305–20). Edmund Burke also famously elevated imitation over precept in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful: ‘It is by imitation far more than by precept that we learn every thing; and what we learn thus we acquire not only more effectually, but more pleasantly’ (49). 10 In Some Thoughts, Locke refers to the benefits of ‘teaching Children by a repeated Practice, and the same Action done over and over again, under the Eye and Direction of the Tutor’ as a way of producing desired behaviour at an almost automatic level in children: ‘by repeating the same Action, till it be grown habitual in them, the Performance will not depend on Memory . . . but will be natural in them’ (122, 120). Locke’s position was confirmed throughout the eighteenth century by the period’s associationist theories of mind. 11 Obedience to parents, or the rejection of idleness, for instance, are played out over and over in children’s books, usually with protagonists know- ing abstractly what the correct behaviour should be, failing to perform it then correcting it once the consequences of their miscarriages are experienced. Barney describes the process of supervisory pedagogy as a ‘cycle of willfulness, discontent, contrition, and reconciliation’ (230). This cycle is played out in any number of stories for children, such as, for example, Edgeworth’s ‘The Purple Jar.’ For an exceptional recent reading of this famous story, see Perry Nodelman, The Hidden Adult: Defining Children’s Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008). 12 Examples of late eighteenth-century children’s books employing the dialogue format abound; Lady Eleanor Fenn was one of many practitioners of the form (see, for example, Rational Sports. In Dialogues Passing Among the Children of a Family (London: J. Marshall, 1783), and School Dialogues, for Boys. Being an Attempt to Convey Instruction Insensibly to Their Tender Minds, and Instill the Love of Virtue. 2 vols. (London: J. Marshall [1783?]). 13 Campe was a remarkable figure in many ways: a leading advocate of Enlightenment thought in Germany, he was also the Minister of Notes 165

Education to the Duke of Brunswick. For an overview of Campe’s career and thought, as well as of the influential place of The New Robinson Crusoe, see chapter 4 ‘Robinson der Juengere’ of Green’s The Robinson Crusoe Story. 14 Intriguingly, the history of the composition of Wyss’ Swiss Family Robinson bears some resemblance to Campe’s fictional Billingsleys and their familial recitation of Crusoe’s story. As Karen Sánchez-Eppler remarks, Wyss’ book began as a story he told his four sons after he had read them Robinson Crusoe aloud. His second son eventually arranged the narrative from his father’s manuscript notes and had it published. Another son drew illustrations for the story as it was being told, and Sánchez-Eppler speculates that incidents, exotic animals, and various other elements of the story were suggested by the boys as it was unfolding (436–7). As Seth Lehrer observes of this whole process, The Swiss Family Robinson was a ‘collective performance bequeathed to the child’ (qtd. 438). 15 The technique of rendering Crusoe’s story as a familial dialogue is used again, albeit not as serious mindedly, a century later by Pheobe Wescott Humphries, whose eclectic collection of games and stories, What Boys and Girls Like, features an older brother (Hal) relaying to his younger siblings (Jeannie and Phil) the content of Robinson Crusoe, which he himself is currently reading. The dialogue, for example, that emerges after Hal describes Crusoe’s discovery of the footprint, works to correct potential ‘misreading’ of the novel’s events: ‘“Oh!” cried Jeannie. “Wasn’t he dreadfully glad?” “Glad?” exclaimed Hal. “No, he was dreadfully sorry.” “But he would have someone to talk to,” persisted Jeannie. “I’m sure he would have been glad!” “No, you wouldn’t if you thought as Robinson Crusoe did, that the footstep was made by a savage, and that all savages were cannibals!” “What’s a cannibal?” asked Phil’ (n.p). 16 For a fuller discussion of the connection between ‘flap books’ or ‘turn- ups’ and children’s relation to the theatre, see Jacqueline Reid-Walsh’s ‘Pantomime, Harlequinades and Children in Late Eighteenth-Century Britain: Playing in the Text’ (British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 29.3 [2006]: 413–25). Theatre books and ‘juvenile dramas’ as children’s toys are discussed at greater length in Chapter 5. 17 As Dow indicates, the London Magazine reviewer of de Genlis’s Theatre of Education ‘writes approvingly of the length of the plays, which are mainly two acts long, “so that they may easily be performed in private families”’ (368–9). It is worth noting that disapproval of children’s attendance at public theatre was far from universal in the period. As Peter Borsay has very persuasively demonstrated, children of the privileged classes were being brought in increasing numbers to theatres, spas, pleasure gardens, and other public places of entertainment in the eighteenth century. Borsay attributes this trend to the period’s (and Locke’s) preference for experiential learning: ‘school and leisure activities were part of an inte- grated educational process; what was learned in one could be observed in the other’ (57). He also makes a clear connection between participation in public leisure and Locke’s idea of the tabula rasa: ‘It was this that 166 Notes

boosted the demand for pedagogic services associated with fashionable recreation and which led parents to introduce their offspring to the world of elite leisure from an early age’ (60). 18 Penny Brown draws attention both to the similarities between dialogue and theatre for children and to the supervisory power of both forms, in which ‘the child reader or participant was still very much subject to the controlling voice of the adult author . . . In performances, the child “actor” spoke lines written for him or her by an adult and was subject to the control of the monitoring adult responsible for the direction of the piece’ (I: 174). 19 Chapter 2 describes at greater length the nature and extent of these alterations in ‘children’s chapbook’ editions of the novel. 20 Barbara Hofland’s The Young Crusoe, discussed at greater length below, also stresses the need for the child to recognize its dependence on a larger social network. Here, the protagonist, 10-year old Charles Crusoe (no relation), who has been raised in luxury in India, is reminded by his mother of broader social relations and obligations when he expresses the desire to live like his hero, Robinson, alone on an island: ‘[she] took pains in pointing out to him the obligations he was under to the friends and servants by whom he was surrounded, and how impossible it would be, for a person accustomed like himself to the comforts and elegancies of life, to subsist in a state of utter destitution’ (4). 21 ‘Children require . . . tableaux, vivid and natural images that can strike their imagination, touch their heart, and engrave themselves in their memory’ (author’s translation). 22 The popularity of this story in England is suggested by the fact that it was issued – without credit to Genlis – in abridged form by J. Harris of London in 1804 (and later by Johnson and Warner of Philadelphia in 1809) as The Little Islanders; or, The Blessings of Industry. This thirty-six page version is transplanted from Poland to Westmoreland, and the benevolent Count Sulinski is renamed Sir Robert Bonitas; otherwise the main details of the story remain essentially the same. 23 Hofland’s novel ends with the joyful reunion of the Crusoe nuclear family, a standard ending in the children’s robinsonade genre as discussed in Chapter 3. We learn in this scene that Mrs Crusoe’s uncle, Mr Robinson, has recently passed away, leaving to her an estate and a name that will eventually – once he has legally attained adulthood – come into Charles’ possession. Only then will he have fully and rightly gained the name ‘Robinson Crusoe’, along with the status of fully-articulated, self-sufficient, adult subject that comes with it, and for which his previous adventures have so admirably prepared him. 24 Another later example of this sort of musical home theatre is A. J. Foxwell’s and B. Mansell Ramsey’s Robinson Crusoe. A Cantata or Operetta for Boys (1896). Here, though, the performance takes on the more triumphantly imperialistic tones of late nineteenth-century robinsonades. Crusoe declares, for instance, his intentions to go to sea in these noble terms: ‘Why, if foreign countries had never been found out, Notes 167

we couldn’t trade with them, could we? And what would become of our navy and our sailors?’ (9). Crusoe-inspired theatricals also went in the popular direction of pantomime, discussed at length in Chapter 4.

2 Crusoe Comes Home: Robinsonades and Children’s Editions of Robinson Crusoe

1 For the purposes of analysis, I group children’s editions and children’s robinsonades together as versions of the Robinson Crusoe story contrived to address child readers and expressing adults’ concerns and ideas about ‘the child.’ The main difference, of course, is that robinsonades cast different characters in adventures similar to those of Crusoe, while children’s editions retain the original protagonist and plot elements, altering Defoe’s narrative to suit the perceived needs and capacities of young readers. 2 Perhaps the most famous of the animal robinsonades is R. M. Ballantyne’s The Dog Crusoe and His Master: A Story of Adventure in the Western Prairies (1860). Beatrix Potter also has an entry in this particular sub-genre: The Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930). 3 See also McInelly’s ‘Expanding Empires, Expanding Selves.’ 4 Armstrong’s observations seem to have been borne out by child readers and the adults who gave them their books. In his study of child readerships between 1700 and 1840, Matthew Grenby looks at book inscriptions by and for boys and girls to determine who was typically reading what books. In the case of Robinson Crusoe, ‘and its many variants (including abbreviated editions plus J. H. Campe’s New Robinson Crusoe and J. D. Wyss’s Swiss Family Robinson) . . . this prototypically boys’ book was inscribed almost as often by boys as by girls’ (2011: 56). 5 See esp. chapter Eight, ‘Private Order and Political Virtue: Domesticity and the Ruling Class.’ 6 The ‘reality’ of separate spheres has been vigourously questioned, especially in the 1990s, by a number of scholars who rightly point out the impossibility of clearly and absolutely differentiated spaces and practices along gender lines. See, for example, Lawrence Klein’s ‘Gender and the Public Private Distinction in the Eighteenth Century: Some Questions About Evidence and Analytical Procedure’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 19.1 [1996]: 97–106), Michael McKeon’s ‘The Secret History of Domesticity: Private, Public, and the Division of Knowledge,’ and for the American context, Cathy N. Davidson’s ‘No More Separate Spheres!’ (American Literature 70:3 [1998]: 443–63). 7 See, for example, the children’s chapbook Robinson Crusoe ([Otley]: Yorkshire J. S. Publishing and Stationary Co. Ltd. [c.1840]). 8 We see a similar degree of regret as well as mention of Crusoe’s suffering mother in J. Harris’ edition of 1823: ‘It was this day seven years . . . yes, seven years ago this very day, when, by the vilest ingratitude, I abandoned the best of fathers, and the fondest of mothers’ (2–3). This edition also 168 Notes

alters the family make up of Defoe’s original, in which Crusoe was the youngest of three sons, to heighten the pathos of his disobedient act: ‘I was his only child, and in me all his dearest affections were centred’ (4). 9 The Dundalk edition contains a very similar passage, although it stresses even further Crusoe’s culpability in his parents’ demise: ‘at this moment I believe myself the most miserable object living, and heartily repent giv- ing way to the restless disposition, which made me leave my parents to grieve and die’ (28–9). 10 Sun-worship served as a colonial trope in the period for primitive and false religion. In The Female American, for example, the protagonist Unca Eliza Winkfield comes across and manages to convert and civilize the sun-wor- shipping natives of a neighbouring island by duping them into believing the Sun-God had sent her with the instructions that ‘You must . . . do everything that she commands you’ and ‘You must all believe and do as she shall instruct you’ (111). 11 At the risk of belabouring the point, I will mention perhaps the most extravagant of Tytler’s fantasies of castaway comfort. For her birthday, Leila’s father presents her with an ornate, functioning, wicker coach, drawn by a wild goat he has painstakingly tamed and trained for this purpose (194). 12 Fleming makes this point in a variety of ways in his article ‘Supplementing Self.’ See, for example, 209, 216, 217. 13 The building of more ‘permanent’ houses can be understood, along with tilling the soil, as the kind of investment of labour into the land that constitutes rightful ownership according to Locke’s theories in Two Treatises of Govenrment: ‘As much Land as a Man Tills, Plants, Improves, Cultivates, and can use the Product of, so much is his Property. He by his Labour does, as it were, inclose it from the Common’ (290–1). 14 While Canadian Crusoes is not set on an island, most robinsonades are, and the island’s geographical separation from the rest of the world reso- nates symbolically with the idea of the nuclear family as refuge from the outside world and as world unto itself. Perhaps the most famous example of a robinsonade ‘islanding’ its nuclear family in this way is Wyss’ Swiss Family Robinson. 15 Such a claim, of course, takes on a terrible irony given the impact on Native populations of, for instance, infections and diseases brought by European settlers. 16 London: Marks and Sons [c.1876].

3 Poaching on Crusoe’s Island: Popular Reading and Chapbook Editions of Robinson Crusoe

1 Preston critiques Martin Green’s study of Campe’s The New Robinson Crusoe, The Swiss Family Robinson and other robinsonades for ignoring ‘chapbook (and other) variants – for other classes and other age groups’ with the result that ‘Green recounted just the Robinson Crusoe story within bourgeois culture’ (37). Notes 169

2 Some indicators I have found useful for making distinctions include: publisher names, when available, and the other texts with which examples have been bound in such archives as the British Library. Some abridgements indicate that they are part of a ‘juvenile library’ or provide lists of other children’s titles for sale by the publisher on their back page, as well. 3 Grenby provides, in The Child Reader, 1700–1840, some strong anecdotal evidence of children reading the unabridged Robinson Crusoe; for example, Jane Du Cane recounted that her grandson, to whom she had given the book, read it aloud in 1726 when he was only thirteen years old (114). 4 For a discussion of the anti-chapbook backlash in the late eighteenth century, see Pederson, ‘Hannah More Meets Simple Simon,’ and my own Making of the Modern Child, especially chapter 1. As Dennis Denisoff remarks, anxieties over children’s consumption of the chapbook’s nineteenth-century equivalent, the penny dreadful – a format in which Robinson Crusoe also appeared – produced similar anxieties: ‘pulp fiction held the potential not only for imaginative escapism but for generating discontent among the young with their position in the economy’ (18). 5 Victor Neuburg adds to this list of authors whose works ‘enjoyed con- siderable popularity in their own day’ and were adapted to the chapbook format: Thomas Delaney, Robert Burns, Allan Ramsay, and Pierce Egan (6). 6 Ian Watt, in The Rise of the Novel, quotes from Defoe’s essay on Marlborough’s funeral in Appleby’s Journal (1722), in which he criticizes popular literature for demeaning the histories of great men, who are ‘to be hereafter turned into ballad and song, and be sung by old women to quiet children; or, at the corner of the street, to gather crowds in aid of the pickpocket and the whore’ (77–8). 7 Rose’s figure for chapbook editions of Robinson Crusoe needs some quali- fication: certainly not each of these editions was unique or original, and many are exact reprints of earlier editions merely produced in different locations and at different times. Robert Barnard, in his introduction to his facsimile edition of J. Ferraby’s The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner, in A Hull Chapbook, claims ‘There were about 150 London and provincial printings of the abridged Crusoe between 1719 and 1819 but apparently only four variations in the text’ (8). Certainly more variations exist, especially when nineteenth-century chapbooks directed specifically at child readers are factored in. 8 According to Chartier, in ‘Culture as Appropriation,’ the common people ‘appropriated’ elements of elite culture to generate alternative and unau- thorized meanings more congruent with their own beliefs and experiences. Michel de Certeau, in The Practice of Everyday Life, uses the term tactics to describe a similar form of popular usage that acts in opposition to the strategies employed by dominant culture to assert meanings and ensure conformity. 9 The chapbooks on which I focus in this chapter conform mostly to Simons’s definition. While undated, they were quite certainly all 170 Notes

published before 1800 (except where indicated otherwise), and so prior to the period in which what can be called ‘children’s chapbooks’ flour- ished (although, again, the editions considered here would, of course, have often been available to and read by children as well, and so are by some definitions, ‘children’s books’). The principal editions I cite in this chapter are: The History of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner (Warrington: Printed for the travelling stationers [n.d.]), hereafter cited as Warrington; The Life of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner (Congleton: J. Dean [n.d.]), hereafter cited as J. Dean; The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner (Hull: J. Ferraby [n.d.]), hereafter cited as J. Ferraby; The Sureprising [sic] Life, and most Strange Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of the City of York, Mariner (Newcastle: M. Angus and Son [n.d.]), hereafter cited as M. Angus. 10 See, for example, The Wonderful Life, and Most Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Faithfully Epitomized from the Three Volumes and adorn’d with cuts, etc. (London: Hitch and L. Hawes, etc., 1759), a 144-page abridgement. 11 It was, of course, common, especially in the eighteenth century, for novels and all manner of more or less elite literary productions to be published anonymously. For a full discussion, see John Mullan, Anonymity: A Secret History of English Literature (London: Faber and Faber, 2008). Chapbook publishing, however, was not particularly concerned about modesty or protecting authors from libel suits; rather, chapbook narratives simply did not have and were not concerned with the kind of stable, identifiable, individual authors who are so central to bourgeois literary and cultural production. 12 The fact that an image of the footprint appears, for example, on the cover of Paula Backsheider’s biography of Defoe suggests that it has come to epitomize not just Robinson Crusoe but Defoe’s work more broadly. 13 For other useful discussions of the footprint scene, see David Marshall, ‘Autobiographical Acts in Robinson Crusoe,’ ELH 71 (2004): 910–11; David Blewett, Defoe’s Art of Fiction: ‘Robinson Crusoe,’ ‘Moll Flanders,’ ‘Colonel Jack,’ and ‘Roxanna’ (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1979), 36–7; and Srinivas Aravamudan, Tropicopolitans: Colonialism and Agency, 1688–1804 (Durham: Duke University Press, 1999), 71–5. 14 Some editions include the coda in which Friday and Crusoe shoot wolves in Pampeluna, and others end with Crusoe’s ‘vision of the angelick world’ excerpted from Defoe’s Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe; With His Vision of the Angelick World (London: W. Taylor, 1720). 15 The Warrington edition, for example, refers to the leader of the muti- neers, Will Atkins, as ‘the pirate captain’ (20). Of course, Defoe’s original title, perhaps as a lure to popular readers, also mentions ‘pyrates,’ although the text does not. 16 David Vincent, in Literacy and Popular Culture, describes this tendency of common readers to connect new material to already existing narratives, a feature of oral culture, in terms of economic necessity: ‘Just as a Notes 171

purchased item of clothing would extend rather than displace an existing wardrobe, so a ballad or chapbook would feed into rather than expel the established repertoire of songs and verses’ (Literacy 198). The appreciation of novelty in reading is partly a function of economic privilege. 17 By way of some qualifications to my assertion that chapbooks address first plebeian readers: Barry Reay concludes that chapbooks ‘certainly implied elite targeting’ as they were ‘crammed with gentry values, gentry heroes and heroines, woodcut representations of gentry demeanour and dress,’ as well as regular ‘mockery of rural and lower-class characters’ (57). Many critics also point to the popularity of chapbooks amongst the literati such as Boswell and later Wordsworth as an indication that their appeal went beyond just the lower orders. The former observation rightly points out that many chapbooks used chivalric romance sources, although this does not necessarily mean elite readers were the target audience in the eighteenth century. The latter phenomenon of elite consumption of chapbooks speaks more to a nostalgic and antiquarian interest than to the regular consumption of chapbooks by common readers. While he surely read and enjoyed his Dicey books, according to Pat Rogers, ‘There is no sign that Boswell’s liking for the popular form in any way affected his judgment of what constituted literature, or how the high forms should be assessed’ (qtd. in Mullan and Reid, 10). The issue of child readers of chapbooks is discussed above. 18 A fine example of the use of woodcuts bearing no connection to their text occurs in the M. Angus chapbook discussed in this chapter. The last image of the text depicts a bare-breasted woman holding two snakes, presumably Cleopatra. Unfortunately, I was unable to secure a reproduc- tion of this woodcut for this chapter, although the chapbook in which it appears is available online through Eighteenth-Century Collections Online. 19 Robert Folkenflik, in ‘The Heirs of Ian Watt’ (Eighteenth-Century Studies 25 [1991–92]: 203–17), provides a useful overview of some of the key studies from the 1980s critiquing Watt, including Nancy Armstrong’s Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), and Terry Castle’s Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century Culture and Fiction (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1986). More recently, Robert Markley has provocatively called into question the ‘consensus view’ (25) that Robinson Crusoe enshrines a triumphant, colonial, bourgeois individualism, by pointing out the anxieties over and inconsistencies in these very discourses in Defoe’s sequel, The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (1720). 20 This seems to have been a popular observation, appearing in several other eighteenth-century chapbook editions, including the J. Ferraby and J. Dean editions. 21 Chapbook editions often omit any reference to the crop tending that features so prominently in the original. See, for example, Voyages and Travels: Being the Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner (London [n.d.]). More typically, as with the J. Dean edition, chapbooks emphasize how the island provides abundantly for Crusoe, recounting 172 Notes

the miraculous growth of crops (but not their subsequent cultivation) from discarded husks, the discovery of Cassava root and sugar cane, and, of course, the abundance of fish and game. Sowing is mentioned here only once, and only in passing (12). 22 See Gary Kelly’s ‘Revolution, Reaction, and the Expropriation of Popular Culture: Hannah More’s “Cheap Repository,”’ Man and Nature/L’Homme et la Nature 6 (1987): 147–59, for his discussion of the lottery and investment mentalities. 23 See Chapter 2 for a fuller account of Barney’s discussion of Defoe’s pedagogical method. 24 A famous English example of the social elevation of a chapbook hero is the case of Jack, a farmer’s son, who, for assisting the king’s son, is raised to the level of Knight of the Round Table by the end of the chapbook The History of Jack and the Giants, The First Part. ‘Puss in Boots’ features as its central (human) figure the third son of a miller, who is left only a cat when his father dies. The cat, of course, is a magical entity who secures the young man’s rise to the title of the Marquis of Carabas, along with the hand of the king’s daughter in marriage. Once again, it is worth noting that the popular figures with whom Crusoe becomes aligned here are also ones who found their homes, alongside Crusoe, in the the children’s culture of fairy tales and of the pantomimes discussed in the next chapter. 25 See Simons, ‘Introduction,’ 4–7, for a discussion of how purchasing chapbooks would affect the typical budget of an agrarian labourer. 26 I have chosen to refer to ‘Robinson Crusoe’ as a ‘popular song’ rather than a ‘ballad’ because of the Romantic and antiquarian associations with, for instance, ‘minstrelsy’ that the latter term has tended to evoke in part thanks to Francis J. Child’s work. Dianne Dugaw’s observation on ballads – that they ‘represent collective responses and attitudes to events both current and historical’ (98–9) – still, I believe, applies here. James Moreira’s definition of ‘Folksong, Narrative’ in Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art also provides a useful framework for considering the Crusoe song: ‘A concept that assumes two things: first, that the item or complex in question is linked to the repertoire of a particular group (that is, it must have entered tradition at some level), and second, that its textual material is rooted in a sequence of past actions of dynamically involved characters, normally progressing through stages of stasis, disequilibrium, and resolution’ (I: 348). 27 For broadsides, see ‘Robinson Crusoe’ and ‘The Girl I Left Behind Me’ (Liverpool: W. Armstrong, n.d. [Harding B28 (66) in the Bodleian Library Broadside Ballads collection]), and ‘Robinson Crusoe’ (Norwich: Lane and Walker, n.d. [Harding B25 (1632)]). For garlands, see The Pretty Irish maid, Together with Robinson Crusoe, Cruiskeen Lawn. Now isn’t it a pity. (Waterford: W. Kelly [n.d. 1830?]), and A Collection of New Songs. 1. Robinson Crusoe 2. Jack at the Windlass 3. The Sons of Brittannia [sic] (Newcastle: M. Angus & Son, n.d.), which is the version I cite in this chapter. 28 The Greig-Duncan Folk Song Collection. 8 vols. (Ed. Patrick Shuldham-Shaw and Emily B. Lyle. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press, 1981–2002). Notes 173

The Roud Folk Song Index is maintained online by the Vaughan Williams Memorial Library and the English Folk Dance and Song Society: http:// library.efdss.org/cgi-bin/home.cgi. Ira Ford, Traditional Music of America (1940. Hatboro, PA: Folklore Associates, 1965). 29 As is to be expected from popular songs that occupy the borders between print and oral cultures, there is a fair bit of variation in the song as it appears from one garland or broadside to the next, and from these early print sources to the versions that appear in such collections as the Scottish Greig-Duncan or Ira Ford’s Traditional Music of America. Some later versions of the song add several lyrics to the original eight; see, for example, the version that appears in the Irish garland Looney Mactwolter. Brian Bromhe; The Woodpecker; Robinson Crusoe; Huntsman’s Chorus; The Kiss Repaid (Dublin: Printed for the Booksellers [n.d. 1840?]), which has thirteen verses. 30 In some versions, the word ‘neighbour’ is replaced with ‘brother,’ sug- gesting an even greater equality between Friday and Crusoe. See, for example, the broadside ‘Robinson Crusoe’ and ‘The Girl I Left Behind Me’ mentioned above. 31 Both of these scenes, cannibal slaughter and Friday’s scalding, appear, for example, in The Wonderful Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (14, 12).

4 ‘Animal Spirits are Everything!’: Robinson Crusoe Pantomimes and the Child of Nostalgia

1 In his remarkable and exhaustive compilation of data about legitimate theatrical productions, The London Stage 1660–1800; Part 5: 1776–1800 (3 vols), Charles Beecher Hogan lists Robinson Crusoe as second on the list of most performed new afterpieces in the period between 1776 and 1800; it was staged 123 times by the year 1800 (I: clxxiii). At Drury Lane in the 1780–81 season, it was staged forty times, more than three times as often as its nearest competitors, All the World’s a Stage and Bon Ton (I: 363–4). 2 John O’Brien provides the following outline of the ‘characteristic story,’ borrowed from continental commedia dell’arte, that the harlequinades of virtually all period pantomimes – including Robinson Crusoe – followed: ‘Harlequin pines after Columbine; her guardian or father Pantaloon attempts to block their romance; Harlequin tricks Pantaloon and gains Columbine’ (‘Pantomime’ 103). 3 See Watt in The Rise of the Novel on Defoe’s realistic techniques, which help generate the impression of Crusoe as a unique and so ‘real’ individual (62–92). The original title page, of course, also makes claims to the authenticity of the narrative. 4 While A Short Account doesn’t see the need to describe the action of the second act, a brief summary of it does appear in The Overture, Comic- Tunes, & Song, in the New Pantomime of Robinson Crusoe. 5 O’Brien is here referring specifically to the dynamics of the earlier pantomime Perseus and Andromeda, and the tension between its source 174 Notes

materials, ‘classical versus popular or folk’ (17). His remarks, however, apply generally to the structure of eighteenth-century pantomime. 6 Mayer is here describing current pantomime titles, but some of these figures and themes existed in eighteenth-century afterpieces. 7 David Mayer III remarks on how contemporary notions of pantomime as children’s theatre don’t hold for this period: ‘Although today considered a Christmas treat for children and condescending adults, pantomimes of the early nineteenth century were attended by adults of all social classes and by comparatively few children’ (10). The issue of the adult spectator’s condescension to pantomime will be addressed below in my discussion of Leigh Hunt’s essays on the form. 8 As many scholars of children’s literature have observed, it is difficult to locate a children’s culture proper in the books and toys they use, which are almost universally produced for them by adults, just as it is difficult to locate a popular culture in products often not produced by ‘the people’ themselves. One place, however, where a subversive and oppositional children’s popular culture does emerge is the schoolyard, where the rhymes and songs children share employ parodic mocking and tend, often quite violently, to imagine a kind of revenge and overthrow of the adult authorities who regulate their lives. See Alison Newall’s fascinating study ‘Schoolyard Songs in Montreal: Violence as Response’ (Children’s Literature Association Quarterly 19:3 [1994]: 109–12). Iona Opie’s sound archive (at the British Library) of interviews conducted with children in the 1970s also contains a number of quite bawdy and violent examples of children’s oral culture (http://sounds.bl.uk/), as does her and husband Peter Opie’s The Lore and Language of Schoolchildren (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959). 9 A similar process occurred around Christmas celebrations, as discussed below. 10 Michael Boothe connects the expansion of the ‘fairy business’ directly to the contraction of the harlequinade: ‘It is no coincidence that the opening lengthened, the fairy elements strengthened, and the harlequinade shortened as the interest in fairy culture grew and intensified in the 1830s and 1840s’ (75). The association of children with fairies, both imagined as magical creatures somehow remote or disconnected from the ‘real’ world, occurs simultaneously. See also Boothe’s Theatre in the Victorian Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), esp. 198–202. 11 Songs from popular pantomimes such as Robinson Crusoe were printed sometimes individually and sometimes together. For an example of individually-printed songs, see, ‘“Come Come, My Jolly Lads.” The Celebrated Sailors Song in Robinson Crusoe a New Pantomime, Sung by Mr Bannister’ (Dublin: John Rice [n.d. 1785?]); for the complete score, see The Overture, Comic-Tunes, & Songs, in the New Pantomime of Robinson Crusoe, as Performed at the Theatre-Royal in Drury-Lane (London: S. A. & P. Thompson [n.d. 1781?]). 12 See Williams Marxism and Literature, esp. chapter 8, ‘Dominant, Residual, and Emergent.’ In his discussion of ‘epochal analysis,’ Williams Notes 175

distinguishes between the ‘residual,’ which is ‘effectively formed in the past, but . . . is still active in the the cultural process’ and the ‘archaic . . . which is wholly recognized as an element of the past, to be observed, to be examined, or even on occasion to be consciously revived, in a deliber- ately specializing way’ (122). 13 Jim Davis echoes Auerbach’s remarks on the loss of pantomime’s edge in the Victorian period, when it ‘was perceived increasingly as family entertainment’: ‘It also assumed a more moral tone as the century progressed and arguably lost some of the satirical sharpness that permeated Regency pantomime’ (Davis 2010: 5). 14 Connelly adds yet another layer to the story of the sanitization of Christmas by way of its codification as a children’s event: its reconfigura- tion as a celebration with pedagogical opportunities. As he remarks, ‘The Victorian watch word of ‘duty’ forcefully reveals the extent to which Christmas had a didactic function; it was a catechism in familial, and by extension, social relationships’ (12). The emphasis placed on seasonally- inspired acts of charity served to underscore for middle- and upper-class children their social responsibilities. As well, the Christmas gift book industry that rose to prominence in the Victorian period produced children’s texts combining images and narratives confirming and idealizing the domesticated Christmas model and the duties of the season. For a full discussion of Christmas gift books, see Tara Moore, Victorian Christmas in Print (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) and S. A. Muresianu, The History of the Victorian Christmas Book (New York: Garland, 1987). 15 By this time in the popular imagination, Friday and his fellow Carib Natives had been typically transformed into Africans on the pantomime stage. These figures serve as a composite or conflation of colonial stereotypes, with Quashibungo describing himself as ‘Ethiopian,’ but his spouse referred to as a ‘Squaw,’ and both ‘drawn in state dragon chariot, by alligators’ (13). Elsewhere, the same character is called variously Hokee Pokee Winkee Fum, or Skinamalink, the latter of whom uses the Arabic greeting ‘Salaam’: see ‘Robinson Crusoe, A Burlesque in One Act.’ Home Plays. An Evening’s Entertainment. Consisting of Original Comedy, Burlesque, and Farce (London: Thomas Hailes Lacy, n.d) and Mr Emery’s Seventh Pantomime. Though not a pantomime, Isaac Pocock’s Robinson Crusoe; or, The Bold Buccaneers. A Romantic Drama in Two Acts, assigns Friday’s father the name ‘Iglou.’ 16 I recognize this assertion of Crusoe’s masculinity contradicts Nancy Armstrong’s observations on Crusoe’s domesticity operating in what for Victorians would have been a feminine register. His status as conqueror of savage lands and peoples, as well as his fortitude and rugged individualism, however, would likely overshadow this reading of Crusoe in the Victorian imagination. 17 It’s worth noting here the unintentional irony of the principled Crusoe refusing to take Friday as a slave but showing no compunction about taking him as a servant, whom he does not pay and from whom he expects perfect loyalty. 176 Notes

18 Perry Nodelman’s and Mavis Reimer’s discussion on the ‘othering’ of childhood through binary comparison with the characteristics adults perceive themselves to have speaks to this process: ‘people understand who they are by perceiving how the group of humans they themselves belong to is different from something that came before them and that they have evolved away from’ (96). Childhood and popular culture, both equated with a primitive past, represent states away from which elite and adult cultures have ‘evolved.’ 19 See Chapter 1, ‘The Discovery of the People’ in Peter Burke’s landmark study, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe for a discussion of the ‘purist’ view of popular culture held by late eighteenth- and early nineteenth- century antiquarians and folklorists. The Grimms, for example, believed that the poems of the Nibelungenlied ‘were not made; like trees, they just grew’ (4). The prevailing ‘cultural primitivism’ was informed, Burke argues, by a backlash against Enlightenment ideas of reason and progress (11), and by the sense that such features of encroaching modernity as ‘the industrial revolution, the growth of towns, the improvement of roads and the spread of literacy were undermining traditional popular culture’ (16). 20 O’Brien observes that the popularity of pantomime has had to do with a nostalgic turning away from modernity since its earliest days on the legitimate stage: ‘Even early eighteenth-century Britons thought of themselves as living in a modern age, one that was fundamentally unlike the predominantly rural, traditional world of old England. Such a belief had its pleasures, but it also brought with it a sense of nostalgia for what had been lost’ (‘Pantomime’ 112). This longing for a lost time of simplicity would only be mapped onto ideas of childhood later, in the nineteenth century. 21 Discussing how fairy tales in the Victorian period ‘began to serve a com- pensatory cultural function,’ Jack Zipes (citing Michael Kotzin) provides a portrait of the use of folk culture as an escape for adults in the period: ‘Beset by a changing world, the Victorian could . . . be taken from his time and place to a soothing other world by the faintly blowing horns of Elfland. He could be taken from the corruptions of adulthood back to the innocence of childhood; from the ugly, competitive city to beautiful, sympathetic nature; from complex morality to the simple issue of good versus evil; from a different reality to a comforting world of imagination’ (Breaking 14). While pantos were likely not quite so ‘soothing’ and had much louder ‘horns of Elfland’ than fairy tales did, the prospect of escape from reality afforded by a domesticated popular culture is similar. 22 Marah Gubar has suggested that child actors in Victorian pantos, whose work would have included ‘singing provocative songs that had been popularized by adults’ in the music halls (66), effectively undermined the fetishized ‘erotic innocence’ of children such critics as James Kincaid attribute to the period: ‘Far from functioning as voiceless embodiments of purity, child performers appealed to diverse audiences by exhibiting extreme precocity. Their prematurely developed skills and much vaunted Notes 177

versatility enabled them to blur the line between child and adult, innocence and experience’ (64). The point is well taken, although child performers were usually from the working classes, and their class position already discounted them to some extent from full participation in the bourgeois cult of childhood innocence.

5 An Island of Toys: Childhood and Robinson Crusoe Consumer Goods

1 Indeed, the bourgeois ideal of the self-made individual who starts from next to nothing and manages to advance and succeed despite challeng- ing circumstances is even more pronounced in Joachim Campe’s The New Robinson Crusoe, in which the protagonist does not have the benefit of a wrecked ship filled with useful tools and provisions on which to draw. See Chapter 1 for a lengthier discussion of Campe’s text. 2 Crusoe’s status as homo economicus has been widely discussed; as Watt points out in The Rise of the Novel, he ‘has been very appropriately used by many economic theorists as their illustration’ of this very notion (63). While a seemingly pointless activity at one level – he has after all nobody with whom to trade – Crusoe’s stock-taking of goods and the money he salvages from the ship is a behaviour that serves to define him as modern and commercial. 3 Stewart also reminds us that miniatures are, like narratives, necessarily artifices of culture, as they do not appear in nature (55). 4 Recent examples of this include Lynne Reid Banks’s The Indian in the Cupboard (1980; film 1995) and the Toy Story films (1995, 1999, and 2010), but the narrative device of secretly animated (or at least sentient) inanimate objects in children’s books goes back at least as far as the late eighteenth century. See, for example, Mary Ann Kilner’s Adventures of a Pincushion (1783) and Adventures of a Whipping Top (1782). 5 See Plotz’s Romanticism and the Vocation of Childhood, 3, quoted in chapter 1. 6 Stewart continues this line of thought: ‘The miniature, linked to nostalgic versions of childhood and history, presents a diminutive, and thereby manipulatable, version of experience, a version which is domesticated and protected from contamination’ (69). Robinson Crusoe, with its removed, isolated, and so protective island setting served as a particularly fertile point of convergence for nostalgic ideas about childhood and the past. 7 While Noah’s Ark toys were among the first toys designated exclusively for children, Brown speculates that the earliest of primary toys were likely dolls (11). 8 The Elyria Canning Company of Ohio sold Crusoe Brand Pork and Beans in the first decades of the twentieth century; for the Crusoe Jell-O advertising campaign, see below; Gallaher tobacco company included a series of 100 collectible Crusoe cards in its cigarette packages in the 1920s and 178 Notes

Ogden’s ‘tabs’ cigarettes produced a similar line of cards in the 1930s; McLaughlin Bros. made a Crusoe colouring book as part of the ‘Aunt Louisa’s Big Picture Series’ in the 1880s. This is a very small sample of the kinds of goods and products with which Crusoe was associated in the period. 9 This was, of course, part of a much wider advertising trend in the period, in which idealized images of children, rustics, ‘rusticly’ clad children, and sometimes kindly-looking elderly people were deployed to connect products – in an attempt to dampen or mystify their economic status (and of course their production) – with nostalgic notions of wholesome- ness and innocence in the minds of adult consumers. Cross identifies the 1890s as the period in which ‘advertising specialists’ began in earnest to use ‘nostalgic themes and colorful personalities in order to establish a friendly image for impersonal corporations: the faces of wizened grand- mothers sold coffee and Kewpies pedaled Jell-O’ (1997: 28). It is worth noting that in one of its advertising campaigns in the 1920s, Jell-O used an image of an astonished Robinson Crusoe opening a crate of its product that has washed ashore on his island. The artist was Angus MacDonall, illustrator for ad campaigns and magazines such as Lady’s Home Journal and Saturday Evening Post, and noted for his sentimental, ‘home-spun’ depictions of American family life in a style similar to that later identified with Norman Rockwell. 10 In very small print, along the bottom of the scallop shell, text describing the image reads ‘Le petit Robinson et Vendredi s’extasient devant un rot cuisant à point et à la broche’ (‘Little Robinson and Friday marvel at a roast cooking on a spit’ [author’s translation]). 11 Cross argues that the Romantic celebration of the divinely imaginative child of nature actually lent itself quite easily to the consumerist ethos of the twentieth century, despite their seemingly contradictory orienta- tions: ‘If nineteenth-century romantics needed to see flowers or cascad- ing waterfalls through the fresh eyes of the child, it was because their eyes had grown dull. Likewise, twentieth-century consumers needed to consume through the wondrous innocence of the child because their desire for things, even new and improved things, had grown flat’ (2004: 31). The desire for novelty that underwrites both attitudes demanded the purity or newness of the child and its perspective.

Epilogue

1 This idea of a childhood pulled between competing and incommensu- rate poles has been formulated differently by a number of scholars, most famously by Jacqueline Rose as an ‘impossibility’ (see Rose’s The Case of Peter Pan; or, The Impossibility of Children’s Fiction (London: Macmillan, 1984), and more recently, in the context of children’s consumer culture, by Daniel Cook as ‘the endemic problem of “agency” which, along with children’s innocence, composes the definitive problematic of modern childhood’ (13). Works Cited

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aboriginals, representation of 66–9, Arrival of the Saxons Down to the 72–3, 175 Eighteenth Century 7–8 abridgements (of Robinson Auerbach, Nina 114, 129, 175 Crusoe) 19, 37, 47–9, 53, Austin, Linda 12–13, 139–40 57–60, 63, 69, 75–7, 80, 84–5, authenticity 11, 86, 123–54, 155–7, 163–4, 170 162, 173 Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. A New Azim, Firdous 51–2, 159 and Improved Edition, Interspersed The Colonial Rise of the Novel 51, with Reflections, Religious and 159 Moral, The 27 ‘Adventures of Robinson Crusoe of Baldwin, James 45–6 Clipper Island, The’ 2 Robinson Crusoe Written Anew for advertising 21–2, 26–7, 109, 116, Children, with Apologies to Daniel 142–7, 151, 177–8 Defoe 45–6 Ainsworth Magazine: A Miscellany of ballads 96–101, 172 Romance, General Literature, and Ballantyne, R. M. 50, 167 Art 96 Coral Island, The 50 Aladdin 113 Dog Crusoe and His Master: Alexander, A. 114 A Story of Adventure in the Everyman’s Christmas 114 Western Prairies 167 Alger, Horatio 16 Banks, Lynne Reid 177 Ambrose and Eleanor 62–5 The Indian in the Cupboard 177 animals, domestic 69–71 Barbauld, Anna Letitia 164 animal spirits 102, 123–5 ‘On Education in the Works of antiquarianism 5–8, 11–13, 16, 69, Anna Letitia Barbauld. 2 vols.’ 112, 122–7, 160–1, 171, 176 164 appropriation 37, 77–8, 95–6, 100, Barney, Richard 15, 24, 30, 92 104–5, 110–12, 151–2, 159, 169 Plots of Enlightenment 15 Ariès, Phillipe 10, 161–2 Barthes, Roland 146 Centuries of Childhood: A Social Mythologies 146 History of Family Life 161–2 Bell, D. W. 133 Armstrong, Nancy 52–4, 159, 171, Bender, Lauretta 14 175 Berquin, Arnaud 31, 38 Desire and Domestic Fiction 159, Bettelheim, Bruno 14, 162 171 The Uses of Enchantment: The Art of Noise, The 2 Meaning and Importance of Fairy Aspin, Jehoshaphat 7–8 Tales 162 A Picture of the Manners, Customs, Bible, the 27, 41, 86–7, 142 Sports, and Pastimes, of the Big Fish Games 135 Inhabitants of England, from the Blackwell, Jeannine 49

189 190 Index

Blaim, Artur 50–1, 159 Captain Marvel 163 ‘The English Robinsonade of the Carey, Daniel 52 Eighteenth Century’ 159 Carroll, Lewis 144 Bluebeard 84 de Certeau, Michel 8–11, 77, 84, Boothe, Michael 116, 174 124, 151, 155, 160, 162, 169 Theatre in the Victorian Age 174 Heterologies 9–10, 160 Boswell, James 4, 171 Pratice of Everyday Life, The 169 Bourne, Henry 5–6 chapbooks 8–10, 15–16, 20, 25, 57, Antiquitates Vulgares 6 76–96, 99–101, 104, 108, 162, Boy’s Town 16 166, 168–71 Boym, Svetlana 145, 162 Chartier, Roger 4, 87–8, 110, 151, The Future of Nostalgia 162 159, 169 Brand, John 6–11, 160–1 ‘Culture as Appropriation: Popular Observations on Popular cultural Uses in Early Modern Antiquities 6, 160 France’ 159, 169 Bratton, Jacky 112 child actors 16, 39, 129–30, 166, bricolage 153 176 Bristow, Joseph 55 childhood, construction of 5–6, 160 Empire Boys 55 children’s culture 10–21, 77–8, British Empire 1, 106 84, 96–114, 133, 142–6, 153–8, British Library 84, 169, 174 172–4 broadsides 79, 96–7, 172–3 Christianity 51, 63, 65, 68, 142 Brown, Kenneth 138, 152 Christmas 21, 103, 113–17, 126–8, Brown Laura 69 174–5 Fables of Modernity 69 Cinderella 113 Brown, Penny 31, 166 Classics Illustrated 163 Budden, Mary 26 Clinton, Hillary 161 Bugs Bunny 148 It Takes a Village 161 Bunyon, Paul 77 Coleridge, Samuel 4 Burke, Edmund 164 colonialism 1, 50–2, 55–6, 62, A Philosophical Enquiry into the 64–7, 73–5, 79, 82–3, 89 Origins of our Ideas of the Sublime comic books 16, 21, 162 and Beautiful 164 commedia dell’arte 21, 105, 173 Burke, Peter 5, 14, 160, 176 ‘common people’ 4–16, 20, 76–8, Popular Culture in Early Modern 82–8, 91–3, 99, 108–10, 120–3, Europe 160, 176 130, 151, 159, 169–171. See also Byron, Henry J. 117 ‘folk’ Robinson Crusoe; or, Friday and the Companion, The 122 Fairies! A Pantomime 117 Connelly, Mark 114–15, 175 consumerism 21–2, 131–50 Campe, Joachim 19, 27, 31, 36–7, Coogan, Jackie 16 39–40, 46, 150, 164–5, 167–8, Cook, Daniel 145, 150, 178 177 Covent Garden Theatre 117, 131 The New Robinson Crusoe 19, 27, Cox, Palmer 148–9 31, 36–7, 39–40, 46, 150, 165, Cross, Gary 10, 147–8, 178 167–8, 177 culture, popular vs. elite 4–6, 9–10, capitalism 53–6, 90, 136, 146 20, 77, 82–5, 88, 104–11, 120–2 Index 191

Cussans, Jack 96–9 Erle, Talbot and William Able 45 ‘Poor Old Robinson Crusoe’ 96–9 The Musical Robinson Crusoe, Being customs, popular 5–9, 18–19, Extracts from the Work by Daniel 114–15, 160, 172 Defoe 45 Erlin, Matt 37 Darton, F. J. Harvey 128–9 ‘Erotic Adventures of Robinson The Good Fairy 128 Crusoe, The’ 2 Davis, James 36, 175 Evangelicalism 9 Davis, Jim 106, 118, 129, 175 Examiner 121 Dean & Son 34 Defoe, Daniel 1–2, 4, 15, 23–7, Fair Rosamond 84 30–1, 36–8, 50–1, 74–9, 82–3, fantasy literature 10 89–93, 130, 169–73 Farr, Liz 132, 153 Family Instructor, The 15, 30 Female American 57 Farther Adventures of Robinson film adaptation 2, 16, 21 Crusoe 159, 171 Fleming, Robert 66, 168 Serious Reflections During the Life ‘Supplementing Self’ 168 and Surprising Adventures of folk 8–16, 20, 76–7, 84, 91–100, Robinson Crusoe; With His Vision 110–12, 122–4, 138–41, 154–8, of the Angelick World 93, 159, 173–4, 176. See also common 170 people Strange Surprising Adventures of Folkenflik, Robert 171 Robinson Crusoe of York, Mariner, ‘The Heirs of Ian Watt’ 171 The 1–2, 4, 15, 23–7, 30–1, Foot, Samuel 96–7 36–8, 50–1, 62, 67, 74, 77–9, The Mayor of Garratt 96–7 82–3, 89–93, 130, 171 Ford, Ira 97, 173 Denisoff, Dennis 145, 169 Traditional Music of America 97, dialogue, familiar 30–3, 164 173 Dick Whittington 113 formal realism 1, 51, 89–91, 102, Dickens, Charles 114, 127 159 domesticity 20, 34, 47–67, 69–75, French Revolution 8 79, 114–15, 129, 134, 145, 157, Frow, Gerald 111–12, 115 167, 175 ‘Don Quixote’ 4 garlands 2, 15, 96–7, 101, 172 Dow, Gillian 34 Gaull, Marilyn 103, 107 Dr. Faustus 113 gaze, the 82 Genlis, La Comtesse de 19, 27, Edgeworth, Maria 26, 36, 48, 52, 33–5, 38–40, 46, 150, 165 164 ‘The Children’s Island’ 19, 27, Practical Education 52, 164 38–40, 46, 150 Edgeworth, Richard 29, 52, 164 Theatre of Education 33–4, 38, Early Lessons 29 165 Practical Education 52, 164 Gerson, Carole 66 Eliot, George 126 ‘Gilligan’s Island’ 3 Ellis, Henry 6 Gillis, John 14, 141 Enlightenment 10, 12, 24, 138, Golden Age 10, 13, 18–19, 114, 157, 162 122–3, 127 192 Index

Gough, Richard 7 Hymer, Stephen 51, 159 Green, Martin 24, 51–2, 168 ‘Robinson Crusoe and the Secret of Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of Primitive Accumulation’ 51, Empire 51 159 ‘The Robinson Crusoe Story’ 52 Greig-Duncan Folk Song Collection, ideology 47–55, 63–9, 73, 115, The 97, 172–3 145, 152, 160 Grenby, Matthew 76, 79, 83, 164, colonial 48, 51 167, 169 domestic 53–5, 63–9, 73, 115, The Child Reader, 1700–1840 164, 145 169 middle class 47, 127, 160 Grewal, Inderpal 56 Illustrated London News 114–15 Grimm, Jacob and Wilhhelm 5, individualism 1, 20–1, 27, 36–40, 110, 176 46, 51, 79, 82, 89, 91, 101, Grose, Francis 7 135–7 Gubar, Marah 176 Industrial Revolution 138 innocence 10, 11, 68, 101, 110, Hallowe’en 111, 139 115, 116, 121, 126–7, 129, 139, Hannah Hewitt; or, the Female 140, 141, 144–5, 147–8, 150, Crusoe 49 156, 161, 162, 174, 176, 178 harlequinade 102–5, 108, 112, islanding 16–17, 141, 150, 156, 163 115–16, 120, 124, 129 Harrow, Sharon 56 J. Harris and Son 27, 165, 167 Hart, James G. 156 Jack and the Beanstalk 113 Harvey, F. J. 113 Jackson, Mary V. 34 The Good Fairy; or, the Adventures James, Suzanne 66 of Sir Richard Whittington, Jenkins, Henry 151, 162 R. Crusoe, Master Jack Horner, Johnson, Samuel 4, 122–3 and Others. A Play 113 Jolson, Al 2 Herder, Johann Gottfried von 5 ‘Where Did Robinson Crusoe Hero and Leander 84 With Friday on a Saturday Hodgson and Company 131 Night?’ Hofer, Johannes 12 Jones, Steven E. 120–2 Hofland, Barbara 27, 40–6, 166 The Young Crusoe; or, the Kant, Immanuel 12 Shipwrecked Boy 27, 40–6, Anthropologie 12 166 Kapur, Jyotsna 145 Hogan, Charles Beecher 173 Kelly, Gary 91 The London Stage, 1660–1800; Part Kete, Kathleen 69 5: 1776–1800 173 Kilner, Mary Anne 177 Hulme, Peter 51, 74, 83, 159 Adventures of a Pincushion 177 Colonial Encounters 51, 159 Adventures of a Whipping Top 177 Humphries, Phoebe Wescott 165 Kincaid, James 176 What Boys and Girls Like 165 Hunt, Leigh 120–6, 174 Lady’s Home Journal 178 Hunt, Margaret 54 Levy, Jonathan 31, 33 The Middling Sort 54 Lewis, Brian 54 Index 193

Life and Adventures of Robinson Moreira, James 172 Crusoe, Originally Written by Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Daniel Defoe, The 26 Customs, Tales, Music, and Little Robinson Crusoe 16 Art 172 Locke, John 15, 19, 24, 29–30, 36, Mother Goose 105 38, 46, 163, 165, 168 Mouritsen, Flemming 78, 154, Some Thoughts Concerning 155 Education 15, 19, 24, 46 Mullan, John 170 Two Treatises of Government Anonymity: A Secret History of 168 English Literature 170 Longueville, Peter 49 The Hermit 49 Newell, Alison 174 ‘Lost’ (Television series) 3 ‘Schoolyard Songs in Montreal: ‘Lt. Robinson Crusoe, U.S.N.’ 2 Violence as Response’ 174 Nisard, Charles 8–10 MacDonall, Angus 178 ‘Commission for the Examination Maher, Susan Naramore 50, 65 of Chapbooks’ 8 Markley, Robert 159 nostalgia 11–14, 18, 22, 124–8, ‘“I have Now Done With My 137–41, 145–51, 155–8, 162, Island, and All Manner of 176–8 Discourse About It:” Crusoe’s Novak, Maximillian 51 Farther Adventures and the Economics and the Fiction of Daniel Unwritten History of the Defoe 51 Novel’ 159 Nussbaum, Felicity 56 Marks, Sylvia Kasey 31 Marryat, Captain Frederick 50 O’Brien, John 106–7, 113, 173, The Little Savage 50 176 Marvel Comics 162 O’Malley, Andrew 160, 169 Mayer, David 106, 111–12, 174 The Making of the Modern Child: Maynes, Mary Jo 55–6 Children’s Literature and McInelly, Brett C. 159, 167 Childhood in the Late Eighteenth ‘Expanding Empire, Expanding Century 160, 169 Selves: Colonialism, the Novel, Opie, Iona 154, 174 and Robinson Crusoe’ 159, The People in the Playground 167 154 McKay, Barry 79 Opie, Iona and Peter 96, 97, 100, McVeagh, John 102–3 102 Meynell, Alice 12–13 Lore and Language of School Mickey Mouse 149 Children 174 miniatures 137–44, 151–3, 177 Oxford Dictionary of Nursery modernity 1, 9, 13–14, 122, 138, Rhyme 99 147, 155–8, 160 Our Gang 16 Moglen, Helene 82 Oxford University Press 4 Moll Flanders 81 Moody, Jane 120 pantomime 2, 20–1, 34, 46, 96–7, More, Hannah 9, 34 102–29, 167, 174–6 Sacred Dramas 34 Paradise Lost 86 194 Index

pedagogy 15, 19, 23–47, 52–53, Rose, Jonathan 15, 77, 86–7, 162, 109–10, 157–8, 163–4, 172 169 supervisory model 15, 19, 29–39, The Intellectual Life of the British 46, 164, 166. See also Locke, John Working Classes 162 Penguin Group 4 Roud Folk Song Index 97 Pennell, Elizabeth Robins 126 Rousseau, Jean Jacques 15, 19, 24, Pickering, Samuel 24, 37 29, 36–7, 46, 163 Pilgrim’s Progress 86 Emile 15, 19, 163–4 play culture 155 Playthings 147 Said, Edward 51–2, 159 Plotz, Judith 16, 141, 177 Culture and Imperialism 51, 159 Romanticism and the Vocation of Sánchez-Eppler, Karen 78 Childhood 177 Saturday Evening Post 178 Poovey, Mary 54 Schmidgen, Wolfram 82 Pope, Alexander 129 Schnabel, Jonathan Gottfried 2, popular song 2, 20, 96–100, 172–3 5, 48 postcolonialism 51–2, 159 Felsenburg Island 2, 48 Potter, Beatrix 167 Scott, Walter 5, 160 The Tale of Little Pig Robinson 167 Seven Wise Masters of Rome, The 84 Preston, Michael J. 15, 19, 76, 85, shadow canon 76 162 Shakespeare, William 105 ‘Rethinking Folklore, Rethinking King Lear 105 Literature: Looking at Robinson A Midsummer Night’s Dream 117 Crusoe and Gulliver’s Travels as Sheridan, Robert 2 Folktalkes. A Chapbook-Inspired Shershow, Scott 13–14, 110–11, 139 Inquiry’ 162 Short Account of the Situations and Protestantism 6, 79 Incidents Exhibited in psychoanalysis 14 the Pantomime of Robinson puppetry 13–14, 107–10, 139 Crusoe, A 103 ‘Punch and Judy’ 107–11 Simons, John 79–80, 169, 172 Skelt family (toy theatre Reay, Barry 101, 171 producers) 131–3, 153 Religious Tract Society 8–9 Sonny Cole & the Rhythm Robinson Crusoe (film, dir. Luis Roamers 2 Bunuel) 2 ‘sovereign subject’ 1, 90, 103 Robinson Crusoe on Mars (film) 2 spiritual autobiography 93, 162 robinsonade 2, 16, 19, 28, 47–56, Stallabrass, Julian 135 62–8, 74, 89, 167 Stallybrass, Peter 110 Rockwell, Norman 178 Starobinski, Jean 12 Rogers, Pat 53–4, 62, 81–3, 93 ‘The Idea of Nostalgia’ 12 ‘Crusoe’s Home’ 53 Starr, G. A. 15, 93, 162 Romantic Era 11, 12, 16–18, 69, Defoe and Spiritual 121, 140–1, 144–6, 148, 178 Autobiography 162 Rose, Jacqueline 178 Steedman, Caroline 57, 154 The Case of Peter Pan; or, The Steedman, Mary 13 Impossibility of Children’s Stevenson, Robert Louis 50, 153 Fiction 178 Treasure Island 50 Index 195

Stewart, Susan 13, 139–41, 152, 177 Tytler, Anne Fraser 64, 168 Strutt, Joseph 7 Leila; or, The Island 62, 64–5, 69 Manners and Customs 7 Sutton-Smith, Brian 137–8, 146 Uttley, Allison 87 ‘Survivor’ (Television series) 3 Sweet, Rosemary 6, 160 Van Dyke, Dick 2 Antiquaries 160 Varty, Anne 108, 126–7 Swift, Jonathan 77 versimilitude 39, 105 Victorian Period 12–13, 19, 21, Tabert & Co. 26 50, 103, 107, 110, 113–16, 126, taste 6, 10, 20, 23, 45, 89, 103, 129, 147, 150, 175–6 108–11, 115, 120–2, 156 video games 135–6 Taylor, Jeffrys 50 Vincent, David 170–1 The Young Islanders 50 Literacy and Popular Culture 170–1 theatre, children’s 33–6, 45 Voyages, Dangerous Adventures, and théâtre d’éducation 31 Imminent Escapes of Captain Theatre Royal, Drury Lane 2, 102, Richard Falconer, The 49 103, 173 Theatrical Licensing Act 113–14 Wagner, Leopold 126 Thoreau, Henry David 17 Walpole, Horace 112 Walden 17 Watt, Ian 1, 51, 89–91, 102, 157, Toy Story 177 159, 163, 169, 173, 177 toys 21–2, 131–54, 165, 174, 177 Myths of Modern Individualism: board games 21, 135 Faust, Don Quixote, Don Juan dishes 21, 134 and Robinson Crusoe 159 fèves 142–3 The Rise of the Novel 51, 89, 159, history of 138–42, 177 169, 173, 177 puzzles 21, 133–4 Weaver-Hightower, Rebecca 50, and socialization 133–4, 137, 152 118 and solitude 136–7 Weber, Max 1 video games 21, 135–6 Weiss, Harry B. 79 toy theatres 131–2, 153, 165 White, Allon 110 Traill, Catherine Parr 65–74 William West of London 131 Canadian Crusoes 62, 65–74, 168 Williams, Raymond 114, 174–5 The Young Emigrants; or, Pictures of Marxism and Literature 174–5 Canada 66 Wilson, A. E. 103, 111–12 translations (of Robinson Crusoe) 2, Woltmann, Adolf G. 14 49 Woolf, Virginia 157, 159 Esperanto 2 Wordsworth, William 121, 171 German 49 Wyss, J. D. 55, 69, 165, 167 Swedish 49 The Swiss Family Robinson 55, 69, Trimmer, Sarah 25–8, 34, 37, 48 165, 167–8, 168 The Guardian of Education 25 Turner, Brian 11, 124, 156 Zipes, Jack 91, 175