The Image of the Devil in C. G. Jung's Psychology Author(S): Roberts Avens Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol

The Image of the Devil in C. G. Jung's Psychology Author(s): Roberts Avens Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 16, No. 3 (Jul., 1977), pp. 196-222 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27505406 . Accessed: 20/06/2014 21:46

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The Image of the Devil in C. G. Jung's Psychology

ROBERTS AVENS

Since the Renaissance, Western civilization has pursued the cult of a rational and conscious ego that believes that it can do, know, and organize everything. Never mind that, for example, a Bismarck, the great German chancellor who tried to follow the slogan "Where there is a will, there is a way" was constantly overcome by fits of crying. Once man, the splendid biped, was placed squarely on the center stage, he could conceive of no other function in this world beyond what his ego defined for him. As a consequence, the larger macrocosmic setting that was always vital for the Greeks receded to the periphery and concurrently all nonrational values, including religion, lost their numinous character. The case of religion is rather instructive: its demotion to a system of collective ethical behavior, interspersed with warm inner feelings, perhaps for the first time made us suspicious that it is possible to become ill from too much morality. This process of narrowing now seems to have run its course. For one thing, gods and demons that modern science had expelled from nature have found a new, though less spacious, abode in the human psyche. Above all it is the reality of evil that has become the source of deep and uncanny fascination for modern man. "That," according to Jung, "is the psychological situation in the world today. Some call themselves Christian and imagine that they can trample so called evil underfoot by merely willing to; others have succumbed to it and no longer see the good. Evil today has become the visible Great Power."1 We must add, however, that fascination with evil and the satanic in general is not necessarily an aberration of a sick mind. It may be the obverse (and neglected) side of the "thing" called religion, trying to attract our attention. Jung suggests that in order to find a way out of this quagmire, we learn not to succumb to anything at all. In particular, we must relinquish the illusion of absolute certainty as to the nature of good and evil.

no or Every form of addiction is bad, matter whether the narcotic be alcohol or morphine, idealism. We must beware of thinking of good and evil as absolute opposites. The criterion of ethical action can no longer consist in the simple view that good has the force of a categorical imperative, while so-called evil can resolutely be shunned. Recognition of

Roberts Avens, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Religious Studies at lona College, New Rochelle, New York. He has published articles in Catholic World, Cross Currents, and the Journal ofDharma, and is the author of a book of poetry in Latvian.

196

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the reality of evil necessarily relativizes the good, and the evil likewise, converting both into halves of a paradoxical whole.2 ? With this in mind, I intend to explore?phenomenologically if possible Jung's ideas on evil or "shadow" in its twofold manifestation: in the life of an individual and in collectivity, i.e., the personal and collective or archetypal shadow. These two images correspond more or less to the representations of the devil in mythology, folklore, and religion. I shall dwell more particularly on 1) the images of Yah weh and Satan in the Book of Job, since it is here that Jung seems to have found one of the most significant illustrations for his view of the dialectical relationship between consciousness and the unconscious; 2) the femi nine and the material (and the bewildering) element in God symbolized mainly by the biblical figures of Sophia, "the sun woman," and Virgin Mary. At the center of this discussion is Jung's concept of a double incarnation, the light side of God embodied in the Christ, the dark side in Satan, who is to become the Antichrist. Both of these events, according to Jung, are destined to culminate in the collective indwelling of the Holy Ghost?a process whose psychological equivalent is the individuation of mankind. I shall begin by briefly defining Jung's concepts of psyche, the unconscious, and individuation. His approach to these phenomena is avowedly psychological, relying on empirical observation, analysis, and description. But he also admits that because of the peculiar nature of the subject matter, occasionally he had to involve himself in a net of reflections that ramify into the fields of philosophy, theology, comparative religion, and the human sciences in general. Quite clearly, Jung does not pursue psychology in the sense of a laboratory science attempting to formulate general laws of behavior expressed in mathe matical terms.3 Although his theory of the psyche's structure is based on experiences gained in the course of his professional work, he also sought to corroborate it through research in history of religion, mythology, alchemy, etc. Jung did not feel that he should be bound by any one method or theory. Theories in psychology, according to him, have only a heuristic (guiding) value. He therefore used whatever method seemed appropriate (sometimes Freudian, sometimes Adlerian, sometimes his own) for the particular patient. Jung main tained that man is determined not only by his individual or racial history (principle of causality), but also by his future goals and aspirations (teleology). In contrast to the Freudian exclusive dependence on causality, where a cure consists in "the absence of illness," Jung is principally concerned with "the presence of well being." In fact, most of Jung's patients were not ill in the conventional sense. They represented what Erich Fromm calls "the new pa tient," i.e., people who function socially, but who suffer from the "malaise du si?cle," a dis-ease, an inner deadness. They could not see that their various complaints (depression, insomnia, marriages, jobs) are only "the conscious form in which our culture permits them to express something which lies much . . . deeper. The common suffering is the alienation from oneself, from one's fellow man, and from nature; the awareness that life runs out of one's hand like sand, and that one will die without having lived; that one lives in the midst of plenty and yet is joyless."4

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In Freud's system the "well being" is defined chiefly in terms of the libido theory as "the capacity for full genital functioning, or from a different angle, as the awareness of the hidden Oedipal situation."5 To Jung, these definitions are only tangential to the real problem of human existence, which consists in the awakening of the deepest sources of wisdom that lie in the unconscious. Jung uses the word "psyche" (or "the total psyche") to denote the totality of all psychic processes, conscious as well as unconscious. It involves three levels: consciousness, the personal unconscious, the collective unconscious. Conscious ness, which Jung defines as the function or activity that maintains the relation of psychic contents with the ego,6 is only a very small part of the total psyche: "it floats like a little island on the vast, boundless ocean of the unconscious which in fact embraces the whole world."7 Consciousness represents the side of the psyche that is primarily concerned with adaptation to external reality. The unconscious is composed of two parts: one contains forgotten, repressed material and subliminal impressions and perceptions; Jung calls this sphere the personal unconscious; it closely corresponds to the Freudian conception of it. The collective part of the unconscious does not include personal acquisitions but only contents that are more or less common to all human beings, perhaps even to all animals. It is a sort of common psyche of a suprapersonal kind that is the foundation of every individual psyche. The collective unconscious is the product of generations past, the deposit of the experiences to which our ancestors have been exposed: it contains the wisdom of ages, our innate potential, which emerges from time to time in the form of "new" ideas and various creative

expressions.8 The primitive or the collective unconscious consists of the sum of instincts and their spiritual correlates, the archetypes. These are archaic vestiges or primi tive modes of functioning that may be manifested as conscious images, symbols, ideas. Jung was of the opinion that archetypes are inherited with the structure of the brain and that they constitute the deposit of mankind's typical reactions from primordial times to universal human situations, such as fear, the struggle against superior power, relations between sexes, the power of the bright and the dark principles, etc. Archetypes tend to emerge in dreams, in adult fantasies, in children, and in myths and fairy tales found throughout the world: they are also produced by patients who had no conscious knowledge of their existence or significance. These explicitly reported events and images are the only empirical evidence for the reality of the collective unconscious and its contents; this is to say that the collective unconscious in itself is not an observed reality, but a construct that is inferred to have produced certain similarities in these various empirical evi dences. "Coming to know an unconscious is to make it conscious, but then one only knows what has become conscious."9 Archetypes appear in many forms?as persons, as supernatural figures, etc. For example, all pre-existing mothers, with their protective, nourishing influences (yin) combine to form a mother archetype, while the father archetype signifies strength and authority (yang). One of the essential properties of the Jungian unconscious is the power of compensation. Psyche is a self-regulating system in which a compensatory

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mechanism operates between the conscious and the unconscious parts. Jung thinks that it was Heraclitus who discovered the most far-reaching of all psychological laws, viz., the regulative function of opposites. He called it the rule of enantiodromia (enantos, opposite, and dromos, a quick movement). It means that every one-sided attitude inevitably produces its opposite in an autonomous attempt to restore a balanced attitude. Life is a contest of opposites: birth and death, health and sickness, love and hate, giving and taking, systole and diastole, summer and winter, day and night. We find the same law in the ancient Nemesis, the personification of divine justice that could not permit any wrong to go unpunished. In Jungian psychology, one opposite compensates the deficiencies of the other opposite; for example, the extroversion compensates introversion, the uncon scious compensates the conscious mind, evil compensates the good and vice versa. Polarity and opposition are universal laws, and no growth and develop ment of human personality is possible without consideration of them. This, in turn, implies that all development is accompanied by differentiation?a process in which both parts of the total psyche, consciousness and the unconscious, are linked together in a living relation. We begin life in a state of undifferentiated wholeness and nondistinction. Then, just as a seed grows into a plant, the individual develops into a fully differentiated and unified personality. However, the goal of complete differentiation and balance (individuation) is rarely if ever reached, except, as Jung observes, by a Jesus or a Buddha. Wholeness is always relative; personality as the complete realization of our potential is an unattaina ble ideal. But then, says Jung, ideals are only signposts, never the goal.10 This striving for self-fulfillment (or "consummate selfhood," according to C. H. Hall and V. J. Nordby) is called by Jung "individuation." It is an archetypal, viz., an inborn, process requiring no external stimulation. We are destined to individuate just as surely as the body is destined to grow. But as the body can become deformed and sickly because of inadequate diet or lack of exercise, so the personality can be deformed as a result of deficiencies in its experiences and education. For example, modern civilization provides inadequate opportunities for the shadow archetype to become individuated because in childhood our animal instincts are usually punished by parents. This leads to repression: the shadow returns to the unconscious layer of personality, where it remains in a primitive, undifferentiated state. When it occasionally breaks through the barrier of repression, the shadow manifests itself in pathological ways, for example, in the sadism of modern warfare and the crude obscenities of pornogra phy. Psychotherapy for Jung is primarily an individuation process that is sponta neous, natural, and potentially present in every man, although most men are unaware of it. In certain circumstances, however, it can be stimulated, made conscious, and consciously experienced. This would require an intensive analyti cal effort, or what Jung calls activating the contents of the unconscious; "... an such effort eases the tension between the pairs of opposites and makes a possible living knowledge of their structure. Leading through all the hazards a of psyche thrown off balance, cutting through layer after layer, it finally

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penetrates to the centre that is the source and ultimate foundation of our psychic being, to the Self."11 The self embraces the conscious as well as the unconscious psyche; it is the archetype of order and of the totality of the personality. Broadly speaking, the individuation process consists of two stages correspond ing to the first and the second halves of life. In the first half we are initiated into outward reality; the predominant aim here is consolidation of the ego and adaptation of the individual to the demands of his environment. The second stage is controlled by what Jung calls "the transcendent function"; it consists in gaining a deeper knowledge of our inner reality, uniting all of the opposing trends in personality and working toward the goal of wholeness. The transcen dent function is the means by which we realize all aspects of the personality originally hidden away in the embryonic germ plasm; it is the attainment (relatively speaking) of the unity or self archetype. Jung has devoted the larger part of his work to the second part of the process, thus offering persons in their middle years the possibility of a fully meaningful life ?a life that may be regarded as preparation for death. Jung has explored and described a number of archetypes and symbolic figures (symbols are outward manifestations of archetypes) that are characteristic of the principal stages of the individuation process. The first stage ?which is the primary concern of this paper?leads to the experience and integration of the shadow. The other stages are 1) encounter with the soul-image, which in man Jung calls anima and in the woman, animus-, 2) the appearance of the archetype of the Wise Old Man, the personification of the spiritual principle and its counterpart in the woman's individuation process, the magna mater, the great earth mother, representing the impersonal truth of nature. The last 3) station on the path of individuation is characterized by union of the two psychic systems ?consciousness and the unconscious?through a midpoint common to both, the central archetype of the self.12 The personal shadow. The shadow symbolizes our "other side," the unrecog nized and disowned, animal-like personality rejected by the ego. Most human beings are far more greedy, licentious, envious, etc., than they like to appear either to themselves or to others. The shadow is the sum of these unpleasant qualities together with insufficiently developed functions; it represents, though not exclusively, the contents of the personal unconscious, viz., things we want most to deny, things that have been excluded, rejected, or repressed during our life.13 In mythology the shadow appears personified in a figure of the same sex, as our "dark brother" who accompanies and clings to his "light" counterpart: Cain Abel, Set-Osiris, Mephisto-Faust, Mr. Hyde-Dr. Jekyll. It is that hidden, inferior, and guilt-laden part of personality whose ultimate ramifications reach back into the realm of our animal ancestors.14 It is not an easy task for us to establish a right relationship to our shadow, to acknowledge and accept it realistically without becoming identified with it and eventually falling under its spell.15 To recognize the shadow as the dark aspect of the personality is the essential condition for any kind of self-knowledge.

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It is important to realize that the shadow is not necessarily nefarious or wholly bad. It also displays good qualities?normal instincts, creative impulses, and realistic insights. The shadow is "negative" only when seen from the viewpoint of consciousness. Insofar as it retains contact with the lost depths of the soul, with life and vitality, the shadow may provide hints for self-actualiza tion. Without shadow we are flaccid, a two-dimensional phantom, a more or less well brought up child. The man without awareness of his shadow?statistically a very common occurrence ?is the man who believes he is actually only what he knows about himself. He is in fact the mass man who acts as if mistakes are committed by "state" or "society." "He regards himself as harmless, and so adds stupidity to iniquity. He does not deny that terrible things have happened and still go on happening, but it is always 'the others' who do them. And when such deeds belong to the recent or remote past, they quickly and conveniently sink into the sea of forgetfulness, and that state of chronic woolly-mindedness "16 returns which we describe as 'normality.' To lose one's shadow, as, for example, Chamisso's novel Peter Schlemiel shows, is extremely dangerous: somebody else or the devil himself gains control of it. The intimate relationship between a man and his shadow in primitive cultures is expressed in many ways. Whoever steps over the shadow of another person conquers him; if one's shadow is pierced, itmeans that one's actual life is injured. The shadow is not only unavoidable, but, as superstition holds, a man without shadow is the devil himself. As if we instinctively knew that human nature needs a little wickedness, we are cautious with someone who seems "too good to be true." Man cannot be whole without his negative side, through which he remains in touch with his primitive nature and with his body. But, says Jung, this body is also a "beast with a beast's soul, an organism that gives unquestioning obedi ence to instinct." So there is always the danger of being overwhelmed by "that fundamental dynamism lurking in the background." For example, Nietzsche, who undoubtedly felt the Christian denial of animal nature very deeply and "sought a higher human wholeness beyond good and evil," ended his life in the Dionysian frenzy of the "blond beast." It was a pathological case of "identifica tion with the shadow," a phenomenon that often occurs at moments of collision with the unconscious.17 Psychological evidence shows that shadow has a tremendous staying power. A person who suppresses it may become civilized, but only at the expense of his own creativity, spontaneity, and deep insight. By cutting himself off from the profound wisdom of his instinctual nature, he tends to become shallow and spiritless.18 On the other hand, when society refuses to provide adequate outlets for the animal side of man's nature, disaster often follows. Writing in 1918, at the end of World War I, Jung observed that the "animal in us only becomes more beastlike" when it is repressed. The Christian teachings were also very repres sive of the shadow and "that is no doubt the reason why no religion is so defiled with the spilling of innocent blood as Christianity, and why the world has never seen a bloodier war than the war of the Christian nations."19

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The main difficulty in recognizing the shadow is that it is bound up with projections and personifications that are not recognized as such. The shadow that cannot be accepted as a negative part of one's system is projected, viz., it is transferred to the outside world and experienced as an outside object, as "the alien out there." The phenomenon of projection is one of the fundamental psychic mechanisms. It is very common in the psychology of the primitive (and children), where it is the basis of the beliefs in spirits. For example, the primitive is unable to experience fear as part of his own psyche, but projects it onto his surroundings and objectifies it as demon or evil spirit. Projections appear on persons in the immediate environment, mostly in the form of abnormal over- or undervalua tions, creating misunderstandings, quarrels, and fanaticism of every description They usually attach themselves where there is a suitable hook; for example, when somebody projects a devil upon his neighbor, he does so because this person has something about him that makes the attachment of such an image possible. The devil in such a case is simply a variant of the shadow archetype. Thus unreasonable predilections against certain types of persons ?xenophobia, racial prejudice?may be partially understood as evidence of the projected shadow. Only by recognizing that not all evil is outside the individual himself a can person withdraw the projections and attend to the aspect of the problem that is part of his shadow personality.20 Perhaps the gravest effect of projections is to isolate the subject from his environment, to envelop him as in a cocoon. As Jung puts it, "projections change the world into a replica of one's own unknown face" leading to "an autoerotic or autistic condition in which one dreams a world whose reality remains forever unattainable."21 Projections, according to Jung, must be regarded as an inevitable step toward fuller consciousness enabling us 1) to confront our bifurcated inner condition and 2) to withdraw the projection from the object into the subject. As long as we are unconscious of our own shadow, we live in a state of "participation mystique" with somebody or something else.

In every case of projection a kind of fascination results, since I am tied to the parts of my own psychology which I have projected; in the case of shadow projection I am tied to the other person in hatred, in the case of the "savior" projection I am tied to the other person in blind and uncritical adoration. For the first case the obsession of the Nazis with the Jews presents a tragic example, for the second the almost divine power with which they invested the F?hrer.22

Individuation of the shadow. As long as a man projects his shadow onto a person or a group of persons or circumstances, he remains unaware of his own shadow figure. Only by withdrawing his shadow projection can he face his inner problem, which essentially is that of becoming conscious and de-identified. To become fully conscious, however, is not primarily an intellectual endeavor; it an implies emotional realization involving the whole of personality. Genuine or illumined consciousness is characterized by a profound sense of relatedness and

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responsibility toward a center that has been realized and accepted as "true"; to be "unconscious" means to be caught in the trap of identifications and ulterior motives.23 Jung, in contrast to the reductive Freudian view that sought only to "subli mate" the dark side of the unconscious, holds that it is precisely the dark and ambiguous figure of the shadow that holds the key to a development of new wholeness in modern man. Becoming conscious of the shadow, however, is a psychological problem of first moral magnitude. It demands that we hold our selves accountable not only for what happens to us, but also for what we project."24 Self-awareness, therefore, must be regarded as an ethical value. Or, ? as E. Neumann puts it, "the acknowledgment of one's evil is 'good.' To be good that is, to want to transcend the limits of the good which is actually available and possible?is evil."25 In Jung's opinion, the traditional ethical position with its slogan Omne bonum a deo, omne malum ab homine (all good comes from God, all evil from man) has made excessive demands on human nature.26 In the canons of collec tive morality (outlined in the Mosaic Law and the Christian commandments) the terms "good" and "evil" are used as opposites: a person is enjoined to practice brotherly love, to strive for perfection and to avoid hate, intolerance, and egoism of all sorts. These exhortations have produced a split between light and dark ness in the psyche, leaving Western man with only two alternatives: either to surrender to his shadow, viz., to acknowledge himself to be a sinner who needs to be saved by the divine agency, or to make the impossible attempt to rid himself of the dark side altogether. It is here that Jung appears as "the healer of modern man" in that he "places himself on the side of humanity, on the side of the creature?and on the side of the shadow."27 What Neumann calls the "new ethic" represents the self-affirmation of modern man and his acceptance of the earth and of life in this world.

By accepting evil, modern man accepts the world and himself in the dangerous double nature which belongs to them both. This self-affirmation is to be understood in the sense deepest as an affirmation of our human totality, which embraces the unconscious as well as the conscious mind and whose centre is not the ego (which is only the centre of consciousness), nor yet the so-called super-ego, but the Self.28

In the Jungian framework to accept evil is to allow the tendencies bound up with the shadow a measure of realization. This may lead to disobedience and self-disgust, but also to self-reliance (a sense of centeredness) without which individuation is unthinkable. If ethics are to be meaningful, the ability to "will otherwise" must be real. Switching, as he often does, to theological language, Jung says that man participates in the divine process (viz., individuation) and this means that

? the principle of separateness and autonomy over against God which is personified in ? Lucifer as the God-opposing will is included in it too. But for this will there would have been no creation and no work of salvation either. The shadow and the opposing will are

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the necessary conditions for all actualization. An object that has no will of its own, . . . capable, if need be, of opposing its creator has no independent existence and is . . . was the one incapable of ethical decision. Therefore Lucifer perhaps who best under stood the divine will struggling to create a world and who carried out that will most faithfully. For, by rebelling against God, he became the active principle of a creation which opposes to God a counter-will of its own.29

According to Jung, we must learn to live with our sin (not in sin), viz., to our respect and to treat kindly the rejected, negative side of personality?"the least of the brethren." Acceptance of the shadow involves suffering and passion of the whole man leading to the realization that

in this very power of evil God might have placed some special purpose which is most important for us to know. One often feels driven to such view when, like the psychothera pist, one has to deal with people who are confronted with their blackest shadow. At any rate, the doctor cannot afford to point, with a gesture of facile moral superiority, to the tablets of the law and say, "Thou shalt not." He has to examine things objectively and weigh up possibilities, for he knows, less from religious training and education than from instinct and experience, that there is something like a felix culpa.30 He knows that one can miss not only one's happiness, but also one's final guilt, without which a man will never reach his wholeness.31

As I noted earlier, the Jungian individuation process has two separate phases. Whereas the first (corresponding to the first half of life) is devoted mainly to stabilization of ego personality, in the second half a person is confronted with an inner demand that the personality be made complete through recognition of the shadow. This may appear astounding from the standpoint of traditional moral ity. Yet "evil," insofar as it is rooted in man's instinctual nature where all spontaneity, creativity, and strong emotions lie, appears to be the only bridge that reunites us with the source and the center of life, the self. Reconciliation with the shadow is always followed by an expansion, an enlargement of consciousness. It must be emphasized again, however, that this does not imply an irresponsible surrender to the shadow or a m?galomanie condition of being "beyond good and evil." Rather the old dilemma?either to be overwhelmed by the shadow or to project it?is transcended. In other words: the problem is raised to a higher level where contradictions are resolved. What Jung, therefore, means by acceptance of the shadow (or integration of evil) is not an approval of "sin" or compromise with wickedness, but a new freedom to act out of one's inborn wholeness. In this state we are no longer spellbound by evil (our egocentric urges); we have come to understand it and so are free to use it as a stepping stone in the process of individuation.

If a person is successful in detaching himself from identification with specific opposites, can ... he often see, to his own astonishment, how nature intervenes to help him. He an ... will then experience inner liberation. In psychological terms, the sacrifice of the ego-will adds energy to the unconscious, and leads to an activation of its symbols. This corresponds to the religious experience in which the resurrection follows the crucifixion and the ego-will becomes one with the will of God. . . .The acceptance of sacrifice is the

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sine qua non of salvation. A transformation takes place in the symbols of both good and evil. Good loses some of its goodness, and evil some of its evil. . . evil can finally prove to be a means of healing, which reconciles the individual with the central core of his being, with the self, the image of the Godhead.32

The new level of awareness from which one confronts the opposites is also called "the self ?an ideal center, equidistant between the ego and the uncon scious. It is the "maximum natural expression of individuality, in a state of fulfilment or totality. As nature aspires to express itself, so does man, and the self is that dream of totality."33 It is the mid-point between consciousness (the absolute demands of traditional ethics) and the unconscious (the shadow) ?a state of equipoise and one-pointedness in the midst of the forces of chaos and light. "Anyone who perceives his shadow and his light simultaneously sees himself from two sides and thus gets in the middle" where alone (i.e., behind the opposites and in the opposites) is true reality, which sees and comprehends the whole.34 In Indian philosophy this is called Atman?that which, figuratively speaking, breathes not only through me but through all. The self or Atman is not just a rather more conscious or intensified ego; like the Chinese Tao, it is in all beings. "As an empiricist," says Jung, "I can at least establish that the Easterner like the Westerner is lifted out of the play of Maya, or the play of opposites, through the experience of the Atman, the 'self,' the highest totality. He knows that the world consists of darkness and light. I can master their polarity only by freeing myself from them by contemplating both, and so reaching a middle position. Only there am I no longer at the mercy of the opposites."35 Neumann has tried to sum up the Jungian approach as follows. "Whatever leads to wholeness is 'good'; whatever leads to splitting is 'evil.' Integration is good, disintegration is evil. Life, constructive tendencies and integration are on the side of good; death, splitting and disintegration are on the side of evil." This is to say that our moral values and actions are no longer considered as entities that are judged good or bad in themselves, but only in relation to the whole. Whatever helps to promote wholeness is "good"; and vice versa, "whatever leads to disintegration is 'evil,' even if it is 'good will,' 'collectively sanctioned values' "36 or anything else 'intrinsically good.' In the Jungian "Weltanschauung" the polarity of good and evil belongs tc human life. Progress toward goodness is meaningless without the presence of evil and he who tries to lead a better and nobler life than is possible involves himself in an endless hypocrisy and deceit. On the other hand, giving free rein to evil is to become the plaything of the forces of the unconscious. Individuation of the shadow is not just a mental cure limited to man's personal experience, but a much more comprehensive way to self-knowledge. Jung teaches the principle of growth toward wholeness (spiritual and biological) ?a growth that necessar ily involves a creative relationship between the dark instinctive side of man's nature and the light of consciousness. In Neumann's words,

A new form of humanism is needed in which man will learn to make friends with himself own and to experience his shadow side as an essential component of his creative vitality.

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The shadow is not a transitional stage or "nothing but" the instinctual side considered simply as the soil in which the roots of life are bedded. It is the paradoxical secret of transformation itself, since it is in fact in and through the shadow that the lead is transformed into gold.37

The archetypal shadow and the devil. The shadow in its individual aspect stands for personal darkness complementing the light of the conscious personal ity. But, as I said earlier, it also branches out into the realm of our animal ancestors and comprises the whole historical aspect of the unconscious. The shadow is something larger and denser than the personal unconscious; insofar as it merges with the contents of the collective unconscious, it represents the unrecognized and inferior side of a race, group, or nation. The common human shadow belongs together with the other figures (arche types) of the collective unconscious and corresponds to the dark aspect of the self (or to the negative expression of the Wise Old Man). It contains evil of gigantic proportions: "to talk of original sin and to trace it back to Adam's relatively innocent slip-up with Eve is almost an euphemism."38 Usually the archetypal shadow manifests itself in two ways: it is personified in a leader (a Cesare Borgia, a Hitler) who shows all the qualities that have been rejected and repressed by the contemporary cultural canon, or it can be projected onto groups of people; the lower classes, racial and national minorities, and other faiths are likely to become targets of suppressed psychic contents. In this way?by looking for everything dark, inferior, and culpable in others ?we jump over our own shadow; we discharge the negative forces of the psyche and the guilt.39 At this juncture the moral problem of the individual merges into the wider problem of evil in the human race or evil in itself. Jung found one of the clearest manifestations of the archetypal shadow in the figure of Mephistopheles in Goethe's Faust. Mephisto is not simply a "devil," but a "godlike companion" who initiates the weary scholar Faust into the world of Eros and leads him into the depths and down to the Mothers and the mysteries of the "god in nature".40 As the strange "son of chaos" (the unconscious), he symbolizes the portion of the psyche that has preserved a living relationship with nature and with the whole historical past. Mephisto is the devilish counterpart of the light that illuminates Faust's spirit and, as the prologue in heaven shows, he is the adversary of God himself. With the famous words: "I am part ofthat power which always wants to do evil, and yet always creates good," Goethe suggests that good may be found not only in the personal shadow, but also in the archetypal shadow.41 The spiritual peregrinations of Goethe's Faust show that the experience of evil can a be means for transcending the one-sidedness of our conscious life. Indeed, the very fascination of evil is often due to the fact that it offers the only possible access to the lost levels of the soul whose ramifications extend into the age-old paths of nature. For example, Lilian Frey-Rohn, a Jungian psychotherapist, has observed that the appearance in dreams of dangerous animals?the bear, the ? snake, the rat, or the wesel is related to the transformation of darkness and evil. "Such dream phenomena, which are not at all unique, show that man's

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reconciliation with the chthonic aspect of his soul is today a collective problem. It is as if the animal soul wanted to complement the 'all-too-airy intellectual aspect of ego-consciousness in order to form a totality."42 The ambivalent deity. The role that the shadow (or evil) plays in Jungian psychology clearly points to the inadequacy and one-sidedness of the traditional Western image of God. In the West, the paradoxical behavior and moral ambiv alence of the gods of classical antiquity were not tolerated. The Olympians were devaluated and given a philosophical interpretation. Christianity even reformed the Jewish concept of God: the morally ambiguous Yahweh became a wholly and stainlessly good God, with no particle of evil in its nature. The Satan who had earlier been a valuable and influential servant of God became God's enemy, the prince of darkness and the heart and center of evil. In the East, gods retained their original paradoxical character. For example, Kali, the representative of the East, is still the bloodthirsty and at the same time gracious goddess while "the Madonna of the West has entirely lost the shadow that distantly followed her in the allegories of the Middle Ages. It was relegated to the hell of popular imagination, where it now leads an insignificant existence as the devil's grand mother."43 In classical Judaism, deity is represented in accordance with the natural archetypal symbolism: in Yahweh light and darkness, good and evil are not separated from one another but are interrelated aspects of his numinosity (e.g., Isaiah 45:7). In fact, his unpredictable behavior, his senseless orgies of destruc tion, and his self-imposed sufferings almost duplicate the behavior of the trick ster. For the trickster, in Jung's psychology, is the collective shadow figure par excellence. He is both subhuman and superhuman, a bestial and divine being whose chief characteristic is his unconsciousness. He is so unconscious of himself that his body is not a unity, and his hands fight each other. Even his sex is optional despite its phallic qualities: he can turn himself into a woman and bear children.44 R. S. Kluger has shown that biblical texts depict a definite development in the ? two primary images of the human psyche God and the devil. From a psychological point of view, one may speak also of "God's fate in the human soul." The word "soul," however, as used by Jung is of such a "limitless range and unfathomable depth"45 that, in Kluger's words, "the ancient problem of transcendence and immanence has lost acuteness, since immanence, so under stood, includes the effects, the imprint, or whatever we want to call it, of that which extends beyond the human; that is, of the transcendent. The transcendent is met from the background of man's own psyche."46 The word "satan" (from the Hebrew sat?n) primarily means "adversary." In Numbers 22:27 we encounter this figure in the form of Mal'?k Yahweh, the emissary of God (one of the sons of God) who blocks Balaam's (a human being) way. The "resistance" here comes ultimately from God, i.e., he is Yahweh in a special function, the side of Yahweh turned toward man. In this and other passages satan has no individuality of his own, but exists only inasmuch as he is Yahweh's self-expression; he brings revelation, protection, threat, etc. But then in Micaiah's vision (I Kings 22:19 ff) a "spirit" appears before Yahweh like a

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personification of an evil thought of God. The dark demonic side of God begins to emerge from the ambivalent mixture with his light side and to show itself as a distinctly dark "spirit." In another account (Genesis 6:1-4), the sons of God (ben? on h?-el?him) perform their own an act that is contrary to God's will. They saw "the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took them wives of all which they chose." These beings express, from the psychological point of view, a still unconscious urge in God toward men. But precisely because it is an unconscious urge, the union with human beings does not result in a God-man, but in monsters. God, however, did not punish the angels, but instead punished mankind by shortening its span of life. This would indicate conflict within God himself: one side of him wants to unite with man, the other opposes the union since it would make man equal to God. We find a similar situation in Genesis 3:1, where one side of God?the serpent ?wants to seduce man so that he will become like God and know good and evil while the other side, for that very reason, expels man from Paradise. And so it is throughout the Old Testament: "God himself, through his dark side, works on man as 'the power that always wills the bad, and always creates the good.' For although the sin of Adam and Eve is the sin par excellence in the Paradise story, God depends on this very sin of man, of knowing good and evil, to carry out his plan of salvation."47 The concept of "son of God" undergoes a further differentiation in the Book of Job (c. 600-300 B.C.). Here the function of Satan is already defined by his name: unlike the vision of Micaiah, where the "spirit" merely carries out a plan of God, in Job Satan is almost an independent agent in conflict with God's total personality. He argues with God and his arguments affect God. Yahweh seems to believe in Job's piety, but then he does not believe, for he needs to have it confirmed. Satan, by devaluating Job's piety and by causing God to deliver Job up to him, appears here as the manifest doubt of God. The driving force behind the doubt is the change effected in God himself. Yahweh must submit to the doubt within himself more for his own sake, as a matter of fate, so to speak, in order to experience himself. "Statan is the destructive doubt within God's person ality; yet it has a mysterious existential necessity for God and man and their relation to each other."48 Job's rebellion effects a falling apart of the two sides of God. Although the whole affair takes place in heaven, between God and Satan, it reverberates in the human realm as a split of the divine image in Job. Job becomes conscious of God's ambivalence just as God consciously experiences his own unpredictability. As a result, he manifests himself to Job in his terrible aspect of the power of nature. He is aware of his own cruelty (41:3, 4), he mocks the covenant made with man, because he is also the dark-nature God who can destroy what he has created. Job accepts the irrational God and is thereby redeemed. By sacrificing himself to a God who represents not only goodness and light, but also cruelty and injustice, he becomes the carrier of the divine fate. The experience of God as the coincidentia oppositorum, occurring as it does on the plane of Job's conscious ness, gives meaning to his suffering and liberation to his soul: "I know that my redeemer liveth." Satan had driven the simple, unproblematic, pious Job to

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come to terms with the deus absconditus. "One must therefore assume that it was this being comprehended, this having room in man which was important for God. He obviously wants man to be the carrier of his (divine) self-knowl . edge. . . Man is nothing against the tremendous divine force, yet God needs him in order to know his power. God needs man for the sake of insight."49 The Book of Job, in comparison with the story of Paradise, represents a significant advance in God's self-consciousness. Adam and Eve are expelled from God's presence as if their knowledge of good and evil were an offense against the creator. In Job one begins to realize that this knowledge is fruitful when combined with submission to God. What we are witnessing here is the possibility of a union of man and God on a new and higher plane: the lost Paradise can be regained without abdicating man's discriminative faculty. It is also highly suggestive that in Job Satan acts in agreement with God, not behind his back like the serpent in Paradise. In sum, Satan, far from being the irreconcilable antagonist of God, is truly Lucifer, the light-bearer, because it is he who forces man to transcend his mere animal nature (his unconsciousness and immersion in nature) and makes him "capable of enduring God in his light-dark aspect and of surrendering himself to him."50 Or, as Alan Watts has observed, the fact that the name of the angel of evil is Lucifer, the light-bearer, "suggests that there might be something formative and creative in becoming conscious of one's own evil principle, or dark side, or innate rascality."51 Before we follow Jung's own interpretation of the psychological event that is the story of Job in the Old Testament, it is necessary to dwell ?from Jung's viewpoint?on the Incarnation of Christ as the penultimate stage in the indivi duation process. Incarnation and individuation. From the discussion of the figure of Satan in the Old Testament we saw that man?through the realization of the divine dark side?has initiated a change in God himself. According to Jung, this was necessary because without such a spotlighting of Lucifer as the Grod-opposing will, there would have been no creation and no work of salvation. To keep the line of argument clean, we must let Jung speak for himself. As he stipulated earlier:

The shadow and the opposing will are the necessary conditions for all actualization. An . . . no object that has no will of its own, capable, if need be, of opposing its creator has . . . independent existence and is incapable of ethical decision. Therefore Lucifer was perhaps the one who best understood the divine will struggling to create a world and who carried out that will most faithfully. For, by rebelling against God, he became the active principle of a creation which opposed to God a countervail of its own.52

Yahweh of the Old Testament is a creator God?an overpowering, numinous mystery, essentially unconscious and unreflected in his whole nature. With the incarnation, however, the picture changes completely. God now becomes mani fest in the form of man who is conscious and therefore has to discriminate between good and evil. God, by becoming man, becomes at the same time a

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definite being, he is this and not that. Thus the first thing Christ did was to sever himself from his shadow and call it "devil." (In therapy, when a patient emerges from an unconscious condition, he must confront his shadow and make a decision for the good.) In Jung's scheme of things, the devil became psychologi cally inevitable in that he is the personification of Christ's split-off dark side.53 "Christ wanted to change Yahweh into a moral God of goodness, but in so doing he tore apart the opposites (Satan falling from heaven, Luke 10:18) that were . united in him. . .The purpose of the Christian reformation through Jesus was to eliminate the evil moral consequences that were caused by the amoral divine . . . "54 prototype. Psychologically speaking, this was the first step on the way of individuation, which consists, as I noted earlier, in discrimination between good and evil and cessation of identification with the shadow. Jung admits that the original Christian conception of the imago Dei embodied in Christ is one of an all-embracing totality: Christ is the pattern of perfect divine-humanity, the prototype of the integrated man, the archetype of the self. However, in the modern psychological sense the Christ symbol (or should we rather say: Christ of popular piety) lacks the wholeness, because it does not include the shadow ?the dark side of things, which is a necessary ingredient of our own personalities. The reason for the absence of the shadow is, in Jung's opinion, the doctrine of the summum bonum: for the Christian, neither God nor Christ could be a paradox; both had to have a single meaning. Unlike the empirical self, which is a paradoxical unity of light and shadow, the Christian archetype (Christ) is hopelessly split into two irreconcilable halves leading ultimately to metaphysical dualism?the final separation of the kingdom of heaven from the fiery world of the damned. Indeed, the devil seems to have attained his true stature as the adversary of Christ (and hence of Grod) only after the rise of Christianity. Psychologically, this is understandable: since the figure of Christ is so spot less, so one-sidedly perfect, it demands a psychic complement to restore the balance. True to his view of the psyche as a self-regulatory system, Jung, therefore, assumes that "the coming of the Antichrist is not just a prophetic prediction ?it is an inexorable psychological law whose existence, though un known to the author of the Johannine Epistles, brought him a sure knowledge of the impending enantiodromia."55 Similarly, it was the need to account for the missing shadow that led in early Christianity to the belief in two sons of God, Christ and Satana?l?the elder son. In a word, Christ as the embodiment of the self corresponds only to one-half of the archetype; the other half appears as the Antichrist who is equally a manifes tation of the self in its dark aspect. "Both are Christian symbols and they have the same meaning as the image of the savior crucified between two thieves. This great symbol tells us that the progressive development and differentiation of consciousness leads to an ever more menacing awareness of the conflict and involves nothing less than a crucifixion of the ego, its agonizing suspension between irreconcilable opposites."56 The exclusion of the dark side of God from what Jung calls "the interim Gospel" of the all-good Jesus Christ has a parallel in Western man's insistence

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on the supposed omnipotence and goodness of his conscious ego. The white man, having failed to recognize and integrate his shadow, has been deluded into believing that his religion, his morals, his social and economic institutions are superior to anything the world has ever seen. Blissfully unaware of the evil within himself, he has "infected the world with his greed, his acquisitiveness and restlessness, has uprooted whole cultures, proletarized their peoples, spread physical and psychological disease and the evils of his own egotism, arrogance, nationalism, class-war, and materialism. He has thereby ensured the lasting hatred of those whom he has exploited and 'civilized' and whose gods and values he has destroyed; and thereby added immeasurably to his own burden of guilt."57 The psychological law of enantiodromia ensures, however, that glorification of the inflated ego will produce the emergence of its opposite?the evil and the shadow. The New Testament writers seem to have foreseen it all. The coming of Christ prepares the way for the coming and the temporary triumph of Satan (I John 2:18; Apoc. 20:7), for the apotheosis of the shadow, "the man of sin, the son . . . of perdition who opposeth and is lifted up above all that is called God showing himself as if he were God" (2 Thess. 2:3). Christ himself saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven (Luke 10:18) thus coming that much closer to our human world.58 Assuming that the author of the Apocalypse is the Beloved Disciple of the Fourth Gospel and the Johannine Epistles, Jung writes:

The "revelation" was experienced by an early Christian who, as a leading light of the community, presumably had to live an exemplary life and demonstrate to his flock the Christian virtues of true faith, humility, patience, devotion, selfless love, and denial of all worldly desires. In the long run this can become too much, even for the most religious. Irritability, bad moods, and outbursts of affect are the classic symptoms of chronic ...... virtuousness. I have seen many compensating dreams of believing Christians but I have seen nothing that remotely resembles the brutal impact with which the opposites collide in John's visions, except in the case of severe psychosis. However, John us no ... a gives grounds for such a diagnosis. It is sufficient that he is passionately an religious person with an otherwise well-ordered psyche. But he must have intensive relationship to God which lays him open to an invasion far transcending anything . . . as an personal. The purpose of the apocalyptic visions is not to tell John, ordinary human being, how much shadow he hides beneath his luminous nature, but to open the seer's eyes to the immensity of God, for he who loves God will know God. . . .Like Job, he saw the fierce and terrible side of Yahweh. For this reason he felt his gospel of love to be . . one-sided, and he supplemented it with hi? gospel of fear. . God has a terrible double a sea . . . as aspect: of grace is met by a seething lake of fire. That is the "eternal," distinct from the temporal, gospel: one can love God, but one must fear him.59

Answer to Job. Jung's "Answer to Job" is his personal and religious testa ment, written in a language charged with emotion and at times sarcastic in tone. It is a "purely subjective reaction" to the "shattering emotion which the unvarnished spectacle of divine savagery and ruthlessness produces in us."60 In other words, it is an attempt to come to terms with the numinous image of the self as it is expressed in the Judaeo-Christian image of God. The "Answer to Job" is not a theological statement. "I do not write," says Jung, "as a biblical

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scholar (which I am not), but as a layman and physician who has been privileged to see deeply into the psychic life of many people."61 The God of the Book of Job tests the loyalty of his pious servant Job by inflicting upon him all kinds of suffering and tribulation. The greatness of Job lies in the fact that he never doubts the existence, or rather the unity, of God. He clearly sees that God is so totally at odds wdth himself that he, Job, is quite certain of finding in God an "advocate" against Gk>d. Yahweh in his aspects of persecutor and helper "is not split but is an antinomy?a totality of inner opposites ?and this is the indispensable condition for his tremendous dyna mism, his omniscience and omnipotence."62 Because Job knows it, he stands by the dictates of his conscience and is ready to defend his point of view. He sees that Yahweh's fulminations against him betray "an inward process of dialectic in God," which "only becomes intelligible when aimed at a listener who doubts it. This "doubting thought is Satan."63 "Yahweh projects on to Job a sceptic's face which is hateful to him because it is his own . . ."64The miserable servant Job is challenged as though he himself were a god, but of course there is no other God except Satan?the only one who can "pull the wool over his eyes" and induce him to violate his own commandments. It is as if by fighting Job, Yahweh wanted to maintain himself in a state of unconsciousness. The new factor that radically changes the encounter between Yahweh and Job is that "a mortal man [Job] is raised by his moral behavior above the stars in heaven, from which position of advantage he can behold the back of Yahweh, "65 the abysmal world of'shards.' At this point Yahweh's dual nature has been revealed and somebody has seen and registered the fact. But "whoever knows God has an effect on him. The failure of the attempt to corrupt Job has changed Yahweh's nature."66 The entire drama, according to Jung, reveals a curious lack of rapport between God and his creatures, for it is inconceivable that an all-knowing, good, and all-powerful God could get as worked up about his helpless creation as he does in the Scripture. Yahweh's behavior, which from the human point of view is so intolerable, can be explained only by the fact that he is unconscious.67 By this Jung means that God is a coincidentia oppositorum, at the same time the . highest love and the greatest good, and dark inhuman cruelty. "If Yahweh . . were really conscious of himself, he would, in view of the true facts of the case, at least have put an end to the panegyrics of his justice. But he is too uncon scious to be moral. Morality presupposes consciousness. By this I do not mean to say that Yahweh is imperfect or evil, like a gnostic demiurge. He is everything in his totality, therefore, among other things, he is total justice, and also its total opposite."68 The inner instability of Yahweh is the prime cause not only of the creation of the world but also of the subsequent pleromatic drama of mankind's evolution or individuation. For the fact that Job possesses something that Yahweh lacks, namely, consciousness based on self-reflection, changes the creator. Man "has seen Gk>d's face and the unconscious split in his nature. God was now known, and this knowledge went on working not only in Yahweh but in man too."69 We can correlate here the religious relationship between man and God to the

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psychological interaction of the ego and the self (their freedom and autonomy on the one hand and their mutual dependence on the other). Just as the self is actualized with the aid of consciousness, in religious language we can say that "God seeks man and actualizes himself in encountering his creature" or "man's consciousness is deepened by its encounter with God."70 It is a basic tenet of Jung's psychology that the unconscious by its very nature is an unreflected, instinctual entity. It "wants to flow into consciousness in order to reach the light, but at the same time it continually thwarts itself, because it would rather remain unconscious. That is to say, Gkxi wants to become man, but not quite."71 Job's insight into the dual nature of God, his consciousness of the antinomy of the God-image (the "oppositeness" in God) was followed by transformation of the image under which the mysterium tremendum had appeared: Grod became man. Psychologically "incarnation" is a symbol of becoming conscious. "Yahweh's decision to become man is a symbol of the development that had to supervene when man becomes conscious of the sort of God-image he is confronted with."72 The answer to Job is given in the supreme moment of the despairing cry from . . . the Cross "'My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?' here God experiences what it means to be a mortal man and drinks to the dregs what he made his faithful servant Job suffer."73 Thus Yahweh's intention to become man, which resulted from his encounter with Job, is fulfilled in Christ's life and suffering. Or one could say with Jung that Christ's "sacrificial death was a fate chosen by Yahweh as a reparation for the wrong done to Job on the one hand and on the other as a fillip to the spiritual and moral development of man. There can be no doubt that man's importance is enormously enhanced if God himself deigns to become one."74 Aniela Jaffa, following Jung's train of thought, has expressed the dialectical relationship between God and man, viz., between the self and the ego as follows:

The transformation of the relation of man to God, or ego-consciousness to self, is psychologically based on the equilibrium of a continually changing potential between these two interacting entities. At one moment the self overpowers ego-consciousness and forcibly brings about its transformation and expansion; at another, ego-consciousness a undergoes mutation and penetrates deeper into the unconscious thanks to its powers of can cognition. In both cases man is transformed and so is the God-image. Yet it never be established with certainty which came first and what was the result. In Job's case the possibility cannot be excluded that the process was initiated in the unconscious by the self, and that God, driven as it were by a secret longing for more consciousness, sought that encounter with the mortal man.75

The role of the Holy Spirit. The incarnation of God in Jesus Christ, being one sided, is not final. Christ, born of a mother immaculately conceived, without any sin himself, has little in common with the rest of mankind. Christ and Mary "are not real human beings at all, but gods."76 They still symbolize the predomi nance of the masculine ideal of perfection in contrast to the feminine ideal of wholeness.77 This, from the standpoint of man's psychological development, was a necessary step. For, as therapeutic experience shows, the advancement of human consciousness requires complete separation of the ego from the shadow.

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The opposition of good and evil must be fully experienced before they can be integrated.78 A new era begins with the sending of "the Spirit of truth" whose task is to help men to discover "what happens when God incarnates only his light aspect and believes he is goodness itself, or at least wants to be regarded as such."79 Jung attached special importance to the symbolism of the Holy Ghost. He spoke, like Joachim of Flora (1135-1202), of an age of the Holy Spirit that would succeed the stage of the Father in Judaism and of the Son in Christianity. However, Jung regarded the Holy Spirit not as a metaphysical entity but as a symbol (verbal image) pointing to a further development of man. From the religious point of view, the Paraclete represents the continuation of God's incarnation in man and the transformation of all men into "fellow heirs with Christ," viz., into god-men. "Grod wanted to become man and still wants to."80 now man Accordingly the process of incarnation takes place in the ordinary creating a new and closer relationship between God and his creature. At this stage the symbolism of the Holy Ghost and the symbolisms of the self coincide in the archetypal image of "God in man." Psychologically, the continuing incarna tion of God and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit are the same process: the dawning and expansion of man's consciousness or the actualization of the self in man. To repeat, Christ, being sinless, was not wholly a human being. "Job, on the other hand, was an ordinary human being, and therefore the wrong done to him, and through him to mankind, can, according to divine justice, only be repaired by an incarnation of God in an empirical human being. This act of expiation is performed by the Paraclete; for just as man must suffer from God, so Grod must suffer from man. Otherwise there can be no reconciliation between the two."81 As Jung so often insists, individuation presupposes that good and evil, light and shadow are fully recognized. To live an integrated life, man must become conscious of his guilt and his shadow. Thus "the guilty man is eminently suited and is therefore chosen to become the vessel for the continuing incarnation, not the guiltless one who holds aloof from the world and refuses to pay his tribute to life, for in him the dark God would find no room."82 But here too the law of enantiodromia must be observed, for the shadow can be endured and integrated only if we are sufficiently conscious of the light. "We therefore need more light, more goodness and moral strength, and must wash off as much of the obnoxious blackness as possible, otherwise we shall not be able to assimilate the dark God who also wants to become man. . . . For this all the Christian virtues are needed and something else besides, for the problem is not only moral: we also need the Wisdom that Job was seeking."83 The feminine in God. The awakening of consciousness in mankind, the drama of what Jung likes to call aurora consurgens or mysterium conjunctionis reaches its climax with the appearance in heaven of the sun-woman, "with the moon under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars" (Apoc. 12:1). She is the equivalent of Sophia (Sapientia Dei) who is a coeternal and more or less hypostatizedprceuma of the feminine nature that existed before the creation.84 This is clearly an original image. The sun-woman is not a goddess or an eternal virgin immaculately conceived. In Jung's view, the cosmic and natural

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istic attributes mark her as the primordial feminine Anthropos who completes the patriarchal, exclusively masculine image of Grod. Her symbolism reveals the whole mystery of the woman: "she contains in her darkness the sun of 'mascu . . . line' consciousness. She adds the dark to the light, symbolizes the hi erogamy of opposites, and reconciles nature with spirit."85 TTiis woman gives birth to a man-child who "rises out of the nocturnal sea of the unconscious" and is at once taken back to it (or to God). According to Jung, we are dealing here with an image that is to remain latent for an indefinite time and that will be activated in the future. Furthermore, the birth of the child must not be confused with the birth of the Christ-child that had occurred under quite different circumstances. This man-child embodies the mythologem of the "divine child" that is a symbol of the coming into consciousness of the total self as a complexio oppositorum.86 The figure of the sun-woman points to man's ability to endure the conflict between good and evil that otherwise would tear him asunder. Speaking as a therapist, Jung comments that there are conflicts of duty that cannot be logically solved. The patient is therefore advised to wait and see whether the unconscious will not produce a solution of its own. Experience shows that symbols of a reconciling and unitive nature do in fact show up in dreams, the most frequent being the motif of the child-hero and the squaring of the circle, signifying the union of opposites.87 In this context, the birth of the child that we meet in the Apocalypse symbolizes the essence of the individuation process or the continuing desire of God to take abode in creaturely man. The vision of the sun-woman will be fulfilled only in the "last days." As a pointer to this we witness at the end of the Apocalypse a hieros gamos, the marriage of the son with the mother-bride symbolizing the apotheosis of the individuation process in man. In Jung's opinion, the Catholic church has recog nized this truth by announcing the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin: "Mary as the bride is united with the Son in the heavenly bridal chamber, and as Sophia, with the Godhead."88 Jung considers the declaration of the Assumption as the most important symbological event since the Reforma tion,89 chiefly because it exalted the feminine and bodily principles that were both excluded from the masculine and spiritual God-image of the Trinity. The dogma is psychologically meaningful 1) as a symbolic approximation of oppo sites, the masculine and the feminine, body and spirit; 2) because it is based on a tradition of religious beliefs reaching back for more than a thousand years. It is prefigured in the Old Testament, in the ancient Egyptian theology of the divine Pharaohs (where Grod wants to become man by means of a human mother) and in the prehistoric religions where the theme of the primordial divine being as both male and female is quite frequent. It doesn't matter at all, says Jung, that the dogma asserts a physically impossible fact, because all religious assertions are physical impossibilities. "Religious statements without exception have to do with the reality of the psyche and not with the reality of physis Z'90 The papal declaration of the Assumptio Mariae "leaves Protestantism with the odium of being nothing but a man's religion which allows no metaphysical . . . representation of woman. Protestantism has obviously not given sufficient

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attention to the signs of times which point to the equality of women. But this equality requires to be metaphysically anchored in the figure of a 'divine woman,' the bride of Christ."91 Although the dogma of the Assumption does not state that Mary has attained a divine status, Jung thinks that, as mistress of heaven and mediatrix, she is functionally equal to Christ, the king and mediator. Most importantly, how ever, it "expresses a renewed hope for the fulfillment of the yearning for peace which stirs deep down in the soul, and for a resolution of the threatening tension between the opposites."92 Understood symbolically (not concretely) the Assumption of the body is a recognition and acknowledgment of matter, which in Western philosophy and religion was often identified with evil or as an illusion. In Jung's view, spirit and matter are neutral, or rather capable of what man calls good and evil. They should be seen in a manner similar to yang (the light, warm, dry, masculine principle) containing within itself the seed of yin (the dark, cold, moist, femi nine principle), viz., as part of the energetic structure of the physical and the psychic world without which no existence of any kind is possible.93

Jung's repudiation of the traditional definition of evil as a "privation of good" {privatio boni) (see note 50) has led some of his Catholic critics to believe that he regards evil as having some positive existence and reality of its own and that therefore he requires the admission of evil, not only into the archetype of the self but also into Godhead itself; this in turn has prompted him to promote a Divine Quaternity, with a fourth and "evil" hypothesis, in a fashion that orthodox Christians must find quite inadmissible.94 It is true that, in Jung's view of the matter, the Trinitarian symbolism lacks the feminine, the material, and hence the dark substance of the flesh and the devil. Occasionally he seems to imply that there is a link between the feminine as flesh, as matter, as the dark and the earthy, and the devil (or Satan); both are referred to as "the missing fourth."95 One should readily admit that Jung, besides being (tantalizingly!) ambiguous on this score, at times manipulates theologically charged concepts with too much ease. He also makes clear that evil is "terribly real" ?on the psychological plane, but not as an independent reality. "Good and evil are psychological relativities and as such quite real, yet one does not know what they are. For this reason they should not be projected upon a transcendent being." Jung is not a psychological neo-Manichean; on the con trary, he is deeply convinced of the unity of the self. It is rather the case that "dualism is lurking in the shadows of the Christian doctrine: the devil will not be redeemed, nor shall eternal damnation come to an end."96 Jung's observation that the devil or the Antichrist can no longer be excluded from the totality of divine nature should not be interpreted as an intrusion into theological realm. His aim is always to "relate so-called metaphysical concepts, which have lost their root connection with natural experience, to living, univer sal psychic processes, so that they can recover their true and original mean ing."97

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Jung thinks that there must be a continual misunderstanding between the theologian and the empirical psychologist over their use of such words as God, Yahweh, or Satan. Be it as it may, he himself uses these words primarily as psychic images or outward expressions of archetypes. The fact that he often personifies a particular archetype is due to its autonomous behavior in the human psycfie.98 When, for example, we say that the Gk>d of the Old Testament is unconscious or that aspects of him become conscious, we should take it to mean that he is unconscious (or inaccessible) to the human ego.99 In other words, it all has to do with the interaction between ego-consciousness and the uncon scious. Jung has formulated this process as follows:

The enlargement of the light of consciousness has the necessary consequence that that part of the psyche which is less light and less capable of consciousness is thrown into darkness to such an extent that sooner or later a rift occurs in the psychic system. At first, this is not recognized as such and is therefore projected?i.e., it apprears as a religious projection, in the form of a split between the powers of Light and Darkness.100

The polarity between the unconscious and consciousness can also be formu lated as the problem of why God should have created the world, since he is perfect in himself and has no need of anything outside himself. Jung's answer is that Grod in fact does need man in order to become manifest in the human act of reflection. Man is God's necessary partner in creation?his alter ego through which he becomes a realized and conscious fact. G. Adler, one of the foremost disciples of Jung, interprets original sin as "an admission of God's need for completion through man's consciousness?the Self needs ego in order to become manifest. Whereas the relationship between Grod and man was originally meant to be one of eternal harmony, the first sin revealed an inexplicable flaw in Grod's creation, and if we may say so, an inexplicable imperfection in the divine personality."101 The imperfection in God, according to Jung, consists in his lack of conscious ness. The devil, therefore, can be regarded as God's dissatisfaction with himself, a projection of his own doubt acting as "constant remainder of the flaw in creation, and thus as a constant urge towards conscious realization and thereby towards greater perfection."102 The devil is here the psychopomp, a guide of the soul, who leads the way into the underworld of the unconscious. In this he is similar to the Platonic Eros, who is also the great instigator of unrest, the urge toward completeness. But just as Eros has its destructive aspect?the obsession with merely sensual lust?so the devil, by cutting himself loose from Grod, can become subversive and destructive. "This is exactly the situation of the con scious mind when it has cut its links with the unconscious. Where the conscious mind becomes hypertrophie, where it tries to assume the sole direction and responsibility, it is bound in the long run to act as 'Satan,' interfering and preventing instead of urging and stimulating."103 It seems, then, that it is consciousness itself or the tyrannical mind with its ruthless and cold efficiency that, under certain circumstances, can be enticed into playing the role of "the enemy" by severing the unity of the conscious and

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the unconscious systems. The image of the Christian devil as purely malicious and sinister could be, therefore, "a by-product of the growth of the peculiarly Western view of personality and its values, that is, of personality as grounded and centered upon consciousness and will, of man's essence as the individual ... and immortal soul. It is a unique growth of consciousness in one way and loss of consciousness in another, and what is lost appears in the image of this implacable enemy of man and all his values."104 Here, of course, we are witnessing something that has become the central theme of the most eloquent lamentations in the last decades: man's alienation from himself. But what is this "self' that we no longer seem to recognize? Has it been made, through some satanic machination, to appear exclusively under the guise of a conquering, m?galomanie ego? The Jungian perspective would cer tainly allow for such an eclipse of the self. But it must be remembered that one of the basic symbols for the self (or "God") in all mystical traditions is a circle (m?ndala), which would indicate that the god-man of the age of the Spirit is homo rotundus in whom and through whom the subtly unnatural and alluring devil of his ego-consciousness is bound to be led back to its own organic roots in the unconscious. We may then discover that in life's "meta-comedy" (Gerald Heard) the battle between good and evil is not ultimately serious.

References and notes

Note: The Collected Works ofC. G. Jung, R. R. C. Hull, trans., published in London by Routledge & Kegan Paul, have been published in the U.S. by the Bollingen Foundation (Bollingen Series XX). Since 1967, the American publisher has been the Princeton University Press. The volumes are referred to herein as CW. 1. Jung, C. G., Memories, Dreams, Reflections. A. Jaf?e, ed., R. and C. Winston, trans. New York, Vintage Books, 1961, p. 331. 2. Ibid., p. 329. 3. Cf. Hall, C. C, and Nordby, J., A Primer of Jungian Psychology. New York, New American Library, 1973, p. 124 ff. 4. Fromm, E. et al., Zen Buddhism and Psychoanalysis. New York, Harper & Row, 1960, p. 86. 5. Ibid., p. 86 6. Jung, CW, VI, p. 421, par. 700. 7. Jacobi, J., The Psychology ofC. G. Jung. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1962, p. 6. 8. Cf. ibid., p. 10; Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology. R. F. C. Hull, trans. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1972. 9. Hilgard, E. R., "Levels of Awareness: Second Thoughts on Some of William James Ideas." In MacLeod, R. B., ed., William James: Unfinished Business. American Psychological Associa tion, Inc., 1969, p. 52. 10. Cf. Jacobi, op. cit., p. 105 ff. 11. Ibid., p. 107. 12. Cf. Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology: Man and His Symbols. New York, Dell Publishing Co., 1964. 13. In F. Nietzsche's "The Wanderer and His Shadow," the shadow is an earthbound figure who pursues "the smallest and most immediate things" of daily life (Human All Too Human, Works, VII, p. 186). In Thus Spake Zarathustra it appears as "the ugliest man" (Works, XI, p. 320 ff.) 14. Cf. Jung, CW, IX, 2, p. 266, par. 422. 15. us Jung wants to become disabused of the disastrous idea that the human psyche is born a rasa tabula and that "under normal circumstances" the individual is in perfect order. The so civilized man called "never suspects that his own hidden and apparently harmless shadow has qualities whose dangerousness exceeds his wildest dreams. As soon as people get in masses together and submerge the individual, the shadow is mobilized, and as history

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shows, may even be personified and incarnated." Four Archetypes. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1973, p. 147, par. 478. 16. Jung, The Undiscovered Self. R. F. C. Hull, trans. New York, New American Library, 1957, p. 108. 17.-, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, op. cit., p. 35, par. 30, 35. 18. Cf. Hall & Nordby, op. cit., pp. 48-50. 19. Jung, CW, X, p. 22, par. 32. 20.-,Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, op. cit., p. 96, par. 152. 21. de Laszlo, V. S., ed., Psyche and Symbol. A Selection from the Writings ofC. G. Jung. Garden City, New York, Doubleday & Co., 1958. p.8 22. Adler, G., Studies in Analytical Psychology. New York, Capricorn Books, 1969, p. 16. 23. Cf. ibid., p. 17. 24. Frey-Rohn, L., "Evil from the Psychological Point of View." In Evil: Essays by Carl Kerenyi and others. Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern University Press, 1967, p. 176. 25. Neumann, E., Depth Psychology and a New Ethics. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1969, p. 114. The Freudian "sublimation" is simply a means to divert evil to a cultural purpose. This redirection of the shadow, however, turns out to be adaptation to socially accepted situations and not a conscious direction of libido. "When a 'blood-thirsty' person, whose nature contains aggressive instinctive components, becomes a butcher, a soldier or a surgeon, we have an example of a type of 'sublimation' in which the primitive urge to shed blood is incorporated into forms of satisfaction which are more or less conducive to culture and sanctioned by the community." On the other hand, experience shows that conscious sublimation is possible to a only limited extent. Where such a possibility exists, we are often caught in a vicious circle. Neumann comments on this as follows: 'We know those sublimating saints, whose 'unspotted' . . . ? lives are free from lived-out sexuality and full of brotherly love on the conscious level at any rate. But our sharpened insight cannot fail to notice the hellish aureole which so often emanates from 'holiness' of this kind. On the periphery of its radiantly pure centre, we detect its counterpart?the corona of perverse sexual fantasies which 'the Devil' sends as a tempta tion, and the ring of blood and fire in which the unbelievers are persecuted?all the inhuman cruelty, in fact, the burnings, tortures, pogroms and crusades which give lie to the brotherly love and the 'sublimations' of the conscious mind." Ibid., p. 115. 26. Cf. Jung, CW IX, 2, p. 46 ff., par. 80, 81. 27. Neumann, op. cit., pp. 140-141. 28. Ibid., p. 117. 29. Jung, CW, XI, p. 196, par. 290. 30. "Happy fault," said of Adam's sin. From the Roman Missal, Holy Saturday Rite. The full text runs: O felix culpa, quae talem ac tantum meruit habere redemptorem! O happy fault which merited so great and glorious a redeemer! 31. Jung, CW, XII, pp. 29-30, par. 36. 32. Frey-Rohn, op. cit., p. 197. 33. Serrano, M., C. G. Jung and Herman Hesse: A Record of Two Friendships. New York, Schocken Books, 1966, p. 50. 34. Jung, CW, X, p. 463, par. 872. 35. Ibid., p. 464, par. 875. 36. Neumann, op. cit., pp. 126-127. 37. Ibid., pp. 146-147. 38. Jung, The Undiscovered Self, op. cit., p. 107. Jung has not clearly defined what this collective figure might be, viz., how far the shadow is really a collective phenomenon and how far personal. Cf., Storr, A., C. G. Jung. New York, Viking Press, 1973, p. 52 ff. He writes: "We are no longer aware that in carnival customs and the like there are remnants of a collective shadow figure which prove that a personal shadow is in part descended from a numinous collective figure. This collective figure gradually breaks up under the impact of civilization, leaving traces in folklore which are difficult to recognize." Four Archetypes, op. cit., p. 136, par. 457. 39.-, CW, X, p. 216, par. 442. 40.-, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, op. cit., pp. 60, 68. 41. Cf. Frey-Rohn, op, cit., pp. 180, 181. 42. Ibid., p. 191. 43. Jung, Four Archetypes, op. cit., p. 37, par. 189. 44. Cf. ibid., p. 143, par. 472. 45.-, CW, XH, p. 13, par. 14.

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46. Kluger, R. S., Satan in the Old Testament. Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern University Press, 1967, p. 5. 47. Ibid., p. 113. 48. Ibid., p. 123. 49. Ibid., pp. 130-131. 50. Ibid., p. 132. Jung repudiates the traditional definition of evil as privatio boni (cf. Summa Theologica, I, 49.1) and maintains that this conception of evil as "privation" is false to the empirical facts and psychologically harmful. It produces Luciferian vanity in man, who cannot help imagining himself as p great destroyer capable of devastating God's creation. "Evil is?psychologically speaking?terribly real. It is a fatal mistake to diminish its power . . . and reality even merely metaphysically. Evil verily does not decrease by being hushed up as a non-reality or a mere negligence of man. It was there before him, when he could not . . . possibly have a hand in it. Good and evil are psychological relatives and as such quite real, yet one does not know what they are." C. G. Jung Letters, G. Adler, ed., in collaboration with A. Jane, R. F. C. Hull, trans. Two vols. Bollingen Series XCV, vol. 2. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1975, p. 541. Victor White, who has criticized Jung for leaving us in the dark as to what he understands by evil and how, intellectually, he would have us differentiate it from good, admits, on Jung's behalf, that the view of evil as privatio boni is "a product of conscious reflection, of intellectual analysis, and not of immediate sense-experi ence." Soul and Psyche: An Enquiry into the Relationship of Psychotherapy and Religion. New York, Harper, 1960, pp. 155-156. Even Aquinas recognizes that to the unreflecting consciousness, evil in the sense of privation is a certain kind of entity (Summa Theologica, I II, 36.1). But then, of course, Jung means nothing more when he insists that psychologically we perceive and experience evil as a very positive reality. The problem of a metaphysical dualism (which the early Christian theologians wanted to avoid at all costs) arises only when good and evil, which are abstract categories, are confused with the concrete, or when it is thought that there are as clearly distinguishable entities in the natural universe. According to Jung, good and evil are principles of our ethical judgment. Like all opposites, they are contained in the archetype of the self and thus are psychologically inseparable. For Jung's views, cf. de Laszlo, op. cit., pp. 39-60. 51. Watts, A. W., The Two Hands of God: The Myths of Polarity. New York, Collier Books, 1963, pp. 17-18. 52. Jung, CW, XI, p. 196, par. 290. 53. Cf.-, CW, IX, 2, p. 61, par. 113. 54. C. G, Jung Letters, op. cit., p. 154. 55. de Laszlo, op. cit., p. 40. 56. Ibid., p. 42. Cf. Origen, Contra Celsum, VI, 45 (P. G. Minge, vol. 11, col. 1367). 57. White, Soul and Psyche, op. cit., p. 148. 58. A medieval legend has it that Satan (the dark god), filled with envy, wanted also to be incarnated as a human being. As an incubus, he impregnated a pious virgin without her knowledge. This was the begetting of Merlin. However, since the mother was a pious woman, Merlin did not become an embodiment of evil. Later though, at the end of the millenium allotted to the reign of Christ, Satan will succeed in being incarnated in the image of the Antichrist and thus bring about the final catastrophe. Cf. von Franz, Marie-Louise, C.G. Jung: His Myth in Our Time. New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1975, pp. 162-163. 59. Jung, CW, XI, pp. 449-450, par. 729, 730, 731. 60. Ibid., p. 366, par. 561. 61. Ibid., p. 363, par. 559. 62. Ibid., p. 369 par. 567. 63. Ibid., p. 378, par. 587. 64. Ibid., p. 380, par. 591. 65. Ibid., p. 381, par. 595. 66. Ibid., p. 391, par. 617. 67. "The na?ve assumption that the creator of the world is a conscious being must be regarded as a disastrous prejudice which later gave rise to the most incredible dislocations of logic. For example, the nonsensical doctrine of the privatio boni would never have been necessary had one not had to assume in advance that it is impossible for the consciousness of a good God to produce evil deeds. Divine unconsciousness and lack of reflection, on the other hand, enable us to form a no conception of God which puts his actions beyond moral judgment and allows conflict to arise between goodness and beastliness." Jung, CW, XI, p. 383, note. 68.-,CW, p. 372, par. 574.

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69. Ibid., p. 396, par. 623. 70. Cf. Jaff?, A., The Myth of Meaning. New York, Penguin Books, 1975, p. 113. 71. Jung, CW, XI, p. 456, par. 740. 72. Ibid., p. 456, par. 740. 73. Ibid., p. 408, par. 647. 74. Ibid., p. 410, par. 650. 75. Jaff?, op. cit., pp. 114-115. 76. Jung, CW, XI, p. 399, par. 626. 77. Ibid., p. 399, par. 627. 78. Cf. White, op. cit., p. 149; Jaff? op. cit., p. 124. 79. Jung, CW, p. 433, par. 694. 80. Ibid., p. 455, par. 739. 81. Ibid., p. 414, par. 657. 82. Ibid., p. 460, par. 746. 83. Ibid., p. 457, par. 742. 84. Sophia represents the principle of divine Eros, which had disappeared into unconsciousness, and was replaced by the ideal of perfection. (Jung likes the term "God" in the phrase "the will of God" to be understood in the sense intended by Diotima when she said, "Eros, dear Socrates, is a mighty daemon.") She is closely associated with the Indian Shakti, the creative energy of Brahman and the world-building Maya. 85. Jung, CW, pp. 438-439, par. 711. 86. Cf. ibid., p. 443, par. 716. 87. Cf. ibid., p. 454, par. 738. 88. Ibid., p. 458, par. 743. 89. Cf. ibid., p. 464, par. 752; C. G. Jung Letters, op. cit., p. 8. 90. Jung, CW, p. 464, par. 752. 91. Ibid., p. 465, par. 753; cf. p. 465 ff, par. 754. 92. Ibid., p. 465, par. 754. W. Pauli, a Nobel Prize physicist, has expressed a similar view by stating that "the goal of overcoming the opposites in a synthesis embracing rational under standing as well as mystic experience of oneness is the explicit or tacit myth of our time." Cited in Heisenberg's "Wolfgang Paulis philosophische Auffassungen." In Zeitschrift f?r Parapsychologie und Grenzgebiete der Psychologie, III: 2/3, p. 127. Jung's own research in mythology and the symbolism of dreams has shown that the most important quality of the mother archetype is its relation to the earth and to matter. Accordingly, "when a figure that is conditioned by this archetype is represented as having been taken up into heaven, the realm of the spirit, this indicates a union of earth and heaven, of the matter and spirit." Jung, Four Archetypes, op. cit., p. 42, par. 195. 93. Ibid., p. 43, par. 197. 94. Cf. White, God and the Unconscious. London, Harvill Press, 1952, p. 75 ff. 95. Ulanov, A. B., The Feminine in Jungian Psychology and in Christian Theology. Evanston, Illinois, Northwestern University Press, 1971, pp. 135-136. 96. C. G. Jung Letters, op. cit., vol. 1: 1906-1950, pp. 540-541. 97. Jung, CW, IX, 2, p. 34, par. 65. Theologically speaking, the problem of the "missing fourth" is related to the question of creation and its fallenness. Jung felt that the traditional Christian understanding of a male and perfect God is unable to account for any "need in God which would give worth to creation, is incapable of taking the reality of evil seriously, and is incapable of validating the feminine whose existence it denies in the deity." Dourley, J., "Carl Jung and Contemporary Theology," The Ecumenist, 1974,12 (6), 93. However, Jung is far from equating creation, evil, and the feminine. His thought seems to be more affined to an emanationist (Platonic or neo-Plantonic, Bonaventurian, etc.) model that explains the dialectic of creation in terms of the divine need for self-expression. Such formulations "offer the possibility of a noncontradictory affirmation at the same time of the necessity and worth of creation, of its universal fallenness, and of its ultimate healing ..." Ibid., p. 94. 98. The anthropological images that are used in the religious discourse are based on numinous are archetypes that autonomous and possess an emotional nature. These archetypes of the collective unconscious "precipitate complexes of ideas in the form of mythological motifs. Ideas of this kind are never invented, but enter the field of inner perception as finished products, for instance in dreams. They are spontaneous phenomena which are not subject to our will, and we are therefore justified in ascribing to them a certain autonomy." Moreover, "the tremendous effectiveness (mana) of these images is such that they not only give one the feeling of pointing to the Ens realissimum, but make one convinced that they actually

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express it and establish it as a fact. This makes discussion uncommonly difficult, if not impossible." Jung, CW, XI, pp. 362-363, par. 557, 558. It should be clear, therefore, that Jung does not equate God and the unconscious. "We cannot tell whether God and the unconscious are two different entities. Both are borderline concepts for transcendental contents. But empiri cally it can be established, with a sufficient degree of probability, that here is in the unconscious an archetype of the wholeness which manifests itself spontaneously in dreams, etc. Consequently, it does not seem improbable that the archetype of wholeness occupies such . . . a central position which approximates it to the God-image. Strictly speaking, the God image does not coincide with the unconscious as such, but with a special content of it, namely the archetype of the self. It is this archetype from which we can no longer distinguish the God-image empirically." Jung, CW, XI, pp. 468-469, par. 757. 99. Cf. White, Soul and Psyche, op. cit., Appendix V, "Jung on Job," p. 237; von Franz, op. cit., pp. 168, 171. 100. Jung, The Symbolism of the Spirit: The Spirit Mercurius, CW, XIII, cited by Neumann, op. cit., p. 138. 101. Adler, op. cit., p. 206. 102. Ibid., p. 206. 103. Watts, op. cit., p. 38.

Correction

A letter from the Rev. Robert J. Carlson, Director of Pastoral Services at Prairie View, Newton, Kansas, informs us that the statement made in our obituary note about the Rev. George Christian Anderson, D.D.,* that Dr. Anderson was the first clergyman to be awarded an Honorary Fellowship by the American Psychiatric Association is incorrect. The late Rev. Ernest E. Bruder, D.D., Director of Protestant Chaplain Activities of St. Elizabeths Hospital, Washington D.C., received that honor in 1973. We regret the error. -The Editor * "George Christian Anderson: 1907-1976," Journal of Religion and Health, 1977,16, 75-76.

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