DOCSLIB.ORG

The Gorbachev Anti-Alcohol Campaign and Russia's

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Gorbachev Anti-Alcohol Campaign and Russia's Reform Models THE GORBACHEV ANTI- We find that alcohol consumption declined substan- tially during the campaign years and resulted in ALCOHOL CAMPAIGN AND fewer alcohol-related deaths between 1985 and 1988. RUSSIA’S MORTALITY CRISIS Our findings also show that a significant share of deaths during the mortality crisis were due to the campaign coming to an end, suggesting that Russia’s transition to capitalism and democracy was not as CHRISTINA GATHMANN*AND deadly as often suggested. MARIJKE WELISCH* The mortality crisis in Russia Introduction Between 1990 and 1994, crude death rates in Russia Following the demise of the Soviet Union, Russia soared by 40 percent, rising from 11 to nearly 15.5 experienced a 40 percent surge in deaths between per thousand. By 2009 standards, the decline in male 1990 and 1994. The average life expectancy for men life expectancy at birth to only 57.6 years puts declined by 6.6 years from 64.2 years to 57.6 years as Russian men on a par with their counterparts in a result. The magnitude of this surge in deaths – cou- Bangladesh, and means that male longevity in pled with the Soviet Union’s international promi- Russia is even lower than in less-developed coun- nence – has prompted observers to term this demo- tries such as Haiti or North Korea. graphic catastrophe as the “Russian Mortality Crisis.” Most explanations for this development are more or less directly linked to economic and political transi- What caused this dramatic rise in mortality? Many tion in Russia during that period. Specific transition- people attribute the Russian mortality crisis to the related explanations include the decline in econom- political and economic turmoil that followed the ic output and employment (Cornia and Paniccia breakup of the Soviet Union and the economic and 2000; Brainerd 2001), rapid privatization (Stuckler, political reforms that began in 1991. In King and McKee 2009; Stuckler, King and McKee Bhattacharya, Gathmann and Miller (2012), we pro- 2012), physiological and psychological stress pose an alternative explanation for the observed pat- (Shapiro 1995; Bobak and Marmot 1996; Kennedy, tern, namely the demise of the supposedly successful Kawachi and Brainerd 1998; Leon and Shkolnikov 1985–1988 Gorbachev Anti-Alcohol Campaign. 1998; Gavrilova et al. 2001), reductions in the relative price of vodka (Treisman 2010), and the deteriora- The campaign efficiently implemented a broad set of tion of the medical care system (Ellman 1994). measures to reduce alcohol supply and fight exces- sive alcohol consumption. Although the campaign Between 1990 and 1993 alcohol consumption officially ended in late 1988, it took some time for increased dramatically, accompanied by a high num- production to adjust accordingly; and prices ber of alcohol-related deaths (with the causes of remained above pre-campaign levels even after the death linked both directly (alcohol poisoning and campaign’s official end. Some researchers (Nemtsov violent deaths) or indirectly (heart attacks and 2000, for example) suggest that the campaign’s de strokes) to alcohol consumption). Working class facto end was as late as 1991 and thus coincided with men, the demographic group that drinks the most in the breakup of the Soviet Union and the beginning Russia, saw a particularly sharp increase in their of Russia’s economic and political transition. mortality rate. Recent estimates suggest that alcohol abuse is responsible for over half of all deaths in Russian cities among the 15–54 year old age group * Heidelberg University. (Leon et al. 2007; Zaridze et al. 2009). CESifo DICE Report 4/2012 62 Reform Models Figure 1 adult males consuming about AGE-ADJUSTED DEATH RATES half a liter of vodka every two Russia 1960–2005 days (Ryan 1995). In addition per 1,000 population to the quantity consumed, the 16 type of alcoholic beverages con- 14 1994 sumed and drinking patterns 2003 2002 1995 2004 2001 2005 1993 2000 also have a large impact on 1999 1996 1997 mortality. A disproportionate 12 1998 1984 1980 1979 1992 1981 1985 1983 1977 amount of consumption in 1978 1976 1982 1975 1973 1991 1972 1970 1990 1969 1971 1974 1962 1988 1987 1989 1986 1967 Russia is hard liquor and can be 1968 10 1963 1961 1965 1966 1964 Pre-campaign linear prediction characterized as ‘binge drink- 8 ing’ (defined as three or more alcoholic drinks within 1 to 6 2 hours). Alcohol abuse and 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 binge drinking are linked not Note: Pre-campaign linear trend estimated using ordinary least squares regression of mortality per 1,000 population on pre-campaign year. only to accidents and violent Source: Human Mortality Database (2011). deaths, but more importantly in quantitative terms, they repre- Our research explores a different explanation for the sent key risk factors for heart attacks and cardiovas- mortality crisis, namely the demise of the supposed- cular disease (McKee and Britton 1998; McKee, ly successful Anti-Alcohol Campaign launched by Shkolnikov and Leon 2001; Rehm et al. 2009; Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985. The basic logic of our Tolstrup et al. 2006). approach is shown in Figure 1. Russian death rates, which increased linearly between 1960 and 1984, By the early 1980s, alcohol abuse was widely recog- plummeted abruptly with the start of the campaign nized as a major cause of death, absenteeism and low in 1985, remained below the campaign trend labor productivity in the Soviet Union. Although throughout the latter 1980s, rose again rapidly dur- difficult to estimate, observers suggest that alcohol’s ing the early 1990s to a temporary peak in 1994, and cost to the Soviet economy during the 1980s totaled then largely reverted back to Russia’s long-run about 10 percent of national income (Treml 1987; trend. Segal 1990; Tarschys 1993; White 1996). In response, the Politburo and the Central Committee led by The crisis could therefore be the combined result of Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev passed a lagged ‘catch-up’ mortality (with relatively weak a resolution entitled “Measures to Overcome marginal survivors saved by the campaign dying at Drunkenness and Alcoholism” in May of 1985. The higher rates) and a reversion to the long-run trend. directives passed by the Central Committee and the The lagged effect of alcohol consumption on mortal- Presidium of the Supreme Soviet as a result of the ity is consistent with findings in medical literature on resolution ushered in the country’s most stringent the delayed effects of alcoholism on both liver cir- anti-alcohol policies since the 1919–1925 prohibi- rhosis and heart disease (see, for instance, Holder tion. Consisting of seven broad measures, the main and Parker 1992 and Laonigro et al. 2009). goal of the Gorbachev Anti-Alcohol Campaign was to raise the effective price of drinking whilst subsi- dizing substitute activities. Alcohol consumption in Russia and the Gorbachev Anti-Alcohol Campaign State production of alcohol was drastically reduced (the government was the sole legal producer and dis- The Soviet Union – and Russia in particular – his- tributor of alcohol in the Soviet Union at that time), torically ranks among the world’s heaviest drinking prices for alcoholic beverages were increased and countries. Immediately prior to the anti-alcohol cam- restrictions were placed on alcohol sales. Between paign, annual consumption of pure alcohol in the June 1985 and May 1986 alone, state production of Soviet Union exceeded 14 liters per capita – com- vodka and hard liquor declined by 30–40 percent pared to 8 liters in the United States and 13 liters (Segal 1990) and cognac production fell by 44 per- in Germany (Nemtsov 2000; World Health Orga - cent (White 1996). In 1985, the price of vodka, nization 2011). This figure is roughly equivalent to liqueurs, and cognac rose by 25 percent (McKee 63 CESifo DICE Report 4/2012 Reform Models 1999), and prices were increased by another 25 per- and 1988 (White 1996). Official figures overstate the cent in 1986 (White 1996). decline in alcohol consumption, however, because they do not capture the home-brewing response to Liquor stores were not allowed to sell vodka or wine the campaign. Russians have a long-standing tradi- before two pm on business days, restaurants were no tion of producing samogon (literally, “distillate longer permitted to sell hard liquor, and the official made by oneself,” a generic term for illegal alcoholic drinking age rose from 18 to 21. Sales near factories, beverages made from sugar, corn, beets, potatoes, educational institutions, hospitals, and airports were and other ingredients) – and did so more vigorously prohibited, and many stores selling alcohol were during the campaign when access to legal alcohol shut down. In addition, high fines were introduced was restricted. for public drunkenness and other alcohol-related offenses. Fines for workplace intoxication, for As comprehensive estimates of oblast-year samogon instance, were one to two times the mean weekly production are not available, we extend the work of wage, and home production of alcohol, as well as the Nemtsov (2000) to generate estimates of this figure possession of homebrew equipment, was punishable for the 1980s and early 1990s. Nemtsov (2000) used by large fines or imprisonment. an indirect technique to infer total alcohol consump- tion based on forensic records from oblast forensic Action was also taken to reduce demand for alcohol bureaus. Since these autopsy records were not made – leisure facilities (such as sports clubs and parks) public during the Soviet era, manipulation for exter- were heavily subsidized and promoted, media cam- nal political purposes is unlikely to be of concern. paigns and health education programs were Both the Soviet Union and the Russian Federation launched together with bans on glamorous media mandate autopsies for all violent and accidental depictions of drinking.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Baltic Sea Sweden ◆ Finland ◆ St
    of Changing Tides History cruising the Baltic Sea Sweden ◆ Finland ◆ St. Petersburg ◆ Estonia ◆ Poland ◆ Denmark Featuring Guest Speakers Lech Pavel WałĘsa Palazhchenko Former President of Poland Interpreter and Advisor for Nobel Peace Prize Laureate Mikhail Gorbachev July 7 to 16, 2020 Dear Rutgers Alumni and Friends, Join us for the opportunity to explore the lands and legacies forged by centuries of Baltic history. Hear and learn firsthand from historic world leader, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, and former president of Poland Lech Wałęsa and from Pavel Palazhchenko, interpreter and advisor for former Soviet Union president Mikhail Gorbachev. This unique Baltic Sea voyage features six countries and seven UNESCO World Heritage sites. Our program is scheduled during the best time of year to experience the natural phenomenon of the luminous “White Nights.” Experience the cultural rebirth of the Baltic States and the imperial past of St. Petersburg, Russia, while cruising aboard the exclusively chartered, five-star Le Dumont-d’Urville, launched in 2019 and featuring only 92 ocean-view suites and staterooms. In the tradition of ancient Viking mariners and medieval merchants, set forth from the cosmopolitan Swedish capital of Stockholm to Denmark’s sophisticated capital city of Copenhagen. Spend two days docked in the heart of regal St. Petersburg, featuring visits to the world-acclaimed State Hermitage Museum, the Peter and Paul Fortress, and the spectacular tsarist palaces in Pushkin and Peterhof. See the storied architecture of Helsinki, Finland; tour the well-preserved medieval Old Town of Tallinn, Estonia; explore the former Hanseatic League town of Visby on Sweden’s Gotland Island; and immerse yourself in the legacy of the Solidarity movement in Gdańsk, Poland.
    [Show full text]
  • Mikhail Gorbachev's Speech in Murmansk at the Ceremonial Meeting on the Occasion of the Presentation of the Order of Lenin and the Gold Star to the City of Murmansk
    MIKHAIL GORBACHEV'S SPEECH IN MURMANSK AT THE CEREMONIAL MEETING ON THE OCCASION OF THE PRESENTATION OF THE ORDER OF LENIN AND THE GOLD STAR TO THE CITY OF MURMANSK Murmansk, 1 Oct. 1987 Indeed, the international situation is still complicated. The dangers to which we have no right to turn a blind eye remain. There has been some change, however, or, at least, change is starting. Certainly, judging the situation only from the speeches made by top Western leaders, including their "programme" statements, everything would seem to be as it was before: the same anti-Soviet attacks, the same demands that we show our commitment to peace by renouncing our order and principles, the same confrontational language: "totalitarianism", "communist expansion", and so on. Within a few days, however, these speeches are often forgotten, and, at any rate, the theses contained in them do not figure during businesslike political negotiations and contacts. This is a very interesting point, an interesting phenomenon. It confirms that we are dealing with yesterday's rhetoric, while real- life processes have been set into motion. This means that something is indeed changing. One of the elements of the change is that it is now difficult to convince people that our foreign policy, our initiatives, our nuclear-free world programme are mere "propaganda". A new, democratic philosophy of international relations, of world politics is breaking through. The new mode of thinking with its humane, universal criteria and values is penetrating diverse strata. Its strength lies in the fact that it accords with people's common sense.
    [Show full text]
  • Embargoed Until
    FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE CONTACT: Ashley Berke Senior Public Relations Manager 215.409.6693 [email protected] MIKHAIL GORBACHEV TO RECEIVE 2008 LIBERTY MEDAL AT THE NATIONAL CONSTITUTION CENTER Award to be presented by President George H.W. Bush Philadelphia, PA – The National Constitution Center’s 2008 Liberty Medal will be awarded to former Soviet leader and Nobel Peace Prize winner Mikhail Gorbachev for his courageous role in ending the dangerous, decades-long Cold War and in giving hope and freedom to millions who lived behind the Iron Curtain. The public Liberty Medal ceremony will take place on Thursday, September 18, 2008, at the National Constitution Center on Independence Mall in Historic Philadelphia, and will set the stage for international commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall in 2009. “This year’s ceremony will be a memorable tribute to a revolutionary thinker with courage and conviction who believed in the power of liberty and openness,” said National Constitution Center President and CEO Joseph M. Torsella. “Mikhail Gorbachev is someone who truly changed the course of history, and we are honored to recognize him.” “During the Cold War, Gorbachev helped replace confrontation with negotiation and established a new climate between East and West,” said Torsella. “He bravely opened the doors of Soviet society to the winds of freedom and change, and he continues to be a voice for an open society today. His vision and strength were central to bringing about a peaceful end to the Cold War, and his remarkable leadership has led to profound and lasting consequences for our nations and for all people who treasure liberty.” This took both vision and courage.
    [Show full text]
  • Timeline of the Cold War
    Timeline of the Cold War 1945 Defeat of Germany and Japan February 4-11: Yalta Conference meeting of FDR, Churchill, Stalin - the 'Big Three' Soviet Union has control of Eastern Europe. The Cold War Begins May 8: VE Day - Victory in Europe. Germany surrenders to the Red Army in Berlin July: Potsdam Conference - Germany was officially partitioned into four zones of occupation. August 6: The United States drops atomic bomb on Hiroshima (20 kiloton bomb 'Little Boy' kills 80,000) August 8: Russia declares war on Japan August 9: The United States drops atomic bomb on Nagasaki (22 kiloton 'Fat Man' kills 70,000) August 14 : Japanese surrender End of World War II August 15: Emperor surrender broadcast - VJ Day 1946 February 9: Stalin hostile speech - communism & capitalism were incompatible March 5 : "Sinews of Peace" Iron Curtain Speech by Winston Churchill - "an "iron curtain" has descended on Europe" March 10: Truman demands Russia leave Iran July 1: Operation Crossroads with Test Able was the first public demonstration of America's atomic arsenal July 25: America's Test Baker - underwater explosion 1947 Containment March 12 : Truman Doctrine - Truman declares active role in Greek Civil War June : Marshall Plan is announced setting a precedent for helping countries combat poverty, disease and malnutrition September 2: Rio Pact - U.S. meet 19 Latin American countries and created a security zone around the hemisphere 1948 Containment February 25 : Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia March 2: Truman's Loyalty Program created to catch Cold War
    [Show full text]
  • PERESTROIKA PROPAGANDA in the SOVIET FOREIGN PRESS by Matthew Brown
    CONTRIBUTOR BIO MATTHEW BROWN graduated from Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo in June of 2013 with a Bachelor of Arts in History and a minor in Geography & Anthropology. His academic in- terests include the Cold War, the Soviet Union, and revolutionary political theory. Matthew is currently working as a substitute teacher while pursuing a Social Science teaching credential at CSU Long Beach, and is exploring his op- tions for teaching English abroad next school year. He plans on pursuing a Master’s degree in Russian and/or Eastern European history, and would like to eventually teach at the uni- versity level. ECHOES OF A DYING STATE: PERESTROIKA PROPAGANDA IN THE SOVIET FOREIGN PRESS By Matthew Brown “Perestroika means mass initiative. It is the comprehensive devel- opment of democracy, socialist self-government, encouragement of initiative and creative endeavor, improved order and discipline, more glasnost, criticism and self-criticism in all spheres of our society. It is utmost respect for the individual and consideration for personal dignity.”230 The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of one of the most tumultuous and volatile periods in modern history. The Soviet Union was not destroyed by a foreign military invasion, nor was it torn apart by civil war. The events that resulted in one of the most powerful countries the world has ever seen literally signing itself out of existence were official government policy, heavily promoted by the Communist Party as the pinnacle of Soviet ideology, and praised by the Soviet intelligentsia as a clear path to a prosperous society. The perestroika and glasnost reforms, instituted under Mikhail Gorbachev, represent the final 230 Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 34.
    [Show full text]
  • Mikhail Gorbachev and His Role in the Peaceful Solution of the Cold War
    City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Dissertations and Theses City College of New York 2011 Mikhail Gorbachev and His Role in the Peaceful Solution of the Cold War Natalia Zemtsova CUNY City College How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cc_etds_theses/49 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Mikhail Gorbachev and His Role in the Peaceful Solution of the Cold War Natalia Zemtsova May 2011 Master’s Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of International Affairs at the City College of New York Advisor: Jean Krasno ABSTRACT The role of a political leader has always been important for understanding both domestic and world politics. The most significant historical events are usually associated in our minds with the images of the people who were directly involved and who were in charge of the most crucial decisions at that particular moment in time. Thus, analyzing the American Civil War, we always mention the great role and the achievements of Abraham Lincoln as the president of the United States. We cannot forget about the actions of such charismatic leaders as Adolf Hitler, Josef Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt when we think about the brutal events and the outcome of the World War II. Or, for example, the Cuban Missile Crisis and its peaceful solution went down in history highlighting roles of John F.
    [Show full text]
  • The Kgb's Image-Building Under
    SPREADING THE WORD: THE KGB’S IMAGE-BUILDING UNDER GORBACHEV by Jeff Trimble The Joan Shorenstein Center PRESS ■ POLI TICS Discussion Paper D-24 February 1997 ■ PUBLIC POLICY ■ Harvard University John F. Kennedy School of Government INTRODUCTION The KGB, under many different sets of graduate student at the Pushkin Russian Lan- initials, evokes frightening memories of the guage Institute in Moscow during the 1979-80 Soviet period of Russian history. A garrison academic year, later as Moscow correspondent state within a state, it provided the terror that for U.S. News & World Report from 1986 to glued the Soviet Union into a unitary force for 1991, Trimble observed the changes not just in evil. Few bucked the system, and dissent was the old KGB but in the old Soviet Union and, in limited, for the most part, to whispers over this paper, based on his own research, he ex- dinner or under the sheets. Millions were herded plains their significance. At a time in American into the communist version of concentration life when we seem to be largely indifferent to the camps, or transported to Siberia, or simply rest of the world, we are indebted to Trimble for executed for crimes no more serious than having his reminder that the past is not too far removed the wrong economic or ideological pedigree. from the present. The KGB, by its brutal behavior, came to be The question lurking between the lines is identified throughout the world with the Soviet whether the changes in image are in fact system of government. When the system, with changes in substance as well.
    [Show full text]
  • Mikhail Gorbachev
    Published by Izdatelstvo VES MIR (IVM) for the Gorbachev Foundation © The Gorbachev Foundation, 2006 The Gorbachev Foundation: 39 Leningradsky Prospect, bdg. 14 Moscow125167, Russian Federation Phone/Fax: +7 495 945 74 01 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.gorby.ru Izdatelstvo VES MIR: 9a Kolpachnyi pereulok, Moscow, 101831 Russian Federation Phone: +7 495 623 85 68 Fax: +7 495 625 42 69 E-mail: [email protected] http//www.vesmirbooks.ru ISBN: 5-7777-0343-7 Printed in the Russian Federation Contents Contents SPEECHES 7 The Nobel Lecture 9 From the Address to the 43rd Session of the United Nations General Assembly 26 Final Televized Address as President of the USSR 46 Twenty Years Since the Start of Perestroika 50 ARTICLES 59 9/11: Letter to the New York Times 61 A Coalition for a Better World Order (The New York Times) 62 Transforming Trust Into Trade (The New York Times) 64 Take a Page from Kennedy (TIME) 66 A President Who Listened (The New York Times) 69 What Made Me a Crusader 71 Nature Will Not Wait 74 Why the Poor Are Still With Us (Global Agenda) 77 Mikhail Gorbachev INTERVIEWS 81 Transcript of Gorbachev’s Interview with Brian Lamb (PBS Booknotes) 83 The American and Russian People Don’t Want a New Confrontation (Newsweek) 104 Democracy Will Fit the Needs of Every Nation (Christian Science Monitor) 110 We All Lost Cold War (Washington Post) 115 No Turning Back for Russia (Los Angeles Times) 119 The Greening of Mikhail Gorbachev (International Herald Tribune) 122 Perestroika 20 Years Later: Gorbachev Reflects (Global Viewpoint) 125 Gorbachev’s Message Is Still Worth Listening To (The Times) 133 ABOUT GORBACHEV 135 Man of the Decade: The Unlikely Patron of Change By Lance Morrow (TIME) 137 Mikhail Gorbachev By Tatiana Tolstaya 142 Raisa, We Loved You By Anatole Kaletsky (The Times) 147 Speeches The Nobel Lecture Mr.
    [Show full text]
  • The End of the Cold War
    The end of the Cold War The Cold War had seen more than four decades of tension between the two superpowers, the USA and the USSR. There had been a number of crises, and a whole generation had grown up with the fear of nuclear war. However, by the early 1990s the Cold War had officially ended. The last part of this course will examine a number of reasons why the Cold War finally came to an end. Factor 1 – Détente Détente means an easing of the tension between two countries. In the later 1960s and 1970s, the relationship between the USA and the USSR improved. This arguably helped bring about peace between the superpowers in the long term. Why détente? There were a number of reasons why both countries were keen to improve relations in the 1960s and 1970s. The Cuban Missile Crisis had brought the superpowers close to nuclear war. They wanted to avoid similar confrontations in future as they realised a full-scale nuclear war would lead to the destruction of both countries. Both countries were spending huge sums on the arms race – money which could be better spent on improving the lives of ordinary citizens in America and the Soviet Union. In America and many other Western countries, the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) attracted widespread support. CND wanted all countries to get rid of their nuclear weapons and put pressure on the US Government to disarm. Following its disastrous involvement in the Vietnam War, many Americans wanted to avoid foreign wars. This encouraged the US Government to seek better relations with the two most powerful communist nations – China and the USSR.
    [Show full text]
  • The Collapse of Communism and the End of the Cold War (1945 – 1991) Content Statement
    The Collapse of Communism and the End of the Cold War (1945 – 1991) Content Statement • The collapse of the Communist governments in Eastern Europe and the USSR brought an end to the Cold War Objectives • Define or describe the following terms: –Détente –Reagan Doctrine –“Star Wars” Program –Mikhail Gorbachev –Commonwealth of Independent States Objectives • Explain how the collapse of Communist governments in Eastern Europe and the USSR brought an end to the Cold War era • What role did the United States play in the collapse of Communism? The Cold War • The period from 1945 to 1991 saw a host of important events in the Cold War battle between the U.S. and the Soviet Union • There were multiple causes for the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union • The effect of this collapse was the reduction of tensions between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. that had characterized the Cold War period for 45 years Détente with the Soviet Union, 1972 • President Nixon believed in pursuing a policy of détente - a relaxing of tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union • Nixon sought to halt the build-up of nuclear weapons • In 1972, he became the first President to visit Moscow, where he signed an agreement (SALT) with Soviet leaders Détente with the Soviet Union, 1972 –The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of conferences and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union on the issue of armament control –The two rounds of talks and agreements were SALT I and SALT II Détente with the Soviet Union, 1972 • The agreement limited the development of defensive missile systems • Nixon further agreed to sell American grain to the Soviets to help them cope with food shortages • In 1973, when war broke out in the Middle East, the United States and Soviet Union further cooperated in pressuring Israel and the Arab states to conclude a cease-fire Détente with the Soviet Union, 1972 • Détente also allowed the United States to reduce its armed forces from 3.5 million to 2.3 million, and to withdraw U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • By George Gerbner Tbe August Coup
    1 MEDIA AND MYSTERY IN. THE RUSSIAN COUP; By George Gerbner Tbe August Coup: Tbe Trutb and tbe Lessons~ By Mikhail Gorbachev. HarperCollins. 127 pp. $18.00 Tbe Future Belongs to Freedom~ By EduardShevardnadze. New York: The Free ,Press, 1991. 237 pp. Eyewitness; A Personal Account of the Unraveling of tbe Soviet Union. By Vladimir Pozner. Random House. 220 pp. $20.00 . Seven Days Tbat Sbooktbe World;Tbe Collapse of soviet communism. by stuart H. Loory and Ann Imse. Introduction by Hedrick Smith. CNN Report, Turner Publishing, Inc. 255 pp. Boris Yeltsin: From Bolsbevik to Democrat. By John Morrison. Dutton. 303pp. $20. Boris Yeltsin, A Political Biograpby. By Vladimir Solvyov and Elena Klepikova. Putnam. 320 pp. $24.95 We remember the Russian coup of A~gust 1991 as a quixotic attempt, doomed to failure, engineered by fools and thwarted by a spontaneous uprising. As Vladimir Pozner's Eyewitness puts it, our imag~ of the coup leaders is that of "faceless party hacks ••• Hollywood-cast to fit the somehow gross, repulsive, and yet somewhat comical image" of the typical Communist bureaucrat.(p. 10) Well, that image is false. More than that, it obscures the big story of the coup .and its consequences for Russia and the world. By falling back on a cold-war caricature ' and . accepting what Shevardnadze calls "the export version" of perestroika, the U.s. press, and Western media generally, may have missed the story of the decade. .' The men who struck on August 19, : 1991 were, as Pozner himself · argues,,"far from inept ,and, indeed, ' ready to do whatever was necessary to win.
    [Show full text]
  • Perestroika and the Collapse of the Soviet Union Laura Cummings the Late 1980S Were a Period of Change, Reform and Eventually Demise Within the Soviet Union
    History Gorbachev’s Perestroika and the Collapse of the Soviet Union Laura Cummings The late 1980s were a period of change, reform and eventually demise within the Soviet Union. These political and economic reforms were spearheaded by Mikhail Gorbachev, who became General Secretary in 1985 and used his position to enact a series of humanitarian, democratic reforms aimed at improving the communist system from within. Under previous leaders, the Soviet economy stalled, party ide- ology drifted away from its Marxist roots and the government continued to wield an oppressive hand over the people. In an attempt to !x the "agging economy and re-energize party doctrine, Gorbachev introduced the philosophy of perestroika, meaning restructuring. Perestroika allowed for more freedoms in the market, in- cluding some market economy mechanisms. However, perestroika did not only deal with the economy; it dealt with politics as well. The political reorganization called for a multi-candidate system and allowed opposition groups to speak out against communism. Although the motivations and intentions of perestroika are debated in the historiography of the period, its importance to the Cold War is clear- ly evident. To some degree, perestroika contributed to the fall of communism and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Although Gorbachev was trying to save the system, his reforms contributed to its end. The fall of the Soviet Union, although it was not entirely surprising, rocked the world in 1991. A number of factors both behind the iron curtain and abroad contributed, in some way, to the collapse of the communist regime, including American rearmament, growing rebellious sentiments within the Soviet bloc and Gorbachev’s reform policies, speci!cally perestroika.
    [Show full text]