DOCSLIB.ORG

Halachic Positions What Judaism Really Says About Passion in the Marital Bed

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Halachic Positions What Judaism Really Says About Passion in the Marital Bed SEXUALITY AND JEWISH LAW IN SEARCH OF A BALANCED APPROACH IN TORAH VOLUME ONE Halachic Positions What Judaism really Says about passion in the marital bed AN OUTLINE, ANALYSIS AND CANDID DISCUSSION YAAKOV SHAPIRO EXPANDED EDITION Dedicated to our Creator, Who fashioned husband and wife from the dust, breathed into them of His own spirit, and then commanded them to become one flesh through the pleasure of sex Genesis 2:24; Sanhedrin 58b, Rashi: Shelo Cedarcah The Talmudic sage, Rav Cahana, once hid under the bed of his master, Rav, and listened as he talked and laughed with his wife and performed his sexual needs. Rav Cahana exclaimed: “Such talk? It sounds as if the master has never tasted sex in his life!” Rav responded: “Cahana, get out of here! This is uncivilized!” Rav Cahana answered back: “This, too, is part of Torah, and I need to learn it.” Talmud, Tractates Brachos 62a, Hagigah 5b In all these matters [variety in sexual positions] it all follows the personal tastes of husband and wife. And if a man has found a good wife who is of same mind with him in these matters, to him applies the verse in Proverbs (18:22): “He who has found a wife has found goodness, and has elicited favor from the Lord,” and the verse in Ecclesiastes (9:7): “Go, eat your bread with joy and drink your wine with a merry heart, for G-d has already approved your deeds.” Rabbi Yehudah the Pious, Sefer Chasidim 509 Preface to the Third Edition The first edition of this book was released in November 2015, after eleven long years of research and writing. This third edition incorporates one additional year of study and discussion, before focus shall be turned to other important projects that beckon, including volume two of the Sexuality and Jewish Law series. As noted in the original introduction, it was always in the plan to continue to refine and expand this work. Immediately after publishing the first edition, two revised editions were updated and made available in December 2015, followed by an official second edition in January 2016. All major revisions up to and including those in the second edition were made available to the public at SexualityandJewishLaw.com. This expanded, third edition includes additional elucidation and an index, both of which shall be made available for public reference at the said website as well. The original pagination has been maintained throughout all editions, so that the index is consistent with them all. I would like to take this opportunity to recommend to readers two additional important Hebrew works that came to my attention over the past year, both by Orthodox rabbinic writers and both addressing the subject of marital harmony and sexual intimacy. They are Es Lifrosh v’Es Le’ehov by Rabbi Simcha Feuerman (Hadaf, 2016), and Ladaat Le’ehov by Rabbi Avraham Shmuel (second edition, 2015). Most importantly, this past September the author of Ladaat Le’ehov brought to my attention two remarkable Hebrew halachic works about the laws of marital sexual intimacy, namely, Simchat Habayit v’Birchato by Rabbi Eliezer Melamed of Yeshivat Har Brachah in Israel (second edition, 2015), and Harchavot l’Simchat Habayit v’Birchato, written under Rabbi Melamed’s guidance by a student of his, Rabbi Maor Kayam (2015). I believe these are quite literally the best practical halachic works out there on the subject that I am aware of to date, and it is my hope that they will soon be translated into English. Throughout this third edition, I’ve added references to corresponding discussions by Rabbi Melamed and Rabbi Kayam in these two works.* They are available for order in Israel on the * One important correction brought to my attention by these two works relates to the identity of the medieval rabbinic authority referred to in Shitah Mekubetzes, Nedarim 20b, by the acronym, “Re’em.” In previous editions, I mistakenly wrote that this referred to Rabbi Eliyahu Mizrachi (c.1455-c.1525). In the course of studying these two works, I was made aware that it refers to Rabbi Eliezer of Metz (12th century author of Sefer Yeraim). Yeshivat Har Brachah website, and you can contact the online store manager, there, for overseas orders. In my humble opinion, both volumes are must haves for every Orthodox husband, wife and mature adult – in addition to the two Hebrew works I’ve already recommended to readers in previous editions of this book, namely, the anonymously authored online treatise, Dvar Seser, and Rabbi Yehuda Henkin’s Bnei Banim vol. 4, responsa 16-17-18.** It remains my sincere hope that this study will continue to contribute to a healthy reexploration of Torah sources, and to a positive – and immediate – reexamination of cultural norms, so that halachic individuals and couples may be granted “new eyes to see and new ears to hear” the realistic down-to-earth wisdom hidden between the lines of ancient sacred text, resulting in deeper understanding and acceptance of themselves, deeper vulnerability and bonding between spouses, and deeper appreciation of, and identification with, the Creator. January 22, 2017 24 Tevet, 5777 ** See below, pp. 210-212. I would also like to bring to readers’ attention that in this edition correction has been made to an inadvertent misquote of Rabbi Henkin’s discussion about the meaning of the term “paam achas” found in Rabeinu Yeruchem, Nesiv 23. The relevant correction has been made to endnotes 268 and 613, and the precise textual revision may be found at SexualityandJewishLaw.com. Table of Contents Introduction Jews and Sex ...................................................................................................................... 1 Why I Wrote this Book .................................................................................................... 2 Who this Book is For ....................................................................................................... 5 A Note on Sources .......................................................................................................... 10 Methodology and Format ............................................................................................. 12 What this Book is and What it is Not .......................................................................... 12 The Structure of Our Study ........................................................................................... 15 Terminology – Important! ............................................................................................ 16 Souls Lost in Translation ............................................................................................... 18 Part One: First Impressions Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chaim 240, Laws of Modesty .............................................. 22 Shulchan Aruch – Initial Analysis ............................................................................... 26 Shulchan Aruch, Even Haezer 25, Laws of Marriage ................................................. 28 Part Two: Deconstructing the Code Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Nedarim 20ab ............................................................. 32 Nedarim 20ab – Summary ............................................................................................ 39 Mesechtos Callah ............................................................................................................ 40 Tractate Callah ........................................................................................................ 41 Callah Rabti ............................................................................................................. 44 Mesechtos Callah – Summary ...................................................................................... 50 Nedarim 20ab – Analysis .............................................................................................. 52 Objections to Marital Sexual Exploration ................................................................... 54 The Definition of “Sex-related Talk” ........................................................................... 57 The Definition of “Overturning the Table” ................................................................ 59 The Sages’ Ruling: Anything a Couple Craves to do Together Sexually, They May Do ..................................................................................................................................... 62 The Sages’ Reasoning .................................................................................................... 66 Three Small Words Every Man and Woman Needs to Hear .................................... 68 Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Hagigah 5b ...................................................................... 69 Hagigah 5b – Summary ..................................................................................................... 71 Hagigah 5b – Analysis ....................................................................................................... 72 Sexy Talk, Vulgar Talk, Vain Talk ................................................................................... 73 Talk During Sex Analyzed ................................................................................................ 75 Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 58b ................................................................. 84 Sanhedrin 58b – Summary ............................................................................................... 85 Sanhedrin 58b – Analysis .................................................................................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Halachic and Hashkafic Issues in Contemporary Society 91 - Hand Shaking and Seat Switching Ou Israel Center - Summer 2018
    5778 - dbhbn ovrct [email protected] 1 sxc HALACHIC AND HASHKAFIC ISSUES IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 91 - HAND SHAKING AND SEAT SWITCHING OU ISRAEL CENTER - SUMMER 2018 A] SHOMER NEGIAH - THE ISSUES • What is the status of the halacha of shemirat negiah - Deoraita or Derabbanan? • What kind of touching does it relate to? What about ‘professional’ touching - medical care, therapies, handshaking? • Which people does it relate to - family, children, same gender? • How does it inpact on sitting close to someone of the opposite gender. Is one required to switch seats? 1. THE WAY WE LIVE NOW: THE ETHICIST. Between the Sexes By RANDY COHEN. OCT. 27, 2002 The courteous and competent real-estate agent I'd just hired to rent my house shocked and offended me when, after we signed our contract, he refused to shake my hand, saying that as an Orthodox Jew he did not touch women. As a feminist, I oppose sex discrimination of all sorts. However, I also support freedom of religious expression. How do I balance these conflicting values? Should I tear up our contract? J.L., New York This culture clash may not allow you to reconcile the values you esteem. Though the agent dealt you only a petty slight, without ill intent, you're entitled to work with someone who will treat you with the dignity and respect he shows his male clients. If this involved only his own person -- adherence to laws concerning diet or dress, for example -- you should of course be tolerant. But his actions directly affect you. And sexism is sexism, even when motivated by religious convictions.
    [Show full text]
  • Seudas Bris Milah
    Volume 12 Issue 2 TOPIC Seudas Bris Milah SPONSORED BY: KOF-K KOSHER SUPERVISION Compiled by Rabbi Moishe Dovid Lebovits Reviewed by Rabbi Benzion Schiffenbauer Shlita Edited by: Rabbi Chanoch Levi HALACHICALLY SPEAKING Halachically Speaking is a Proofreading: Mrs. EM Sonenblick monthly publication compiled by Rabbi Moishe Dovid Lebovits, Website Management and Emails: a former chaver kollel of Yeshiva Heshy Blaustein Torah Vodaath and a musmach of Harav Yisroel Belsky Shlita. Rabbi Dedicated in honor of the first yartzeit of Lebovits currently works as the Rabbinical Administrator for ר' שלמה בן פנחס ע"ה the KOF-K Kosher Supervision. SPONSORED: Each issue reviews a different area of contemporary halacha לז"נ מרת רחל בת אליעזר ע"ה with an emphasis on practical applications of the principles SPONSORED: discussed. Significant time is spent ensuring the inclusion of לרפואה שלמה ,all relevant shittos on each topic חיים צבי בן אסתר as well as the psak of Harav Yisroel Belsky, Shlita on current SPONSORED: issues. לעילוי נשמת WHERE TO SEE HALACHICALLY SPEAKING מרת בריינדל חנה ע"ה Halachically Speaking is בת ר' חיים אריה יבלח"ט .distributed to many shuls גערשטנער It can be seen in Flatbush, Lakewood, Five Towns, Far SPONSORED: Rockaway, and Queens, The ,Flatbush Jewish Journal לרפואה שלמה להרה"ג baltimorejewishlife.com, The רב חיים ישראל בן חנה צירל Jewish Home, chazaq.org, and frumtoronto.com. It is sent via email to subscribers across the world. SUBSCRIBE To sponsor an issue please call FOR FREE 718-744-4360 and view archives @ © Copyright 2015 www.thehalacha.com by Halachically Speaking ח.( )ברכות Seudas Bris Milah בלבד..
    [Show full text]
  • Understanding Mikvah
    Understanding Mikvah An overview of Mikvah construction Copyright © 2001 by Rabbi S. Z. Lesches permission & comments: (514) 737-6076 4661 Van Horne, Suite 12 Montreal P.Q. H3W 1H8 Canada National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data Lesches, Schneur Zalman Understanding mikvah : an overview of mikvah construction ISBN 0-9689146-0-8 1. Mikveh--Design and construction. 2. Mikveh--History. 3. Purity, Ritual--Judaism. 4. Jewish law. I. Title. BM703.L37 2001 296.7'5 C2001-901500-3 v"c CONTENTS∗ FOREWORD .................................................................... xi Excerpts from the Rebbe’s Letters Regarding Mikvah....13 Preface...............................................................................20 The History of Mikvaos ....................................................25 A New Design.............................................................27 Importance of a Mikvah....................................................30 Building and Planning ......................................................33 Maximizing Comfort..................................................34 Eliminating Worry ......................................................35 Kosher Waters ...................................................................37 Immersing in a Spring................................................37 Oceans..........................................................................38 Rivers and Lakes .........................................................38 Swimming Pools .........................................................39
    [Show full text]
  • A Taste of Jewish Law & the Laws of Blessings on Food
    A Taste of Jewish Law & The Laws of Blessings on Food The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation A Taste of Jewish Law & The Laws of Blessings on Food (2003 Third Year Paper) Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:10018985 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA A ‘‘TASTE’’ OF JEWISH LAW -- THE LAWS OF BLESSINGS ON FOOD Jeremy Hershman Class of 2003 April 2003 Combined Course and Third Year Paper Abstract This paper is an in-depth treatment of the Jewish laws pertaining to blessings recited both before and after eating food. The rationale for the laws is discussed, and all the major topics relating to these blessings are covered. The issues addressed include the categorization of foods for the purpose of determining the proper blessing, the proper sequence of blessing recital, how long a blessing remains effective, and how to rectify mistakes in the observance of these laws. 1 Table of Contents I. Blessings -- Converting the Mundane into the Spiritual.... 5 II. Determining the Proper Blessing to Recite.......... 8 A. Introduction B. Bread vs. Other Grain Products 1. Introduction 2. Definition of Bread – Three Requirements a. Items Which Fail to Fulfill Third Requirement i. When Can These Items Achieve Bread Status? ii. Complications b.
    [Show full text]
  • Israel's National Religious and the Israeli- Palestinian Conflict
    Leap of Faith: Israel’s National Religious and the Israeli- Palestinian Conflict Middle East Report N°147 | 21 November 2013 International Crisis Group Headquarters Avenue Louise 149 1050 Brussels, Belgium Tel: +32 2 502 90 38 Fax: +32 2 502 50 38 [email protected] Table of Contents Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... i Recommendations..................................................................................................................... iv I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 II. Religious Zionism: From Ascendance to Fragmentation ................................................ 5 A. 1973: A Turning Point ................................................................................................ 5 B. 1980s and 1990s: Polarisation ................................................................................... 7 C. The Gaza Disengagement and its Aftermath ............................................................. 11 III. Settling the Land .............................................................................................................. 14 A. Bargaining with the State: The Kookists ................................................................... 15 B. Defying the State: The Hilltop Youth ........................................................................ 17 IV. From the Hills to the State ..............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Fifth Passover Cup and Magical Pairs: Isaac Baer Levinsohn and the Babylonian Talmud
    European Journal of Jewish Studies 15 (2021) 84–103 brill.com/ejjs The Fifth Passover Cup and Magical Pairs: Isaac Baer Levinsohn and the Babylonian Talmud Leor Jacobi Abstract The Fifth Passover Cup is mentioned in a textual variant of a baraita in Tractate Pesaḥim of the Babylonian Talmud (118a), attributed to Rabbi Ṭarfon and another anonymous Palestinian tanna. Scholars have demonstrated that the variant is primary in talmu- dic manuscripts and among the Babylonian Geonim. Following a nineteenth-century proposition of Isaac Baer Levinsohn, it is argued that the fifth cup was instituted in Babylonia due to concern for magical evil spirits aroused by even-numbered events [zugot]. Objections to Levinsohn’s theory can be allayed by critical source analysis: the Talmud’s attribution of the fifth cup to the Palestinian tanna Rabbi Ṭarfon in a baraita is pseudoepigraphic, based upon Rabbi Ṭarfon’s teaching regarding the recitation of Hallel ha-Gadol in Mishnah Ta‘anit 3:9. A special appendix is devoted to Levinsohn’s separate study on zugot in the ancient and medieval world. Keywords Talmud – Passover – magic – Haskalah – source criticism – Halakhah – Levinsohn – magical pairs © Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2020 | doi:10.1163/1872471X-bja10020.0102883/ 3..8.31893: The Fifth Passover Cup and Magical Pairs 85 1 Introduction1 If the four Passover cups were created during the six days of creation, then the fifth was conjured up at twilight on the eve of the Sabbath.2 The saga of the mysterious fifth cup stretches from its origins in a phantom talmudic tex- tual variant to its alleged metamorphosis into the ubiquitous “cup of Elijah” to latter-day messianic revival attempts incorporating the visual arts.
    [Show full text]
  • Community Perceptions on the Role of Sexual Activity on Stroke: a Qualitative Study Exploring the Views of Ghanaian Local Community Residents Olutobi Adekunle Sanuade
    Sanuade BMC Public Health (2019) 19:717 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-019-7093-6 RESEARCHARTICLE Open Access Community perceptions on the role of sexual activity on stroke: a qualitative study exploring the views of Ghanaian local community residents Olutobi Adekunle Sanuade Abstract Background: Stroke is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in Ghana and sometimes comes with multifaceted complications including sexual dysfunction. While evidence is clear that living with stroke can result in sexual dysfunction, there are contradictory views regarding the causal association between sexual activity and stroke. This study explores perceptions of Ghanaian local communities on the role of sexual activity on stroke causation. Methods: This was a cross-sectional qualitative study. Thirty (30) focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted in five communities across Ghana (Ga Mashie, Tafo, Gyegyeano, Chanshegu and Agorve) between October and November 2017. Data were analysed through a thematic approach. Results: Participants generally believed that sexual activity can cause a stroke. They mentioned that the dynamics through which sex can trigger a stroke include sex positions (i.e. having sex while standing and on the floor), high frequency of sex, having sex when older and engaging in indiscriminate sex. Conclusion: This study shows the need to pay critical attention to these community perceptions when developing intervention strategies for stroke in Ghana. This study also highlights that discussion about sexual activity in Ghana is more complex than the current health education programme allows, and so demands a ‘comprehensive sex education approach’ rather than a ‘disease-centered approach’. Keywords: Sexuality, Stroke, Sexual activity, Community, Ghana Background and deep venous thrombosis (DVT) [2], and they may The World Health Organization defined stroke as ‘rapidly have significant impact on stroke prognosis.
    [Show full text]
  • RLST 124I: Varieties of Ancient Judaism Spring 2009 Handout #7 (May 12, 2009) “Persian Jews”
    RLST 124I: Varieties of Ancient Judaism Spring 2009 Handout #7 (May 12, 2009) “Persian Jews” Sassanid Empire: Persian ruling dynasty established in 226 CE, which instituted rigid class hierarchies, autocratic military rule, and Zoroastrianism as the “official” Persian religion; in constant military conflict with the Roman Empire, until collapsing under the spread of Islam in the 650s dualism: a theological orientation that posits a struggle between good and evil that is conducted at the individual, communal, and cosmic levels; dualistic religions usually assume the eventual triumph of “good” over “evil,” but assign different levels of potency and authority to the powers of evil Zoroastrianism/Magianism/Mazdeanism: a dualistic ethical monotheism of the Near East, in which believers worship a single god of wisdom and truth (Ahura Mazda) and work to resist the forces of evil (in extreme formulations, posited as almost a second god); Mazda is not worshipped with sacrifices, but in fire temples managed by special priests (magi); the religion is named for Zarathustra (or Zoroaster), the prophet (of the 64th? 18th? 10th? 6th? cen. BCE) of Mazda (although greatly diminished, Zoroastrianism remains a “world religion,” with adherents possibly numbering in the millions) Mani/Manicheanism: an ascetic dualistic monotheism founded by Mani (in the third century), combining aspects of Mazdeanism and Christianity; Manicheans believed that seeds of Light were trapped in a web of Darkness (the created world), and that the Savior (Christ) had come to free the seeds of Light Pahlavi: the official court language of the Sassanids Aramaic: the official scribal language of the Sassanids “castes”: a sociological term used to describe highly rigid systems of social hierarchy; in Sassanian Persia, these castes are usually divided into four: priestly, warrior/noble, scribal/bureaucratic, merchant/artisans.
    [Show full text]
  • Death Due to Air Embolism During Sexual Intercourse in the Puerperium
    612 Dutta anaerobic, capnophilic, and Gram-negative. C some birds as a commensal. Infection by the canimorsus is a normal resident of the canine organism has been identified in cases of mouth. Their growth in blood culture is slow Ludwig's angina, epiglottitis, and tonsillitis fol- Postgrad Med J: first published as 10.1136/pgmj.74.876.612 on 1 October 1998. Downloaded from but they may be isolated by Gram staining of a lowing animal bites. Fulminant infection buffy coat preparation. The correct diagnosis caused septicaemia and peritonitis in a cir- of infection with this organism in case 1 was rhotic cock trainer,9 and empyema in another possible when the microbiologist was alerted. patient.'0 These organisms have occasionally Usually, infection is associated with asplenism,' been isolated from throats of healthy humans hairy cell leukaemia,3 liver cirrhosis,4 and other with frequent exposure to animals. Invasive immune suppressive states. This organism, pasteurellosis may cause meningitis, pneumo- designated a Dysgonic Fermenter 2 (DF2) by the US Centers of Disease Control, has caused nia, and otitis media, due to the spread of fulminant bacillaemia and sepsis in some organisms from pre-existing colonies in the asplenic patients.5 6 Cutaneous infection caus- upper respiratory tract. In the present report, ing eschar formation and gangrene associated case 2 was effectively treated with cefotaxime, with DF2 septicaemia has also been although a cheaper drug like penicillin could reported.5 Infection by this microbe in healthy have controlled the infection but for his subjects is occasionally encountered.8 The sensitivity. In animal bite wounds initial child in this report had no known risk factors.
    [Show full text]
  • The Sanctity of Shul
    בס''ד The Sanctity of Shul Tikkun Leil Shavuos – Home Learning Programme גמ' מגילה כט: The Gemara refers to a shul as a miniature Beis Hamikdash To what extent is it really comparable to the Mikdash? Does it have a similar level of kedusha and what are the relevant dinim associated with this status? In this shiur, we will present the various opinions among the Rishonim on this issue and how this relates to a number of practical questions including whether a shul that was destroyed by the Nazis retains its kedusha, the question of what to do with the shuls in Gush Katif before leaving, and what activities are permissible in a shul. Section 1 Background sources משנה מגילה כה: The Mishna states that one may sell an item of lower-level kedusha in order to purchase an item of higher- level kedusha, but not vice versa. A shul is on the list of items containing kedusha. What is unique about the Mishna's listing of a beis hakneses is that it is not an item STaM, ie it’s not a sefer torah, mezuzah or tefillin. So, why is a beis hakneses considered an item of kedusha? 1 We find three major schools of thought amongst the rishonim (medieval scholars). גמ' מגילה כו: רמב''ן מגילה כה: Ramban (1194-1270) answers that a shul is considered a tashmish mitzvah. Tashmishei mitzvah have sanctity while they are still designated for mitzvah use. A shul is designated for the mitzvah of tefillah and is therefore considered a tashmish mitzvah. Ramban explains that when the beis hakneses is no longer in use, the beis hakneses no longer has special status and it may be sold because like any other tashmishei mitzvah, it is no longer in use.
    [Show full text]
  • Doing Talmud: an Ethnographic Study in a Religious High School in Israel
    Doing Talmud: An Ethnographic Study in a Religious High School in Israel Thesis submitted for the degree of “Doctor of Philosophy” by Aliza Segal Submitted to the Senate of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem May 2011 Iyyar 5771 This work was carried out under the supervision of: Prof. Marc Hirshman Dr. Zvi Bekerman Acknowledgements If an apt metaphor for the completion of a dissertation is the birthing of a child, then indeed it takes a village to write a dissertation. I am fortunate that my village is populated with insightful, supportive and sometimes even heroic people, who have made the experience not only possible but also enriching and enjoyable. My debt of gratitude to these villagers looms large, and I would like to offer a few small words of thanks. To my advisors, Dr. Zvi Bekerman and Professor Menachem (Marc) Hirshman, for their generosity with time, insight, expertise, and caring. I have been working with Zvi since my MA thesis, and he has shaped my world view not only as a researcher but also as an individual. His astute and lightening-speed comments on everything I have ever sent him to read have pushed me forwards at every stage of my work, and it is with great joy that I note that I have never left his office without something new to read. Menachem has brought his keen eye and sharp wit to the project, and from the beginning has been able to see the end. His attention to the relationship between structure and content has informed my work as both a writer and a reader.
    [Show full text]
  • Mishnah: the New Scripture Territories in the East
    176 FROM TEXT TO TRADITION in this period was virtually unfettered. The latter restriction seems to have been often compromised. Under the Severan dynasty (193-225 C.E.) Jewish fortunes improved with the granting of a variety of legal privileges culminating in full Roman citizenship for Jews. The enjoyment of these privileges and the peace which Jewry enjoyed in the Roman Empire were·· interrupted only by the invasions by the barbarians in the West 10 and the instability and economic decline they caused throughout the empire, and by the Parthian incursions against Roman Mishnah: The New Scripture territories in the East. The latter years of Roman rule, in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba Revolt and on the verge of the Christianization of the empire, were extremely fertile ones for the development of . The period beginning with the destruction (or rather, with the Judaism. It was in this period that tannaitic Judaism came to its restoration in approximately 80 C.E.) saw a fundamental change final stages, and that the work of gathering its intellectual in Jewish study and learning. This was the era in which the heritage, the Mishnah, into a redacted collection began. All the Mishnah was being compiled and in which many other tannaitic suffering and the fervent yearnings for redemption had culmi­ traditions were taking shape. The fundamental change was that nated not in a messianic state, but in a collection of traditions the oral Torah gradually evolved into a fixed corpus of its own which set forth the dreams and aspirations for the perfect which eventually replaced the written Torah as the main object holiness that state was to engender.
    [Show full text]