SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Master in Business Administration (MBA)

Postgraduate Dissertation

“The alternative forms of Tourism in Greece and sustainable development. The impact of economic crisis and the potential growth.”

Student: MARIA ROUKI

Supervisor: ELENI GAKI

Patras, Greece, July 2018

Postgraduate Dissertation 1

© Hellenic Open University, 2017 The content of this thesis/dissertation along with its results is owned by the Hellenic Open University and his/her author, where each of them has the sole and exclusive right to use, reproduce, and publish it (totally or partially) for educational or research purposes, with the obligation to make reference to the thesis‘s title, the author‘s name and to the Hellenic Open University where the thesis / dissertation was written.

Postgraduate Dissertation 2

“The alternative forms of Tourism in Greece and sustainable development. The impact of the economic crisis and the potential growth.”

Student: MARIA ROYKH

Supervising Committee

Supervisor: Co-Supervisor: ELENI GAKI SOTIRIOS GKAGIALIS HOU HOU

Patras, Greece, July 2018

Postgraduate Dissertation 3 «Πάληα ζηνλ λνπ ζνπ λάρεηο ηελ Ιζάθε. Τν θζάζηκνλ εθεί είλ’ ν πξννξηζκόο ζνπ. Aιιά κε βηάδεηο ην ηαμείδη δηόινπ. Καιιίηεξα ρξόληα πνιιά λα δηαξθέζεη· θαη γέξνο πηα λ’ αξάμεηο ζην λεζί, πινύζηνο κε όζα θέξδηζεο ζηνλ δξόκν»

ΚωλζηαληίλνοΚαβάθεο, (1863-1933)

Postgraduate Dissertation 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENT I would like to thank my supervisor Mrs. GakiEleni for her valuable help in preparing and writing my dissertation. I would like to thank the participants in the survey, who gave their time to conduct the interviews and their positive willingness to help whenever necessary. Finally, I would like to thank my parents and my friends for supporting me in the difficult moments.

Postgraduate Dissertation 5 ABSTRACT

Since 2015, the primary objective of both the United Nations and the EU is to foster sustainable development as the only lever to ensure the well-being of both the present and the future generation. The development of alternative forms of tourism is now being promoted as the most suitable ground for the application of the principles of sustainable development in the tourism sector due to their reduced impact on the environment and their positive contribution to local development. The aim of this thesis is the study of the development of alternative forms of tourism in Greece and sustainable development, the impact of economic crisis and potential growth. In order for the aim of this thesisto be achieved, qualitative research was carried out with the Case Study method for the Prefecture of Corinth with the conduct of semi-structured interviews. The aim of the survey was to feature the forms of alternative tourism developed in the Corinthian region, the implementation of the principles of sustainable development in the field of alternative tourism and their importance. Moreover, the impact of the economic crisis on the development of forms of alternative tourism and their potential development in the region was canvassed. Finally, the strengths of the region were analyzed as a reference to the development of alternative tourism, its weaknesses as well as the opportunities that will be presented and the threats that will emerge from the external environment

Keywords words: Alternative Tourism, Alternative form of tourism in Greece, Sustainable Development, economic crisis and potential growth.

Postgraduate Dissertation 6

ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ

Από ηο 2015 ππυηαπσικόρ ζηόσορ ηόζο ηος Οπγανιζμού Ηνυμένυν Δθνών όζο και ηηρ Δ.Δ. είναι η ενίζσςζη ηηρ Βιώζιμηρ Ανάπηςξηρ υρ ηο μοναδικό μοσλό εξαζθάλιζηρ ηηρ εςημεπίαρ ηόζο ηηρ ηυπινήρ γενιάρ όζο και ηυν μελλονηικών. Η ανάπηςξη ηυν εναλλακηικών μοπθών ηοςπιζμού πλέον πποβάλλονηαι υρ ηο καηαλληλόηεπο έδαθορ για ηην εθαπμογή ηυν απσών ηηρ βιώζιμηρ ανάπηςξηρ ζηον ηομέα ηος ηοςπιζμού λόγυν ηυν μειυμένυν επιπηώζευν ηοςρ ζηο πεπιβάλλον και ηην θεηική ζςμβολή ηοςρ ζηην ηοπική ανάπηςξη. ΢κοπόρ αςηήρ ηηρ επγαζίαρ είναι η μελέηη ηυν εναλλακηικών μοπθών ηοςπιζμού ζηην Δλλάδα και η βιώζιμη ανάπηςξη. Η επίπηυζη ηηρ οικονομικήρ κπίζηρ και η δςνηηική ανάπηςξη. Για ηην επίηεςξη ηος ζκοπού ηηρ ζςγκεκπιμένηρ επγαζίαρ ππαγμαηοποιήθηκε ποιοηική έπεςνα με ηην μέθοδο ηηρ μελέηηρ πεπίπηυζηρ για ηον Νομό Κοπινθίαρ με ηην διεξαγυγή ημιδομημένυν ζςνενηεύξευν. ΢ηόσορ ηηρ έπεςναρ ήηαν να αναδείξοςμε ηιρ μοπθέρ εναλλακηικού ηοςπιζμού πος έσοςν αναπηςσθεί ζηην πεπιοσή ηηρ Κοπινθίαρ, ηην εθαπμογή ηυν απσών ηηρ βιώζιμηρ ανάπηςξηρ ζηον ηομέα ηος εναλλακηικού ηοςπιζμού και ηη ζημανηικόηηηα ηοςρ. Δπιπλέον, διεπεςνήθηκε η επίπηυζη ηηρ οικονομικήρ κπίζηρ ζηην ανάπηςξη ηυν μοπθών ηος εναλλακηικού ηοςπιζμού και η δςνηηική ηοςρ ανάπηςξη ζηην πεπιοσή. Σέλορ αναλύθηκαν ηα δςναηά ζημεία ηηρ πεπιοσήρ υρ αναθοπά ηην ανάπηςξη ηος εναλλακηικού ηοςπιζμού, οι αδςναμίερ ηηρ, καθώρ επίζηρ, οι εςκαιπίερ πος θα παποςζιαζηούν αλλά και οι απειλέρ πος θα πποκύτοςν από ηο εξυηεπικό πεπιβάλλον.

Λέξειρ-κλειδιά: Δναλλακηικόρ Σοςπιζμόρ, Δναλλακηικέρ μοπθέρ ηοςπιζμού ζηην Δλλάδα, Βιώζιμη Ανάπηςξη, οικονομική κπίζη και δςνηηική ανάπηςξη.

Postgraduate Dissertation 7

Table of Contents Abstract 6 Πεπίλητη 7 Table of Contents 8 List of Figures 10 List of Tables 10 1. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 11 1.1 Introduction 11 2. Chapter 2 ALTERNATIVE TOYRISM 13 2.1 Definition 13 2.2 Alternative forms of Tourism 16 2.2.1 Ecotourism 17 2.2.2 Nature tourism and outdoor recreation 18 2.2.3 Cultural Tourism 19 2.2.4 Creative Tourism 20 2.2.5 Agritourism 21 2.2.6 Skiing 21 2.2.7 Wellness Tourism 22 2.3 Impacts of tourism on regions 23 2.4 Mass and alternative tourism 25 2.5 The case of Greece 26 The importance of tourism in the Greek economy and the impact of 2.6 the economic crisis 28 3. Chapter 3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 30 3.1 The concept of Sustainable development 30 3.2 Sustainable Development and sustainability approaches 31 3.2.1 Approaches for Sustainable Development 31 3.2.2 Approaches for Sustainability 32 3.2.3 Sustainable Development Models 32 3.3 European policy on sustainable development 35 3.3.1 European domestic actions for sustainable development 37 3.3.2 The EU's key priorities for achieving the Agenda 2030 Goals 38 3.3.3 European external actions for sustainable development 40 3.4 Sustainable Development and Alternative Tourism 41

Postgraduate Dissertation 8 Table of Contents 4. Chapter 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 44 4.1 Introduction 44 4.2 The research objective and the research questions 45 4.3 Data Collection Techniques 45 4.4 Sampling 46 4.5 Limitations 48 5. Chapter 5 CASE STUDY: THE CORINHT PREFECTURE 49 5.1 History 49 5.2 Mythology 50 5.3 The prefectureof Corinth 50 5.4 The Peloponnese region 51 5.5 Key figures of Peloponnese Region and Corinth Prefecture 52 6. Chapter 6 RESEARCH RESULTS 53 6.1 Introduction 53 6.2 Analysis of the questionnaire replies 54 6.3 S.W.O.T ANALYSIS 60 6.4 Conclusion 64 6.5 Suggestions 66 Bibliography 68 Appendix A Research Questionnaire 74

Postgraduate Dissertation 9 List of Figures

Figure 1: Sustainable Development …………………………………………..….…………….33

List of Tables

Table 1: Greek Tourism – Basic...... ………………………...28

Table 2: The 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development………………..………………………36

Table 3: Corinth Prefecture: arrivals, overnights and occupancy in hotel establishments 2010- 2016………………………………………………………………………………………………..52

Table 4: SWOT Analysis for Corinth Prefecture…………………………………………………62

Postgraduate Dissertation 10 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Alternative tourism has occupied the academic community since the 1980s, mainly as a response to the negative effects of mass tourism. Despite the years that have passed, even today, there is no commonly accepted definition of alternative tourism, let alone its forms. Today in the international literature there are common points referring to the characteristics of alternative tourism and its forms among scholars. All stakeholders agree that alternative tourism is environmentally friendly, at least it does not exercise the same environmental pressure as mass tourism in the short run, it contributes to the development of local communities at the destination and the people who choose it are more active and wish contact and interaction with local residents. (TriarchiEi and karamanis K., 2017:40)

The natural disasters that have been observed due to climate change, environmental pollution, growing social problems and resource constraints, led the United Nations Organization in September 2015 during the meeting for celebrating its 70th anniversary in promoting Sustainable Development by setting 17 goals that formed the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development. Sustainable development is a one-way street to achieve peace, poverty eradication, environmental protection and resource savings so that both the present generation and the future generation can meet their needs. The EU is leading the achievement of the goals of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, with a range of actions and measures for both EU and non-EU countries.

The purpose of this thesis is to study the extent to which alternative tourism has developed in Greece and its forms, whether the principles of sustainable development are applied and their importance in the development of alternative tourism, the extent to which the economic crisis has affected the development of forms of alternative tourism, the potential development of forms of alternative tourism in Greece.

For the purpose of the survey, qualitative research was carried out in the Prefecture of Corinthia using the case study method and the conduct of semi-structured interviews with entities directly or indirectly involved in the development of alternative tourism in the region of Corinth. In the first part of thesis, the commonly accepted features of alternative tourism and its forms are analyzed. In addition, the advantages of alternative tourism and its diversification from mass tourism are mentioned.

In the second part the concept of sustainable development and the principles that govern it are being developed; the different approaches that have been developed and the sustainability models are presented. In addition, EU actions and measures are presented to achieve the goals of the 2030 agenda. Finally, the relationship of alternative tourism with the concept of sustainable development and the application of its principles is analyzed.

Postgraduate Dissertation 11 In the last part of the thesis we analyze the results of the qualitative survey conducted in the Prefecture of Corinthia regarding the forms of alternative tourism that have been developed in the prefecture, we detect the impact of the crisis and its future development. At the same time, we analyze the strengths of the prefecture in the light of alternative tourism and the implementation of the principles of sustainable development, the weak points as well as the opportunities that will be presented and the threats to be addressed. Finally, a series of actions are proposed to support and develop alternative forms of tourism in the region in the light of sustainable development.

Postgraduate Dissertation 12 CHAPTER 2: ALTERNATIVE TOURISM

2.1 Definition

The tourism sector in Greece is an important factor of economic development that directly or indirectly affects all sectors of the national economy. Greece, due to its safety and the friendly tourist environment, is one of the main tourist destinations in the world in recent decades.

Tourism is a form of use of our leisure time, making the definition of tourism complex and confusing and is the main reason why the definitions of tourism institutions and organizations vary. However, in 2010, the World Tourism Organization in an attempt to include all these differences in definitions defined that tourism is all the activities of the visitor. A Visitor is a person who makes a temporary visit, no more than one year, outside his/her usual environment for leisure, health, business or other purposes. In addition, visitors are divided into three categories:  A Tourist is a temporary visitor staying at least one day for leisure purposes, conferences, businesses or relatives or other scopes. Tourists can be domestic visitors or come from abroad.  A Day tourist visitor is someone who is more than three hours outside his usual environment for leisure, entertaining or social purposes. Most visitors of this category are residents of the wider destination area.  A Leisure day visitor is someone who is staying for less than three hours outside his usual environment for leisure, entertaining or social scopes. Typically visitors of this category belong to the residents of the destination area. (Tourism Society, 2015:1-2)

Although the development of tourism has amazing results in stimulating the economy and social benefits, in the case of developing countries it creates a wide range of serious problems. Most of the investments in the tourism sector come from multinational companies, mainly from the West, where the revenue generated by the tourism industry would flow back. Moreover, the development of tourism causes changes in the composition of the workforce as it moves from the primary sector of the economy to the tertiary sector, causing a disturbance of their community and their cultural identity. There is a need for a new approach to tourism, mainly because of: a) economic issues that the economic impetus did not face poverty problems b) environmental issues such as the negative impact of mass tourism on the environment c) political issues, the tourist industry perpetuates the differences between the first world and the third world d) Social issues, in particular the formation of a new tourism market of post-modern culture. (TriarchiEi and karamanis K, 2017:40)

In the light of the burden on the environment, the primary objective is to adopt sustainable forms of economic development, production and provision of environmentally friendly products and services.

Postgraduate Dissertation 13 The rapid growth of tourism and the uncontrolled tourist flow have a negative impact on the natural environment. In some cases when coexisting with the provision of low-quality products and services it leads to a reduction in profits with a negative impact on the local community and therefore the national economy. The uncontrolled growth of mass tourism and its negative impacts as well as the diversification of tourist preferences have led to the need to develop sustainable tourism and its alternative forms. (Spilanis I. and Vayanni H., 2003:1-2)

Sustainable tourism is defined as tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the demand of visitors, industry, and nature and host communities. In many cases, sustainable tourism is identified with alternative tourism, but the direction and management of its practices has been applied to all types of tourism and concerns all destinations, whether it is the mass tourism or the alternative forms of tourism. The feature of sustainable principles is to create a balanced economic, environmental and social - culture aspect of tourism development in order to achieve long-term sustainability. (World Tourism Organization, 2005:1)

Until today there has not been any widely accepted definition of the alternative form of tourism or the lines of diversification of its forms. However, the alternative form of tourism will reduce the negative impact on host regions and their communities, and along with the positive economic effects, alternative tourism will be the optimal solution to unwanted mass tourism and its negative outcomes. In the decades of the 1970s and 1980s, the rapid growth of mass tourism and its emerging influences on the natural, social and cultural environment led to the need to plan and develop new forms of tourism with a priority on the natural and cultural resources. A variety of names and models emerged to identify the new type of tourism in order to improve the conditions and maintain the initial rural appeal of destination areas. Initially, alternative tourism programs were small-scale, low-investment, independent and self- supporting, requiring high cooperation with the local population. Cooperation with the local residents was so important that it was the common denominator of the various determinations of the new type of tourism for the following years. Thus, the main feature of alternative tourism was direct communication between visitors and local residents, individuals and host communities, providing private hospitality services to visitors, thereby diversifying alternative tourism from mass tourism. The design and development of alternative tourism should include: a) Dialogue with the host community to be informed about current and potential impacts b) Environmental protection c) Respect for cultural and religious traditions d) A correlation between the amount/extent of tourism and the capacity of the destination area, measured in aesthetic and ecological terms. From the attempt to develop the definitions of alternative tourism, the objective of improving communication and cultural interaction is evident in order to benefit both visitors and local inhabitants. The alternative forms of tourism was related with natural, cultural and community values in which both visitors and host people want to have a positive and meaningful interaction and shared experience. (TriarchiEi and karamanis K, 2017:40-41)

Postgraduate Dissertation 14 In the early 1980s, in Europe, the term "soft tourism" was used to define alternative tourism, with the main feature of enhancing environmentally friendly processes through the promotion of ecological development policies. Soft tourism was based on the mutual respect and understanding of both sides involved, visitors and local communities, thus ensuring the preservation of the traditions of culture and religion, as well as the protection of the environment of the local communities in the best possible way. The soft tourist priority was to use the local infrastructures for the local residents and to accept substantial tourist facilities that did not have a serious negative impact on the environment. In the late 1970s, in America, it was thought that the development of the new form of tourism should take into account not only the satisfaction of the visitors but also the benefits of the host community. Thus, some of the main factors on which new tourism has to be based were: a) the unique cultural heritage and the environment b) the development of high quality tourist attractions c) the development of other attractions in the destination area d) the local hospitality services e) the consideration of the local capacity of the infrastructure f) energy saving g) cultural interaction. (TriarchiEi and karamanis K., 2017:41-42)

Although sustainable tourism development policies are feasible in all types of tourism, it seems that alternative tourism is directly linked to the application of sustainable development principles, making the definition of sustainable tourism more accurate in describing alternative forms of tourism. Eventually, the main features that characterized the alternative tourism are:  Small scale development, which is based on a large percentage of local ownership  The elimination of negative impacts on the social and natural environment  Emphasis on linking and developing all sectors of the local economy in order to minimize imports  The maintenance of the income generated from tourism activities locally  Creating conditions for equality and active participation that will enable local residents to participate in decision-making and local distribution of power  The pace of economic drive is directly linked and controlled by local residents (TriarchiEi. and karamanis K., 2017: 42)

Ιt is evident that even in our days there is no universally accepted definition of alternative tourism and its forms. In the past years, alternative tourism has been associated mainly with ecotourism due to its environmentally friendly orientation. Today, alternative tourism is closely linked to sustainable tourism due to the application of the principles of sustainable development to its various forms in relation to mass tourism. However, alternative tourism and the development of its forms have specific characteristics which differentiate it from mass tourism. Given the need to protect the environment, limited resources, interculturalism and economic recession, it is imperative to develop alternative forms of tourism.

Postgraduate Dissertation 15 2.2 Alternative forms of tourism

Although alternative forms of tourism emerged between 1970 and 1980 with the continued attention of the academic community, deviations in their interpretation make the right terminology and the definition of alternative tourism to be controversial. The only common point of institutions and organizations is their antithesis to tourist package or mass tourism. In many cases, alternative tourism is characterized as ecotourism or sustainable tourism or soft tourism or other forms making its classification and the dividing lines between its forms complicated and indiscernible. (TriarchiEi and karamanis K, 2017: 43) To this point it is wise to distinguish tourism in two categories into the conventional tourism or mass tourism and the new form of tourism or alternative form of tourism. Conventional tourism or mass tourism: the important things here are the importance of the market, input costs and low environmental interest. Tourist activities are standard and low- cost; they are reported to a huge number of people and are controlled by travel agents. New forms of tourism are of high environmental interest, low economic leakage combined with high cultural and social interest in the host region. In addition, new forms are divided into the way they are organized and visitors want to learn about the host area and consume locally and environmentally friendly products (alternative forms) and special travel interests (forms of special interest). (Spilanis I. and Vayanni H., 2003:4) The social, economic and climate changes of recent years that have led to the emergence of extreme phenomena such as natural disasters, terrorist attacks, and economic crisis have contributed to the need for economic, social and physical restructuring. The different aspects of alternative forms of tourism cultivate changes in the ecological, economic and social structure with an interest in focusing on:  Ecotourism, because it is closely linked to sustainable framework of economic development combined with environmental protection  Pro- poor tourism, because it is focused on poverty eradication and enhanced tourist development in developing countries, so that poor people participate in productive activities  Peace through tourism because it strengthens these types of tourism that promote harmonious relationships through intercultural international tourism  Volunteer tourism, as a reaction to social and environmental issues, particularly in developing countries, providing assistance in dealing with natural disasters or terrorist attacks. These are short-term projects where tourists serve communities under particular circumstances or research environmental issues  Justice tourismisdescribed asa process that promotes a just form of travel between people of different regions in order to achieve equality and mutual respect among participants (TriarchiEi and karamanis K, 2017: 43-44) Given the blurring of the definitions of alternative forms of tourism and its classification, as well as the specific incentives that encourage the journey, the alternative forms of tourism that appear in most of the bibliography will be analyzed in the next subsections. Those forms are: ecotourism, cultural tourism, creative tourism, outdoor and natural tourism, agritourism, skiing tourism and wellness tourism.

Postgraduate Dissertation 16 2.2.1 Ecotourism

Ecotourism emerged as a term in the late 1980s, while the first reference on the ecotourism context as aspect of the integration of tourism with conservatism was made by Budowski in 1979 in his article "Tourism and Conservation: Conflict, coexistence or symbiosis‖. The development of ecotourism emerged as a reaction and recognition of the negative effects of mass tourism on nature.It was important, as well as acceptable to visit and enjoy a high quality natural environment while protectingat the same time the environment from harmful effects such as in the case of mass tourism. According to this popular trend, combining environmentally-friendly terms such as ecology or eco - sensitive with tourism activities, the name ecotourism has been formed with professional associations to establish code and standards of ecological ethics. Σhe arguments for ecotourism definitions have been based on the fact that ecotourists should focus on the elimination of negative impacts on nature or on more active actions in order to promote the health and quality of ecotourism attractions contributing to its sustainability. In the following years, the main objectives of ecotourism strategies were to protect the natural environment, to move from enjoyable experiences to behavioral changes, to change attitudes and beliefs on a more ecological and environmental basis. In order to achieve these objectives, seven indicators measured the effectiveness of ecotourism strategies : tourist satisfaction, tourist education / learning, change in beliefs, behavioral changes, improved nature protection, eradication of disturbances and sustainability. (Orams M., 1995:1-6)

In 2015 according to the International Ecotourism Society (TIES, 2015:1), ecotourism was defined as a responsible journey to natural sites that protects the environment and helps maintain the welfare of local communities, implies interpretation as well as educates both staff and visitors. In addition, those applying for and participating in ecotourism must follow these principles:  Eliminate physical, social, behavioral and psychological negative effects  Create environmental and cultural awareness and appreciation  Provide enjoyable experience for guests and host residents  Provide direct economic advantages  Create economic benefits for local inhabitants and private industries  Allocate interpretative experiences to guest in order to create political, social and environment sensitivity in local communities  Plan, build and operate low effect facilities  Identify the intellectual beliefs of the original people in your community and engage with them to achieve empowerment (The International Ecotourism Society, 2015:1-3)

Slowly but steadily, the demand for an experience based on the natural environment, an alternative form of tourism, is growing because mass tourism cannot offer anything comparable. On the other hand, developing countries have found ecotourism the most appropriate solution to their problems, as they have realized that nature-based tourism generates foreign exchange earnings without negative environmental impacts.

Postgraduate Dissertation 17 Many alternative forms of tourism are closely linked to ecotourism and should therefore be distinguished according to the specific activities that serve as follows:  Tourist activities that depend on the natural environment  Tourist activities that are nature-enhancing activities  Tourist activities for which natural composition is occasional The ecotourism operates as the umbrella of many other forms of alternative tourism such as ―nature tourism‖ or ―sustainable tourism‖. (TriarchiEi. and karamanis K., 2017: 47)

2.2.2 Nature tourism and outdoor recreation

Natural tourism referred to trips to sites that are mostly outdoors such as lakes, rivers, seas, forests or national parks that travelers are visiting during their holiday for an overnight stay and can participate in activities that use these places and are in accordance with their physical properties. Outdoor recreation activities involve visits to nature or green areas, mostly as a part of a daily or weekend routine and are related to natural areas such as lakes, rivers, forests, coasts or protected areas. Some of outdoor and nature activities are: hiking, picnicking, bicycling, camping, horseback riding, skiing, learning and enjoying nature. Some of the factors that influence outdoor recreation are:  Society of Wealth: average income has increased for many people in developed countries and working conditions have changed, allowing them to have more flexibility in their leisure time and spend most of their income on outdoor activities  The Information Society: The growing use of the Internet and mobile phones provides people with the opportunity to communicate with each other and access information on outdoor activities whenever they want. It gives people the opportunity to organize leisure activities wherever they want, according to the information available on the Internet  Health and Euphoria: The People‘s concern for mental and physical health has increased especially, because of the increase in cases of obesity and stress. In addition, research has shown that disability, poor environmental conditions, poverty and socially excluded groups are often associated with poor health and well-being. This has led to the desire to make the natural areas accessible to all people, especially for outdoor activities  Environmental awareness: Climate change, pollution and global warming are causing people's concerns. Many people with environmental interest engage in activities that have a positive impact on the local or international environment (Bell S. et al, 2007:1-14) Natural tourism and outdoor recreation will continue to grow by providing an opportunity to generate income, increase employment and provide incentives to preserve biodiversity in protected areas. However, measures must be taken to address the continuing and growing pressure to protect areas and natural areas that cannot cope with the significant increase in visitors. (Bell S. et al, 2007:37)

Postgraduate Dissertation 18 2.2.3 Cultural Tourism

Since the 1990s, cultural tourism has been an important, developing sector; it has contributed to the development of local culture as well as to the seasonal and geographical spread of alternative tourism. Cultural tourists are particularly selective in the use of cultural resources and cultural heritage sites have a great advantage because of their accumulated symbolic and aesthetic value. The attempt to define the concept of culture and hence cultural tourism is a complex and difficult process because the term of culture is large and unlimited and consequently it is best to focus on the way in which the term culture is used. In the late 1980s, cultural and heritage tourism was identified as a specific tourist market, while the heritage market was linked to postmodern tourism and focused on authentic, diversified markets and refered to specific social groups. (Richards G., 1996:262-266)

Nowadays, cultural tourism is an important and developed alternative form that aims at the discovery and acquisition of knowledge of monuments of historical and artistic interest. According to the OECD (OESD, 2015:51), more and more regions tend to use their tangible and intangible assets to increase their competitiveness and attractiveness in order to create local discretion to face globalization. The contribution of culture to local development is directly linked to the attraction of tourists and their positive impact on income and employment creation. In addition, the contribution of cultural activities depends on the type of activities and the local territory, in particular:  More permanent activities increase investments and expectations  Cultural activities have more positive effects in metropolitan and populated areas  Cultural activities have a more positive impact if tourists cooperate with locals  Cultural activities have more positive results if combined with other local activities that will contribute to their effectiveness (OESD, 2015:51, 83-85)

The definition of culture is vague and problematic, mostly based on the product focused on the type of attractions a tourist visits such as:  Archeological locations and museums  Locations with architecture interest  Locations and events with artistic interest  Events with literature interest  Locations and events with religious interest Types of cultural tourists are divided into two categories:those whosemain motive is the culture so they consume and those who treat culture as complementary, secondary or accidental. The development of culture and tourist heritage is due to the growth of educated people, technological support and globalization. Using the Internet gives the tourist a chance to get acquainted with cultural attractions and cultural tourism products. Thus, cultural tourists are involved in experiences that move from tangible to intangible tourism recourses and become more interactive and creative. (TriarchiEi. and karamanis K., 2017: 47-50)

Postgraduate Dissertation 19 2.2.4 Creative Tourism

Creative tourism is a growing alternative form of tourism that offers the opportunity to existing types of tourism to enhance diversified and innovative tourist experiences. Creative tourism contributes to induce local economic, social and cultural development and is important because it increases tourist interest and constitutes a new way of interaction with the tourist in order to support the identity of host regions and to encourage local consumption of creativity and culture. The growing importance for tourism is due to its intangible elements such as the atmosphere of a place as well as narratives that create stories about people or places, thus increasing attractiveness for specific destinations. Creative tourism gives the opportunity to guests to develop their creative skills through their active participation in the course and learning experience of the host region. Creative tourism is increasingly important because:  Cultural tourists prefer more experienced activities  The host regions are looking for alternative and traditional products Creative tourism is importance for tourism sector because:  It creates ―atmosphere‘ and image  It is based on people‘s need for self – development  It is interactive between visitors and locals  It avoids heritage burnout Creative tourism can be divided into two categories: the use of creativity as a visitor activity and the use of creativity as a background of tourism. The different types of creative experiences that can be offered to the creative tourist are:  If the basis of an activity is learning, workshops are recommended  If the basis of an activity is tasting, open atelier experiences are recommended  If the basis of an activity is seeing, itineraries are recommended  If the basis of an activity is buying, galleries or shop windows are recommended Some typical examples of creative tourism are:

 Barcelona's creative tourism networks give potential creative tourists the opportunity to choose the creative activities they are interested inthrough websites, and then to get in touch with local actors in the creative sector who can provide the necessary facilities to make it happen  Cultural routes can be associated with creative businesses and events to encourage visitors to see different activities in a specific region, as in the case of northern Portugal, where thecraft route of the Alto Minho includes craft manufacturers who work at home and the tourist is informed through their siteto visit them  In Greece, Grecote,l a large hotel chain, has created the Agreco farm in Crete where hotel visitors have the opportunity to enjoy traditional methods of producing Greek traditional products Creative tourism opportunities  Creativity is a source of alternative tourism activity and a background of general tourist activities  Creative tourism helps to keep the image of the destinations  Creative tourism helps develop small creative businesses The creative tourism will contribute to local economic and cultural development, the creation of sensitive cultural forms and applying sustainable principles in tourism. (Richards G., 2009:78-90)

Postgraduate Dissertation 20 2.2.5 Agritourism

There are numerous definitions of agritourism, mainly because of the variety of attributes that are involved, so labels such as "agritourism" or "rural tourism" or "farm tourism" can be found in the bibliography. However, there are three basic areas based on a set of features that help categorize the variety of products and activities:  Whether the product is based on a "working farm": the farm (where agriculture is applied) is an agritourism requirement where the nature of the land, the proportion of agriculture income and the experience and motivation of individuals are significant. Agriculture is the activity of animal husbandry and crop production by cultivating land for the consumption or sale of goods or other commodities. It is important to clarify agricultural activities to establish boundaries between traditional farm-based but are non-agricultural activities than those that are agricultural.  The type of communication between the tourist and agricultural activities: The debate is whether there is a direct link between visitors and the rural environment; agritourism should include active participation in agricultural life and agricultural productive activities.  The degree of authenticity in the agricultural experience: The authentic agricultural experience based on tourism practice in agricultural activities, as would normally be and involves their physical participation in agricultural work.(Phillip S. et al, 2010:754-758) Rural tourism emerged in Greece in the late 1980s as part of rural development, local experts believed it was necessary to develop alternative forms of tourism due to their growing demand and saturation of mass tourism. The development of rural tourism has focused on increasing the income of local regions, improving living standards and preserving the rural population. Rural development was organized in two directions; the first was by people whose main occupation was agrotourism (agriculture) while the second was private or collective trying permanent residents or Woman‘s Agrotourism co- operation with the second being the most original form of rural tourism to date. The women participations on co – operations have helped to improve their skills, abilities and have become productive. In addition, local population co-operation in rural tourism has contributed to the development of other sectors of their local economy.(Iakovidou O. et al, 2002:32-33)

2.2.6 Skiing

Skiing belongs to natural tourism, and in particular to outdoor leisure activities, includes visits to nature, mostly part of a daily routine or weekend and related to natural areas of the mountains. Recreation activities take place during people‘s leisure time and are related to those activities that a person perceives as a factor that gives him pleasure and satisfaction. Recreational time includes activities that a person takes over during a day after meeting basic needs and can be divided into four categories, such as home based activities, daily leisure, day trips and tourism. The purchasing behavior of individuals is influenced by factors such as the social environment, the physical environment, time, the definition of work and the previous situation, with the most important factor being the time. (Vassiliadis C. et al., 2013:62) In recent decades, many surveys have focused on identifying factors influencing leisure demand, and specifically on facilities and constraints that affect the participant's leisure demand. Some of the surveys show that people from low social strata and low active

Postgraduate Dissertation 21 leisure sections seem to be not interested in leisure activities, while people from more active parts of the recreation society have factors such as time, price and facilities affecting their participation in leisure activities. In addition, variables such as life cycle and gender affect recreational behavior. In the case of skiing, the restrictions that affect the participation of the person in skiing activities are divided into three categories as below: Intrapersonal constraints: the main interpersonal constraints are expenditure forecasting, fear of injury or cold, difficulty in learning skiing, fear of height. People most affected by intrapersonal barriers are those who never did ski before. Interpersonal constraints: the main interpersonal constraints are lack of other participants either because of lack of money or time and interest, family obligations, in addition they consider it to be an elitist sport.People most affected by intrapersonal barriers are those who never did ski before. Structure constraints: the basic constraints in this case are expensive equipment and clothes, lack of low-cost or all-inclusive holidays, overcrowded slopes, market or rental discomfort, time. People most affected by the constraints of the structure are the ones who have been skiing before. (Gilbert D. et al., 907-910, 914) Time constraints: time limits a person's ability to experience leisure time as a mood and pre-determines activities that can happen in the day. For these reasons, they usually follow one of the four procedures: they try to speed up a leisure activity, try to replace a leisure activity with a faster one, seek to carry out more than one activity at the moment, and try to organize their activities with accuracy and precision to achieve the highest degree of satisfaction. Skiing is characterized as an active recreational activity while visiting ski resorts includes recreational, social and relaxing activities that contribute to each other and the development of their abilities and capabilities in their work. (Vassiliadis C. et al., 2013:62-63).

2.2.7 Wellness Tourism

The concept of health and well-being is based on the use of natural hot and mineral resources; health and wellness programs and facilities have been developed worldwide and are a tourist attraction in the last decades of the 20th century, although wellness holidays occurred hundreds of years ago. In ancient Greece healing baths and springs are associated with deities such as Artemis Thermi, ApollosThermios, and the Nymphs with temples dedicated to Asklipios( God of medicine). According to Greek mythology the deities use the thermal springs to cure the disease. In addition, the importance of cold or warm sources is described in Homer's poems, giving evidence of their use in ancient Greek civilization. In the 5th century BC Hippocrates healed his patients using thermal balneologyon his Asclepius center and he also wrote an encyclopedia classifying all the medicinal waters and describing their therapeutic and medical characteristics. One of the first well-known healing resorts in history was in the ancient city of Therma, now called Loutraki, due to the natural mineral waters and hot springs. Later during the Roman Empire, the Romans built an important complex for recreational purposes. According to Plutarch, another ancient city, Edipsos was famous for its spa facilities and thermal springs to which people from the ancient Mediterranean visited for health and holiday purposes. (Erfurt- Cooper P. at el, 2009:63-64)

Postgraduate Dissertation 22 Wellness tourism can be defined as the relationships and situations arising from a journey in which people have the incentives to maintain and promote their health. Resorts and thermal baths offer professional and personal care to improve the physical fitness of visitors, helping to treat illness and relaxation in order to improve the living conditions of their visitors and their harmonization with the environment. Minerals are the most desirable ingredients for hot or cold sources for the spa resort and thermal treatment facilities and are the most important feature of a tourist visit. Thermal resorts and beauty centers can provide:  Thermal baths, hydrotherapy and balneotherapy  Face and beauty care  Special treatments for relaxation, aromatherapy and other alternative care Thermal and mineral spring‘s resorts are located in more than one treatment areas such as:  Treatments whether a person is healthy or not  Hot springs offer medical, recreational and wellness facilities  Modern‘s aqua springs with mineral water to attract residents and aliens (Erfurt- Cooper P. at el, 2009:8-10)

Well-being and health tourism have recently become more specialized as tourist features vary, as well as their travel patterns and the forms of tourism they choose. The choice of visitors for a spa depends on:  The destination atmosphere  The location of the reception area and its accessibility  Traveler characteristics for a specific destination Health and wellness resorts can provide facilities for 12 months and provide health and wellness services while the availability of additional facilities increases the attractiveness of the destination and the number of visitors. Important factors for mineral and thermal springs are the chemical components due to their particular therapeutic properties and geographic location, as the availability of additional facilities contributes to the formation of a specific resort identity. In Greece, health centers and thermal baths are associated with people with health problems, so they have to change their image along with its accessibility to increase its attractiveness. (Didaskalou E. et al, 2004:149-156)

2.3 Impacts of tourism on regions

By its nature, tourism brings about a mingling of people with different cultural and social backgrounds and a significant spatial redistribution of power that leads to significant economic impacts on tourist destinations. Although attention is focused on the economic impact, as it is more quantifiable and measurable than environmental and social impacts, the adverse and immeasurable impacts of tourism on the environment and society offset the economic benefits. An important issue for tourism impacts is the carrying capacity which is the point where further visitor growth leads to unfavorable effects and distortions in visitor relationships and resources such as nature, political and social structures. Therefore, tourism impacts are distinguished into four axes:

Postgraduate Dissertation 23 a) Economic impacts

International tourism as an export industry increases the flows of foreign currencies in the countries of destination and improves the current account balance with positive effects on employment, household income, the business turnover and public revenues. In addition, part of the tourist revenue reinvested in the destination countries has contributed to economic growth. On the other hand, domestic tourism contributes to the distribution of currencies within a country's borders, generating income in host regions and contributing to local and national economic development. The economic benefits of tourism are larger in the less developed regions but require the appropriate infrastructure, hotels and other facilities to effectively support tourism demand. Effective planning of resource allocation regulations is necessary in order to avoid any increase in conflicts of interest for visitors and locals and to enhance the region's development as foreign companies are active in the tourist market and destinations and regions achieve a small part of the tourism benefits.

b) Political impacts

International tourism is seen as the main force of peace and Interculturalism, in many cases direct contact between people with very different cultural and economic backgrounds could cause serious political and social consequences. In some cases, through international tourism, new forms of colonization emerged in emerging countries through multinational companies that invest in such nations and concentrate power from the regions and local. At the same time, positions requiring high expectations and experiences are occupied by foreigners with locals being employed in low paid and unskilled jobs; these discriminations could have a negative impact on international relations. Domestic tourism gives citizens the opportunity to get to know their national heritage and to strengthen their national identity by preventing regional fragmentation. Gathering people with different backgrounds in some cases has negative consequences and causes social, political and moral anxiety as well as misunderstandings and mistrust, even in the case of domestic tourism.

c) Social impacts

Cultural differences take place among people from different countries, even in different regions within the country. A visitor is foreign to the locals, differences such as physical characteristics or cultural behavior lead to misunderstandings and in some cases controversy, anti-social behavior or delinquent activities are particularly perpetrated by residents. In some cases, when tourist comes from wealthy countries, residents exploit local customs and culture to satisfy visitors at the expense of local dignity. Strategic planning by destination countries is necessary to maintain local authenticity and prevent the commercialization of cultural heritage.

d) Environmental impacts

The magnitude of tourist development and the extent of visitors are closely linked to environmental damage, extended and uncontrolled tourist development has a negative impact on the environment of destination areas. The hotels are built to meet the needs and desires of visitors without taking into account the architectural design of the local areas and intervene in a scenic environment while the sewage and waste end up in the sea and the rivers pollute it. In addition, the uncontrolled and high number of tourists has a

Postgraduate Dissertation 24 negative impact on nature, in some cases irreversible, disrupting the existing ecosystem of destination areas. Measures should be taken for the sustainable development of tourism so as to protect and preserve the natural environment and the local cultural heritage of tourist destinations. (Theobald W., 2004: 79-83, 85-90, 92-93)

2.4 Mass and alternative tourism

Assessing the relative advantage and disadvantage of mass and alternative forms of tourism, it is necessary to examine the destinations, behavior, characteristics of tourists and the requirements of the forms together with their inherent characteristics and their relationship with the factors of change related to tourism. Thus the important factors comparing mass and alternative tourism are: (Smith V. et al, 1992:37-39)

Tourist: Mass tourism: In the short term, the number of tourists in mass tourism is small with rapid growth, while in the long run the number of visitors is large; their behavior is sedentary and mainly they stay in the resorts. Moreover, their visit time is short, they differ from the inhabitants and the interaction is limited Alternative tourism: In the short and long term, the number of alternative tourists is small, who are interested in exploring the area and residing in native communities and households. In the short term their visit is longer and is not planned, while in the long run their visit is scheduled and has a shorter duration. In addition, visitors differ from the inhabitants, although there is some interaction with them in the short term, while interacting with locals to a greater extent in the long run. Resource: Mass tourism: In the short term, there may be a lot of pressure on the environment and in the long run it could ruin the fragility and uniqueness of the destination areas, while carrying capacity is not taken into account in the short term and exceeded in the long-term. Alternative tourism: the short term, there is very little pressure on the environment and in the long run there may be more pressure on the fragility and uniqueness of the destination areas. In addition, there could be a problem with capacity in the long run. Economy: Mass tourism: In the short term, the local economy is starting to grow and bloom in the long run, while there is some leakage of tourism spending from the host region in both periods. Alternative tourism: The host economy is simple and develops in the long run while there is a lot leakage of tourist spending from the host region.

Political: Mass tourism: There is a partial degree of control in short term and little in long run, while the planning process is more conceptual in short-term and full reactive the long-term Alternative tourism: the degree of local control is high in the short term and small in the long run, and there are small planning practices in the short and long term.

Postgraduate Dissertation 25 2.5 The case of Greece

In Greece, the tourism industry is its heavy industry and contributes to the maximum in its economic development, based on mass tourism, where tourists seek antiquities, culture, sun-sea-sand and entertainment Although the Mediterranean coastline has been the primary tourist destination, in recent years there has been a gradual decline because of:  The emergence of new competitive destination regions  The tourist need for alternative forms of tourism  The high seasonality, especially the arrivals of tourists, takes place in the months of June to September (Apostolopoulos Y. et al, 2000: 2)

Greece under the new conditions (which we mentioned above) and negative impacts of mass tourism began to assess its current position and the need to develop alternative forms of tourism. Therefore, through the evaluation process, several weaknesses and strengths have emerged, such as:

Weaknesses: a) High seasonality and density especially during high season b) Prevalence of mass tourism and lack of alternative forms of tourism c) Inappropriate public infrastructure

Strengths: a) Variety of natural beauty b) The gradual increase in tourist arrivals c) The historical heritage of Greece The rapid changes in the leisure industry and tourists' needs for interactive activities that are one of the characteristics of alternative forms of tourism have led Greece to start developing alternative forms of tourism to expand its tourist season and become the most popular international tourist destination. (Loizos C., 2012:4)

The economic crisis, along with new trends in tourism preference for alternative forms of tourism, is driving Greece to promote tourism development and, in particular, alternative forms. It is therefore important to assess its current position in order to eliminate any obstacles that undermine its potential development. The main obstacles that have had a significant negative impact on the Greek economy can be summarized as follows:

 Alternative tourism businesses are subsidized by the EU and the state, enhancing lethargy and corruption  Due to the lack of a specific definition for agrotourism, agrotourism companies only adopted the name and not the essence of alternative tourism. Thus, the tourist does not train in rural life and causes stress in the environment and leads to frost from rural life  Ecotourism mainly hosts guests in tourist facilities of mass tourism  Due to ecotourism and the development of agrotourism, foreigners have bought land and houses, triggering the rise in property values and making them inaccessible to the locals leading them to poverty

Postgraduate Dissertation 26  The economic crisis leads people from urban areas to rural ones, resulting in local hostilities and weakening social cohesion that is important for the expansion of sustainable alternative tourism  Foreigners have mainly rented their home over the Internet without declare the amount of income in either country, thus increasing tax evasion

Due to the growing interest in alternative forms of tourism and the significant number of tourists, Greece should redesign its tourism strategy so as to be a popular destination. In addition, the existence and strict enforcement of laws in the case of labeling, tax evasion, use of capital and corruption is a crucial issue for its potential development. The large number of tourists interested in alternative forms may lead Greece to come out of the economic crisis and get into developmental paths. (Smith A., 2011: 2-3, 5)

Postgraduate Dissertation 27 2.6 The importance of tourism in the Greek economy and the impact of the economic crisis The role of tourism in the economy is multifaceted because it either directly affects financial fundamentals (GDP, public revenues, employment etc) or indirectly due to its interconnection with other sectors involved in tourism consumption, local development, multiple employment opportunities etc. The following table presents some of the key elements of tourism figures for the period 2010-2016 in order to ascertain the contribution of the tourism sector to the Greek economy as well as their change during the economic crisis. The source of the data in the table is from SETE, while the table is formed by the researcher

Table 1:Greek Tourism – Basic Figures Greek Tourism Basic Figures Years 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Contribution to 17,3% GDP 16% [WTTC] 15,8% [WTTC] 16,4% [WTTC] 16,3% [WTTC] [WTTC] 18,5% [WTTC] 18,6% [WTTC] Employment (% total 17,8% 17,6% 17,3% 23,4% employment) [WTTC] [WTTC] 18,3% [WTTC] 18,2% [WTTC] [WTTC] 23,1% [WTTC] [WTTC] International Tourism Receipts(cruises are 9,6 billion € 10,5billion € 10,02 billion € 11,7 billion € 13billion € 13,6 billion € 12,7billion € not included) BOG] [BOG] [BOG] [BOG] [BOG] [BOG] BOG] International Tourists Arrivals(cruises are not included) 15 million 16,4 million 15,52 million 17,9 million 22 million 23,6 million 24,7 million 1,6%Global, 1.7% Global, 1,5% Global, 1,6% Global, 1,8% Global, 2% Global, 2% Global, Market share 3,1% Europe 3.2% Europe 2,9% Europe 2,9% Europe 3,8% Europe 3,1% Europe 3,1%Europe Hotel Infrastructure/ Hellenic Chamber of 9.732 Hotels/ 9.648 Hotels / 9.670 Hotels / 9.677 Hotels/ 9.851 Hotels / 9.757 Hotels / 9.730 Hotels/ Hotels 763.407 Beds 763.668 Beds 771.271 Beds 773.445 Beds 792.304 Beds 784.315 Beds 788.553 Beds

Based on the data in the table we can ascertain the following:  The significant contribution of tourism to GDP, which increased during the economic crisis (excluding 2011), especially the period 2010-2016  The significant contribution of tourism to total employment, which has grown in the course of the economic crisis, reaching 23, 4% in 2016  Significant growth was recorded in international arrivals from 15 million in 2010 to 24.7 million in 2016  Although, international tourist receipts have increased since 2010, there has been a small drop since 2015  The market share occupied by Greek tourism both at international level and in Europe did not show any particular changes  There was a minimal change in hotel infrastructure; the biggest increase was in 2014, while in the next two years it fell to the level of 2010

Tourism through direct and indirect taxation is estimated to increase (cumulatively) public revenues by 1.4 billion Euros, while the contribution of the tourism balance is important. One of the key features of the Greek economy is the goods balance deficit and the services surplus. In 2002, the balance of goods and services posted at a deficit of € 12,917 million, while the services balance showed a surplus of € 9,609 million during the same period. The travel balance contributes significantly to the services surplus, the same period (2002) the travel balance was € 7,736 million.

Postgraduate Dissertation 28 The surplus on the travel balance decreased by EUR 521 million between 2009 and 2010, and from 2011 it started to increase. The surplus of the Travel balance contributed 73.2% (2016) to the surplus of the services balance, especially in 2012-2016 due to the significant increase in travel receipts combined with the simultaneous reduction of travel payments. It is worth noting that in 2009 the surplus of the travel balance constituted 69.3% of the services surplus, while in 2010 and 2011 it was 61.5% and 60.5% respectively. (Nikolaidis E., 2017:14-16) One of the items of interest for the analysis of tourist figures is the inbound travel movement of non-residents in Greece. In the period 2005-2012, average arrivals were 15.6 million, while we see a considerable increase in the number of visitors as the average of arrivals for the period 2013-2016 was 24.6 million. Despite the increased number of visitors, the number of overnight stays (thousands) shows a downward trend between 2005-20012 (2005: 153.440 & 2012: 142.417) and upward trend over the period 2013-2016 (2016: 193.419). (Nikolaidis E., 2017:28, 31). Despite the increase in arrivals from abroad during the crisis, the contraction of the domestic production base weakened the interconnection of tourism with other sectors and the multiplier benefits of tourism to the country's economy. Also, the crisis negatively affected domestic tourism, in the category 4 overnight stays, domestic tourism declined by 66.5% in the period 2005-2015. (Nikolaidis E., 2017:48) The emerging stabilization of GDP over the last period is due to the export reorientation of the country with an emphasis on inbound tourism, which accounts for 90% of all tourism activities in 2016. (Kikilias H., 2017:3). Greece raised 7 positions in the ranking of global competitiveness, occupying the 24th position in 2017. The country's upgrading is due to the excellent effort to estimate its natural resources (up to 14 jobs), through strong digital demand (direct), environment protection and marketing activities (indirectly). Also, the reduction in prices and costs for international tourists, which directly affects tourist demand, increased the number of arrivals and competitiveness significantly. Greece, on the other hand, needs to improve its legislative framework, reduce taxation and barriers to FDIs, in order to create a more friendly business environment. (World Economic Forum, 2017:172) Positive is the forecast for Greek tourism for both 2018 and the following years. The contribution (direct and indirect) for tourism in 2017 to GDP is 17.7% (WTTC), while an annual growth rate of 3.7% (WTTC) is expected for the next 10 years. In addition, WTTC forecasts for tourism investment are positive, which is expected to grow at an annual rate of 5.5% over the next 10 years. (Yfadis P., 2018:1-5)

According to statistics data, tourism is the "heavy industry" of Greece, which apparently was not initially affected by the crisis, and has grown significantly since 2014. Also, the positive forecasts for the Greek tourist trend in the coming years make us hope for the recovery of the Greek economy after seven years of memoranda and economic crisis. The multiple (direct and indirect) benefits of the tourism sector in the Greek economy lead us to the conclusion that Greece should step up its efforts to continuously improve the position of Greek tourism worldwide.

Postgraduate Dissertation 29 CHAPTER 3: Sustainable Development

3.1 The concept of Sustainable development In recent years, growing economic and social problems, along with the rapid deterioration of the natural environment, have led international organizations and governments to the negotiating table to find viable solutions. There is no commonly accepted definition of Sustainable Development; we can say that it is a controversial concept with approaches and theories that differ between organizations and people all over the world. Although there are approaches that claim that there is a cross-section between the economy, society and the environment, they treat them as separate entities. On the other hand, there are theories that argue that there is an interconnection between three sectors as the economy depends on society and human existence and, by extension society depends on and within the environment. Governments, large businesses, environmentalists, organizations and people with economic, social and environmental concerns realize that sustainable development is important. Over 150 major companies in the world in the energy, mining, automotive, chemical, biotechnology, financial industries are members of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. On the other hand, many environmentalists, such as the Earth Friends and Greenpeace, commit themselves to sustainable development growth while criticizing companies that are members of World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Each of them gives its own interpretation of the concept of sustainable development, while many companies come into conflict with trade unions, social and environmental activists. In an effort to resolve differences and shape a commonly accepted definition of sustainable development, the Brundtland report of the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 stated that sustainable development should aim to meet the needs of the present generation in a way that enables future generations to meet their needs. This definition was considered ambiguous because it gave anyone in their own interest (economic, social or environmental) the chance to identify the idea of sustainable development at will and for this reason, in an effort to avoid any conflict, the use of the words ―Sustainable Development‖ has changed into ―Sustainability‖. However, the uses of the words "Sustainable Development" are widespread in an attempt to embrace the relationship between the socio-economic and the environmental sector. (Giddings B. et al, 2002:187-188)

Postgraduate Dissertation 30 3.2 Sustainable Development and Sustainability Approaches

There is a differentiation between academics on sustainability and sustainable development, sustainability is referred to as the ultimate situation that internalizes a dynamic form of balance between the environment and human, while the sustainable development is referred to as a process for achieving sustainability. In addition, the concept of sustainable development is attributed to organizations, governments or individuals and includes intergeneration equality, ethics and rights issues. Both have led to a change in the economic growth path, while the three dimensions (economic, social and environmental) create barriers to both concepts.

3.2.1 Approaches for Sustainable Development

The main differentiation between sustainable development approaches is the relationship between humans and nature. There are two extreme dimensions, anthropocentric, in which nature is considered as a resource and the nature-centered one in which the intrinsic value of nature or other species are recognized and humans do not dominate. The two extreme approaches are:

 Prudentially Conservationist, Utilitarian and Instrumental approaches

Proponents believe that people are superior to all other species and the environment is resource with utilitarian and organic value that it will be used for present and future wellbeing. In addition, utilitarian and organic approaches are based on the principle of economic viability and the maintenance of a constant capital for future generations.The environmental and social dimension, such as natural resources and their equitable distribution and equal opportunities across generations, are considered in the light of human utility, environmental and social negative impacts are seen as costs, while positive impacts as benefits to an economically sustainable development.

 Environmental-Preservationist, Intrinsic and Normative approaches

According to these approaches, the relationship between nature and man is considered by a morally equal view, in which either nature and other species or people do not hold a dominant position, but instead there is a friendly relationship between them. In addition, not only man has moral status but also nature and other species whose rights and interests should be taken into account.Intrinsic and normative approaches main concern is the rights and the justice and is divided into two subcategories:

 Deep ecologists whose main concerns are the rights and needs of the environment and nature, which have intrinsic values on their own.

Postgraduate Dissertation 31  Social ecologists and eco socialist whose main interest are social cases without to ignore the importance of environment and nature. Their concerns have to do with social injustice, as they believe that the political and economic elite through multinational corporations and globalization use most of the population and the environment for their own benefits. (Ramcilovic-Suominen S. et al, 2016: 4171-4173)

3.2.2 Approaches for Sustainability

The main differentiation, as in the case of sustainable development, between sustainability approaches is the substitutability of natural "capital" and is divided into two extreme points of view:

 Supporters of strong sustainability assume that there is no relationship between produced and natural capital and therefore environmental problems that cause the reduction of natural resources cannot be replaced by produced or human capital. In addition, they claim that the basic natural resources, such as water, which are fundamental to supporting living systems, cannot be substituted.

 Proponents of weak sustainability assume that there is a wide potential for physical capital and lost resources to be replaced by capital produced. Weak sustainability is considered as ―Capital – based‖ sustainability and claims that there is substitutability among produced, natural, human and social capital.

Over the last two decades, there have been changes from these extreme approaches to sustainable development and sustainability, a shift to more acceptable and workable frameworks, sustainable development models that attract political and public attention. (Ramcilovic-Suominen S. et al, 2016: 4173)

3.2.3 Sustainable Development Models

1. Three Pillar or the three circles or the triple bottom line model

The most well-known model that illustrates the three dimensions of sustainable development; economy, the environment and society. According to this model sustainable development is achieved when there is a harmonization between three dimensions (pillars). However, this model is criticized for not taking into account the lack of time and political dimension. (Ramcilovic-Suominen S. et al, 2016: 4173)

According to the model, the sustainable development is complete when the three dimensions are balanced and ignore any conflicts that can occur and gives the opportunity to prioritize any of the three dimensions. Σhe limitation of the basic model is the degradation of the fundamental link between the environment, society and the economy, in

Postgraduate Dissertation 32 the face of weak sustainability approach and in many cases, the importance of social dimension is ignored or degraded. Political reality places emphasis on the economy, thus, economy dominates environment and social category. Separate categories give the opportunity to global companies that dominate decision-making, focus on the economy, and every democratic process is bypassed. In addition, governments and organizations are affected by multinational companies and focus on improving the economic sector rather than on the overall dimensions of sustainable development.GDP growth is the main indicator for sustainable growth, although GDP growth does not improve people's quality of life or benefit the poor. The commercialization of nature and the growing areas of people's activities will lead away from sustainability. (Giddings B. et al, 2002:189-191)

Figure 1: Sustainable Development Models

Source:Sustainable development e A ‗selling point‘ of the emerging EU bioeconomy policy framework(2016):4174

2. Egg of wellbeing model and concentric rings model

The egg of wellbeing model depicts the oval ecosystem encompassing the entire population in order to show the relationship between human well-being and the environmental dimension. When the two components are balanced, the sustainable development is achieved and leads to sustainability and prosperity. The concentric ring model is another version and depicts three concentric circles referring to the economic, social and environmental dimensions while sustainable development is achieved with a complete overlap of the three dimensions.(Ramcilovic-Suominen S. et al, 2016: 4173)

Postgraduate Dissertation 33 While the political reality emphasizes the economic dimension, the material reality asserts that the economy depends on society and both categories depend on the environment. Human existence and its evolution are based on social interaction, while human activities take place in the environment and have a great impact on it.Tangible and intangible goods come from the environment and end up in the environment, the interaction between humans and the natural environment must work in a way that lasts and gains sustainability.The economic circuit is based on social relationships; therefore, we cannot separate the three categories as the economy depends on society and both on environment. The integration of the three sectors and the reduction of barriers between the various scientific disciplines lead to sustainable development. (Giddings B. et al, 2002: 191- 192)

3. Four pillar model or prism model

The Four pillar or prism model is differ from three pillar model as is added another dimension, the institutions or government category. Similarly, this model is criticized for the degradation of the environment and its importance for the human prosperity.

4. Two-tiered sustainability equilibria model

This model is divided into two parts, the first part adopts the concentric ring model and all the interdependencies between the three dimensions that occur simultaneously and the second part adds the temporal dimension to the model, the present and the future actions that support this sustainability equilibrium. Sustainability is achieved by being aware of the effects of current acts on future ones. (Ramcilovic-Suominen S. et al, 2016: 4174)

Regardless of sustainable development models and their differentiation, sustainable development must be based on the following principles:  Equality between generations  Social and geographical equality  People should be treated equal  Equity among species (Giddings B. et al, 2002: 194)

Postgraduate Dissertation 34 3.3 European policy on sustainable development

Sustainable development is a key priority for the European Union, under the holistic approach of the three dimensions, through the EU Treaties, recognizes the need for sustainable development for the ability of present and future generations to meet their needs. According to the EU (European Commission, COM(2016) 739 final 2016:2), the core values of sustainable development are economic prosperity and efficiency, social inclusion, peace and environmental responsibility for everyone within the limits of the planet.

In recent years, European communities face situations that threaten their current and future sustainability; on the other hand, the demands of the ever-growing world population, together with the complexity of global changes, are challenges that the EU needs to manage for its future sustainability. European societies are characterized by high unemployment rates among young people and the elderly, pollution and their negative impact on the environment, high migration rates, a large influx of refugees and the need for sustainable energy.

EU policies focus on preserving and strengthening the European social model and social cohesion and to this end the EU will invest in young people, promote sustainable inclusive growth, tackle inequalities and effectively manage migration. In order to achieve its objectives, the EU aims to pursue its fiscal policies and reforms, accelerate the transition to renewable sources of energy in order to reduce the use of coal, create a sustainable climate, resource efficiency and the circle economy. In addition, the EU will invest heavily in research and innovation to create new businesses and jobs for young people.

The EU's sustainable strategy was launched in 2001 and was integrated into the Europe 2020 strategy in 2010, however, 2015 is considered a decisive year for sustainable development worldwide. During the 70th United Nations General Assembly on 25 September 2015, in which the EU played a leading role, the world leaders led to a new global framework agreement ―Agenda for Sustainable Development in 2030‖. In addition, in 2015 the Paris Climate Agreement, the Addis Ababa Agenda for Action and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction adopted the Sustainable Development Goals that are the core of Agenda 2030. Agenda 2030 with its 17 goals for sustainable development aims to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable growth by 2030 by balancing the three dimensions of sustainable development. All developed or developing countries are committed to international peace, security and justice. The EU aspires to become a pioneer in the implementation of Agenda 2030 and its 17 sustainable development goals, integrating fully the goals into European sustainable development policy and taking external and domestic action to this end. (European Commission, 2016:1-4)

Postgraduate Dissertation 35

The Goals for sustainable development as mentioned in COM(2016) 739 final: (European Commission, 2016:19)

Table 2: The 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals The 2030 Agenda Sustainable Development Goals Goal 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere Goal 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture Goal 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Goal 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Goal 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation Goal 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries Goal 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Goal 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Goal 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts* Goal 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Goal 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss Goal 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Goal 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development * Acknowledging that the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is the primary international, intergovernmental forum for negotiating the global response to climate change.

Postgraduate Dissertation 36 3.3.1 European domestic actions for sustainable development

The main actions taken by the EU to achieve the goals of Agenda 2030 for sustainable development (SDG) within the EU are:

 SDG1: The EU, in the light of the principle of subsidiarity and in the wake of the economic crisis, supports the Member States to tackle poverty and achieve the headline target of poverty in line with the Europe 2020 strategy.

 SDG2: The EU through the Common Agricultural Police and the Common Fisheries Policy aims at sustainable production of goods and fisheries, sustainable management of natural resources and aquaculture. In addition, the FOOD 2030 program and the EU support fund aim to provide adequate and safe nutritious food for people affected by poverty and to invest in innovation actions on food safety and nutrition.

 SDG3: The EU's objective is to improve public health, health care systems and effectively manage and reduce environmental conditions that cause health problems. The EU is taking measures to eliminate deaths from chronic health problems, strengthen the capacity to prevent global health threats, health are the key factor in human well-being, improving employee participation and increasing productivity.

 SDG4: The core of the Europe 2020 strategy for education is to reduce the proportion of early school leavers and to increase the rates of admission and graduation in tertiary education. To this end, the Education and Training Strategy and Skills Agenda are to foster student exchanges within the EU and to directly support the improvement of the education and training system, especially in the case of young people.

 SDG5, SDG 10: The core of EU social and cohesion policy since the beginning of European integration is the elimination of gender inequality and is constantly making efforts in this direction.

 SDG6, SDG 14,SDG 15:EU legislation focuses on the protection of the environment and its ecosystem, Birds and Habitats Directives protect ecosystems, the ―Natura 2000‖ network to protect areas helps to prevent biodiversity loss and aims to restore at least 15% of degraded ecosystems.

 SDG 12: EU focus on the sustainable use of resources and on circle economy that decoupling economic growth from resource use and environmental degradation, while consumption policy aims at a protected and informed consumer who can make choices in the viability orbit.

 SDG7, SDG 13: The EU objective is the Energy Union and the 2030 Climate and Energy Policy Framework that focuses on the efficient use of energy, increasing the use of renewable energy sources and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the EU aspires to take initiatives to develop the transition to clean energy.

 SDG 8: The EU has made significant efforts to recover from the negative effects of the crisis and the recession that is being ravaged by several of its Member States. Although many indicators have improved, the unemployment of young and disabled people remains and must step up efforts to eliminate inequalities and the economic recovery of its Member States.

Postgraduate Dissertation 37

 SDG 9: European structural and investment funds reinforce investment in infrastructure, innovation and research into transport, telecommunications and energy networks and infrastructures and result in the EU leading position vis-à-vis others and to continue its efforts to support of its position.

 SDG11: The Urban Agenda for the European Union is in full harmony with the UN New Urban Agenda and focuses on empowering urban areas through measures to tackle climate change and its negative impact on urban areas under the auspices of sustainable development.  SDG 16: The basic principles as laid down in the Treaty of European Union and the Charter of Fundamental Rights are reflected in its policy and its legal framework and overlap with the SDG16 ambitions.

 SDG 17: EU by means of appropriate policies and funding of instruments from all private and non-governmental and economic and scientific sectors will help to strengthen corporate co-operations in order to create new jobs and sustainable development and investment within EU and abroad.

3.3.2 The EU's key priorities for achieving the Agenda 2030 Goals

The European Parliament, together with the European Council, set out the "Strategic agenda for the Union in times of change", whose main aims are the changes under democratic procedures for economic impetus, new jobs and justice.

“Priority 1”→ Make efforts to stimulate new jobs, develop and increase investment

The main negative effects of the economic crisis in Europe were high unemployment rates, low levels of investment, poverty, inequality, competitiveness and efficiency decline, and high levels of pension liabilities. The EU intends to succeed in grinding and improving the effects of the recession through:

 Education and Training, the EU has decided to invest in the modernization of the education and training system with emphasis on quality and skills, while the Youth Guarantee will be used as a driver for investment in young people.

 Investment plans, Firstly, the EU has decided to make available € 500 billion through the "European Strategic Investment Fund" by 2020 in key areas of the real economy such as education, health care, infrastructure, renewable energy, agriculture, et. Secondly, 40% of the investment will be allocated to projects focusing on climate change and sustainability.

 Circular economy, the EU focuses on sustainable consumption, develops innovative production patterns and creates new jobs by investing in maximizing its competitiveness, eliminating waste from natural resources, increasing the use of renewable energy and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Α new initiative launched in 2017 is to reduce the use of micro-plastic and their leakage to the environment. The EU aims to use plastics of the future where they will be less dependent on fossil fuels, the reuse of recyclable plastics and quality will positively boost the economy and reduce global marine pollution. The EU

Postgraduate Dissertation 38 will set up an economic support platform for cyclical economy projects such as Food Losses and Food Waste platform to efficiently manage food donation.

 EU‘s environmental goals, By means of the 7th Environmental Action Program and the "Review of Environmental Implementation", the EU will endeavor to continue its efforts to improve and protect its natural resources.

 Agriculture, Through the Common Agricultural Policy, the EU intends to simplify, improve and modernize its agricultural sector.

“Priority 3” → Resistance Energy Union

The goal of the Energy Union is to reduce its dependence on foreign suppliers as it is one of the largest energy importers. To this end, it will focus on renewable energy and manage its resources effectively, invest in new business sectors, use its inherent energy resources, reduce carbon use by 40% for 2030 that will effectively address climate change and independence.

“Priority 4” → A dynamic and fairer internal industrial market

The Union's capital market approaches focus on the viability of the economy through the promotion of green bonds, long-term investment and supervisory regulation of banks. The Commission will establish a high-level expert group on financial advice in order to develop an integrated and comprehensive EU strategy for sustainable financing.

“Priority 5” → A more substantial and fairer Economic and Monetary Union

The "European pillar of social rights" consists of basic principles for employment and social policies which take account of current demographic, social and economic issues and contribute to an upward social cohesion and labor market cohesion. EU activities in the context of the ―Corporate Social Responsibility and Responsible Business Conduct‖ are about mobilizing the private sector to meet social and environmental sustainable development goals.

“Priority 7”→ Gender equality and justice systems

The EU encourages its Member States to maintain and improve their justice systems and to help create a friendly and investment environment. Gender equality for EU is one of the fundamental principles since the beginning of its creation, despite the efforts it has made it remains one of its main priorities. EU aims to make better use of women's talents, improve their participation in the workplace, their independence, the elimination of gender violence and their social and professional advancement.

“Priority 8”→Improve immigration policy

European countries are facing the largest influx of refugees into the world since the Second World War.The recent refugee crisis has led the EU to step up its efforts to effectively manage irregular and illegal migratory flows that require cooperation between European and non-EU countries. In addition, the 'European Migration Agenda' aims to provide a framework for partnership with third countries based on respect for fundamental human rights and solidarity.

Postgraduate Dissertation 39 3.3.3 European external actions for sustainable development

The EU's "Security Policy" and "Global Strategy" are fully in line with sustainable development objectives and focus on integrating EU Member States into conflict prevention and crises between Member States, contributing to coherence between the EU and Member States. In addition, ΔU believes that its security and prosperity are directly linked to the wider region, the enlarged EU and its neighbors. Enhancing its security and prosperity, it promotes stability and sustainability at international level. Therefore, EU‘s external actions are:

 “EU Enlargement Policy”: The “Copenhagen and Madrid membership criteria‖ are complete integrates the ―Agenda 2030‖, the EU continues to rely on the rule of law, security, fundamental human rights, the strengthening of state reforms, economic growth and increased competitiveness.

 “European Neighborhood Policy”: European policy on this dimension enables cooperation with partner countries on issues such as migration management, democracy, human rights, security and crisis prevention, economic development, etc. In addition, the EU through its "Common Security and Defense Policy missions" contributes to the prevention, effective manage and resolution of global crisis, such as significant financial support for peace in Africa.

 “EU's development policy”: The EU through the "European Consensus on Development" contributes to global poverty eradication, integrating the three dimensions of sustainable development and strengthening the link between economic development, security, migration and philanthropic issues.

 “EU's humanitarian assistance”: The aim of the policy is to strengthen humanitarian aid in areas plagued by the devastating consequences of natural phenomena, political crimes and war. It aims at eradicating poverty through the substantial reconstruction of these areas, the strengthening of humanitarian aid, long-term cooperation and universal commitments.

 “EU Trade Policy”: This policy focuses on the linkage between trade and development, through economic partnership agreements and trade regimes. Sustainable development at global level and thus sustainability will be achieved through the linking of trade and development.

The EU for the coming years will take measures by improving its legislation to achieve sustainable development and therefore:

 Continuous reporting on its progress on the implementation of "Agenda 2030"

 Continuous effort for global sustainable development through its external actions

 Continuous promotion the implementation of "Agenda 2030" through the EU Council, the European Parliament, global institutions, institutions and citizens

Postgraduate Dissertation 40  Creating a multi-stakeholder advisory platform to implement "Agenda 2030"

 Start reflective work on a long-term vision for sustainable growth and sustainability ((European Commission, 2016:1-14, 17-18)

3.4 Sustainable Development and Alternative Tourism

Alternative tourism is widespread as a form of tourism embracing the concept of sustainable development due to its small scale development, the involvement of the inhabitants and the designation and preservation of culture and nature. The basic requirements of alternative development, environmental harmony along with the involvement of local society in tourism development have highlighted alternative tourism as this form of tourism that incorporates the concept of sustainable development. (Sharpley R, 2000: 7) According to the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2005: 11-12), the fundamental principles of sustainable development should be applied to every form and type of tourism. Sustainable development is based on three fundamental principles stemming both from the developmental and environmental contexts and from which the sustainable development of tourism can be compared. Thus, a model of sustainable development should be based on the following principles:

1) Holistic approach : the philosophy of sustainable development is applied in the tourism sector as sustainable tourism appears to be a balance between host regions and its inhabitants, tourists and the tourism industry where no shareholder overrides equality. This is due to the fact that the tourism sector, while being part of national and local development strategies, the sustainable tourism development is product – oriented. Sustainable development focuses on local and regional small-scale projects that rarely go beyond local and regional boundaries and although different forms of tourism are environmentally friendly, the complexity of the tourist product makes it impossible to formulate a common development policy across the industry.

2) Futurity: Σhe primary objective of sustainable development is the long-term conservation of the global ecosystem. However, the strategies developed in the context of sustainable tourism focus mainly on the ecological sustainability of tourism rather than on the contribution of tourism to achieving the long-term goals in the context of sustainable development.

3) Equity: The goal of sustainable development is to offer equal opportunities to all members of all societies to use resources both present and future. Given that the tourism sector contributes to the development of respect and trust between people and, in particular, alternative tourism is based on mutual understanding, solidarity and equality of the parties involved, the economic benefits remain highly regionalized. Thus, although the development of alternative forms of tourism contributes to the reversal of the phenomenon, international tourism is strengthening it.

Postgraduate Dissertation 41 The tourism sector, as it is product - oriented which emphasizes ecological sustainability, makes it difficult to fully integrate the principles of sustainable development and limits the developmental contribution of tourism. (Sharpley R, 2000: 7-11)

The alternative forms of tourism are linked to sustainable development because they are not part of mass tourism or conventional tourism. The strong supporters of sustainable development and alternative tourism believe that its forms will eliminate the negative effects of mass tourism. This approach is considered problematic because there is no tourist activity that has no effect on the area that is taking place. As there are forms of alternative tourism, such as ecotourism, which is sometimes in sensitive areas which may not have the proper infrastructure to withstand even the average level of use, the initial small impact becomes serious either because of location or their cumulative effects. In addition, the main problem of sustainable development in tourism is to make the development of mass tourism more sustainable rather than the continuous ensuring of small-scale, cultural and environmental forms of tourism.

The tourism industry is rapidly becoming aware of the commercial value of the concept of sustainable development, and in the face of competition, there are cases where the notion of sustainable development has been adopted only in terms of name and not in its function. The concept of sustainable development for many emerging from the second wave of global concern for the environment has led some companies to call themselves "sustainable" or "ecotourist" without following the principles of sustainable development in order to attract "suitable tourists," causing environmental problems depending on mass tourism. Another problem that needs attention is the application of the principles of sustainable development to the tourist areas of urban and developed countries. The development of tourism in these areas is more focused on the environmental dimension of sustainable development and less on social and economic, and therefore depends on the characteristics of the environment and the cultural heritage.

It is important to understand that the basic term, although implied in the concept of sustainable development, is the idea of limits. Several supporters of sustainable development are ignoring this fact where, in the case of tourism, it is expressed in terms of number of tourists, while the change of landscapes and infrastructure is implied. It is commonly accepted that numbers alone are not a useful tool for assessing the impact of tourism, but in all forms of tourism there is a number of tourists who can be accommodated beyond that number, the effects are negative and in some cases irreversible. For each destination there is a limit on the number of tourists that can be hosted and a certain level of development corresponding to that. When the limit is exceeded, the nature of tourism is changing and leads to a decrease in the attractiveness and viability of the destination, tourism become unsustainable for this region.

An important factor for the sustainability of all forms of tourism is the establishment of the tourism carrying capacity of host region, the setting of targets and the existence of limits on the ability of resources to absorb the impact of tourism and to maintain it in the long term. Under these circumstances, commitment to monitoring the development of tourism either by quantitative or qualitative methods is necessary, otherwise we cannot decide whether it is moving towards sustainability or away from it.

Postgraduate Dissertation 42 As alternative forms of tourism become popular if there is no limit to the number of tourists a destination area can receive, the need for larger units of accommodation and transportation will be created, causing the same negative impact on destinations as mass tourism. The existence of reliable indicators and monitoring is important in order to ascertain the impact of the development of alternative forms of tourism in the destination area, always having as a measure of comparison the period of establishment of tourist enterprises and activities. Existence of controls and monitoring the development of alternative tourism is crucial to avoiding negative impacts, as in the case of mass tourism and its long-term viability. (Butler R., 1999:12-19)

Postgraduate Dissertation 43 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

Research methodology includes the systematic and scientific process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and correlating data on a problem and distinguished in different categories according to nature, purpose and other characteristics. The types of research methods can be broadly divided into two categories:  Quantitative research: it is about describing, extracting conclusions and resolving problems by collecting numerical data.  Qualitative research: is based on words, feelings, sounds, generally anything that is not numerical and non-quantifiable elements. These are data that cannot be analyzed by mathematical techniques. (DudovskiyJ., 2018: 1-2) Qualitative research is particularly effective in acquiring culturally specific information about the values, attitudes and social contexts of particular populations. Its key features are the search for answers to questions that have been designed to collect evidence, produce results that have not been determined in advance and are applied beyond the direct boundaries of research. The strength of qualitative research is the ability to provide complex textual outline about how people experience the research topic, are also effective in identifying intangible factors such as social rules, socio-economic status etc. where their role in a given research topic is not directly visible. Qualitative research differs from quantitative to analytical goals; type of questions, data collection and forms of data they produce but their most significant difference is the degree of flexibility. Quantitative research is quite rigid and all respondents are asked to answer similar questions in the same order and are mostly closed or fixed. While qualitative research is more flexible, it allows spontaneity and interaction between researcher and interlocutor, they use open questionnaires that give participants the opportunity to answer in their own words, thus the answers are more complex.

Qualitative research advantages

One of the important advantages of qualitative research is open-ended questionnaires which enable the participant in the research to answer in his own words. Open-ended questions have the ability to generate responses that they are:

 essential and culturally important for the participant  unpredictable by the researcher  rich and illustrative

Another advantage is that they allow the researcher to enable participants to process their initial answers by asking them why or how, the researcher ought to listen to them carefully and work with them according to their personality. (Mack N., 2005:1-4)

Postgraduate Dissertation 44 4.2 Τhe research objective and the research questions

The purpose of this thesis is to study the extent to which alternative tourism has developed in Greece and its forms, whether the principles of sustainable development are applied and their importance in the development of alternative tourism, the extent to which the economic crisis has affected the development of forms of alternative tourism and finally the potential development of forms of alternative tourism in Greece. In order to achieve the aim of this thesis, qualitative research was carried out with the Case Study method for the Prefecture of Corinth with the conduct of semi-structured interviews. In order to achieve the purpose of the project and its effectiveness in conducting conclusions, qualitative research was carried out only in direct or indirect stakeholders involved in the field of alternative tourism in the prefecture of Corinth either as individuals or as public bodies. The aim of qualitative research is to capture the views, experiences, values, attitudes and relationships of those involved in alternative tourism in Corinth, the importance of sustainable development and the potential growth. The use of the open - ended questions chosen was intended to produce responses that are important and meaningful to the respondent, spontaneous, to provide a rich description of their views and experiences in these research topics. Open - ended questions have provided the possibility of interactions between researcher and participant, so that the respondent can describe in a way his / her views and elaborate his / her original answers.

4.3 Data Collection Techniques

The data collection and techniques used are particularly important in research methodology, primary data are collected from primary sources (observation, interview, questionnaire), while secondary data is collected from secondary sources (Publication, research reports, service records). The two types of data collection that predominate in qualitative research are observations and interviews. The observation is the systematic monitoring and hearing of a phenomenon, mainly used when the researcher is interested in behavior and not perceptions of responders. (BBAP2103, 2011:113-114)

Interviews Interviews are defined as a qualitative research technique that involves intensive individual interviews on a small number of respondents in order to explore their perspectives on a specific idea, program or situation. There are three forms of interviews:  Structured interviews: are composed of a series of predetermined questions that the interviewees answer in the same order. Whilst data analysis tends to be easier because it enables the researcher to compare and contrast different answers.  Unstructured interviews: consists of questions that have not been prepared in advance and the data collection is informal, therefore considered less reliable and is associated with a high degree of bias. Data analysis is difficult because the comparison of the answers given by the respondents is not easy due to differences in the formulation of questions.

Postgraduate Dissertation 45  Semi-structured interviews: is a combination of structured and unstructured questions, the questions have been prepared before, but in the course of time additional questions can be asked to clarify or expand a topic. The advantages of the interview are the collection of detailed information on the research topic but also the direct control of the interviewer's interview flow and the possibility of intervention to clarify any problem if needed. While the time required completing the interview and the appropriate space are the main drawbacks. (DudovskiyJ., 2018: 1-2)

The implementation of the qualitative research within the framework of this dissertation was done through the interview method with the aim of collecting detailed information and opinions of both private and public stakeholders on the development of alternative tourism in the prefecture of Corinth and the implementation of the principles of sustainable development. The format of the interviews selected was semi-structured in order to develop the dialogue and the possibility of clarification when necessary. Due to the particular and different characteristics of forms of alternative tourism, the semi- structured interview gave the researcher the opportunity to encourage participants to develop their views and to talk about their experiences. In addition, the interviews were personal, telephone, and online in the time they wished to participate. The researcher could intervene to deepen the respondents' answers and provide the necessary clarifications when needed to ensure the effectiveness of the survey.

4.4 Sampling

The Purposeful sampling is widely used in qualitative research to identify and select cases rich in information related to the phenomenon of interest. Sampling in this case involves engaging and selecting individuals or groups who have knowledge, willingness to engage in research, the ability to communicate their views and experience on the phenomenon of research. Sampling methods aim to maximize validity and efficiency, in the case of qualitative methods; they aim at an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon.(Palinkas L. et al, 2015:533-536)

The main objective of purposeful sampling is to focus on the specific characteristics of a population of interest, who will be able to respond to research inquiries. There is a wide range of sampling techniques, while more than one type of purposeful sampling techniques can be used during the design of quality research. Some of the types of purposive sampling technique are:

 Heterogeneous sampling, the aim is to capture a wide range of perspectives on the subject of research, aiming at acquiring knowledge by looking at a subject from all angles through people, organizations that present a wide spectrum of characteristics, behaviors, situations, and so on. This can often help the researcher to identify common issues that are evident across the sample  Homogeneous sampling, which aims to achieve a sample whose units (e.g. people, organizations etc.) share the same or similar attributes or characteristics  Critical case sampling is particularly useful in exploratory qualitative research with limited resources, or a single case that is critical to explaining the phenomenon of interest

Postgraduate Dissertation 46  Expert sampling is used in cases where knowledge gathering is needed by people with special experience, indicating possible new fields of interest, especially in areas with a lack of experience and high levels of uncertainty  Typical case sampling is used when we are concerned about the regularity / formality of subjects (people, organisms, cases, etc.) of interest. The sample could be indicative of other similar samples to make a comparison

One of the most important advantages of purposeful sampling is the wide range of sampling techniques that can be used for the purposes of qualitative surveys. In addition, qualitative research fields may include multiple phases, each phase being based on the previous one, thus requiring different types of sampling techniques at each stage, depending on the advantages of each technique. (Laerd Dissertation, 2012: 1-6) In the present study the sample was selected on the basis of their direct or indirect engagement with alternative tourism in the region of Corinth as the most appropriate to express their views and their experience on the basis of the research questions. Due to the special characteristics of the alternative tourist product and its tourists selected individuals active in the field of alternative tourism in the area, representatives of public bodies, organizations and groups directly related to the development and application of the principles of Sustainable development in the context of alternative tourism for the region of Corinth.

The sample consists of 12 people directly or indirectly involved in the development of alternative tourism in Corinth, in particular, Mr. Zogos Andreas Deputy Tourism Mayor of the municipality of Corinth, Mr. Varelas Sotiris Special partner in tourism in the Peloponnese region, Mrs. Michalakopoulou Maria responsible officer of the Corinth Support Office of the Ministry of Tourism, Mr. Danas Markos Secretary-General of the Hellenic Association Of Municipalities With Thermal Springs, Mrs. Kyrtchoglou Aglaia local manager of the Stymphalia Environmental Museum, Mr.Tsatalos Michael founder of Horse Riding Center in Rethi, Mrs. Lagiou- NikolopoulouBasiliki Marketing executive of Loutraki Thermal Spa, Mr. PanagoulopoulosTheodoros chairman of the mountaineering club of Corinth, Mr. Kefalas Stavros co- founder of Experience Corinthia - Cooperative Tourism Network, Mr. SoukoulisDimitris Business consultant of Tourism and Service Training at I.E.K. Europroodos, Mr. Sotiris Paulou founder of Zulu Bungy and Mr. MpiniarisDimitris founder of Korinthos Diving Center.

Postgraduate Dissertation 47 4.5 Limitations

This survey was conducted from June 12 to July 4, 2018. Despite the researcher's attempt to select a sample representative of the subject of the research, research limitations are the following:

 The small number of representatives of the Municipalities of Corinth due to the time pressure of both the researcher and the Deputy Mayors responsible for tourism  The small number of private individuals operating in different regions of Corinth because of the shortcomings of their time  The small number of business representatives because of their lack of time  The results of qualitative research cannot be statistically analyzed, they are based on judgment and opinion, and they are unique and cannot be generalized  One of the interviews Mr. Kefalas Stavros was not completed (questions 15-20) for reasons beyond our capabilities  Evidence of causal relationships is not feasible in qualitative research because the researcher is based on the data analysis of the cases he studied

Postgraduate Dissertation 48 CHAPTER 5: CASE STUDY: THE CORINHT PREFECTURE

For the purpose of this thesis, the Corinthian Prefecture was selected to carry out the qualitative research using the case study method. The researcher chose the prefecture because of the plethora of archaeological finds, monuments and myths. In addition, the county features alternating landscapes, some of which are of particular ecological interest. The combination of cultural heritage and the natural environment is the basis for the development of various forms of alternative tourism, which was the motivation for the researcher to conduct qualitative research. Finally, the prefecture of Corinth is the birthplace of the researcher, this would facilitate the conduct of the research and its effectiveness. The prefecture of Corinth is the northern end of the Peloponnese, it has the capital of Korinthos and through the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth it connects southern Greece with central and northern Greece.

5.1 History

Corinth was an important city- state in antiquity, the location of which was important for its history in the years to come.It is a Doric city where its central position in the Isthmus, a point that connects Peloponnese with the rest of Greece, has contributed to the development of trade. Corinth had two ports, Lechaio and Kechries , was the center of commerce, developed the pottery industry and acquired colonies in Corfu and Syracuse and is considered the richest ancient city. The Corinth inhabited during the Neolithic years (5000-3000 BC) according to the traditions in the areas of Feneos, Stymphalia, Nemea and Lake Bouliagmeni in Loutraki, while the most important settlement was in the area of Korakos in the west exit of the current city.Homer refers to the participation of the Corinthians in the Trojan War under the leadership of King Agamemnon. Since 627 BC Corinth is under the tyranny of Periandros, who extended the Corinthian colonies, developed the arts and the first signs of theater and tragedy emerged during the period of his tyranny. Periandros was the first to think of opening the Isthmus channel, but Delphi with the oracle stopped him and created Diolko, a paved road where ships were drawn from the eastern harbor of Lechaio (Corinthian Gulf) at the western port of Kechries (Saronikos Gulf). Periandros for his words and actions is considered to be one of the seven sages of the archaic period. During the Hellenistic period, Philip II is in Corinth, 337 BC. to participate in the 2nd Panhellenic Conference taking place at the temple of Poseidon in Isthmia where the campaign against the Persians was decided. In Corinth, Alexander the Great formed the alliance of Greek cities against the Persians. Corinth was destroyed by the Roman general LeykiosMommio and rebuilt by Julius Caesar and Augustus in 44 BC.

Paleochristian Period In 51 AD during his journey, the Apostle Paul visits Corinth, a city that is socially and economically prosperous, for a year and a half in Corinth, with Akylla and Priscilla establishing the first Christian community that flourished in the next years. (Pasxos T. 2012:1-25)

Postgraduate Dissertation 49 5.2 Mythology

The areas of the Corinthian prefecture, such as Corinth, Isthmus, Sikyon , Nemea, Stymphalia, Feneos, the Evrostini, are rich in myths and traditions, connect the present to the past and shape the future. Omiros referred that the city of Efyra is located in the plain of Argos when the wider area of Nemea was occupied by the Corinthians, the myths became local and this is due to the Corinthian ancient poet Eumelo.The city of Corinth was named after the hero Corintho, the son of Marathon and Hermes's descendant. (Pasxos T. 2012:3) According to the myth, Sisyphus was the only one who had defeated the death twice because of this Hades condemned him to roll a stone from the top of the hill of Akrokorinthos, but every time he reached the top, the rock drifts from his hands and goes back to the foot. Another legend states that in Corinth the hunted royal couple Jason and Medea arrived, where later, in order to avenge her husband, she slaughtered her children and resorted to Heraion of Perachora to hide. The Isthmus was a point of conflict between the Sun and Poseidon, Sun took Corinth and Poseidon the Isthmus.TheTitanomichia between gods and men was made in Sikyon, while south of the river Asopos was the residence of the Titans, there came Asklipios, the god of medicine and son of Apollo. Asklipios founded the Asklipeio one of the oldest in the Greek area. Nemea is known for the feat of Hercules, who defeated the lioness of Nemeas, a creature of frightening dimensions, power and anger. The Kingdom of Nemea was Phlias the son of God Dionysus, who founded a city that bears his name Phliasia.In this area, the vineyard was first cultivated as a gift of the god Dionysos to his son and the first wine was produced, the famous Felisios vintage. The area of Stymphalia is known for one of Hercules' feat in its homonymous lake, according to the legend, Hercules killed Stymphalian hens, which were large birds with iron nails that attacked animals and people in the area. The area of Evrοstini is connected with God Hermes, who was born in a cave on Mount Killini, later in accordance with the myth; Hermes constructed the first musical instrument in the world, a lyre.(Athanasouli G. et al, 2017:40-45)

5.3 The prefectureof Corinth

The prefecture of Corinth consists of the following municipalities:  The municipality of Corinth consists of the city of Corinth which is the capital of the prefecture and its largest urban center. The municipality of Corinth presents a great archeological interest due to the city of Ancient Corinth with a multitude of monuments and temples of the Roman Empire, the area of Korakos where it was the most ancient settlement of Korinthia (5.000 BC) and the Rock of the Akrokorinthos. In the area of LoutraOraiasElenis, there is a thermal spring of the sea, where, according to myth, the beautiful Helen visited the thermal spring for health and wellness.  Municipality of Loutraki, Perachora - Ag. Theodore has the center of the city of Loutraki, known from ancient times for its thermal baths. The north-western side of the municipality, due to the lake of Vouliagmeni and the acroteriumHeraion with the Hera temple and its beaches, is of great interest. The area of Isthmia is renowned for antiquity for the Sanctuary of Poseidon and for the games of Isthmia. In addition the municipality includes the Isthmus channel; it is the attraction of thousands of visitors. Geranium

Postgraduate Dissertation 50 mountains attract the interest of nature lovers and religious tourism is considered to be the "Mount Athos" of the wider region due to its many monasteries.  Municipality of Vochas – Velou, is known for its clean beaches, its rural products and its religious monuments of the Byzantine period.  Municipality of Xylokastro – Evrostini, is one of the largest municipalities in Greece, has its headquarters in the homonymous city of Xylokastro. The wider area of the municipality is of particular tourist interest because of the variety of scenery, the coastline of the Corinthian Gulf, the mountainous area that includes Mount Killini with the Ziria ski center and beautiful forests, as well as religious interest due to monuments and churches. (Athanasouli G. et a, 2017:18-22) Considerable forests of fir and black pine in Sarantaporou and Evrostini, are the most rare and richer biotopes of Corinthia and the shelter of the last wolves of the Peloponnese. (Mythical Peloponnese, 2016)  Municipality of Sikyonhas its headquarters in Kiato, where it is at the heart of marketing agricultural products in the wider region.An important archaeological interest is the Sykiona area, one of the most important cities of antiquity, the ancient theater and its monuments. In addition, it includes Stymphalia Lake, renowned for its scarcity due to its great ecological diversity, hosts 160 avian species as well as the Feneos area with the technical lake of glory and ecologically interesting natural forests(Athanasouli G. et al, 2017:23-25, 33-34)  Municipality of Nemea its center is the city of Nemea, known for the Fliasio wine of the ancient banquets and today it has a VQPRD designation as a variety of Agiorgitiko. Ancient Nemea also presents archaeological interest due to its museum, but also as the hometown of the athletic pan-Hellenic Games that are reviving today every four years. (Mythical Peloponnese, 2016)

5.4 The Peloponnese region

For the Peloponnese region, the development of thematic tourism is its strategic objective. Based on its strategic plan, it aims to create 10 empirical products (110 thematic experiences) that Peloponnese can offer as a destination place. The Region's goal for 2014-2020 is to develop thematic tourism and link it to the real economy. In order to achieve its goal, it focused on the creation of transnational, interregional and trans- European networks and collaborations in the context of the common thematic products (e.g. Steps of the Apostle Paul). At the same time, the region participates in specialized thematic exhibitions organized in domestic and foreign countries, creates travel acquaintances with a destination for targeted markets and organizes special events. In the context of the electronic projection of empirical products, the www.mythicalpeloponnese.gr platform was created, the event calendar http://peloponnese.events/ and 3 applications for Smartphones. (Varelas, S., 2016: 1-3)

Postgraduate Dissertation 51 5.5 Key figures of Peloponnese Region and Corinth Prefecture

The total number of employees in the Peloponnese region in the tourism sector is particularly small both before and during the economic crisis. In 2010, it constituted 7.4% of total employment in the region, while in the following years it showed a gradual increase, reaching 10% of total employment in the region in 2017. (SETE INTELLIGENT, 2018) Furthermore, in 2017 the region's income from inbound tourism was about 2% of the total revenues, while the direct contribution of tourism to the region's GDP was 5%. (SETE INTELLIGENT, 2018) In 2013 the hotel capacity of the Corinthian Prefecture consisted of: 104 units, 3.890 rooms and 7.477 Guest beds. (SETE INTELLIGENT, 2018) While in 2017 the hotel capacity of the Corinthian Prefecture consisted of: 104 units, 3.757 rooms and 7.248 Guest beds. (HCH, 2017: 14)

In the period 2010-2017 there was a decrease in the hotel infrastructure of the prefecture of the three categories, while the majority of the prefecture's hotel infrastructure is 3 * and 5 * category. The following table presents the basic elements of arrivals, overnights and Occupancy listed on the website: http://www.insete.gr/en-gb/SETE-ntelligence/ Statistics / Statistical- Data

Table 3: Corinth Prefecture: arrivals, overnights and occupancy in hotel establishments 2010-2016 Regional Area: 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Korinthos Foreign 80.975 92.013 78.115 78.752 85.289 85.713 102.867 arrivals Domestic 213.838 181.529 142.508 149.886 137.153 158.046 153.593 arrivals Foreign 286.055 335.526 292.044 301.306 328.275 313.306 342.615 overnights Domestic 486.694 439.767 316.514 332.850 307.890 318.942 322.588 overnights Occupancy 32,5% 32,2% 24,8% 25,5% 25,4% 25,3% 26,9% Source: SETE INTELLIGENT: Key figures for Peloponnese Region (2018): Arrivals- Overnights – Occupancy

Based on the figures in the table, we observe that domestic arrivals and overnights, despite their significant decline during the crisis, outweigh foreign arrivals and overnights. However, both foreign arrivals and overnights show a significant increase, especially in the period 2014-2016. Also, throughout the 2010-2016 periods, occupancy rates are low, while the economic crisis has led to a significant reduction in its rates.

Postgraduate Dissertation 52 CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH RESULTS

6.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will analyze the results of qualitative research as understood by the researcher during the course of semi-structured interviews with bodies and individuals directly or indirectly related to the development of alternative tourism in Corinthia. The questionnaire on which the interviews were based consisted of 20 questions and aimed to highlight the following questions:

 Whether alternative tourism and its forms have been developed in Corinthia prefecture.  What are the advantages and disadvantages of developing alternative tourism at a local level?  To what extent does alternative tourism contribute to sustainable development?  What importance for the development of alternative tourism and the measures to be taken in relation to: renewable energy sources, resource savings, waste management, education / training.  What is the importance and co-operation among all stakeholders and the promotion of alternative tourism in its development  What is the potential development of alternative tourism and what factors will depend on it?

Below we will analyze the answers to the questions from individuals active in the field of alternative tourism, clubs, public bodies and institutions directly or indirectly related to the development of alternative forms of tourism. At this point, it is important to mention that in the analysis of the answers that follow, there is a consensus of opinions but also significant differentiations. The most important reason for differentiating views is the special characteristics of alternative forms of tourism, the spaces and infrastructures that each form needs to develop and the particular needs / desires of the tourists who choose it.

Postgraduate Dissertation 53 6.2 Analysis of the questionnaire replies

As mentioned above, the interview questionnaire included 20 questions; this section records the questions of the interview and the participants' answers to each of them.

Question 1: “To what extent has alternative tourism developed in the prefecture of Corinth?” there is an agreement among the respondents on this question; alternative tourism has developed little in relation to its potential. Many of the participants reported that in the last 2-3 years, mainly from private initiatives, teams of young entrepreneurs have been created (such as Experience Korinthia, Corinthia Events, etc) to promote Corinth as an alternative tourist destination via the Internet. In some cases, infrastructures have been created to develop some forms, while others are lacking, thus retarding their growth. Consequently, alternative tourism in Corinth has developed slightly, mostly after the crisis and due to private initiatives. The crisis has led young entrepreneurs to work together and engage in professions that are directly or indirectly related to tourism.

Question 2: “What alternative forms of tourism have been developed?” the majority of the respondents mentioned the mountaineering (hiking), religious, climbing, archaeological - cultural and sports tourism. These forms have been developed mainly:  Mountaineering (hiking and climbing) Tourism: In the initiative of young people to open the paths (some of them are connected with ancient years and map them).  Religious Tourism: Corinth is one of the paths of Apostle Paul; there is interest of the faithful both from domestic and abroad ("Following the steps of Saint Paul"). Moreover, in the wider area of Corinth there are many monasteries-monuments that attract orthodoxy faithful from domestic and abroad.  Archaeological – cultural Tourism: Corinth has rich history and legends, so there are museums, archaeological sites and monuments throughout the region.  Sports tourism: it has been developed because of its infrastructure and the festivals that are organized and attract participations domestic and abroad. A typical example is the organization of the Half Marathon "Stymfalia Lake Run", which takes place in the area of the Stymphalia Lake, a Natura 2000 location. The event is organized by the Cultural Foundation of Piraeus Bank Group, PIOP in cooperation with the section of the Municipality of Sikyonion "MIKONI", the sports club "Stymfali" and "SEGAS" The participants come from Greece and abroad, while cultural activities take place in the villages around the area.  Thermal spas (in Loutraki, known since antiquity for thermal spa) have been developed in a great extent. In addition, Winter tourism, Diving, Bungee Jumping at Isthmus canal and to a lesser extent, Cycling, Air Glider activities and Wine and Gastronomic tourism.

Question 3: “Which factors, in your opinion, contribute to the development of alternative tourism?” responses vary but there are also common points such as the visibility of areas and their potential, financial incentives / funding, accessibility and cooperation between stakeholders. Other factors mentioned are the Strategic planning, organizational structure, specialized staff, the existence of organized info tours, the support and visibility of the cultural landscape (combination of culture and the environment), the preservation of values, and the understanding of the importance of alternative tourism and special infrastructures.

Postgraduate Dissertation 54 It was also stated by the interviewers, the possibility of establishing Destination Management Organizations, forming a tourist package that will include the types of alternative forms, the services provided, will have a title and the price to be promoted and sold.

Question 4: “In what ways do you think alternative forms of tourism will be a lever for local development?” the respondents' answers are concurring in a high degree. The controlled increase in visitation and residence will lead to the upgrading of local areas, increased entrepreneurship and employment and the promotion of local products. The availability of attractive tourist packages that include activities that depend on the alternative forms of tourism developed in the area will lead to increased visibility and growth of local economies. Question 5: “What problems do you think will arise from the development of alternative tourism at local level?” the views of the participants converge on the fact that the concept of alternative tourism is such that it does not create problems at the local level. However, each respondent pointed out that this could be achieved by establishing rules, certifying / licensing the bodies, checking, informing the local community, planning, financing and strict compliance with security rules, because it may be:  Conflicts of interest arise between individuals or regions  Pressure on the environment  Is small-scale, involves individual efforts and scattered businesses with the effect of not being able to influence decisions (e.g. travel agents etc.)  Problems of cooperation and bureaucracy due to the large number of stakeholders involved  Development disproportionate to the area's carrying capacity In fact a participant said that alternative tourism does not pose problems but challenges it has to deal with.

Question 6: “What do you think are the benefits of alternative tourism in relation to mass tourism?” most of the respondents reported that alternative tourism involves small- scale projects, is environmentally friendly and has no seasonality; its positive effects are spread across all sectors of the economy. A significant number of respondents stated that its characteristics are interaction, sociability, team spirit and human - oriented. It is also experiential and more qualitative, quality is the explosion, is the cause of its development.

Question 7: “In what way, in your opinion, alternative tourism contributes to sustainable development?” all the participants mentioned that is the nature of alternative tourism that contributes to sustainable development, to the protection of the environment, to the economic development of areas that are either desolated or only engaged in the primary production sector, the promotion of local products and preserving the inheritance. People who choose alternative tourism respect and care the destination areas and their inhabitants, while the economic development of the areas will contribute to preserve the traditional professionals but also to the creation of new. Alternative tourism, due to its particular characteristics, is the only form of tourism that can be developed in protected areas, such as the areas of the ―Natura 2000‖ network.

Question 8: “What is the importance of using renewable energy in the development of alternative tourism?” while all respondents responded that they would contribute to the development of alternative tourism, they varied on a few points, such as:

Postgraduate Dissertation 55  Their cost in Greece is high and they have no funds available  Their cost is high but will be covered by the increase of visitors  In some forms, the cost is low as the use of hot water in the case of hot springs  Planning and control is important in order not to disturb the area's ecosystem e.g. in the case of wind power  The establishment of the Energy Communities based on the law by the Ministry of Environment and Energy, provides the opportunity to create urban cooperatives active in the field of renewable energy sources. The aim is to promote solidarity and social economy and innovation.

Question 9:“How can alternative tourism enterprises provide energy and resources (e.g. water) saving?” the respondents indicated actions at both individual and collective level. In their responses they mentioned the change of mentality, the rational use of resources / energy, financial programs according to the needs of each region, the use of existing technology, informing tourists to act in this direction, public works (desalination, biological cleaning, composting etc.). In addition, central and local authorities should organize and support cyclical economy actions, subsidy and food wasteprograms, information campaigns and seminars. There are studies under the supervision of the Piraeus Bank to save energy and resources, while on an individual basis, with simple daily actions, we can achieve the savings of resources / energy.

Question 10: “How, in your opinion, will the proper management of waste and the protection of the natural environment be achieved?” the respondents' answers include recycling, the use of recyclable materials, biological cleaning, composting, land filling of waste and the incineration of waste. In addition, they mention the contribution of education to changing mentality, the observance of environmental studies, the ban on the plastic bag and the existence of waste bins. It is worth noting that now the Peloponnese region (cooperation between the public and private sectors) has decided to compost the waste of the region. In addition to reducing waste, working with sustainable supply chains, proper waste management and Food – Waste programs.

Question 11: “How important is the role of education / training in the development of alternative tourism and in ensuring equal employment opportunities?” all participants emphasized the importance of education, as the primary factor for the development of alternative tourism. Vocational training, seminars, the existence of certification bodies will lead to the specialization of the staff, in the development of the management and will contribute to the improvement of the services provided and the satisfaction of tourists. One of the respondents said that in High Schools, tourism philosophy and psychology should be taught, while another has emphasized that alternative tourism by its nature leads to equal opportunities for employment.

Question 12: “Are the existing infrastructures and amenities sufficient to highlight the alternative tourist product and the hospitality of its tourists?” the views of the participants converge on the fact that there are infrastructures regarding to accessibility in the Corinth area. It is the suburban railway that connects Eleftherios Venizelos airport, Athens and the port of Piraeus with Corinth as well as the road network connecting Corinth with Athens, the Peloponnese, western Greece and Europe. However, there is no suitable road network for the area of mountain Korinthia as there are also inadequate public transport links between stations and cities and the wider area.

Postgraduate Dissertation 56 Moreover, there is a shortage of accommodation for mountainous Korinthia (except for Trikala), but significant efforts are being made, while in the remaining areas there are adequate accommodation and restaurants. There is a lack of infrastructure for the development of certain forms of alternative tourism, and access for people with disabilities. At the same time, there are excellent infrastructures for some forms of alternative tourism such as in the case of Thermal springs and Sports tourism and others that are in the process of shaping.

Question 13: “What infrastructure/ amenities improvements should be made to increase the competitiveness of alternative tourism?” most participants responded to the improvement of the road network within the prefecture and upgrading of the public transport. In areas with deficiencies, the creation of infrastructure and restructure, as well as the formation of specific infrastructures needed to develop certain forms of alternative tourism. Also, some have highlighted the necessity of displaying, through an electronic platform, the forms of alternative tourism and the regions in which they operate. In fact, one of the respondents said that infrastructures are not enough, you should always improve them. There is a need to modernize even the existing infrastructure but because of the economic crisis and high taxation this is not feasible by individuals. There is a need for a development plan for each region to channel aid into areas that are really need it.

Question 14: “Is alternative tourism presented satisfactory both domestically and abroad? How can it be enhanced?”we understand from the respondents' replies that alternative tourism is not promoted either domestically or abroad, with the exception of the thermal springs internally and the alternative actions where the Stymphalia Environment Museum is a co-organizer. Alternative tourism is currently being promoted through private initiatives, while there was a need for a single platform to provide information on both regions and forms of alternative tourism in different languages. The importance of using social networks as a means of promoting alternative tourism as well as presence in special exhibitions both at home and abroad was also mentioned. However, for the worthwhile presence in exhibitions, it was pointed out that there was a need for financial aid to enterprises because the costs of participation in such exhibitions are high. To a large extent the Peloponnesian region is contributing to the promotion of tourism and local products through the Internet, participation in exhibitions, targeted actions and events at nationally and internationally.

Question 15: “Is there cooperation between local (tourist or non-tourism) / business actors for the development of alternative tourism?” respondents said that cooperation has begun and efforts are being made in this direction. Some have said that it exists in the case of autonomous private interests, while coordination and actions by the public authorities as institutions are needed. Question 16: “In what direction, in your opinion, will the demand for alternative tourism be moved in the coming years and why?”All respondents said the demand for alternative tourism would increase in the coming years. The reasons mentioned for the rise in demand are the following:  There is saturation for mass tourism  Most tourists and travelers are interested in experiential travel, get to know the destination, get in touch and interact with the locals  Winter, medical and sports tourism has significant development potential due to climatic conditions and infrastructure.  The comparative advantage of Corinth is its Cultural Landscape

Postgraduate Dissertation 57  The cooperation between the bodies( public or individual) that has begun to develop

Question 17: “What actions / measures will contribute to the development and enhancement of the competitiveness of alternative tourism both domestically and abroad?”The measures and actions mentioned by the participants are the following:  With the promotion of alternative tourism by any means and way  By building and improving infrastructure and facilities  With its gradual development, in addition with the creation of mysteries and myths  With co-operation and honesty  Improving the legal framework and financial support  Alternative tourism by its nature has such a dynamic that shapes equivalent spaces and wins the impressions  By strategic decision-making, developing forms of tourism depending on the capacity of the regions and the already developed forms of alternative tourism  According to Destination Management Organization, the emergence of the special characteristics of each place, which make it stand out and constitute the conditions for attracting tourists.  Using existing technology, virtual reality applications and gamification, "try before you fly".  Training and staffing of stakeholders with qualified personnel.

Question 18: “What obstacles / restrictions will prevent the development of alternative tourism?” the majority of respondents believe that the lack of information and knowledge on the subject, the lack of cooperation and the conflict of local or individual interests are the major obstacles to the development of alternative tourism. Also, the lack of state aid and information, along with high taxation, leads to a lack of investment interest that will slow down its growth. Lack of legislation, bureaucracy and lack of co-operation due to many stakeholders will lead to a reduction in growth rate. According to the participants, countries such as Italy, Spain, Cyprus, Egypt, Turkey, Bulgaria and Malta, they have developed to a greater extent the forms of alternative tourism from Greece; however, we need to segment the market to make sure conclusions. It is important to make efforts to create international co- competing units, a number of countries to join an international network to share and experience common paths. The lack of legal framework has been a deterrent to the development of forms of alternative tourism.

Question 19: “What is the role of all stakeholders (tourism or not) in the development of alternative tourism? Do you believe that the existing legal framework contributes to its development?” the answers given lead us to the conclusion that there is no legislative framework satisfactorily covering all forms of alternative tourism up to now and the role of the actors involved. This results in delays, lack of control mechanisms, lack of co- ordination and cooperation between stakeholders and lack of certified professionals in the sector. All citizens are part of a collaborative chain, private and public sector building and the academic community will make a substantial contribution to the development of alternative tourism. In addition, there should be a legislative framework allowing the establishment of a Destination Management Organization as it exists abroad. It is important that all actors participate in the completion of the legislative framework on alternative forms of tourism that is being consulted since the beginning of June 2018.

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Question 20: “In what way will the viability of alternative tourism be enhanced?” we individuate the necessity of planning and studies to develop alternative forms depending on the contexts of each region, to enhance the visibility of alternative forms, the cooperation of all actors, the configuration of stable organizational structures and the existence of financial incentives. The preservation of values and the emergence of Cultural Landscape and through education have been mentioned among the factors that will lead to the viability of the forms of alternative tourism and its potential growth. Building appropriate infrastructure and segmenting the market in order to achieve targeted Groups.

A first attempt to readout the questionnaire analysis, we can observe the following:

 During the financial crisis in Greece, various forms of alternative tourism have begun to develop in the Corinth region, mainly by private initiatives. This is linked to the objective of the Region of Peloponnese to promote alternative tourism in the area. The main objective of the Peloponnese Region for the period 2014-2020 is the development of thematic tourism and through targeted actions at both national and international level, promotes the prefectures of the region as an alternative tourist destination. (Varelas S., 2016:1-3)

 Its cultural heritage, the switching of its natural environment, its geographic location and its exceptional climatic conditions contribute significantly to the development of many forms of alternative tourism. This outcome is related to what Mr. Loizos mentions as the main advantages of Greece. Two of the main advantages of Greece for the development of alternative tourism are the variety of its natural beauty and its historical heritage. (Loizos C., 2012:4)

 There is insufficient infrastructure in the mountainous area of the prefecture but also for the development of some forms of alternative tourism. In any case, infrastructure / amenities must be improved within the boundaries of the county.

 By its very nature, Alternative Tourism incorporates the principles of sustainable development and, in fact, is believed to be the only form of tourism that contributes to sustainable development and what it advocates. The reasons why alternative tourism is believed to embrace sustainable development are mentioned below: The basic requirements of alternative development, environmental harmony along with the involvement of local society in tourism development have highlighted alternative tourism as this form of tourism that incorporates the concept of sustainable development. (Sharply R., 2000:7)

 It is important to improve the existing legislative framework for the future development of alternative tourism. According to World Economic forum(World Economic Forum, 2017:172), Greece needs to improve its legislative framework, reduce taxation and barriers to FDIs, in order to create a more friendly business environment.

 Changing existing mentality and philosophy through education will lead to the development of alternative tourism. This outcome is closely linked to the EU's policy on sustainable development.

Postgraduate Dissertation 59 EU aims to boost its competitiveness by investing in quality education / training and young people in order to ensure sustainable and inclusive growth. (European Commission, 2016:9)  An important effort is being made, particularly from the private sector to boost alternative tourism in the county.  There is optimism about the upward trend in demand over the coming years. This is reinforced by what travelers seek and how they are linked to alternative tourism as we see below: Today, travelers seek to gain life experiences on their journeys, have personal contact with locals and enjoy personalized services. (Varelas S., 2017: 7-12). The main feature of alternative tourism is direct communication between visitors and local residents, individuals and host communities, providing private hospitality services to visitors. (TriarchiEi. and karamanis K., 2017:41)

6.3 S.W.O.T ANALYSIS

S.W.O.T analysis is a simple yet powerful tool for assessing the sector's recourse strengths, weaknesses and potential opportunities and potential threats from its external environment. In addition, it provides a comprehensive picture of whether the overall situation of a sector is significantly healthy or not and also provides the basis for capturing a strategy to capitalize its resources, to seize the opportunities and to address the threats that will arise from its external environment. (Thompson A. et al, 2008: 97) The analysis of the responses given by participants during the interviews provided important insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the Prefecture of Corinth as a reference to the development of alternative tourism in the light of sustainable development and led to the formation of the S.W.O.T Analysis. The S.W.O.T. analysis, in the present thesis, concerns the prefecture of Corinth in the light of alternative tourism development and sustainable development. It analyzes the possibilities of developing forms of alternative tourism based on the strengths and application of the principles of sustainable development of the Corinthian country and its weaknesses as well as the opportunities that will be presented and the threats from the external environment that they will have to face.

Potential Resource strengths and Capabilities

 Natural resources: Corinthia has significant natural resources due to their high ecological value, such as natural forests covering about 50% of its area but also its seashore. It is important to mention the areas of the county that have joined the ―Natura 2000‖ network, which are:  The area of the Stymphalia Lake: the southernmost mountain wetland of the water valleys, important for its biodiversity. It is also included in the list of its major areas for birds in Greece, as 170 species of birds have been recorded. It is under the protection of the Hellenic Center for Wildlife Care  The peaks of Mount Kyllini (Ziria) are characterized by prickly shrubs, rocks of the Balkan Peninsula, the forests and the rare flora (100 species of plants)

Postgraduate Dissertation 60  Akrokorinthos, a historic hill belonging to the most ancient regions of the Peloponnese  The largest part of Mount Olygyrtos, for its forests (spruce) but also for its springs  Gerania Mountains, a typical type of Mediterranean ecosystems  The lake of Vouliagmenis in the Loutraki, known for its natural beauty  Corinthian Gulf in order to protect the marine life (Athanasouli G. et al, 2017:34-35)

 Cultural heritage: Corinthia was one of the oldest cities - State, as we have mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, is rich in history, monuments and myths  The shaping of cultural landscapes, the composition of the cultural and natural environment as a lever of sustainable development  Its geographic location, very close to Athens, but also the point that joins the south with central and northern Greece  The Isthmus Canal, unique in Greece, attracts the interest of tourists domestic and abroad.  The exceptional climatic conditions prevailing in the area, a major factor for various forms of alternative tourism  Existing infrastructure for certain forms of tourism  Its local products, of which three are PROTECTED DESIGNATION OF ORIGIN (PDO)  excellent infrastructure as a reference to accessibility in the prefecture of Corinth, a suburban railway connecting the ―Eleftherios Venizelos‖ airport, Athens and the port of Piraeus with Corinth and Kiato. The new Athens-Corinth National Highway, as well as the Olympia odos (modern motorway, according to the European specifications that connects Peloponnesus with the rest of the Greece and Europe , Eleysina – Corinth – Patra axis)  The positive attitude of the inhabitants of the area as well as of the involved institutions to the development of the forms of alternative tourism as revealed by the interviews in the framework of the qualitative research carried out

Potential Resource weaknesses

 There is no clear strategic direction at the province level; the forms of alternative tourism developed so far are due to autonomous private initiatives  Lack of projects as a reference to the carrying capacity of the areas and forms of alternative tourism that they can develop  The lack of specific infrastructures necessary for the development of some forms of alternative tourism  Lack of road network in mountain Korinthia, as well as insufficient public transportation within the boundaries of the county  The lack of promotion and advertising of the areas and forms of alternative tourism at a collective and cohesive level  The lack of financial resources for the development of alternative tourism businesses due to the economic crisis and lack of investment interest  the lack of certified and specialized agencies  The probability of occurrence of conflicts between regions or individuals due to a lack of proper information

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In the following table 3.1 we present the grouped results of the S.W.O.T. Analysis in the prefecture of Corinth.

Table 4: SWOT Analysis for Corinth Prefecture

S.W.O.T. Analysis

Potential Resource strengths and Capabilities Potential Resource weaknesses

 Natural resources, Corinthia has significant natural resources due to their high ecological There is no clear strategic direction at the province level value  Cultural Heritage: Corinthia was one of the oldest cities - state, therefore it is rich in  Lack of projects as a reference to the carrying capacity of the areas and forms of alternative history, monuments and myths tourism that they can develop. Lack of road network in mountain Korinthia, as well as insufficient public transportation The shaping of cultural landscapes within the boundaries of the county

Its geographic location, very close to Athens

 The lack of promotion and advertising of the areas and forms of alternative tourism at a  The Isthmus Canal, unique in Greece, attracts the interest of tourists collective and cohesive level. The lack of financial resources for the development of alternative tourism businesses due to The exceptional climatic conditions, a major factor for various forms of alternative tourism the economic crisis and lack of investment interest.

Existing infrastructure for certain forms of tourism

Its local products, of which three are PROTECTED DESIGNATION OF ORIGIN (PDO) the lack of certified and specialized agencies The lack of specific infrastructures necessary for the development of some forms of Excellent infrastructure as a reference to accessibility in the prefecture of Corinth alternative tourism. The positive attitude of the inhabitants of the area as well as of the involved institutions to The probability of occurrence of conflicts between regions or individuals due to a lack of the development of the forms of alternative tourism proper information. Potential Market opportunities Potential External threats

The growing demands for alternative tourism, because nowadays travelers seek to gain life The lack of centralized planning, organization on alternative forms of tourism will be a experiences on their journeys, have personal contact with the locals and enjoy personalized limiting factor in the development of alternative forms of tourism and the application of services sustainable development principles

The coordinated effort of the Peloponnesian region to develop thematic tourism in the Lack of investment in education, mainly due to the economic crisis, leads to a reduction in its region will lead to increased demand for alternative forms of tourism beneficial effects on the formation of integrated personalities, change of attitudes and mentality

and innovative actions.

Strong competition from countries such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt and The harmonization of the concept of alternative tourism in the concept of sustainable Bulgaria, which have already been developed in tourism and specifically in thematic tourism. development

The possibilities that will emerge with the draft law introduced in a public consultation The decline in public investment and aid, due to the ongoing economic crisis, has led to a (June 2018) decline in development programs and private initiatives EU policies and its main actions to achieve the goals of Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 (SDG) within the EU The bureaucratic system in Greece, as well as the high taxation of both private and business sector is barriers to investment and growth.

The dynamic Development of the tourist product during the year due to the many forms of The volatile balance of the eastern Mediterranean regions and the refugee crisis can seriously alternative tourism that can be developed threaten the development of all forms of tourism.

 Positive forecasts for the continued development of inbound tourism over the next decade BREXIT is expected to negatively affect both mass and thematic tourism in Greece due to the will be an incentive for the development of alternative tourism in the region depreciation of the British pound.

Potential Market opportunities

 The growing demands for alternative tourism, because nowadays travelers seek to gain life experiences on their journeys, have personal contact with the locals and enjoy personalized services. People aged 18-30 aim to explore new cultures and mentalities while share their experiences through social media. People aged 34-50 seek their travel experience to embrace their personal needs spontaneously. While elderly travelers prefer to experience "controlled adventures", know new destinations and try local healthy eating. (Varelas S., 2017: 7-12)

Postgraduate Dissertation 62  The coordinated effort of the Peloponnesian region to develop thematic tourism in the area will lead to increased demand for alternative forms of tourism, support for private initiatives and cooperative activities  The harmonization of the concept of alternative tourism in the concept of sustainable development, the importance of which is crucial to the ability of current and future generations to meet their need  The possibilities that will emerge with the draft law introduced in a public consultation from the beginning of June 2018 entitled "Thematic Tourism - Special forms of tourism" aiming at the development, organization and supervision of activities and entrepreneurship related to thematic tourism. The objective is to develop sustainable tourism, stimulate regional and local economies and communities through the development of tourism activities and entrepreneurship  EU policies and its main actions to achieve the goals of Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 (SDG) within the EU will lead to the development of activities that by their very nature incorporate the concept of sustainable development and its principles.  The dynamic Development of the tourist product during the year due to the many forms of alternative tourism that can be developed  Positive forecasts for the continued growth of inbound tourism over the next decade, while the domestic production base has shrunk due to the economic crisis, will provide an incentive for the development of alternative tourism in the region

Potential External threats

 The lack of centralized planning, organization on alternative forms of tourism will be a limiting factor in the development of alternative forms of tourism and the application of sustainable development principles  Strong competition from countries such as Spain, Portugal, Italy, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt and Bulgaria, which have already been developed in tourism and specifically in thematic tourism  The decline in public investment and aid, due to the ongoing economic crisis, has led to a decline in development programs and private initiatives  The bureaucratic system in Greece, as well as the high taxation of both private and business sector is barriers to investment and growth  The volatile balance of the eastern Mediterranean regions and the refugee crisis can seriously threaten the development of all forms of tourism  Lack of investment in education, mainly due to the economic crisis, leads to a reduction in its beneficial effects on the formation of integrated personalities, change of attitudes and mentality and innovative actions  BREXIT is expected to negatively affect both mass and thematic tourism in Greece due to the downward trend of the British pound. The United Kingdom market is particularly important for Greek tourism due to the large number of arrivals and the high growth rates it presented in 2016.(SETE INTELLIGENT, 2016:7)

Postgraduate Dissertation 63 6.4 Conclusion

The concept of alternative tourism, although developed since the 1980s, initially in response to the negative effects of mass tourism has in recent years been gaining ground in the preferences of tourists, especially younger people. Α growing number of tourists are looking for alternate and experiential activities during their holidays, interacting with locals in destination areas is their immediate interest. Furthermore, the economic, environmental and social problems of modern societies show the need for sustainable development and the application of principles as the only way for the sustainability of present and future generations. Qualitative research that was conducted in the Corinthian prefecture helped us to conclude to the following below:  Forms of alternative tourism in the Corinth region have begun to develop over the last 3 years during the economic crisis that plagues Greece. This is due to private initiatives but also to the efforts of new entrepreneurs to promote Corinth as a destination for alternative tourism by taking on coordinating role and promoting cooperation. This fact is directly related to the efforts of the Peloponnese region to develop alternative tourism in its communities. The main objective of the Peloponnese region for the period 2014-2020 is the development of thematic tourism and through targeted actions at both national and international level, promotes the prefectures of the region as an alternative tourist destination. (Varelas S., 2016:1-3)

 Its geographical location, its cultural heritage and the natural environment and the climatic conditions prevailing in the area are its comparative advantages. The emergence of the Cultural Landscape within the prefecture and the accompanying myths will be the comparative advantage that cannot be copied by competitors. This conclusion is fully in line with European policy to encourage international tourists to visit Europe due to its natural and cultural heritage. The EU seeks to maintain Europe's position as a top tourist destination. To achieve its objective, it launched its first campaign in the period 2012-2014, "Europe, whenever you‘re ready" to inspire international tourists to discover Europe by promoting its diverse natural and cultural heritage. (Eurostat, 2016: 2)

 Religious, archaeological, hiking and climbing, sports, thermal and winter tourism have been developed to a greater extent mainly due to the existing infrastructure. Diving, Bungee jumping, wine tourism, gastronomic tourism, cycling, air glider activities have been developed to a less extent mainly due to the lack of infrastructure. Organized events (cultural and sports) and festivals have contributed significantly to the development of alternative tourism in the region.

 The lack of a regulatory framework so far is one of the main inhibiting factors in the development of alternative tourism. There is a lack of co-operation (although considerable effort is being made towards this direction) due to the many actors involved. At the same time, there is insufficient collective projection at county level and lack of strategic planning, financial support and investment interest. According to World Economic forum (World Economic Forum, 2017:172), Greece needs to improve its legislative framework,

Postgraduate Dissertation 64 reduce taxation and barriers to FDIs, in order to create a more friendly business environment.

 Alternative tourism, by its nature, encapsulates the concept of sustainable development and contributes substantially to local development, the protection of the environment and the cultural heritage. This conclusion embraces what Mrs. Triarchi and Mr. Karamanis advocate for alternative tourism and sustainable development. Although sustainable tourism development policies are feasible in all types of tourism, it seems that alternative tourism is directly linked to the application of sustainable development principles (due to its main features), making the definition of sustainable tourism more accurate in describing alternative forms of tourism. (Triarchi Ei. and karamanis K. , 2017: 42)

 The use of renewable energy sources is expensive in Greece except in some cases, however, tourists prefer companies using renewable sources. The creation of energy communities would substantially contribute to increasing the use of renewable energy sources, reducing energy costs and saving resources. This is linked to the EU's sustainable development ―Goal 7‖ and ―Goal 13‖. The EU's "priority 3" is the use of renewable energy sources, the efficient management of its resources, investment in new business sectors and the use of inherent energy resources. (European Commission, 2016:9)

 Resource and energy savings and proper waste management can be achieved initially with a change of mindset and proper information and the rational use of resources. The decision of the Peloponnesian Region to create waste composting compartments in the region will significantly contribute to sustainable development. This conclusion is linked to the EU's 'Priority 1' to strengthen the cyclical economy. The EU focuses on the cyclical economy through sustainable consumption, the development of innovative production models and the creation of new jobs by investing in maximizing its competitiveness, eliminating waste from natural resources and increasing the use of renewable energy sources. (European Commission, 2016:8)

 Education / training / information play a leading role in the development of forms of alternative tourism and sustainable development. This conclusion of research is also a key EU priority for sustainable development. The EU's 'Priority 1' (regarding to ―Goal 4‖) is to invest in the modernization of the education and training system with emphasis on quality and skills. (European Commission, 2016:8)

 The creation of a Destination Management Organization to highlight the characteristics of each region that will attract tourists, as well as the emergence of the Cultural Landscapes of each region, would be the lever for the development of alternative tourism.

 Significant visibility at domestic and abroad has been achieved by the Peloponnese Region, the Stymphalia Environmental Museum, the Thermal spa Loutraki( domestically) and by private initiatives to a lesser extent (mainly due to high costs). The collaboration of private and public bodies to create a single platform at prefecture level is deemed necessary.

Postgraduate Dissertation 65  From June 12, 2018 to June 27, 2018, a draft law on "Thematic Tourism - Special Forms of Tourism" was launched in public consultation; the new law will sweep the ground on which the forms of alternative tourism will develop, grasping the gap that has existed so far.

 Demand for alternative tourism is expected to be on the upside mainly due to the change in the preferences of the tourist community. This is reinforced by what travelers seek and how they are linked to alternative tourism as we see below: Today, travelers seek to gain life experiences on their journeys, have personal contact with the locals and enjoy personalized services holiday, becomes more active, interactive with the locals and is interested in the destination area. (Varelas S., 2017: 7-12). Furthermore, the main feature of alternative tourism was direct communication between visitors and local residents, individuals and host communities, providing private hospitality services to visitors, thereby diversifying alternative tourism from mass tourism. (Triarchi Ei. and karamanis K.,2017:41)

 The countries of the Mediterranean basin are powerful competitors. There is a need for market fragmentation leading to safe conclusions about Greece's position with regard to each form of alternative tourism.

6.5 Suggestions

Analyzing the data of qualitative research has shown that alternative tourism has begun to develop in the Corinthian Prefecture, especially over the past three years, except for some forms of tourism that have been developed due to the existing infrastructure and the existing legislation concerning them (thermal springs and ski resorts). At the same time, the Peloponnese region is making an effort to showcase and promote its prefecture (as a destination for alternative tourism) and their local products. For the development of alternative forms of tourism in the context of sustainable development in the region, it is necessary to formulate a strategic planning that takes into account the following:

The comparative advantage of Korinthia is its natural resources and its cultural heritage, the alternating of its landscapes, its monuments, its mythology and the mystery that accompanies it. In the Corinthian and the wider region of the Peloponnese, alternative tourism is the form of tourism where it should focus on development mainly due to its comparative advantage and the change of tourists' preferences in this direction. There should be cooperation between local (public and private) bodies, the tourism organization and the academic community in order to carry out a series of actions to promote and develop alternative tourism in the region. Initially, at the municipal level, must record the needs, carrying capacity and prospects of each region, its natural environment and its cultural heritage, in order to decide on the forms of alternative tourism that can be developed in them. Also, the competent authorities should define, shape and highlight the cultural landscapes of each region, which will be their comparative advantage. In addition, market segmentation and a niche market strategy should be developed to serve the targeted market with a superior product / service. Buyers (here tourists) of a niche

Postgraduate Dissertation 66 market must have particular preferences, requirements and unique needs. On the other hand, the county must develop a unique ability to serve its needs by offering a tourist product different from its rivals. (Mixiotis A., 2016:113) Corinthia must focus on a target market where it prevail its rivals due to its comparative advantage.

An appropriate information action program should be planned to inform residents about alternative tourism and its benefits, the concept of sustainable development and its necessity. The establishment of energy communities with the aim of promoting a social and solidarity economy in energy matters. Establishment of Destination Management Organization, according to foreign standards, a private and public sector partnership to promote and inform the tourist product / service and to ensure its sustainability.

The demand for alternative tourism and its forms will increase mainly due to the change in the preferences of tourists, particularly young people, it is important to capture the opportunities that will be presented. On the other hand, the constant change in balance in the Eastern Mediterranean region, the refugee crisis and competition from countries in the Mediterranean basin will lead to challenges that we need to tackle satisfactorily and overcome. The new conditions require the preservation of values, team spirit, cohesion and cooperation of all of us. In addition, the development of the social, solidarity and cyclical economy are factors for achieving sustainability.

Research Limitations This survey was conducted from June 12 to July 4, 2018. Despite the researcher's attempt to select a sample representative of the subject of the research, research limitations are the following:

 The small number of representatives of the Municipalities of Corinth due to the time pressure of both the researcher and the Deputy Mayors responsible for tourism.  The small number of private individuals operating in different regions of Corinth because of the shortcomings of their time  The small number of business representatives because of their lack of time.  The results of qualitative research cannot be statistically analyzed, they are based on judgment and opinion, and they are unique and cannot be generalized.  One of the interviews Mr. Kefalas Stavros was not completed (questions 15-20) for reasons beyond our capabilities.  Evidence of causal relationships is not feasible in qualitative research because the researcher is based on the data analysis of the cases he studied.

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Postgraduate Dissertation 73 Appendix A:Research Questionnaire

Research Questionnaire Question 1 To what extent has alternative tourism developed in the prefecture of Corinth? Question 2 What alternative forms of tourism have been developed? Question 3 Which factors, in your opinion, contribute to the development of alternative tourism? Question In what ways do you think alternative forms of tourism will be a lever for local 4 development? Question What problems do you think will arise from the development of alternative tourism at 5 local level? Question 6 What do you think are the benefits of alternative tourism in relation to mass tourism? Question In what way, in your opinion, alternative tourism contributes to sustainable 7 development? Question What is the importance of using renewable energy in the development of alternative 8 tourism? Question How can alternative tourism enterprises provide energy and resources (e.g. water) 9 saving? Question How, in your opinion, will the proper management of waste and the protection of the 10 natural environment be achieved? Question How important is the role of education / training in the development of alternative 11 tourism and in ensuring equal employment opportunities? Question Are the existing infrastructures and amenities sufficient to highlight the alternative 12 tourist product and the hospitality of its tourists? Question What infrastructure/ amenities improvements should be made to increase the 13 competitiveness of alternative tourism? Question Is alternative tourism presented satisfactory both domestically and abroad? How can it 14 be enhanced? Question Is there cooperation between local (tourist or non-tourism) / business actors for the 15 development of alternative tourism? Question In what direction, in your opinion, will the demand for alternative tourism be moved in 16 the coming years and why? Question What actions / measures will contribute to the development and enhancement of the 17 competitiveness of alternative tourism both domestically and abroad? Question 18 What obstacles / restrictions will prevent the development of alternative tourism? What is the role of all stakeholders (tourism or not) in the development of alternative Question tourism? Do you believe that the existing legal framework contributes to its 19 development? Question 20 In what way will the viability of alternative tourism be enhanced?

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