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101042 Avances 26(6) avances en Diabetología Av Diabetol. 2010;26:463-71 Historical perspective From pancreatic extracts to artificial pancreas: history, science and controversies about the discovery of the pancreatic antidiabetic hormone VI: Nicolae C. Paulescu: light and darkness A. de Leiva-Pérez1, E. Brugués-Brugués1,2, A. de Leiva-Hidalgo1,2,3,4 1Fundación DIABEM. 2Servicio de Endocrinología y Nutrición e Instituto de Investigación. Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau. Barcelona. 3Centro de Historia de la Ciencia. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. 4CIBER-BBN-ISCIII Race and eugenics treme Social Darwinists claim that it is sirables’ while multiplying its ‘desira- in inter-war Romania morally incorrect to assist those weaker bles’”.2 As a social movement, eugenics Social Darwinism is a term introduced for than one self, since that would be promot- was widely popular in the early decades various late-nineteenth century ideologies ing the survival and possible reproduction of the 20th century. By the end of World which exploited ideas of “survival of the of someone who is fundamentally unfi t. War II, eugenics had been largely aban- fi ttest”. It is also associated with ideas of Many negative reactions to Darwinism doned. Eugenics was practiced around the struggle between national or racial come from the confusion of Darwinism as world and promoted by governments, in- groups. The theory was chiefl y exploited a scientifi c theory, describing a range of fl uential institutions and individuals. Eu- by Herbert Spencer who adapted Darwin- concepts of evolutionism or development, genics was supported by Alexander Gra- ian ideas to his own ethical theories.1 He with Social Darwinism as an ethical theo- ham Bell, Margaret Sanger, H.G. Wells, argued that it was natural, normal and ry. In reality, the two have very little in Woodrow Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, proper, for the strong to thrive at the ex- common. Main notable fi gures of Social Emile Zola, George Bernard Shaw, Win- pense of the weak. The fi rst use of Social Darwinism, in addition to Spencer, have ston Churchill, John Maynard Keynes, Darwinism was in Joseph Fisher’s 1877 been Thomas Malthus and Francis Gal- John Harvey Kellogg, and Linus Pauling, article on “The history of landholding in ton, the founder of eugenics. among many others. Eugenics became an Ireland”, published in the Transactions of The word eugenics was coined in 1883 academic discipline at universities. Three the Royal Historical Society. Some ex- by the English scientist Francis Galton, a International Eugenics Conferences were cousin of Charles Darwin, to promote the held in 1912 (London), 1921 and 1932 Date received: 27th July 2010 ideal of perfecting the human race by en- (New York). th Date accepted: 7 September 2010 couraging the procreation of the social G.K. Chesterton was an early critic of Correspondence: Darwinian fi t and discouraging that of the eugenics in his book “Eugenics and Oth- Prof. Alberto de Leiva-Hidalgo. Fundació DIABEM. unfi t. In Galton’s own words, “perfecting er Evils”. The scientifi c reputation of eu- Cartagena, 245, 1-5. 08025 Barcelona. Spain. E-mail: [email protected] the human race by getting rid of its ‘unde- genics declined in the 1930s when Ernst 463 Av Diabetol. 2010;26:463-71 Rudin used eugenics as a justifi cation for cephalic and braquicephalic crania. The already in 1912.8 The economic crises and the racial policies of Nazi Germany. Nev- French anthropologist Eugène Pittard political instability of the late 1920s infl u- ertheless, the second largest eugenics (1867-1962) made the observation, in enced the attraction by the medical pro- program was created by the social demo- 1919, that Romanians from the Old King- fession and social reformers towards the crats in Sweden, and continued until dom were dolicocephalic, but Romanians eugenic sterilization. In inter-war Roma- 1975.3 Most infamous proponent and from Bukovina and Transylvania were nia, the interest for eugenic sterilization practitioner of eugenics was Adolf Hitler, braquicephalic.5 Following these lines, was stimulated by the fear of degenera- who incorporated eugenics in Mein the Roumanian Victor Papilian (1888- tion of the Roman nation. Supporters of Kampf, and emulated eugenics legislation 1956) made the proposal of the special eugenic sterilization thought they at- for the sterilization of “defectives”, that cranial characteristics of Romanians from tempted to protect the society from social had been pioneered in the United States Transylvania when compared with Roma- and biological degeneration. of America. nians from the Old Kingdom and Hungar- In 1925, Iuliu Moldovan, eugenicist Social Darwinist theories had an impact ians in Transylvania.6 Ion Chelcea (1902- and founder of the School of Hygiene and on Central European nationalism. Biolog- 1991) reported five different types of Public Health in Cluj, published “Igiena ical debates on race and ethnicity infl u- Romanian crania, suggesting the exist- natiunii: Eugenia”.9 A new law was intro- enced the idea of national superiority in ence of a special Dacian type, preferen- duced in 1930, as the result of putting into Central Europe in the last two decades of tially depicted in the Western Mountains practice the ideas of social hygiene ex- the nineteenth century and the fi rst dec- of Transylvania.7 pressed by Moldovan, appointed as sub- ades of the twentieth century. The new Iordache Facaoaru, eugenicist and ra- secretary of the Department of Work, concept of nation integrated geography, cial anthropologist, accepted six criteria Health and Social Protection. Eugenics historical destiny, and biological terms. for racial classifi cation: height, cranial, became a common practice for state inter- Antropometric parameters and the com- facial and nasal indexes, eye and hair ventions to prevent defective individuals position of the blood became important colours. Based on these criteria, he iden- from procreating. Sexual sterilization was somatological characteristics contributing tifi ed four principle races: Alpine, Dinar- justifi ed to improve the biological quali- to the idea of nation, inseparable from ra- ic, Mediterranean and Nordic; and fi ve ties of future generations. The fi ght against cial anatomy.4 secondary races: Dalic, East-European, degeneration would be instrumented One of most productive researcher in Oriental, West-Asian and Indian. The through stopping the reproduction of de- this fi eld is Dr. Marius Turda, a native Ro- main objective of racial anthropology, as generates and encouraging the fertility of manian, founder of the international Facaoaru proposal, is to establish the superior individuals. Sterilization would Working Group on the History of Race right to leadership for those individuals be carried out only if the patient has been and Eugenics, and Deputy Director of the belonging to the category of superior examined by at least two doctors (one of Centre for Health, Medicine and Society, race. Following his classification, them for mental illness), who declare the based at the School of Arts and Humani- Swedesh will occupy the first place, risk of producing degenerate offspring. ties, Oxford Brookes University. while Roumanians will be sixth, and On the occasion of the XI Congress of Hungarians will be fi tted in one of the Neurology, Psychiatry, Psychology and last positions. The Western provinces, Endocrinology, that took place in 1931 Dr. Marius Turda is the founder and actual Bukovina, Transylvania and the Banat (Constantin Parhon, the founder of the Director of the Working Group on the History displayed the highest level; the Eastern Romanian School of Endocrinology, was of Race and Eugenics (HRE), based at the provinces, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and the President), Mares Cahane, a psychia- School of Arts and Humanities, Oxford Brookes Transnistria will follow, with an interme- trist, addressed the issue of therapeutic University. Dr. Tudor Georgescu is the actual diate level; the Southern provinces, Olte- sterilization of the hereditary feeble- Research Coordinator. nia, Muntenia and Dobrudja, will occupy minded using as conditions that the pa- The aim of HRE is to build a network of inter- national scholars working in the broad area of the last place. Superior racial qualities tient should have been interned for at least eugenics and race that transcends national will be observed within the urban, highly 5 years in a mental hospital, the advice of boundaries, while staying connected to politi- educated, and wealthy people. These an- a commission of specialists, and the fam- cal developments concerning racial and gen- thropological parameters in association ily consent. For some groups of patients, der equality in the 21st century. with the question of national identity and like schizophrenics, sterilization and cas- [email protected]/t_georgescu@hotmail. racial supremacy facilitated the way to tration should be compulsory. In other com racism and anti-semitic options. European countries, laws allowing sterili- Eugenic sterilization was introduced in zation were also dictated (Switzerland, Romania by the gynaecologist Constantin 1928; Denmark, 1929; Germany, 1933; In 1842, Ander Retzius used the ratio Andronescu, who suggested the prenup- Norway, 1934; Finland, 1935). width to length (cephalic index, CI) to tial health certifi cate and the sterilization Various experts opposed to eugenic make the difference between dolico- of feeble-minded and mentally ill patients sterilization. Eugen Rils, a sociologist, 464 Historical perspective VI: Nicolae C. Paulescu: light and darkness. A. de Leiva-Pérez, et al. and Ion Vasilescu-Bucium were two of Europe and Asia. The process of national orthodox Christians. The Jews, instead, them. Other authors were reluctant to ac- construction was accompanied by the de- had their own religion, that rendered as- cept eugenic sterilization, due to lack of velopment of a populist, anti-urban, anti- similation diffi cult in a deeply Christian sufficient medical knowledge. Grigore Semitic and xenophobic speech. country as Romania. The Jews were seen Odobescu, argued that the main need was To the religious prejudices against the as a threat against the Christian religion.
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