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The Role of Cross-Bed Orientation and the Related Anisotropy in the Distribution of Compaction Bands and Joints in Aeolian Sandstone

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The Role of Cross-Bed Orientation and the Related Anisotropy in the Distribution of Compaction Bands and Joints in Aeolian Sandstone THE ROLE OF CROSS-BED ORIENTATION AND THE RELATED ANISOTROPY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF COMPACTION BANDS AND JOINTS IN AEOLIAN SANDSTONE Shang Deng and Atilla Aydin Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, E-mail: [email protected] (S. Deng) Utah (Fig. 1). The objectives of this paper are twofold: Abstract (1) to describe the spatial relationships among multiple sets of joints, cross-beds, and dune boundaries in the We propose a close relationship between the Aztec Sandstone and Navajo Sandstone; and (2) to orientations of cross-beds and the cross-bed package place this new information in a conceptual framework confined joints in the Jurassic aeolian Aztec Sandstone that may shed light on the formation, orientation, and cropping out in the Valley of Fire State Park (NV) and spatial distribution of the joints therein. Navajo Sandstone in Zion National Park (UT). The In this paper, we first introduce the geologic settings field data demonstrates that the orientation of cross- of the two study areas, VoF and ZNP. Then, we review bed package confined joints is related to the orientation our previous work on compaction bands in Aztec of cross-beds, suggesting that in addition to the Sandstone exposed at the VoF. In the main body of the distribution of compaction bands, cross-bed orientation manuscript, we deal with the spatial and geometric and the associated anisotropy also exert a strong relationships between joints sets and dune architecture control on the formation, and orientation of the joints. at both the VoF and ZNP. These data imply that in These results may have important implications for fluid addition to the influences of cross-beds on the flow through aeolian sandstones in reservoirs and distribution of compaction bands in aeolian sandstones, aquifers. the orientation and distribution of joints are also affected by the cross-bed orientations. Keywords: Compaction bands, joints, cross-beds, anisotropy, Aztec Sandstone, Navajo Sandstone. Introduction We have studied the relationship between cross-bed orientation and the distribution of compaction bands in aeolian sandstone for several years (Deng and Aydin, 2012, 2013), a short summary of which will be provided in this paper. This research lead to the notion that if the cross-bed related anisotropy affects the orientation of compaction bands, there is probably a similar effect on the formation and orientation of the joints which occur in the same rock at the same location. In comparison to compaction bands, joints are relatively simple structures that exhibit dominantly opening displacements (Pollard and Aydin 1988). They often occur perpendicularly to bedding and are confined by layer boundaries or mechanical layer packages in sedimentary rocks (Hodgson, 1961a, b; Price, 1966; Hancock, 1985; Helgeson and Aydin 1991; Gross and Engelder, 1995). In this study, we focus primarily on the distribution and orientation of joints and their relationships to the Fig. 1. Distribution of the Jurassic Aztec/Navajo cross-beds in the Jurassic Aztec Sandstone exposed at Sandstone in western USA (slightly modified from the Valley of Fire State Park (VoF), Nevada and Navajo Verlander, (1995)). The approximate locations of Sandstone in Zion National Park (ZNP) in southwestern Valley of Fire State Park (VoF) in Nevada and Zion National Park (ZNP) in Utah are labeled. Stanford Rock Fracture Project Vol. 25, 2014 A-1 Fig. 2. Simplified geologic map of the Valley of Fire State Park (slightly modified from Taylor, 1999). The locations of three study areas (labeled A, B and C) and some other prominent geologic and geographic sites are also labeled. Area C is the main area for the past research on the occurrence and characteristics of compaction bands. Geological Framework Aztec Sandstone at Valley of Fire State Park The Aztec Sandstone is a 1400-meter-thick, cross- bedded aeolian deposit (Marzolf, 1983) and consists of a number of dune units with NW-NNE oriented dune boundaries with moderate dip angles (less than 30°). The dune boundaries can be defined as second order bounding surfaces, which are commonly present in ancient aeolian sandstones and are attributed to the migration of dunes across draas (Brookfield, 1977). The Aztec Sandstone was subjected to at least two significant deformation phases: (1) east-southeast- directed compressive deformation during the Sevier Orogeny (e.g., during the late Mesozoic) and (2) Basin Fig. 3. Image created using Google Earth showing and Range extension and strike-slip faulting beginning the field area at Zion National Park. The traces of the NNW trending joint zones separating the mesas are labeled with red dashed lines. Stanford Rock Fracture Project Vol. 25, 2014 A-2 Fig. 4. Compaction bands of different orientations and their distributions in dunes. a) Attitudes of cross- beds and compaction bands of different orientations measured in the field. Mean values (framed by black rectangular lines) of different sets of bands are highlighted and labeled. b) A ground photograph showing the juxtaposition of bed-parallel and high-angle to bedding compaction bands. Note strikingly different cross-bed orientations. c) Cropped map of the major study area (see location “C” in Fig. 1) on an enlarged aerial photograph, showing dunes and structural domains with various types of compaction bands (cb) (color-coded). in the mid-Miocene time and continuing to the present the western margin of the Colorado Plateau (Rogers et (Bohannon, 1979, 1983; Sternlof, 2006). al., 2004). The data on the distribution and orientation of joints The spatial and geometric relationships between were collected primarily from the main study area (Site joints and dune architectures were studied in the Navajo A in Fig. 2), although some observations from Site B Sandstone exposed in the Checkerboard Mesa and are also used for confirmation of the results drawn from Crazy Quilt Mesa areas in eastern Zion National Park Site A. Site C is the main study area for previous (ZNP) (Fig. 3). research on the distribution and orientation of compaction bands. Methodology Navajo Sandstone at Zion National Park Mapping for this research was carried out at scales Navajo Sandstone is a chronostratigraphic ranging from 1:50to 1:170. Maps were made by using equivalent of the Aztec Sandstone (Marzolf, 1983). enlarged aerial photographs taken at a height of around The 610m thick Navajo Sandstone in the ZNP region is 20m from a camera mounted on an unmanned aerial characterized by a set of widely spaced, vertical and vehicle (Engel et al., 2011). Orientation measurements NNW trending sheared joint zones or small faults that were made using a Branton compass. In cases where the erode to rounded cliffs and slot canyons (Fig. 2) of the cliff surface is steep and can’t be reached, park (Rogers and Engelder, 2004). These structures are measurements were taken by projection and interpreted as evidence for a change of the stress system approximation at a distance from the surface using an and the resulting modest Basin and Range extension in electronic compass-inclinometer embedded in a smart phone (Pavlis, 2010). For all the measured structural Stanford Rock Fracture Project Vol. 25, 2014 A-3 Fig. 5. Comparison between the model results and the field data of distribution of compaction bands of different orientations in cross-bed domains. (a) Distribution of strikes of cross-beds within Ha1 compaction band domain (red bars in the middle) and strikes of all measured cross-beds (gray shade). Notice that the former is imprinted on the latter, therefore the strikes of cross-beds without Ha1 compaction bands are shown by the portions of bins without red bars. (b) Strength of localized compaction corresponding to the orientation of Ha1 in cross-beds of various orientations for various dip angles. (c) Distribution of strikes of cross-beds within Bp domain (red bars (Bp1) and blue bars (Bp2 and Bp3) in the middle) and strikes of all measured cross-beds (gray shade). (d) Strength of localized compaction occurring in the orientations (strike and dip angle given in the title) of Bp1, Bp2, and Bp3 in cross-beds of various orientations. orientation data we use the right-hand-rule convention bands (Aydin et al., 2006; Borja and Aydin, 2004; (Pollard and Fletcher, 2005). Fossen et al., 2007; Issen and Rudnicki, 2000; Rudinicki and Rice, 1975). The earliest example for The role of cross-bed orientation in the compaction bands was reported by Hill (1989), who distribution of compaction bands in described multiple sets of compaction bands at high angles to bedding in the Jurassic Aztec Sandstone Aztec Sandstone exposed in the Valley of Fire State Park in southeastern Compaction bands are characterized by reduced Nevada (USA). Sternlof (2006) carried out the most porosity and represent one kinematic end-member of a extensive analysis to date of high-angle to-bedding family of deformation bands, which form by compaction bands. Finally, Aydin and Ahmadov (2009) localization of volumetric strain into narrow tabular reported compaction bands parallel to bedding, called Stanford Rock Fracture Project Vol. 25, 2014 A-4 bed-parallel compaction bands, in aeolian sandstone In general, the calculated strength of localized with sub-horizontal to low-angle bedding. Eichhubl et compaction correlates well to sets of compaction bands al. (2010) documented the occurrence of various sets of observed in the Aztec Sandstone. For instance, good compaction bands in the park. Deng and Aydin (2012) correlations exist between the cross-beds (with strikes further evaluated the role of the dune architectures, ranging from 180°-220° and dip angles ranging from defined by both cross-beds of varying orientations and 10° to 40°) without Ha1 compaction bands (Fig. 5a) dune boundaries, in compaction band formation and and the cross-beds with relatively higher strength of orientation. In this section we provide only a short localized compaction (Fig.
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