Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
GCPS Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011
Section 1 An Overview of Spirits and Spirits Packaging.
1.1 Definition of Spirit and Spirit Type. As an example of raw material restrictions, the mash for a scotch malt whisky must be 100% barley malt with no Introduction. adjuncts, and the malt itself has some restrictions For the purposes of consumable drinks, spirits are a liquid associated with its production (e.g. the use of gibberellic containing ethanol which are produced by distilling the acid in the malting process is not permitted). For a scotch products of a fermented grain, vegetable or fruit mash. The grain whisky, the mash is likely to constitute a small grain, vegetables and fruit are a source of starch and sugars amount of malt (to supply the necessary enzymes for which are fermented by yeast (primarily Saccharomyces sp.) conversion of starch to sugar) and a large quantity of a to an alcoholic liquid usually no more than 12-15% abv. To grain adjunct such as maize or wheat. achieve an alcoholic content beyond this is not possible by fermentation alone, as excess ethanol has a toxic effect on The traditional terms “brown” and “white” spirits are yeast cells. It is therefore necessary to concentrate the loosely associated with the use of an ageing process or not, alcoholic content of the liquid by distillation. i.e. brown spirits are aged in wood whereas white spirits are not. Flavoured spirits are becoming increasingly The production of spirits is highly regulated, in most popular with consumers, and allow producers to clearly countries requiring a licence to produce, and tax duty is differentiate their products from competitors. payable to central government on spirits produced. 1.2. The Definition of Spirits Packaging and Traditional pot still distillation is a batch process where the General Aims liquid is distilled usually twice, and sometimes three times, to achieve the desired alcoholic content in the distillate. The general aims of packaging spirits are to:- Column distillation using a Coffey still is a continuous • Provide the consumers with spirits in a convenient process and has the ability to produce distillates of much package of their choice. higher alcoholic content than pot still distillation. • Ensure that the quality of the spirits is protected during packaging operations. • Ensure that the quality of the product is protected during its shelf life (for ready to drinks; high strength SUGAR YEAST ALCOHOL spirits have no defined shelf life) • Assist in the marketing of the product by presenting the package in an attractive form. Different types of Spirits • Ensure that the requirements of the relevant Regardless of how the distillation is done, much of the authorities (for example, Excise) are met. differentiation of spirits occurs as a result of the materials • Control the costs of packaging to an economic used in the mash, and in the methods used to finish the minimum. spirit once it is distilled. Certain variants of spirits are • Protect the health and safety of the people who work restricted in terms of the use of raw materials. Some in the packaging areas and the consumers. examples: Many of these aims are required so that “due diligence” Whisky : a fermented grain mash, aged in wood once with regard to safety of product, consumer and operator is distilled. Grains used, ageing, and type of wood used vary ensured. depending on country of production. The procedures used to ensure that these aims are met are Vodka : a fermented grain and / or vegetable mash, no detailed in the tables below:- ageing process, possible use of flavourings. How to provide the consumers with a convenient package Gin : a fermented grain and or / vegetable mash, no ageing of their choice. process, flavourings (botanicals, primarily juniper berries) added prior to distillation. Package Procedure. type. Brandy : a fermented grape mash (though other fruits are Non- Choice of different sizes. now commonly used), some types are aged post distillation returnable Choice of different shapes. but many have caramel added to give the appearance of bottle. Choice of different glass colour. wood ageing. Choice of different glass weight. Choice of different pack/box etc. Rum: a fermented sugar cane / molasses mash, distilled and Can. Choice of different sizes. aged in wood Choice of different ‘end’ opening.
2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
How to ensure that the quality of spirits is protected How to assist in the marketing of the product by during packaging. presenting the package in an attractive form.
Package Procedure. Package Procedure. type. type. Non- • Ensure supply mains to filling Non- • Maintain high standards of labelling. returnable equipment are rinsed or cleaned to returnable • Minimise or eliminate damage to bottle. prevent cross contamination between bottle. closures (decorative and otherwise) products. from the production process. • Ensure bottles are cleaned successfully • Minimise or eliminate bottle scuff or (air or water rinse) prior to filling. damage from the production process. • Use HACCP procedures on the filling • Ensure that the multipacking and line and liquid production plant. shrink film operations are run • Monitor spirit quality from finished effectively. product tank to final package. • Ensure that any secondary packaging • Ensure that hygiene standards for operations are run effectively. bottling plant are maintained. Can. • Ensure that the multipacking and • Pasteurise low alcohol ready to drink shrink film operations are run products to prevent microbiological effectively. spoilage. • Ensure that secondary packaging Can. • Ensure supply mains to filling operations are run effectively. equipment are rinsed or cleaned to prevent cross contamination between How to ensure that Statutory Taxation (Excise) products. requirements are met. • Ensure cans are cleaned successfully (air or water rinse) prior to filling. Package Procedure. • Use HACCP procedures on the filling type. line and liquid production plant. Non- • Ensure that bottles are not over filled. • Monitor spirit quality from finished returnable • Ensure that the label states the product tank to final package. bottle. correct contents and alcohol level. • Ensure that hygiene standards for • Ensure that alcohol levels are canning plant are maintained. analysed in package and that the • Pasteurise low alcohol ready to drink relevant records are kept. products to prevent microbiological • Ensure that full package level spoilage. inspection is effective and that the relevant records are kept. How to ensure that the quality of ready to drinks (RTDs) is Can. • Ensure that cans are not over filled. protected during its shelf life. • Ensure that the can states the correct contents and alcohol level. Package Procedure. • Ensure that alcohol levels are type. analysed in package and that the Non- • Reduce air pickup during bottling to a relevant records are kept. returnable minimum. • Ensure that full package level bottle. • Pasteurisation (sterile filtration is inspection is effective and that the usually unsuitable for these products) relevant records are kept. for microbiological stability. Over pasteurisation reduces shelf life. • Ensure that hygiene standards for bottling plant are maintained. Can. • Reduce air pickup during canning to a minimum. • Pasteurisation or sterile filtration for microbiological stability. Over pasteurisation reduces shelf life. • Ensure that hygiene standards for canning plant are maintained.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
How to ensure that the requirements of “Trading How to protect the Health and Safety of the people who Standards” are met. work in the packaging areas.
Package Procedure. Package Procedure. type. type. Non- • Ensure that bottles are not under Non • Protect against broken glass. returnable filled. returnable • Protect against noise. bottle. • Ensure that the label gives the correct bottle. • Protect against slips trips and falls. information. • Protect against machinery accidents. • Ensure that full package inspection • Protect against high carbon dioxide and analysis is effective and that the levels and against dilution of oxygen relevant records are kept. in air by nitrogen (where appropriate Can. • Ensure that cans are not under filled. for the product) • Ensure that the can label gives the Can. • Protect against noise. correct information. • Protect against slips trips and falls. • Ensure that full package inspection • Protect against machinery accidents. and analysis is effective and that the • Protect against high carbon dioxide relevant records are kept. levels and against dilution of oxygen in air by nitrogen (where appropriate Please note that national law and local regulations will vary for the product) in different countries and that various authorities may differ in their interpretation of the law. How to control the costs of packaging to an economic minimum. How to ensure that the Consumer Safety requirements are met. Package Procedure. type. Package Procedure. Non- • Operate the plant effectively through type. returnable effective maintenance, planning and Non- • Ensure that empty bottle inspection bottle. staff training to achieve the specified returnable and the reject system is effective and throughput. bottle. that the relevant records are kept. Can. • Reduce spirits losses by controlling fill • Ensure that bottle rinsing and plant heights and filling machine operation. hygiene procedures are effective. • Control heat use during • Ensure that full package inspection pasteurisation and optimise all heat and analysis are effective and that the recovery systems (for those products relevant records are kept. requiring pasteurisation) • Maintain a system of handling • Minimise electricity consumption by customer complaints. switching off equipment when not in Can. • Ensure that empty can inspection and use. the reject system is effective and that the relevant records are kept. 1.3. Packaging Types (Bottles and Cans) • Ensure that can rinsing and plant hygiene procedures are effective. The main aims of packaging spirits are to provide the • Ensure that full package inspection consumers with spirits in a convenient package of their and analysis are effective and that the choice and to ensure that the quality of the spirits is relevant records are kept. protected during and after packaging. • Maintain a system of handling customer complaints. Consumer choice means that a range of spirits packages are provided, primarily non-returnable bottles and cans. Most Please note that national law and local regulations will vary manufacturers of spirits products use glass bottles in the in different countries and that various authorities (such as main, but plastic bottles and cans are sometimes used. Environmental Health Authority in U.K.) may differ in their interpretation of the law. The quality of the spirits will have been established by the procedures adopted in the production operations described above, packaging operations are organised so that the quality is protected.
The three main ways of protecting quality during packaging are:
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
• Avoidance of contamination especially by air or micro- • They are inspected to ensure that they are empty and organisms (in the case of RTDs) and physical or clean. Many spirits producers rely on their suppliers to chemical contamination (e.g. by foreign bodies, provide clean bottles and do not use empty bottle machine lubricants etc). inspection systems prior to filling. • Microbiological stabilisation by pasteurisation (in the • They are transported to the filler where they are then case of RTDs). filled to a controlled level. • Non-biological stabilisation by polish filtration (i.e. • They are immediately closed with a closure. removal of foreign bodies, or wood fragments in the • The full bottles are checked for contents level. case of spirits matured in wooden casks or vats). • They are pasteurised (in the case of RTDs, high strength spirits do not require this process) Packaging into Bottles. • They are labelled. • They are packaged into boxes, cases, or multipacks. The packaging operation works as follows:- • Finally they are transported to the palletiser and warehouse. • Empty bottles are transported by conveyor from the depalletiser to the bottle rinser or cleaner.
Empty Full Bottles Bottles
Labeller Bottle Washer
Bright Bottler & spirit Crowner tank
Pasteuriser
Packaging into Cans.
The packaging operation works as follows:- • They are then immediately closed with a can lid (end) in the seamer. • Empty cans are transported by conveyor from the • They are inspected for contents level. depalletiser to the can rinser. They are then inspected • They are pasteurised (in the case of RTDs) to ensure that they are empty and clean. • Finally they are transported to the tray packing • They are transported to the can filler where they are machine, shrinkwrap machine, palletiser and then filled to a controlled level. warehouse.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 5
Tray packer & Shrinkwrap
Empty Full Cans Cans
Bright Canner & spirit Seamer tank
Pasteuriser
6 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 2 Bright Spirit Production, Storage and Handling
2.1 Bright Spirit Filtration It is common for the bulk liquid to be trap filtered (via a basket filter) prior to subsequent sheet filtration e.g. on a Consumers have come to expect that high value spirits plate and frame filter. If the packaging site is remote from products will have a brilliant finish to them. Cloudy spirit is the liquid production site, then the trap filters may be sited assumed to be of inferior quality, with many markets at the packaging site’s intake point. If the liquid production rejecting hazy liquids. and packaging are taking place on the same site, then the trap filters may be sited between bulk storage vessels and Unlike beers however, most spirits are already relatively the filtration operation buffer tanks. clean when they are reduced to their sales strength ABV. Part of the reason for this is the distillation process itself. Prior to filtration it is common for spirit strength reduction By its nature, suspended solids from the fermentation (through addition of treated water) and colouring (with process are left behind as spirit vapour ascends the still that caramels) to take place. In order to ensure the correct it is produced in. This is wholly different to beer additions are made to bring the spirit into final packaging production, where yeast is a vital and necessary part of specification, the parameters being affected (ABV and beer conditioning, and subsequently requires removal from colour) will already be known from the Bulk Spirit Vessel. the beer (by settlement and filtration). The requirement Once the spirit is reduced and coloured correctly, it is then for filtration will often depend on the spirit itself, but one filtered. thing stands out immediately as being different from beer preparation. Spirits, due to their high alcoholic content, do Similarly to beer filtration, a trim chiller is often used prior not require sterile or polishing filtration – microbial to the filtration operation to ensure that haze compounds contamination is generally not an issue (for RTDs this is remain suspended and do not redissolve in the spirit. The different – see module 3). aim being that these are removed by the filter. Unlike beers however, it is unusual for any bodyfeed (kieselguhr, Filtration uses three principles: filter powder) to be used – the liquid is presented directly to the filter. In a beer operation this would quickly block Sieving where Depth filration Absorption where the filter as rough beer contains much more solid material particles are where the particles particles adhere to than rough spirit. The filter is commonly a plate and frame held back are trapped in the pores of filter because they complex pathways. powder granules. unit with “nappy” liners (paper filters). These paper filters are larger than have a finite lifespan and when they are blocked (as the filter pores. indicated by rising differential pressure across the filter) then the filter must be separated and the liners removed and replaced before further use. They work on the depth filtration principle. The liners themselves are primarily cellulose fibre based and are recycled rather than discarded.
When a batch of finished product is completed ready for packaging, the most commonly analysed parameters are Of these three, the first two are most commonly used to ABV, colour, pH and turbidity. Sensory analysis may also be filter spirits. Filter powders are rarely required to filter performed at this stage. spirits. Plate and frame filter Brown Spirits Brown spirits, especially those that may have been matured
in wood, will need some form of finishing filtration. While Bright spirit out yeast and other suspended solids from mashing may remain behind in distillation, the aged spirit will have picked up wood fragments (e.g. so called “barrel char”) that are Rough spirit in now suspended in the spirit. When the casks are disgorged, this suspended material is contained within the spirit, and it Bright spirit out is not uncommon for the spirit to have a cast or haze in it at Frames open to remove filter this point also if it has been stored at low temperatures in nappy liners. the cask warehouse. These materials must be removed by filtration. Rough spirit in
2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
White Spirits The preparation of white spirits is quite different, where usually chill haze formation is not an issue. As a result, it is rare for white spirits to be filtered in a plate and frame unit as is usual for e.g. Scotch Whisky. However again depending on the product, different preparation methods may be required.
Vodka A key property (and marketing tool) regarding vodka is its purity. Despite distillation with no additions, vodka may still have organic impurities within it post distillation derived from the raw materials that went into its production. In order to obtain significantly increased organic purity, it is common to filter vodka through Filter Properties activated carbon (or charcoal) filters. These filters rely on Filters are designed so that the rough product is delivered the principle of adsorption to remove the organic impurities onto the filter bed in as even a flow as possible. The from the vodka. Similarly to brown spirit, the vodka will particles being removed will eventually block up the filter often be reduced to the correct ABV with water addition by their sheer volume so filters are designed for easy prior to charcoal filtration. The charcoal filter does not emptying and cleaning. affect the ABV of the vodka. The usual parameters measured prior to packaging of the finished vodka are ABV, The downtime involved in changing or emptying and pH, turbidity and sensory. The sensory analysis is cleaning a filter means that it is common for more than one particularly important with respect to the purity of the filter stream to be employed. While one filter stream is in vodka. A further polishing filtration is performed, often production, the other may be emptied and prepared for with a trap filter, prior to the product being packaging. use. For manufacturers producing more than one type of These trap filters work on the sieving and depth filtration spirit, it is common to employ multiple filtration streams. principles. The throughput of a filter system is influenced by the For flavoured vodkas, the vodka may still be filtered amount of solids that the filter is required to remove from through charcoal prior to the flavouring being added (if the spirit and the nature of the spirit and solids. added before the charcoal filter there is the risk of the flavouring being removed or reduced). Once the flavouring High levels of TSM (total suspended matter) will result in is added and the liquid analysed, it will then be polish the space between the filter elements being filled up very filtered prior to packaging. quickly, reducing filter life and requiring more downtime to refresh the filter. This adds to the cost of the operation. Gin Gin contains botanical ingredients (e.g. extract of juniper Notes. berries) which are added during the distillation process. Describe a filtration operation that you are familiar with. This gives the distilled gin a unique flavour and nose depending on what botanical extracts are used. Charcoal 2.2 Transfer of Filtered Spirits and Spirits filters are not used for gins, as they would remove or Handling certainly reduce the levels of botanicals contained in the product. The primary method of filtration is a trap filter Spirit storage capacity is required between the filtration prior to the product being bottled. operation and the packaging machine because product flow rates through the filter and product flow rates into the filler must be stable. Also the process requires an opportunity to check the quality of spirit before it is finally packaged and a representative sample can be obtained from the holding tank. The tank in which the spirit is held is called the Bright Spirit Tank or the Packaging Tank:
BRIGHT SPIRIT TANK
FILTER Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
Control of this transfer process is not so important as it is Standardisation/blending procedures and calculations with, for example, beers and wines. Spirits are generally not carbonated, nor do they suffer from dissolved oxygen Blending spirits to meet quality requirements is common, pickup (as they are not pasteurised after packaging). Post for example a high colour spirit may be blended with a low filtration, temperature control is also not a concern. coloured spirit to achieve a spirit of a desired colour.
The main issue with the transfer and storage process is that The calculation below illustrates the effect of blending 100 of safety. Due to their flammable natures, the bulk storage hectolitres of spirit at a colour of 10 units with 50 of spirits is a potentially dangerous operation, and may hectolitres of spirit at a colour of 8 units:- often take place in a so-called “zoned” area, to minimise any potential sources of ignition. The integrity of the spirit (100 x10) + (50 x 8) transfer and storage operation is crucial in this regard, i.e. (100 + 50) thorough reconciliations of spirit volumes are required to highlight any potential loss areas. Therefore the colour of the mixture = 9.3 units.
2.3 Storage The same blending principles can be applied to ABV, but it The length of time that the spirit stays in the Bright Spirit does NOT however apply to pH. Where pH is out of Tank depends on a number of factors. specification that might indicate a problem with the plant’s cleaning regime, or contamination with detergents, and • The packaging programme may be critical to supplying rework of the batch may require a different approach (e.g. customers and a plentiful supply of spirit ready for blending at very low levels into fresh batches). packaging is therefore important. • After filling, the Bright Spirit Tank’s contents need to It is essential when blending that the analysis of the batches stabilise before a sample is taken for a quality check. to be blended is as accurate as possible, and this can only • Quality checks on the spirit will take some time and the be achieved if the batches are well mixed. spirit must be stored until it is confirmed that it meets the required specifications. Dilution Calculation (example) The quality of the spirit will generally not change for long periods of time while stored in Bright Spirit Tank. Due to 500hl of high strength spirit at 50% alcohol by volume their nature, high strength spirits are much more stable (%ABV) can be diluted by: than, for example, beers, and do not deteriorate. It is • preferable to maintain a steady throughput of product 125 hl of water to produce 625 hl of spirit at 40.0% through storage and handling, but if a tank of spirit has to ABV, or stand for an extended period of time (e.g. through packaging line failure) it generally is not an issue. • 166.67 hl of water to produce 666.67 hl of spirit at 37.5% ABV. When a Bright Spirit Tank of product is out of quality specification, it may either be blended with another batch of the same type to bring it into specification, or may be returned to the filtration plant for reprocessing. Great care must be taken in plants that produce aged spirits (e.g. Scotch Whisky) that streams of different ages are not mixed, as this may make them unsuitable for trade. E.g., if a 15yr old and a 5yr old whisky were mixed, then the whole combined volume becomes by law 5 yr old whisky. This will then most likely be blended off into an unaged blended whisky, which will sell for much less than the original 15yr old whisky. If serious cross contamination takes place, e.g. mixing of brown and white spirits, then the combined mix may be unblendable and will require re-distillation – a tremendously costly rework.
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 3 Ready to Drink (RTD) Production, Storage and Handling.
3.1 Ready to Drink (RTD) Manufacture – Water: Usually from a mains source, treated Overview locally to meet the product requirement. Despite this a buffer stock of water is Product differentiation and market research has led to the required to make large batches of formulation of many different types of liquid. When we product, and this means storage vessels talk of ready to drink products, these are presented to the are necessary. To prevent staling of consumer in exactly that format. The package is opened products that are pasteurised, it is often and the product is ready to drink. These products include necessary to use de-aerated water. premixed gin and tonic, rum and coke, fruit based alcoholic drinks, flavoured alcoholic drinks and so on. For the Alcohol: Unless the production site has a source of purposes of this module we will assume that the alcoholic its own alcohol, it will be necessary to constituent of the product has already been “finished” and bring it in from another source. This may is merely another component of the production process of be from another site that the company RTDs. owns, or bought in from another manufacturer. In most cases, alcohol is In terms of manufacture, the process is very similar to that brought in in bulk tankers via road or rail, used in soft drinks production. Bulk ingredients are bought at high strength (40%). It will usually in just in time (or stored in bulk on site) and mixed together already be in a usable format (e.g. rum to a set recipe in a Process Tank (PT). These recipes are spirit, or gin spirit) depending on the considered to be commercially sensitive information, the product. Again, bulk storage vessels will exact mix quantities responsible for giving each product its be necessary to hold the alcohol base unique flavour. Examples of ingredients used to produce before mixing. RTDs are as follows: Sugars: Most often bought in bulk, and • Water (for dilution and mixing purposes) transported to site via road or rail tanker. • Alcohol (e.g. neutral alcohol is a common constituent) Sugars however have an added complication in that to successfully move • Sugars (to produce sweetened products) them from tanker to storage vessel to • Fruit juice (usually in the form of concentrates) mixing vessel, the mains will usually have • Colouring agents to be trace heated due to the viscosity of • Preservatives (e.g. sodium benzoate) the material. • Plant extracts • Vegetable extracts Fruit Juice: Usually in the form of concentrate, and delivered to site in bulk or in drums from This list is not comprehensive by any means, with producers the supplier. Examples include orange, using many different types of ingredient. apple, lemon etc. A key consideration is the shelf life of these materials, and depending on the local conditions, cold 3.2 Recipe Generation storage may be required to ensure they are not spoilt by microbial contamination This is usually the preserve of product development prior to their use. specialists. Using market research and consumer feedback, it is possible to develop a liquid that may be desirable to Colourings: Often bought in bagged, powdered, or consumers in general, or to a specific target market (e.g. in liquid formats. A dry storage area is the UK initial launches of flavoured alcoholic beverages required. were very much aimed at the younger drinker). The packaging design may also be targeted towards attracting a Preservative: Often bought in bagged, powdered, or specific consumer or group of consumers. liquid formats. A dry storage area is required.
3.3 Ingredient Storage Extracts: Often bought in bagged, powdered, or liquid formats. A dry storage area is Ingredients vary in terms of their storage requirements and required. may require capital investment on the production site. See below for a summary. It is easy to see that managing intake, transfer, storage and usage of these materials may involve considerable capital investment.
2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Not only that, but serious consideration may well have to This is time consuming (and expensive) rework which also be given to the layout of the production site. It is often the means an extra Finished Product vessel may be required. case that manufacturers who produce RTDs often do it on an existing production site (such as a brewery or packaging Other than ABV, the analysis of the product depends very hall). It is important to design the new operation to fit as much on what it is. Some RTDs have extremely strong and harmoniously as possible with existing plant. intense flavours, making the sensory analysis relatively simple in comparison to high strength spirits or beers. Also Stock rotation forms an important part of RTD depending on the ingredients different analyses may be manufacture, especially where spoilable materials may be used. For example, where sugars are added to sweeten the used. Ingredients may have their own shelf lives, and it is product, the level of sugar in the product may be measured. the plant’s responsibility to ensure a stock rotation policy is For carbonated drinks, attaining and maintaining the in place and successfully working to avoid wastage of these correct level of carbonation is important, and this usually raw materials. requires a CO2 top pressure blanket to be applied to the Finished Product Vessel.
3.4 Preparation of a Batch In common with beers, dissolved oxygen may also be a problem with certain ready to drinks, particularly Using the set recipe, ingredients are added to the Process sweetened products. During pasteurisation after filling, Tank to make up a complete batch. These additions may high levels of dissolved oxygen can cause staling of the either be automated (by pumps if adding liquid, or sugars product. To ensure total in-pack oxygen (TIPO) remains etc) or semi-automated (e.g. using a mechanical device to within specification, it is normal for carbonated beverages aid the opening, lifting, and tipping of fruit concentrate to be filled and jetted with water prior to capping, thus drums). Liquids that are not bulk stored (such as expensive fobbing them up sufficiently to expel air from the bottle extracts and colours) may often be added by hand into the before it is closed. For non-carbonated beverages however top of the Process Tank. Powdered materials may require this is more of a problem, as they will not fob sufficiently slurrying with water before adding (if pumped) or again from the jetter. These products instead are filled in an inert may be added directly by hand to the Process Tank after gas atmosphere, i.e. empty bottles enter the filler through a the correct quantity has been measured out (by weight or tunnel containing inert gas (usually nitrogen) and this volume). atmosphere is maintained until the bottle is closed.
Water is added to ensure the mix is homogenised as much 3.6 Storage as possible, and the Process Tank will usually be equipped with powerful rousing equipment (usually mechanical The length of time that the RTD stays in the Finished propellers) that keep the whole mixture in suspension and Product Vessel (FPV) may depend on a number of factors. avoid different components separating or settling out. It is possible to either finish the batch in the Process Tank, or • The packaging programme may be critical to supplying transfer it to a Finished Product Tank, where it may be customers and a plentiful supply of product ready for further diluted and brought to the correct alcoholic packaging is therefore important. Several FPV’s may be content. If the product is to be carbonated, then this prepared to ensure a buffer stock for the packaging line. Finished Product Tank will definitely be required, as the • After filling, the FPV’s contents need to stabilise before product will require carbonation and this cannot usually be a sample is taken for the quality analysis check. achieved in the Process Tank. A carbonation / dilution • Quality checks on the product will take some time and stream will be required en-route to the Finished Product the product must be stored until it is confirmed that it Tank. Carbonated products also require some form of meets the required specifications. chilling, as temperature fluctuations (especially when • While the product stands in the tank, the opportunity temperature rises) leads to CO2 coming out of solution and may be there to make adjustments to its quality. For the carbonation level of the product will drop. example, it may be blended with product from another
FPV, or it may be gassed up if CO2 levels are low or When the batch is complete in the Finished Product Tank, it purged if CO2 levels are high. is analysed prior to transfer to the filler.
The quality of the product, however, in general will not
improve. It will only deteriorate whilst it is in the FPV. The 3.5 Quality Analysis most common cause of this deterioration is microbiological
growth (for low ABV and sweetened products) and The key measure is ABV. The relative quantities of each therefore there is often a specified time limit for the material in the product mix are to designed to be within maximum length of time that a product should be kept in specification at a certain sales ABV, and therefore dilution the FPV before it is packaged. A typical time limit would be of the product to the correct ABV is essential. Overdilution two to three days. means that the batch will not be fit to fill, and will need to be blended with another batch at a higher ABV to correct it.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
3.7 Plant Hygiene & Product Segregation Analysis – colour, tasting, abv, microbiological, sugars (BRIX), density. Also nosed. For strongly flavoured liqueurs, Particularly where sugars and fruit pulps are used, microbial flavours are an important issue. contamination and spoilage is a potential problem. As well as this risk, the use of strong flavourings and colouring Bottling agents in RTDs mean that aggressive cleaning of plant and Vats are air purged down to the fillers, with CIP of plant pipework used to prepare, mix and finish them is essential. between flavours. Hot caustic cleaning is the bare minimum that most producers will use to ensure plant hygiene. Low vacuum fillers used due to no carbonation. No concerns over dissolved oxygen as pasteurisation has If more than one type of RTD is produced on a site using the already taken place. 17 percent abv increases the product same plant and pipework, then to avoid product cross stability. Hot caustic cleans once per week (and also contamination this intense level of cleaning activity is a between flavours). Bottles can be air or water rinsed. must. Batches of product that are found to be cross contaminated with other flavours or colours may be very Product storage – ambient is fine. Temps too high or low in difficult to rework by blending due to the strength of finished goods storage may cause separation of the product flavour / colour involved. Due to the expense of the over time, so consideration should be given to materials used any such mistakes can be costly. Ruined environmental control where extremes of temperature may batches may not be disposed of to drain, due to the very be encountered. high chemical oxygen demand on effluent loading, and may have to be transported for disposal if unrecoverable.
Note that the importance of hygiene and product segregation applies equally to the filling operation as it does to the preparation stage!
Cream liqueurs
Component ingredients
Cream – is made into a cream blend – and is stabilised with sweeteners added to it. Flavours are injected, with alcohol, into the cream and then pass through the homogeniser then into the pasteuriser (plate and frame). Otherwise separation may occur. Then it is put into vat. Homogenisation is key, if temperature / pressure is incorrect then separation can occur, which requires rework through homogenisation.
Flavours come in transitanks, alcohol is tanked in neat (about 90%), sugar storage as for RTD, cream comes from local dairy supply via tanker into bulk cream tanks before processing into cream blend.
Process can be batch or continuous
In VAT roused for 4hrs and then settled and bottled.
QA analysis – micro (examination of e.g. fat globules) which infer the degree of homegenisation, if this degree is not sufficient, then separation may occur in bottle before the product reaches its shelf life.
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 4 Glass bottles and associated packaging materials
4.1 Bottle Design Sealing • Shape can give strength, although unlike beers, spirits Surface Mouth or Bore bottles come in different shapes in particular. Square, oval, round, tall, dumpy, short bottles are all used and Locking these have particular handling characteristics. This is a Ring Finish key consideration when planning to produce. In order to save on material and transport costs, lightweighted Neck bottles are used for many brands, however these must be handled with care as they are more prone to Reinforcing Neck breakage. The design of a bottle must take into Label
account its life cycle – from manufacture, transit, filling, Shoulder
labelling and packaging, storage, distribution, and Mould when it is in the hands of the customer / consumer. Seam • Many sizes are employed ranging from 50ml (miniatures) up to 5 litres! Most common sizes for spirits are 70cl (700ml) and 1 litre. Body • Embossing is very common on spirits bottles. This allows brand identification and often increases the Label attractiveness of the bottle and hence the finished product. Back • Unlike beer, clear and green glasses do not allow Label sunstruck flavours – this mechanism does not work in
spirits due to hops not being used in spirits products. Foot Label Panel Spirits bottles come in a wide variety of hues. Clear, Label brown and green are most common, but other colours
may feature depending on the product and the product Heel or Insweep Base (Push up) designer’s / marketeer’s specification. Glass in general has no effect on product quality due to the fact it is chemically inert, insoluble and as a result will not taint Stippling the product. It is also smooth surfaced and easy to clean (usually fluid cleaning using air or water). • Broken glass is hazardous especially neck slivers from poorly moulded bottles. Critical glass defects (for Glass is an inorganic substance fused at high temperature example birdcages) will make bottles unusable for and cooled so that it solidifies in a vitreous or non- filling, either through critical weaknesses which will crystalline condition. cause the bottle to break, or through the generation of glass fragments within the bottle which are harmful All commercial glass is based on ‘silica’ which is the and undesirable to the consumer. principal component of sand. Common beach sand is • Exact dimensions can be vital as bottles may be filled to unsuitable for making commercial glass since it contains a level in counterpressure / vent tube fillers. Variations impurities and varies widely in composition. However, can cause packages to be short or over filled. This is there are large deposits of high purity silica sands available perhaps less of an issue for volumetric fillers, but in many parts of the world. bottles stacked next to each other will appear to have Glass bottle manufacturing today is a very capital intensive varying levels of liquid in them and this is unattractive process – a typical furnace costing £25M with an expected to consumers. life of 10-15 yrs. It has a high energy usage – with a melting temperature of around 1500°C and a continuous operation • Bottles must accept a closure, be it cork, plastic or for 365 days per year (as heating and cooling the furnace metal. Decorative closures are common for spirits after stoppages is expensive in terms of heat loss when it products. cools, and process of heating it up again after restart).
The Glass Bottle 4.2 Glass Materials It is useful to know the different parts of the bottle and these are given below: Sand (Silica) is mixed with other materials in order to lower the temperature and allow glass to melt, mix well and release any trapped air. A typical mix or ‘batch’ is:
2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Silica 70% Principles of Bottle Making Soda Ash 15% Limestone 9% There are three main processes for the production of glass Refining Agents } containers: Colourants } 6% De-colourisers } 1. Blow and Blow 2. Press and Blow Cullet (broken glass) is normally added at the rate 30-75% 3. NNPB (Narrow Neck Press and Blow) and this reduces the temperature required for the melt to below 1500 oC, saving up to 10% of the energy consumed. Bottle Forming
The raw materials are weighed in batches and mixed. The Bottle forming is essentially a two stage process. The blank resultant mix is then added continuously in order to side receives the ‘gob’ and makes the ‘blank’ or ‘parison’. maintain a consistent level of 1.5 to 2 metres in the This partly formed bottle is then transferred to the mould furnace. A furnace is dedicated to one colour, which is side and the parison is blow into the final shape. usually: There are essentially three different processes. White flint (clear) Amber, for UV sensitive products or for decoration Blow and Blow Process Green, for decoration Beverage bottles up till the late 1970s were all made by this In order to achieve a colour, colorants are added to the process. The gob is dropped into the blank mould, then two batch. Also if there is colour present when a clear flint puffs of compressed air are successively applied to each bottle is requires, decolourisers are added. Iron in sand, for end of the blank. The parison is then transferred into the instance, will give a greenish tint which is due to the iron final mould and is blown to shape content of the sand. It should be noted that while the parison is formed in the final stage, the air bubble may not form a perfect uniform Amber - iron, sulphur, carbon internal shape, giving wall thickness variability. Green - chromium oxides Blue - cobalt oxides
Selenium (red) and cobalt (blue) oxides are used as decolourisers
Glass Melting
Most furnaces today use natural gas, and the fire from one side of the furnace. The hot air is exhausted at the other side into a regenerator. The heat generated melts the batch as it travels through the furnace. A temperature of up to 1500 oC is generated, over the surface of the batch, which Press and Blow Process melts as it floats through the furnace on the surface of the molten glass. With this process the parison is not made by blowing but by being pressed into an exact shape by a plunger; this makes The process is carefully controlled – the mix and the process especially suitable for glass jars. temperatures must be consistent in order to ensure a good product. Any change will give rise to problems when the bottle is being produced.
The molten glass now exits the furnace and shears cut the stream to create what is called the ‘gob’. The amount of glass in the gob is dependent on the temperature and composition of the glass, the size of the orifice, the length of stroke of the plunger and the timing of the shears. The gob then passes down a trough into the forming machine, which houses the bottle moulds. The consistency of the glass is similar to thick syrup.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
Bottle Faults and Testing Narrow Neck Press and Blow Process (NNPB) All manufacturers carry out intensive automatic on-line and This modern process allows bottles which would normally many off-line checks to ensure quality standards are been made using the blow and blow method, to be light- maintained, so that packaging companies do not have to weighted by 10 to 20%, due to a consistent wall thickness. carry out quality checks on receipt. This process is usually restricted to light weight NRB and is
not usually available for heavier bottles. 4.3 CLOSURES
CROWN CORK (for ready to drinks)
Types of Crown (Shell)
Stainless Steel (SS) Electrolytic Tin Plate Tin Free Steel (TFS) which is electro-chrome coated steel
A high degree of precision is required with this technology TFS is the most common. However tin plate gives more and it is normal for manufacturers only to be interested in corrosion protection and maybe favoured when packs are using this process when there is a large volume to be shrink wrapped. It has a much shinier appearance and is produced. Also the tooling cost is higher. more susceptible to scratching. SS is best for corrosion protection but is very expensive. If corrosion is to be avoided, bottles must be effectively dried under the crown Surface treatment and annealing of bottles is necessary in skirt. This should be carried out with air jets before the order to give them inner and surface strength, and labeller, at the correct angle, carrying high volume air at sufficient ‘slip’ so that they run well down a packaging line. low pressure. Taking high pressure air off the ring main not an option; a stand alone air compressor is that the most Annealing satisfactory solution. When a bottle leaves the forming machine its outer surface crown from rusting. is hard having cooled to 300oC; however, the inner part is Also a corrosion inhibitor in the pasteurizer will assist in still hot and soft. If cooling was to continue naturally, the preventing the inner parts would contract more than the outer cooler surface and dangerous stresses would develop. If a bottle is Originally a crown cork had a cork insert as a seal. This was left to cool without annealing, it is so weak that if you give a not leak proof so an aluminium spot was used to cover the tap with something metallic, it will implode! Annealing is cork and act as a liner and seal. This was known as the therefore necessary and involves heating the bottle to aluspot crown. 550oC and then slowly cooling it down in a tunnel called the Lehr. With the development of plastics the aluspot crown was replaced by a liquid PVC plastisol. These crowns have Hot End Treatment foamed liners which is forgiving when applied to returnable This treatment is to protect the surface from abrasion. The bottles which could have a slightly damaged sealing area. layer consists of a metal oxide, usually tin. Titanium and However when bottles are stacked on pallets without crate zirconium can also be used. Tin is applied as a stannic protection, the weight on the crown will flatten the plastic chloride vapour and decomposes to the oxide during and could result in bottles on the lower pallets leaking. heating. If there is too much coating in the finish area of the bottle it can be blamed for promoting the rusting of The most commonly used crown liners today are PVC and crowns. This protective layer will gradually be dissolved PVC-Free Dry-blends. They are suitable for good pressure over time making the bottle much more vulnerable to retention before and after pasteurization, stacking, oxygen scuffing. barrier and scavenging with soft and hard polymers. A double lip design is used. Cold End Treatment This is carried out as the bottles emerge from the annealing layer. Bottles are still at a temperature of approx. 100 oC. Cold end treatments are soluble coatings (including polyethylene glycols and their esters) and are applied by spray heads that traverse backward and forward between the rows of bottles. These coatings allow the bottles to “slip” against each other and conveyors and act as
lubricants. 4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
The above crowns are used on bottles with a standard materials. Nothing from the cork tree is wasted. Cork finish. However, a twist off crown needs to be profiled to fit stoppers are graded and sorted by a number of criteria. the bottle finish. The same crowner can be used but the Selected corks are washed and disinfected in a variety of crown tolerances need to be better managed within the methods. The most common method is washing the cork standard tolerance of 28.7mm+/-0.3mm. stoppers in a watery solution of hydrogen peroxide. New methods use microwaves or ozone to disinfect the corks. After the final selection, the cork stoppers may be printed according to clients' specifications via roller marking, ink marking or traditional branding.
CORK CLOSURES (Natural cork) Natural cork has been used as a closure for many years. It is still used widely in the wine industry but is now under challenge from more modern closure such as metal ROPPs. Cork closures are also typically used on more premium spirit brands such as Cognac and single malt Whisky. Cork Harvesting Cork consists of the thick outer bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber ). Harvesting cork is the operation of removing bark from the tree during spring or summer. This is the time of year that the tree is engaged in rapid growth. The tender, newly generated cork cells break away from the cambium easily and without damage. The process is temporarily debilitating but the outer bark quickly regenerates and the tree continues to flourish. Studies show that regular harvesting generally improves the trees health and vigor. Stripping cork is a delicate operation that is performed by hand with traditional tools and methods. Despite periodic attempts, there is no mechanized or automated process that can compare to traditional harvesting techniques. The delicate operation of stripping cork has been performed in the same way for decades. Today, cork stripping with a special axe continues to be the quickest and cleanest method available. Closure Manufacture – Bar Top Stoppers (Spirits) The initial process is exactly the same as for wine stoppers. Closure Manufacture – Wine Stoppers However once the cork shanks are punched they are then finished and shaped on a lath to add the beveled or The production process starts when seasoned cork planks chamfered edge. The cork shanks are then tumble waxed are stacked flat and boiled for at least one hour. Boiling using a food grade edible wax. The shank is then bonded allows individual cork cells to fully expand into a tight to the stopper using a food grade hot melt adhesive. The "honeycomb" cell structure. This makes the cork plank stopper head can be made of many materials which flatter, smoother, more pliable and causes the plank typically include, wood, plastic and metals such as Zamac. volume to expand by about 20%.
After the three-week resting period, the trimmed planks are sliced into strips along the length of the plank. Each strip is approximately as tall as the finished cork and a little deeper than the eventual cork width. The cork grain runs across the cork - not along its length. Corks are punched from the cork strips with a sharp, cylindrical knife. The knife determines the corks width. The height of the strip determines cork length. Unused cork, scrap and dust are collected for processing into other cork products such as insulation and construction
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 5
Characteristics of Cork Once the ink and varnish has dried, circular blanks are cut Cork has many advantageous characteristics which make it from the pre-printed aluminium alloy sheets and then a suitable material for closure manufacture. It is 100% drawn into a shallow wide cup with flange, which is then natural, biodegradable and recyclable. In a recent redrawn to the required diameter and trimmed in a independent study cork was considered to be the most separate operation. environmentally friendly and lowest carbon closure solution.
Cork is very light, elastic and compressible. This makes it easy to handle and manufacture, allows for easy insertion and removal of the cork from the bottle and allows for a degree of rough handling without breakage. In a typical bar top stopper the cork is designed to have a 7% compression when inserted in the bottle bore. This compression holds the cork in place.
Cork is impermeable, resistant to wear and tear and highly resistant to acids or alkalis. These characteristics ensure the closure is less likely to leak or deteriorate in direct contact with the spirit or wine.However, as cork is a natural material it suffers from variability batch to batch and year
on year. This variability leads to issues with the surface of the cork and this can cause either or both debris and taint. The debris is not an issue with wine drinkers who accept a little cork debris in the bottle however with high end spirits this debris can lead to consumer complaints. The debris tends to come from seed holes in the surface of the cork which can open up further once the cork is under compression in the neck of the bottle. DRAW
Taint is a much more serious issue for both wine and spirits. Taint is caused by the presence of 2,4,6-tricloroanisole. This compound gives a musty odour which is detectable at very low concentrations (typically parts per billion). Improvements in the treatment of the cork have significantly reduce the incidents of “corked” product but it is still a significant issue with various recent studies suggesting contamination levels as high a 7%. REDRAW
The decorated shells then pass through the tooling process METAL CLOSURES where the features such as knurling, bridges, embossing or side shaving are applied. Metal closures have been in common use since the 1920’s. They are now the most common type of closure found on spirit bottles and are fast becoming the most common closure on wine bottles. There are many trade and industry names for metal closures, two of the most common names are STEL and ROPP.
The basic principal for all metal closures are the same and aluminium is the most common material used in manufacture.
Metal Closure Manufacture The flat aluminium alloy sheet is first coated and decorated using an off-set litho printing process, using inks and varnishes which are normally baked or ultra-violet cured. The design of the required graphics will determine whether
the entire decoration is applied at this point or the top-print only – this is due to the fact that the metal is stretched and any decoration on the side wall becomes distorted during In the final stage the liners/fitments (wads) are inserted.
the process. 6 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Metal Closure Terminology Threaded ROPP closures are applied to containers with spinning capping heads. Capping heads generally have a combination of two thread rollers and two under-tuck rollers. Closures are dropped on to the container ring finish before they pass under the capping heads. Capping heads rotate as the pass down over the closures, applying vertical pressure at around 120kg to the top of the closure, forming a seal between the closure, liner and container. This compression action depresses the capping head pressure block, which in turn mechanically engages the thread and under-tuck rollers, applying roller pressure to the closure at the thread and under-tuck areas of the ring finish. The ring finish operates as a form for the aluminium to be molded to the container under the pressure of the capping head rollers. The thread rollers push the aluminium into the thread on the ring finish and follow the thread down to Knurling is usually added to a closure either for aesthetic form the complete thread on the closure. The under-tuck reasons or to provide better grip for the consumer when rollers follow the under-tuck recess of the ring finish, opening the closure. tucking the aluminium in through a full 360 deg rotation. As the capping head lifts upwards, the forming rollers The wad / liner is added to provide a seal between the glass disengage. and the aluminium shell of the closure. Wads are either made from cardboard lined with PET or from expanded Capping heads are made specific for each size of closure polyethylene which can also be faced with PET. As well as and can be interchanged to suit closure design preventing leakage wads provide a barrier for odour requirements. ingress. As the wad material comes into direct contact with the liquid in the bottle it has to be extremely inert and pass all relevant legislative requirements for a plastic material in contact with food.
The bridges are added to the closure to provide a degree of tamper evidence as once opened they are permanently broken. The bottom half of the closure is still attached to the bottle and shows the consumer the bottle has been “tampered” with.
Metal Closure Application
PLASTIC CLOSURES
Manufacturing Process
Plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, are loaded
into a hopper on top of the injection unit. The pellets are fed into the injection cylinder where they are heated until they reach molten form. Within the heating cylinder there is either a motorised screw or a ram that mixes the molten pellets and forces them to end of the cylinder. Once enough material has accumulated in front of the screw, the injection process begins…
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 7
CLAMPING - the moving and fixed platens of the injection COOLING - the plastic parts are then allowed to solidify in moulding machine hold the mould tool together under the mould. pressure. OPENING - the moving platen moves away from the fixed platen separating the mould tool.
EJECTION - rods, a plate or air blast then aids ejection of the completed plastic moulding from the injection mould tool.
INJECTION - the molten plastic that has been melted from the pellet form in the barrel of the moulding machine is injected under pressure into the mould via the sprue.
The length of time from closing the mould to ejecting the finished plastic moulding is the cycle.
Plastic Closure Terminology
DWELLING - after the molten plastic has been injected into the mould, pressure continues to be applied to ensure all cavities are filled.
Wadded External Screw Thread Wadless External (EST) (EST)
Plastic EST (External Screw Thread) Closure Application
Closures are typically loaded into an unscrambler, which separates and selects individual closures and feeds them in the correct orientation to a delivery chute. Closures slide down the chute to meet the containers. 8 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
In most moderate speed machines, the closure is presented Primary at an angle to the moving container, as shown below. The The product cannot be sold without these materials. They leading edge of the container ring finish engages the contain the product and meet legislation e.g. bottle, closure lip and pulls it out of the delivery chute. closure and label, product and best before information (if applicable to the product, i.e. it is spoilable).
Examples Bottles (Glass, Aluminium & PET), Crowns (Tin Free Steel, Tinned or Stainless Steel), Corks, Plastic caps, Roll on Closures (ROC), Labels or Sleeves (Paper, OPP - Oriented Polypropylene, PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride).
Secondary This effectively is the material that collates the primary package in some form i.e. a second layer of packaging. This turns the primary package into a saleable or marketable unit
Examples Board (Carton, Tray, Layer Board, Corrugate board, Sleeve Wrap & Multi-packs (Board & Film),
Crates. The container, with the closure resting on the ring finish, is indexed to a sealing or chucking station, where the appropriate mechanical action seals the closure to the Tertiary container, normally to a measures torque. This may be as This relates to the remainder of the packaging. It is really simple as passing the closure between rotating resilient there to protect the finished product, and allow it to be wheels that spin the closure on or through the use of transported safely, and without damage, to its final positive gripping chucks. On slower machines this is done at destination. one station while the container remains stationary throughout the closing motion. On faster machines, the Examples containers enter a rotary sealing head having four, six, Pallets, Locator Boards, Stretch & Shrink Film, eight, or sometimes more chucks or spindles. On rotary Tray/Shrink (If it is covering Secondary) machines the container and chuck move together during the closing motion. A timing screw and star wheel are Packaging Materials Functions required at each end of the rotary machine to ensure proper entry and exit. There are two main functions of packaging, these are:
Closure Torque Technical Functions Torque is the resistance to application or removal of the Marketing Functions closure. Application torque is a measure of the tightness to which the machine turns the closure onto the container. a) Technical Functions Removal torque is a measure of the force required to remove the closure after application. Application torques Containment • can be adjusted to promote a suitable seal after closure Holds contents without leakage application, whilst maintaining the appropriate level of Protection • removal torque for ease of opening. Product does not hurt or disgust the consumer Preservation 4.4 Packaging Materials • Product will keep for the period described as the shelf life of the product which be up to Packaging materials are one of the vital parts of packaging the best before date and is not responsible and the understanding of them is important. So often a for imparting flavours (if applicable to the machine fails to run as designed because the material product e.g. liqueurs, ready to drinks) purchased has not been properly specified for that Measurement machine, or the material properties have changed in • storage prior to its use on the line. Holds the legally declared quantity Storage • The following defines Primary , Secondary and Tertiary Will travel and store successfully packaging
• Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 9
b) Marketing Functions The first part is an overall policy statement. This would normally relate to a restriction in chemical treatment or Communication the use of compounds which could affect the product. This • Product name and anything else would include the requirement for tests, should the about the product supplier wish to use a different form of treatment; for Display example, the use of a different lacquer inside a beverage • Looks good on the shelf. Neat, tidy can. It may also include an environmentally based and well packaged statement that requires a percentage of the supplied Information material to be recycled. This of course needs to be done • Contents, ABV, Best Before (if with great sensitivity, as some materials will have a applicable), Batch Number and any significantly reduced performance if there is a recycled other relevant information which will content. normally be a legal requirement Promotion The second part will cover all components that come under • Packaging is often used to promote a a common heading, such as bottles, trays, cartons, film etc. product – a peelable label for This will include the general description, technical example requirements, quality and environment specific to the Selling component. • Final packaging will sell the product • Finally, the third part will be specific to the actual Materials Specifications component, giving dimensions, type of material, barcodes, artwork and so on. This is agreed with the supplier and The functions can be understood, but it is important that with other parties, such as marketing, sales and the materials that are purchased enable the final package manufacturing. As and when components are added or to function as perceived. Poor specifications can be changed there is a minimum quantity of documentation responsible for issues on the packaging line or in trade. involved – whether it is computer based or in a file. Each These specifications also need to be controlled. One component is given a code –either alphanumeric or approach, to make control easier, is to divide the numeric. specification into three parts.
10 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 5 The Glass Bottle Line. Notes - Numerous moving parts and heavy loading means 5.1 A General Overview of Packaging Plant that this machine needs maintenance and attention. Work on the machine is potentially dangerous and safety A packaging Line is designed to fill packages (in this case interlocks/safe systems of work are required. non-returnable bottles) with liquid and to present those packages to the warehouse or customer suitably assembled Orientator* (requirement dependent on bottle type) in the most efficient way while preserving the quality of the product. Purpose - To position shaped or specially designed bottles The design of the line will depend on the type of package in the correct alignment and how it is assembled, on the required rate or capacity of the line and on the type of liquid to be packaged. Features - A carousel, with sensors designed to pick up a register mark on the bottle which determines how much the The packaging line described below refers to:- bottles need to be turned to reach the correct alignment A non-returnable bottling line where new bottles are presented to the line on pallets and the output is packed Notes - The incoming bottles have been received from the in cartons and assembled on pallets. manufacturer but may have been stored in a dusty warehouse, uncovered. Rinse water from the jetter can be checked for debris. Non-Returnable Bottling Line. Bottle Rinser A flow diagram of an idealised Non-Returnable Bottling line is presented below: Purpose - To remove particles and dust from inside the
empty bottles.
Features - A carousel, a conveyor twist or an ‘S’ shaped belt where the bottles are inverted, jetted with air then with clean water (note some machines use solely air or water, not necessarily both)
Notes - The incoming bottles have been received from the manufacturer to an agreed, contracted standard, but may have been stored in a dusty warehouse, uncovered. Rinse water from the rinser can be checked for debris via a mesh filter.
Empty Bottle Inspector (EBI)
Purpose - To check that the empty bottles from the washer meet the requirements of:- • Internal cleanliness. • Contain no foreign objects. • Are undamaged.
Features - Inspection is either ‘manually’ by eye or electronically. Electronic bottle inspectors throw a beam of light through the bottle vertically or horizontally and reject bottles that display shadows or give an abnormal light pattern.
Principal plant items. Notes - The need for the bottler to demonstrate due
diligence in protecting the customer means that inspection Depalletiser is important. Slower production lines may not require an
automated inspector and may rely on manual visual Purpose - To remove new bottles from pallets and to inspection present them to a conveyor for transport the line. Modern automatic systems incorporate side wall
inspection, base inspection, neck inspection and residual Features - Mechanical operation using pneumatic/hydraulic liquid inspection. rams and electric motors. Sensing of positions by microswitches and light beams. 2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Note that not all manufacturers use these machines, preferring instead to have their supplier guarantee the Crowner, Capper or Corker quality of the incoming bottles, and the rinser to remove any particles accumulated as a result of storage. Purpose - To seal the bottle so that:- • Product cannot leak out. The diagrams below show examples of accept/ reject • Air cannot get in (important for saleable products) criteria: • The bottle is tamper proof Accept Reject • The bottle can be opened easily when required for consumption
Features - The closure machine usually consists of a hopper that presents the closures to the head correctly aligned and a head that applies the closure onto the top of the bottle. The applications and sealing requires fine adjustment to give a tight seal without damaging the bottle.
Notes - The closure machine is usually positioned close to the filler so that the opportunity for air or foreign bodies to Accept Reject enter the space above the bottle is minimised. In many cases the two machines are combined together.
Pasteuriser Purpose - To produce a microbiologically stable product. Usually positioned after the filler / closer, for products that require microbial stabilisation
Features - Tunnel pasteurisers use a system of graded heat water tanks to gradually heat the bottles to pasteurisation temperature, and then back down again to prevent thermal shock breaking the bottles. Accept Reject Notes - Bottles of hot product, especially if carbonated, constitute a hazard in terms of glass breakage.
Full Bottle inspection
Purpose - To check that the full bottles from the filler/closer meet the requirements of:- • Filled with the right volume of product. Bottle filler • Are undamaged.
Purpose - To transfer liquid into the bottle achieving the Features - Inspection is either ‘manually’ by eye or following parameters:- electronically. Electronic bottle inspectors throw a beam of • Filling to the specified volume of product light or radiation through the bottle at the product level. • Protecting the quality of the product by avoiding air Incorrectly filled bottles are rejected, and are reworked or pickup (for staleable / spoilable liquids) scrapped. • Filling at the specified rate – important in determining overall line speeds. Notes - The need for the bottler to demonstrate due diligence in meeting the requirements of both the national Features - Filling machines usually consist of a rotating taxation (Excise)* authority or Trading Standards* means circular tank which forms the main part of a carousel, that inspection is essential. housing a number of filling heads. The bottles are filled as they travel around the carousel. In traditional filler design, Often a coarse inspection will take place after filling and a the carousel is surrounded by a number of cams which more accurate one after pasteurisation for saleable / control the process of filling. spoilable products. For high strength spirits, one check is done, after the closure machine. Notes - Fillers come in a variety of forms, the most common are counterpressure, low vacuum, and volumetric. Inspection can be backed up with accurate volume Different liquids may require different applications and measurement for individual packages. In the case of bottles services on the machine. See more detail later. this means emptying the contents into a measuring cylinder. Records of inspection are kept for the relevant authorities. Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
Details of correct filling procedures are given in the Secondary Packaging - Multipacker appropriate codes of practice – the so called “packers rules”. Purpose - To put full bottles into cardboard boxes or cartons and to present them to a conveyor for transport to * Or other national legislative and regulatory bodies. the packer. A ‘multipack’ is a single pack containing a group of bottles Labeller that the customer buys as a unit Purpose - To put a label or labels onto the bottle that:- Multipacks may be packed into ‘Stock Holding Units’. • Informs the customer about the product giving details about name, alcohol content, volume, best before date Features - Mechanical operation using pneumatic or etc. mechanical grips for lifting the bottles into the boxes or forming the boxes around the bottles. • Advertises the product by presenting an attractive appearance when displayed. Mechanism for closing the boxes (may include hot melt glue) • Provides information for the manufacturer giving
details about the code, date, bottling line, bright spirit Notes - Numerous moving parts means that this machine tank etc. needs maintenance and attention.
The machine is set up for one size of bottle and box at a Features - Labelling machines comprise the following parts:- time and requires changeover to different formats. Very • A magazine to hold stacks of labels. fine adjustments can be sufficient to make these machines • A glue system that transfers glue from a reservoir onto run poorly. a revolving drum which then glues profiled pallets. Work on the machine is dangerous and safety • The revolving pallets to which the labels are interlocks/safe systems of work are required. transferred face up.
• A gripper cylinder which collects the glued labels and Secondary Packaging – Case Packer / Carton Packer transfers them to bottles. • A revolving carousel that holds the bottles so that the Purpose - To put full bottles or multipacks into cardboard glued labels can be attached. boxes and to present them to a conveyor for transport to the palletiser. Notes - A labelling machine has many moving parts and needs to be carefully set up. Features - Mechanical operation using pneumatic or Points to take into consideration are bottle temperature mechanical grips for lifting the bottles into the boxes or and dryness, label paper quality, glue consistency and forming the boxes around the bottles. temperature. Mechanism for closing the boxes (may include hot melt The glue migrates all over the machine and a cleaning glue). regime is essential. A diagram of a typical wet adhesive labelling process is Notes - Numerous moving parts means that this machine shown below. needs maintenance and attention.
Non-returnable bottles may also labelled with self-adhesive The machine is set up for one size of bottle and box. paper or plastic labels or be screen printed (in which case Work on the machine is dangerous and safety paper labels would not be used). interlocks/safe systems of work are required.
Diagram of a wet glue applied, paper labeller:- Shrinkwrapper
Purpose - To cover/surround packs in plastic film to give added protection / robustness and to present them to a conveyor for transport to the palletiser.
Features - Mechanical operation where a film is draped over the pack which is then passed through a heated tunnel where the film shrinks tight over the pack.
Notes - Numerous moving parts means that this machine needs maintenance and attention. Work on the machine is dangerous and safety interlocks/safe systems of work are required.
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Palletiser / Stretchwrapper Health & Safety
Purpose - To stack full packs onto pallets so that they are There are numerous hazards associated with bottling, stable and to present them to a conveyor for transport to these are itemised below along with the normal the warehouse. To wrap pallets tightly with stretch film procedures used to reduce or eliminate them:- that increases their stability. Hazard Safety procedure Features - Mechanical operation using pneumatic/hydraulic Broken glass • Use of safety glasses. rams and electric motors. • Guarding of plant. Sensing of positions, pack count and layer formation by Noise. • Plant design to reduce bottles microswitches and light beams. colliding etc. Pallets may be stretch wrapped for extra stability. • Building design to adsorb noise.
• Use of ear protectors. Notes - Numerous moving parts and heavy loading means Hazardous gases. • Staff awareness of hazards. that this machine needs maintenance and attention. • Work on the machine is dangerous and safety Slips trips and Use of non slip materials for interlocks/safe systems of work are required. falls. floors and steps etc. • Regular cleaning of floors. Conveyors • Limited use of hoses. Machinery • Permit to work procedures for Purpose - To transport product units (bottles, multipacks, accidents. maintenance. cases etc) along the line. • Guarding of machinery. The simplest conveyors run along straight lines, conveyors can be designed to run around shallow corners and up / down inclines. Mechanically simple but a crucial part of the 5.2 NRB Bottle Filling Systems operation. Filling Principles for Product into Bottles Features - Conveyors consist of a chain of slats driven by an electric motor. There are a number of types of filler on the market, and The slats may be made of metal (stainless steel) or of a more than one manufacturer to choose from. There is also plastic material. Different materials of construction or a major difference between filling carbonated liquids as conveyor type are used depending on the application. opposed to non-carbonated liquids. However, one principle always applies, and that is carbonated beverages Notes - Metal conveyors need lubrication to reduce friction must be filled under pressure in order to keep the gas although cardboard must be kept dry. (carbon dioxide and sometimes nitrogen) in solution. Fillers Conveyor speed can be automatically controlled to meet employing this principal are called barometric or more the requirements of the line. For example during a commonly counter-pressure fillers. Previously, gravity stoppage, the conveyor system can slow down or stop. fillers were used, but these do not give such a clean fill, and Conveying systems are designed with automated speed product may drip from the filling heads once filling is control and line sensing to provide dynamic accumulation complete. between all the principal line machines. Conveyors are designed with guide rails to prevent bottles For saleable products, the presence of oxygen can be a from falling over – these rails must not damage labels or problem. It leads to stale flavours on pasteurisation, and bottle finish. can also encourage microbial spoilage. Oxygen can be
removed by pre-evacuating a glass bottle or CO 2 flushing a Pallet inspection & labelling PET bottle before filling. Pre-evacuation is carried out by applying a 90% vacuum twice which will give a 99% pure
Purpose - To check that the pallets from the palletiser / CO 2 gas in the bottle before filling. Flushing with CO 2, as is stretchwrapper meet the requirements of :- the case for PET (and cans), will generally give a result • Fit for purpose. above 90% CO 2 purity, but it will be lower than that • Are undamaged. achieved with the pre-evacuation of glass bottles. • Are correctly labelled if necessary. Fillers can be mechanical or electro-pneumatic . Features - Inspection is usually ‘manually’ by eye. Automatic In the mechanical versions, the filling cycle is operated by pallet labelling machine, or labels printed on a computer trips and cams which are located at set points around the and applied by hand as they enter the warehouse. circumference of the filler. The trips turn the levers on the filling heads, and the cams operate the various valves. So, Notes - Pallets receive hard wear and are often damaged. in order for the filling cycle to complete, the filler must Stacking on damaged pallets is hazardous, and damaged continuously rotate. The fill level is controlled by the length pallets may themselves cause machinery to jam or go into of vent tube which returns the gas content of the bottle to fault condition. the filler bowl. When the product covers the end of the Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 5
tube it prevents the return of gas and therefore stops the filling operation.
With the electro-pneumatic version, the filling cycle is programmed for each filling head. The filling cycle does not, therefore, depend on the rotation of the filler for the cycle to operate. This is an advantage when the filler stops with containers on it, as the filling cycle will continue to product shut off. On the mechanical filler, the product valve can be open and one is dependent on a perfect seal between the valve and container to prevent over-fill. The fill level is sensed by a probe and this shuts off the supply of product. Bottles are fed onto the filler by a scroll, which pitches the Fillers can also be volumetric . With these fillers the volume bottles correctly into starwheels which transfer them up of product can be metered via a magnetic flow (magflo) from the conveyor pitched so that they are timed correctly meter or alternatively each head is fitted with a cylinder of onto the bottle platforms of the filler. These then raise a given volume. The volume released by the cylinder is them up to seal on the filling head. programmed via a float or conductivity probe. A filler designed for volumetric filling does not need a ring bowl for Product is supplied from the Finished Product Tank. The product, but may well be fed from a constant pressure tank temperature of the product for packaging must be low (less as controlled conditions are required for an accurate and than 3 °C) to keep dissolved gasses in solution. It may be smooth operation necessary to install a trim chiller in the line. For non- carbonated products this is not an issue. Bottle Filler Features The filler has a circular product tank (the filler ringbowl) Purpose - To transfer product into the bottle achieving the whose level is automatically controlled by supplying following parameters:- product at the same rate as filling and venting off to • Filling to the specified volume of product control top pressure. This venting also releases the air • Protecting the quality of the product by avoiding air which accumulates in the filler bowl when bottles are filled. pickup and foreign body contamination. These ringbowls are often fitted with sightglasses to aid • Filling at the specified rate. operators in quickly assessing the liquid level in the ringbowl (low level will lead to short fills). Features - Filling machines consist of a rotating circular tank which houses a number of filling heads. The bottles are filled as they travel around the system. There are several stations on the filler that are designed to ensure that the bottles are filled meeting the specified parameters.
The Filling Cycle for Counter-pressure Bottle Fillers
Different types of fillers have already been discussed. It is now understood, therefore, that fillers used for carbonated products are counter-pressure fillers and are generally
short tube. For glass bottle fillers the air is displaced by CO 2 using pre-evacuation. Vacuum (90%) is normally applied twice leaving 1% air in the bottle. The container is then pressurised until the pressure is equal to the pressure in the filler bowl; on equalisation, the valve will open allowing the product to flow down the inner side of the container. As Level control can be by float switch, electronic probe or by soon as the product reaches the tip of the vent valve the pressure control. return gas passage will be blocked so allowing an immediate pressure build up in the bottle which will, in Filler operation:- turn, stop the product flowing. It is worth noting that these
machines can also be used to fill non-carbonated high 1. Evacuation strength spirits, with the evacuation and counterpressure phases of the filling cycle switched off. Similarly there is no The bottles are full of air as they enter the filler, the need for snift. purpose of the evacuation stage is to remove as much of that air as possible.
6 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
3. Filling.
Bottle filling has to achieve the following objectives:-
• The correct volume of product must be put into the bottle. This is achieved either by controlling the level to which the bottle is filled as shown in the diagram or by filling the bottle from a volume controlled filling chamber.
• To protect the quality of the product by preventing gas release through fobbing and by the prevention of oxygen pickup (for staleable products). This is achieved by counter pressuring and by filling as gently as possible so as not to disturb the product. A gentle fill is achieved by filling from the base of the bottle through a long
tube or by running the product down the inside walls of The filling machine is fitted with a vacuum ring connected the bottle via spreader rubbers on the vent tube as to a vacuum pump which evacuates the bottle as shown in shown in the diagram. the diagram.
2. Counter pressure.
The bottle is then counter pressured with CO 2 , possibly from the gas space above the product in the filling machine’s product reservoir as shown in the diagram or from a separate source. The purposes of counter pressurising the bottle before filling are:- • To prevent the product from fobbing during filling. A constant top pressure will keep dissolved gasses (CO 2) in solution. • To provide an inert gas atmosphere in the bottle and avoid oxygen pickup (important for saleable products).
The product valve opens to let the product in while the gas in the bottle is released into the head space above the product in the filling bowl. In most fillers, the product valve opens against a spring when the pressure in the bottle equals the pressure above the product. If the bottle bursts during filling, the pressure in the product chamber closes the product valve immediately. Procedures must be in place to ensure that broken glass from a burst bottle does not migrate into other packages. This might involve the filler being programmed such that for the next three turns of the machine, the filling head with the broken bottle and the heads either side of it are
When the pressure in the bottle equals the top pressure not filled. An automatic spray jet can also be used to above the product, the product can fill the bottle gently by pressure wash broken glass from the filling head when a gravity alone. broken bottle is detected.
4. Bottle Full In some filling machines, the bottle is evacuated, flushed with CO 2 , re-evacuated and then counter pressured. This procedure is used when there is a requirement for air The bottle is full when the product level reaches and rises removal to be even more effective. up the filling tube. With this design of filler, tubes need to be changed for different sizes of bottle; a tube change is not required with a volumetric filling system.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 7
air that may be present in the head space. This fobbing is initiated by tapping, vibrating or, more usually, by jetting a small volume of water (normally hot water) into the bottle. The jetter is set so that the overflow is just taking place as the crown, or any other closure, is placed on top of the bottle. For products that do not fob easily, but are prone to staling if pasteurised, it may be necessary to use inert atmosphere gas tunnels (either nitrogen or carbon dioxide) that cover the empty bottle transfer section into the filler, and between it and the closer.
Low Vacuum Fillers – preferred for High Strength Spirits
Where counterpressure is not required (i.e. for the vast
majority of high strength spirits) then it is common to use a low vacuum filler. The vacuum that exists in the ringbowl
5. Snift. (a vacuum pump is connected to the filler) prevents drips from the filling valve when filling – the contents of the A controlled ‘snift’ is introduced to release the top pressure filling valve cannot escape once the bottle is filled. Very gently. exact fill levels can be obtained as the system automatically corrects the fill level if the container has been overfilled (important for customs and cost reasons!). The actual sequence of events in the low vacuum filler is very similar to that of the counterpressure device, with the evacuation and counterpressure elements removed. It is important that the correct vent tubes are fitted, and the correct vacuum pressure maintained, otherwise low fills may result.
5.3 Bottle Closer
As it leaves the filling machine, the full bottle is ready for
closing. As we have already seen, for saleable or The gas space above the product in the bottle is pressurised carbonated products it is important to ensure as much air and the product may fob or overflow if this pressure is as possible is evacuated from the bottle headspace before released quickly when the bottle comes off the filling it is closed. For the vast majority of high strength spirits, machine. Some machines give a double snift. this is not a concern, as they are not prone to staling, are not pasteurised, and have no risk of microbial infection.
As mentioned above, some filling machines fill the Crowner. container with a measured volume of product. These are called volumetric filling machines. The filling principles are Purpose - To seal the bottle so that:- the same but a metering chamber is incorporated in the • Product cannot leak out. system:- • Air cannot get in. • The bottle is tamper proof. The closure itself may feature anti-counterfeit measures. • The bottle can be opened easily when required for consumption. The closure may be designed to aid pouring function.
Features - The closer consists of a hopper that presents the closures to the head correctly aligned and a head that crimps or seals the closure onto the top of the bottle. The degree of crimp or seal is adjusted to give a tight seal without damaging the bottle.
Notes - The closer is positioned close to the filler so that the opportunity for air to enter the space above the product is minimised. Similarly, product cannot spill from The full bottle is now ready for closing, though as it leaves the bottle and indirectly produce low fills the filling machine, it is deliberately fobbed up to expel any 8 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
For Ready to Drinks, the crown is still the most popular form of closure. It is both capable of holding the pressure in the container as well as venting gas safely when it is removed prior to consumption. The crowning machine (often called the ‘crowner’) is blocked with the filler and runs in synchronisation with it.
The high level crowner hopper dispenses a crown down a chute, through a tube which ensures the correct The most commonly used crown liners today are PVC and orientation of the crown, and onto the bottle. The crowning PVC-Free Dry-blends. They are suitable for good pressure head then applies a vertical load to the crown to ensure retention before and after pasteurisation, stacking, oxygen that the sealing pad (insert) is compressed between the barrier and scavenging with soft and hard polymers. A metal and the glass of the bottle. While this load is double lip design is used. Pry off crowns are used on maintained, a specially profiled hardened die is forced bottles with a standard finish. However, a twist off crown down over the skirt of the crown creating the seal. needs to be profiled to fit the bottle threaded neck finish. The finished diameter of the crown is critical with a The same crowning machine can be used but the crown tolerance of only 0.6mm (28.7+/- 0.3mm). tolerances need to be better managed within the standard tolerance of 28.7mm+/-0.3mm. Crowners should always be kept clean. Dust build up from the crowns can congeal and effect performance as well as 5.4 Sterile Filling creating a contamination risk. Some fillers have crowners with cleaning in place (CIP) installed. This makes the Many packaging operations use sterile filling procedures for cleaning operation much more complete. Crown tolerance bottles and cans to avoid the need for tunnel is measured using a ‘Go No Go’ gauge. This could be a 3 pasteurisation. Sterile filling is a term used for filling when hole gauge with hole sizes of 28.4mm, 28.7mm and it is important to ensure that there is no pick up of 29.0mm. infection during filling. This would apply when product is filled after being flash pasteurized or sterile filtered. For A Go No Go gauge high strength spirits products, this is not necessary. For low strength spirits products, including RTDs and premixed drinks, it may be a suitable alternative to the heavy capital investment (and size requirement) required 28.4mm 28.7mm 29.0mm to install a tunnel pasteuriser.
Several modifications to standard filling procedures will be
necessary to achieve the higher level of sanitised It should be difficult to pass the 28.4mm gauge over the conditions required, but generally a modern standard filler crown. If it slips over the crown, it is too tight and this could can be used for this type of filling, especially if they are lead to bottle breakage when the crown is removed. If the easy to clean. Usually a much more rigourous and 29.0mm gauge does not go over the crown, it is too loose disciplined cleaning regime is necessary to ensure good and this will give leakages. A full set of bottles off the product stability. In addition, the filler may be placed in a crowner should be checked each shift and after a guarded area which is kept clean, so that the filler is changeover, this will determine the efficacy of each enclosed in a microbe free environment. This could mean a crowning head. separate room or a “shroud” over the filler, either of which
is fitted with a sterile air filter and the air is changed Crown cork closure frequently and kept at a slight positive pressure to ensure no ingress of dirty air. seal The immediate working area around the filler (either the sterile room or shroud) should be regarded as a “sterile envelope” and is likely to have sterilant sprays fitted in order to drench the whole filler with sterilant (such as chlorine dioxide) after operators or engineers have had to approach the filler for whatever reason, so that the sterile integrity is not compromised. Only operators and engineers equipped with appropriate protective clothing should be permitted to enter the “sterile envelope”.
Sterile filling is more achievable today as standard machines are designed to be hygienic and are much easier to clean.
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 9
The main differences in approach on a line without an in- CIP flow rates designed to give high levels of turbulence package (or tunnel) pasteuriser are: (velocities > 2m/s ideally 2.5 m/s) Use of hygienic fittings and valves The product to be packaged must be sterile i.e. Make pipe runs as short as possible completely clear of all potential spoilage organisms Do not create traps – all pipe work should be able to The filler installation and layout must be hygienic self-drain The environment around the filler must be free of any All gas in contact with the product is sterile – filtering organisms which could infect the product with a 0.25 micron filter should be sufficient, and as The bottles and closures need to be sterile close to the point of use as possible. Simple cleaning Cleaning and CIP regimes need to be rigorous and facility (steam) and easy filter replacement must be highly disciplined considered The training of personnel in hygiene and methods of operation need to be carried out to ensure total In the case of the Sterile Buffer Tank all fittings, including understanding and commitment temperature and level probes, need to be flushed along Microbiology back up from the laboratory is essential with the internal surface of the vessel. The sample cock The product can be sterilized in two ways: needs to be a membrane type. Ensure that the programmes for CIP, flushing, product intake, changeovers and finish Sterile filtration have been precisely specified to ensure no contamination. Plate (or Flash) Pasteurisation The bottle rinser must be blocked with filler to ensure a Each type has its benefits. Sterile filtration will produce short, synchronised transfer from the rinser to the filler. product that has no heat damage, and can be installed in- line to the filler making the operation much simpler. However, the process needs to be closely monitored and Sterility of Bottles and Closures filters need to be well maintained. These filters may also not be suitable for the product, e.g. they could remove or It is now a common approach to deliver a sterile bottle to reduce the levels of flavour compounds, or the constituents the filler. It is also possible to purchase a sterile filler which of the product may blind the filters quickly. actually steam sterilizes the bottle before filling, as part of the filling cycle. The method chosen today is usually plate pasteurisation as it is easier and cheaper to manage. The setup is very similar Crowns or caps can be sprayed with 300ppm PAA to that used for kegging beer. For comparison purposes, (Peracetic Acid) or be treated with UV. However, general the capital cost for the installation of a sterile filter would advice is to keep them dry in a clean storage area. Dry be about 50% higher and running costs approximately 3 crowns will not carry infection. times greater. With a plate pasteuriser, however, a sterile buffer tank needs to be installed in order to balance the Cleaning and CIP system. This is because a plate pasteuriser cannot give an instantaneous change in product supply as the filler slows There is no correct way – the important thing is that it is down, speeds up and stops. effective in preventing infection and this will be discovered through trials. For sterile filling, there will be a need for Another advantage is that with a plate pasteuriser bottles more cleaning time and this will affect the utilization of the (and cans if used) can be packaged with carbonated line. With sterile filling, it is good practice to run the product at a higher temperature (which can go up to 15 oC), containers out of the filler every two hours, and then hose depending on the gas content. This can be important with down the filler externally with water which has been regard to keeping finished packs free of condensation. treated with PAA or chlorine dioxide. This could take 5-10 Also, for bottle labelling, the bottle needs to be condensate minutes which is equivalent to a 4 to 8% loss of utilization. free (dry surface). Product from a sterile filter may be low A full CIP, or internal cleaning; needs to happen at least in temperature when bottled, so a bottle warmer may be twice a week when continuous running. It should also take required to warm up the bottles before the labels are place after stops, or at liquid changes. The CIP will consist applied. of a rinse, caustic wash, another rinse, and then finally a rinse with PAA or chlorine dioxide treated water. External Filler Installation and Layout foam cleaning needs to take place after CIP.
Good design practices must be followed from the exit of the Training of Personnel pasteuriser or sterile filter right up to the filler. This will include: No person should be allowed near the filler without the proper training in hygiene and operation. It is important No CIP dead legs. Points where the solution will not pass that an assessment of each individual is carried out after when being circulated training, and that only certified people are allowed to operate or maintain the plant. A certain amount of Valves or caps on T’s less than 1.5 pipe diameters away classroom training in hygiene and operation must be given from the junction 10 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
to the operators and engineers first. It is also important Fillers are usually set to fault when a bottle breaks inside. that proper, simple and straight forward work instructions This stops the machine and minimises the risk of an excess with diagrams are prepared for the operation, so as there is of bottles being smashed inside them (if, for example, the no misunderstanding about what needs to be done. The transfer starwheel from the filler to the closer has gone out implications of not carrying out instructions must be clearly of time, it might continue to smash bottles). The machine understood. bed is usually designed with catch trays at the edges, such that any liquid spilled may be recovered manually via these Microbiological Back Up trays into containers that are then returned to the product preparation stream. So as to ensure that a sterile product is not going to be contaminated, it is important that all points of contact such Flow of spirit is controlled usually by a flow control valve on as mains, valves, pumps and vessels are absolutely clean the inlet to the filler ringbowl. Control of this valve is and infection free. A good discipline must be in place for performed by a level gauge on the filler ringbowl, such that sampling especially as there is a delay of 4 to 7 days before if the filler stops rotating, the product valve will be closed it is known whether a product sample is free of infection. to ensure that the level of spirit in the ringbowl does not Sampling regimes must also be traceable. overflow. In low vacuum fillers, the operation of the vacuum pump is also important, given that if it fails or A summary of some good practices are: stops, spirit may leak from the filling heads.
An adequate sampling room which allows at least two Product storage tanks will usually have flame arrestors on samples from each batch to be kept for the given shelf them to act as a safety stop in the event of spirit vapours life for the product. igniting. These fulfil two functions – limiting the spread of An extra one to two samples to be passed through a a fire or explosion if one has already occurred, and membrane filter and incubated anaerobically for 4-7 preventing the potentially explosive mixture from igniting. days and aerobically for 2-4 days. Basic fire prevention techniques should be applied within Two samples to be taken for forcing tests and kept in the packaging hall itself. Sprinkler systems, foam warm storage (25-30 oC) for a period of 4-6 weeks. suppression systems, and fire extinguishers of the correct Continuous samples are collected from the line feed to type are all in common use. the filler every 2 hours from a continuous membrane sampler. Local legislation may also require to be adhered to, Swabs are taken from plant after cleaning for depending on the country of packaging. For example, in bioluminescence testing to ensure cleanliness. the UK the Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations Tests carried out on the water supply, water from the 1999 (CoMAH) and their amendments (2005) are rinser, water from the tanks and filler after cleaning. applicable to any site storing or handling large quantities of
Also checks on gas supplies used CO 2 (perhaps N 2) and industrial materials of a hazardous nature. The main aim of crowns. Indeed anything that will come into contact the regulations is to reduce the risk of potential major with the liquid. accidents, as well as limiting the consequences to people and the environment of any major accidents which do occur. They operate on two levels depending on the site 5.5 Hazards of Filling High Strength Spirits status which is divided into Lower Tier and Upper Tier (by volume of inventory held on the site). Bottling sites that Due to their flammable nature, it is important to ensure the contain a stored quantity of bulk spirit may fall in both product transfer, filling process, and bottle handling are all these categories, depending on the quantity stored or risk assessed in terms of fire hazard from the product. processed at any one time.
Most bottling lines that produce these products tend to be The principles of CoMAH are as follows: slower than for RTD / beer, with speeds ranging between 1. The site must take all necessary measures to prevent 25 up to 150 bottles per minute (bpm) on most production major accidents. It must carry out a risk analysis to lines. However for large volume products, with simpler understand and predict: bottle shapes, it is increasingly common for lines to be - how a major accident could happen on your site rated higher than this, with speed upward of 300bpm and - the possible consequences of a major accident occasionally higher. As a rule of thumb, the higher the line speed, the greater the risk of bottle breakage and 2. Examples of situations to consider for this risk analysis consequent spirit spillage. include: - spills due to vessel or pipework failures Loss of containment of spirit can happen either due to - explosions bottle breakage, or by leaks and damaged / faulty - major fires equipment. The site must have a risk assessment that details the risk likelihood and severity of the process, with control measures in place to deal with each likely cause. Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 11
3. The site must prepare a Major Accident Prevention 5. The site should verify its CoMAH materials on an annual Policy (MAPP) document. This should include details of basis, and CoMAH considerations should form a part of measures used to control major accident hazards on the every capital project or where are process step on the site site. The site should also prepare a safety management is altered. system document showing the organisational structure, responsibilities, procedures and resources for implementing the MAPP.
4. The site must provide documented evidence to the HSE (Health & Safety Executive) showing it has taken precautions to prevent major accidents. This should include plans, systems and proceduresl
12 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 6 Bottle washing and inspection, plant and packaging materials preparation, and on-line checks.
6.1 Preparation of plant and packaging Transfer of Spirit to the Filler: materials. After the spirit has been carefully prepared, it now needs to be handled gently so as not to spoil it at the last hurdle. Empty Container and Packaging Materials: So often things go wrong, because operators take short Many packaging operations utilise Supplier Quality cuts, and then end up with a disaster which leads to poor Assurance principles for purchase and supply of packaging quality and waste. Some filler installations are extremely materials, but there is always a need for spot checks to sophisticated but the same basic rules apply. ensure correct standard of material has been supplied (in • terms of grade of material, decoration standards and colour Ensure that the filler is properly rinsed. In general matching, any indication of poor storage prior to delivery or a rinse is required once each week as an absolute delivery damage). minimum. This may also be required if changing over, for example, from a dark to a white spirit. It is also an important feature of start up procedures to The closure applicator must also be cleaned with ensure correct sizes of containers, labels, closures etc are special attention paid to the chute to prevent available and in sufficient quantity for the appropriate closure dust congealing volume of spirit to be packaged. • Purge all pipework and filler (all channels) with cold water from the tank which is providing the With regard to preparation of containers for filling, the spirit. following examples illustrate the appropriate procedures to
be applied: • Isolate the filler Preparing bottles for filling. • Change to spirit (first make sure that it is the right • Depalletiser spirit and that it has been checked!), and displace all water with spirit up to the valve isolating the o delayer, crate turner, pallets checked and filler. This should be done using tank pressure only transferred to magazine for reuse i.e. not using the supply pump
Appropriate records of all packaging materials should be • Blow out all water from the filler with the gas kept against a time log or check sheet (e.g. pallet tickets for being used for filling (usually air or CO 2 but could incoming bottles and the time of application to the filling be N 2 or air). Allow pressure to build up three to line); batch codes of closures, labels, and secondary four times to ensure filler is emptied of water packaging materials. • Having set up the filler for filling, bring spirit gently Plant Preparation: into the filler against the filling pressure – pump In general terms, the following pre-filling checks should be now required carried out: • Spirit supply in specification • Having set the filler up in preparation for filling, it is then normal to remove at least the first two • Spirit temperature correct rounds off the filler to ensure that there will be no diluted spirit going to market. • Filling level under control Note: Many producers who fill only one type (e.g. brown • For bottling, filling tubes set correctly spirits) wouldn’t use a water flush between brands, they basically run the pipework empty. Low vacuum fillers are • On-line fill checks calibrated and operating the primary machine of choice for non-carbonated high strength spirits, so air is the usual gas in the ringbowl. For • Heads filling evenly RTDs etc this is different and counterpressure fillers would be used with the relevant gas applied to the ringbowl. • Steady supply of containers to fill Other On-line Checks at Start up and Change-overs
• Continuous operation In addition to ensuring correct start up of the filling
operation, other checks must be made to ensure that the • Consistent filling performance correct containers are in place (correct size, correct brand,
etc), plus checks on correct labels and date coding and • Clean filler correct secondary packing. 2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Similarly procedures should be in place for changeovers of • Filled with the right volume of beer. product and/ or pack size. • Are undamaged.
At a product change-over, the first spirit must be Features: completely run out and flushed through. If the next spirit to Inspection is either ‘manually’ by eye or electronically. be filled is significantly different in characteristics, a full Electronic bottle inspectors throw a beam of light or flush procedure may be required. radiation through the bottle at the beer level. Incorrectly filled bottles are rejected. 6.2 Empty bottle inspection and washing. Notes: Empty Bottle Inspection. The need for the bottler to demonstrate due diligence in meeting the requirements of both the national taxation Purpose: (Excise)* and Trading Standards* means that inspection is To check that the empty bottles from the washer or rinser essential. meet the requirements of:- * Or other national Excise and regulatory bodies. • Clean inside & out. • Contain no foreign objects. Inspection is backed up with accurate volume • Are undamaged. measurement for individual packages. In the case of bottles this means emptying the contents into a measuring Features: cylinder. Inspection is either ‘manually’ by eye or electronically. Electronic bottle inspectors throw a beam of light through Records of inspection are kept for the relevant authorities. the bottle vertically or horizontally and reject bottles that Details of correct filling procedures are given in the display shadows or give an abnormal light pattern. appropriate codes of practice.
Notes: Full container inspection and recording of data is required The need for the bottler to demonstrate due diligence in to ensure that taxation (Excise) requirements are met. protecting the customer means that inspection is essential. Modern systems incorporate side wall inspection, base Package Procedure. inspection, neck inspection and residual liquid inspection. type. Bottle. • Ensure that bottles are not over filled. Empty container inspection and recording of data is • Ensure that the label states the correct required to ensure that Consumer Safety requirements contents and alcohol level. (such as “U.K. Environmental Health Authority”) are met. • Ensure that alcohol levels are analysed in package and that the relevant records Empty Inspection are kept. Package Procedure. • Ensure that full package level inspection type. is effective and that the relevant records Returnable • Ensure that empty bottle are kept. bottle & inspection and the reject system is Full container inspection and recording of data is required Non- effective and that the relevant to ensure that the appropriate “Trading Standards” returnable records are kept. • Ensure that bottle washing/rinsing requirements are met. bottle. and plant hygiene procedures are effective. Package Procedure. • Maintain a system of handling type. customer complaints. Bottle • Ensure that bottles are not under filled. • Ensure that the label gives the correct Please note that national law and local regulations will vary information. in different countries and that various authorities may • Ensure that full package inspection and differ in their interpretation of the law. analysis is effective and that the relevant records are kept.
6.3 Quality checks and record keeping. * Please note that national law and local regulations will vary in different countries and that various authorities may Full Bottle inspection. differ in their interpretation of the law.
Purpose: To check that the full bottles from the filler/crowner meet the requirements of:- Learning Material 2011 3
On Line Checks and Record Keeping Key areas to monitor continually include: • Filling volume Packaging operations often construct a Quality Control • Teardown checks; to monitor appearance and integrity sampling plan from a HACCP study, which helps identify the of secondary packaging and overall pack presentation: correct sampling schedule with regard to product safety o Brand, volume, %ABV and due diligence. o Product code for traceability o Labels in alignment and unscuffed, In addition to analytical requirements, there are effectively closures not rusty or scratched legal aspects to be added, such as alcohol content, fill levels • Organisational design (increase quantity of on-line and date coding. checks by correctly trained operators) • Further, “appearance” factors are important such as spirit Quality management is dynamic, being a continuous cycle properties, like flavour and clarity and also package quality of: factors (correct labels, closures, package integrity. • Monitor • Evaluate trends and non-conformances Key parameters for brown / white spirits would include • Implement corrective and improvement actions, to ABV , colour (where appropriate), haze , pH , nose . achieve Continuous improvement .
Following QC schedules does not guarantee no failures and Notes. results should be continually investigated in order to What are the QC Schedules that you are familiar with for achieve improvement. products at your packaging plant ?.
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 7 Labelling and coding.
7.1 Labelling and Coding • Sleeves (PVC or PET). • ACL (Applied Ceramic Label using silk screen printing) Package Labelling. • Acid Etching for glass only • Thermal transfers for glass only The information required on a package label is:- For glass spirits bottles the most popular form of labelling • Product name for customer identification. is with the pre-cut paper label. This is fast, proven and cheap. In order to move the product up-market the label • Volume of spirit in the package for customer could be metallised. information (and for duty calculation in some countries such as the United Kingdom. Features : Labelling machines comprise the following parts:- • Alcohol content (by volume) for customer information • A magazine to hold stacks of labels. (and for duty calculation in some countries such as the • A glue system that transfers glue from a reservoir onto United Kingdom.) a revolving drum which then glues profiled palettes. • The revolving palettes to which the labels are • Packaging code so that the batch can be identified by transferred face up. the producer. The information to be derived from the • A gripper cylinder which collects the glued labels and code normally includes the date of packaging, the transfers them to bottles. source of the spirit and the packaging line used. This • A revolving carousel that holds the bottles so that the information is necessary in case there needs to be of an glued labels can be attached. investigation into a problem. Notes: • Barcoding is used for: • A labelling machine has many moving parts and needs • Retailing, by automatic reading machines at to be carefully set up. checkout counters, using an Article Numbering • Points to take into consideration are bottle system; each selling unit (individual bottle or temperature and dryness, label paper quality, glue package) has a unique code. consistency and temperature. • Warehouse identification, applied to outer packs • The glue migrates all over the machine and a cleaning and pallets. regime is required.
Audit trails enable the history of a packaged spirits to be It will be noted that the labeller described above has unravelled and require detailed accurate records in a labelling stations surrounding a bottle carousel. It is standard format, of each of the production and packaging possible to add further stations which apply more labels processes. glue, or PSL stations which are used as an alternative method of labelling, just by switching over. This will lower Labeller. the initial capital cost and give greater flexibility. It also possible to have removable stations that are replaced with Purpose: the stations that give the labelling desired. To put a label or labels onto the bottle that:- • Informs the customer about the product giving details Bottles can be supplied by the bottle manufacturer with about name, alcohol content, volume etc. the PSL labels already supplied which maybe a good • Advertises the product by presenting an attractive alternative for a special promotion. The labels are delivered appearance when displayed. on a web and are peeled off and transferred to the bottle. • Provides information for the manufacturer giving details The key to good PSL labelling is the wipe-down as, if this is about the code, date, bottling line, spirit tank or cask inadequate, there will be air bubbles. etc. Any other forms of labelling, such as ACL, etching or Types of Labeller thermal transfer, will be carried out by the bottle Labelling comes in many forms. The main forms of labelling manufacturer. Thermal transfer gives a superb finish but for bottles (unless mentioned) are: requires a preheat oven for the glass, a labeller, and then a • Paper (pre-cut or reel-fed) curing oven followed by a polyethylene coating unit. This • Metallised paper (pre-cut or reel-fed) makes thermal transfer very expensive. • Embossed paper • PSL(Pressure Sensitive Label) or Self Adhesive Labelling and Coding; Legal Impact Label(OPP - Orientated Polypropylene or paper) Labelling of packaged product needs to achieve several • Wraparound plastic labels (OPP) objectives these are:
2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
• Communicate legal information to the purchaser The printhead needs tender loving care. Although they tend • Enable good stock rotation and control throughout the to be much more robust these days they should not be supply chain dropped! Printers that are in continuous use – like those • Provide information to enable the producer to used for date coding the domes of cans – are usually more troubleshoot and identify the causes of any product reliable than the ones used occasionally. This is because the quality issues as easily and efficiently as possible. coders that are used occasionally are not put away properly after use. Legal information which needs to be communicated varies from country to country according to legislation and codes Whenever a printer is finished its duty, it must go through a of practice in force at the time. This information can include wash cycle and the printer head then protected before it is product name, producer company name and address in case put away. Poor attention to this is normally the responsible of complaint, container target average contents, alcohol by for poor start ups and excessive downtime. volume. Laser Coders Stock rotation and control information can include a batch Lasers have changed dramatically from the mask lasers code to be used in conjunction with the best before date. described above. The dot-matrix lasers became available in Information to facilitate investigation of any quality issues the early 90s and transformed this type of coding. The laser can include the time of labelling (plus a sequential number tubes are sealed and required much less power. for larger containers from the start of the filling batch) Barcode Systems Coders. This method of labelling and tracing products has now been In the early days of coding labels were notched with a code in use since the early 1980s. It is used extensively for which related to the dated of production. This allowed the primary, secondary and tertiary packaging. It is also sales representatives to check their product on the shelf something we are all familiar with when we go to the with their Codedge® card and check to see how long a supermarkets as all our purchases carry a barcode and are product has been on the shelf. This all changed in the 1980s scanned by the barcode reader. We may also be familiar with the advent of EEC legislation requiring all foods to be with a situation when a barcode will not read and how open dated with a best before sell-by date. much trouble this causes. So, barcodes are necessary on all our products and they must be readable. The early inkjet coders were very unreliable and when they needed cleaning or resetting technicians inevitably ended The Barcode It is no surprise that the industry has developed fast since up covered with ink. Laser coders were also in their infancy the 1980s but the linear barcode is still the retail favourite. and the CO2 laser beam was generated in a box the size of There has been the development of the 2-D barcode and a trunk and then it travelled down a tube and passed the RFID tag. through a mask (or stencil) with the code and this was then focussed and etched onto the label. This is known as the Extract from the Internet (Barcode Learning Centre): mask laser. Mask lasers were expensive as they used plenty ‘Barcoding is a type of morse code used to encode or put of CO2, needed high power and cooling, needed a lot of information into a universally recognized code language in attention (always easy to knock a tube out of alignment) the form of a barcode. Encoded data can consist of a part and were difficult to mount on a labeller. They were also number, serial number, supplier number, quantity, tailored to fit into a machine on the line – normally the transaction code, or other type of data. A number of labeller. barcode standards have been developed and refined over
the years into accepted languages called symbologies. Continuous Inkjet
Today continuous inkjet coders are much neater and more Barcode symbologies come in two basic varieties. They can operator friendly with self-cleaning cycles and much more be either linear or two dimensional in their configuration. A robust printheads. linear barcode symbology consists of a single row of dark
lines and white spaces of varying but specified width and Continuous inkjet printing (CIJ), as the name suggests is a height, as indicated by the example below. stream of continuously circulating ink which is applied onto a surface in a dot matrix pattern as it travels through the printhead. So long as the ink adheres to the surface to which it is applied it can be used on that surface. The surface must be dry. The ink used for this sort of application is solvent based.
Inks can be very fast drying – about 0.8 seconds. Inks used Similarly, a 2-Dimensional symbology can be configured into are usually toxic so care must me taken when discarding a stacked or matrix format. Two dimensional barcodes are any waste. special rectangular codes which "stack" information in a manner allowing for more information storage in a smaller amount of space. Learning Material 2011 3
application requirements; some systems operate with up to 1MB of memory. The battery-supplied power of an active tag generally gives it a longer read range. The trade off is greater size, greater cost, and a limited operational life.
Passive RFID tags operate without a separate external
More data can be encoded in a 2-D symbology than that of power source and obtain operating power generated from a linear barcode symbology. the reader. Passive tags are consequently much lighter than active tags, less expensive, and offer a virtually unlimited In the brewing and distilling industry the information operational lifetime. The trade off is that they have shorter carried on a linear barcode is adequate and the technology read ranges than active tags and require a higher-powered for creating, printing and reading linear codes is well reader. developed in the supply chain It will be noted that some high value items such as spirits in The 2-D barcode only gives the advantage of carrying a a shop often carry a passive RFID tag’ which looks huge amount of data but it still needs a barcode reader for something like this. each individual item.
RFID Technology The RFID or Radio Frequency Identification has the advantage of being read at a distance and in multiple quantities. An analogy is a room full of people all shouting out their names to one individual in a room and that individual being able to hear each name as if it had been shouted out separately. So, for example, one has been shopping in a supermarket and the trolley is full to the brim Barcode Application with goods. The reader will read all the items and give a For the Brewing and Distilling Industries it seems that price instantly. What it will not see is the item with a barcodes will be around for some time. There are many missing tag.RFID Technology ways of applying these barcodes.
• They can be pre-printed onto the label or pack The RFID or Radio Frequency Identification has the advantage of being read at a distance and in multiple • Self-adhesive labels can be pre-printed or printed on quantities. An analogy is a room full of people all shouting line and then applied as self adhesive labels out their names to one individual in a room and that • They can be ink-jetted on to the pack individual being able to hear each name as if it had been shouted out separately. So, for example, one has been When printing barcodes on the production line it is shopping in a supermarket and the trolley is full to the brim important that they are not going to be damaged or with goods. The reader will read all the items and give a smudged in any way as they need to be read by a scanner. price instantly. What it will not see is the item with a Any inkjet coding can be easily smudged. missing tag. If a barcode is to be applied on line it is better to use a pre- Extract from the Internet (Next Wave): printed label or an on-line printer which uses thermal Unlike bar-code technology, RFID technology does not printing. require contact or line of sight for communication. RFID data can be read through the human body, clothing and In all cases printing heads must be kept clean. non-metallic materials. Other points worth noting for longevity of printhead life are: • Slower the better • Lower power (contrast) the better • Best materials (label and foil) • Less dots per mm
RFID tags are categorized as either active or passive. When installing a printer the environment must also be considered. For example, if a pallet labeller is contaminated Active RFID tags are powered by an internal battery and are by dust, this will severely damage the printing head. It is typically read/write, i.e., tag data can be rewritten and/or important that the unit is protected and that the area is modified. An active tag's memory size varies according to kept clean.
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance Section 8
Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
8.1 Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) & Line Efficiency Reporting
In this section you will have:-
• An appreciation of the measures that are used to understand the performance of a production line or process • Understand why Overall Equipment Efficiency (OEE) is important. • Understand the standard Calculations for Aggregate OEE, Line/Process OEE and Line Efficiency.
What is OEE?
• Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is a measure to evaluate the productiveness of a machine or a production line – it is NOT a measure of people performance. • The higher the OEE measure the more good product per shift a machine or line produces – which results in lower costs per unit produced and helps operations to be more competitive. • OEE analysis is a tool used to analyse equipment performance, accounting for losses due to availability, performance, and quality.
The OEE Waterfall
The OEE waterfall is a tool used to represent the performance of a packaging line. It is used to graphically depict how a line has performed and to show where issues have occurred on the line that may require further attention through, for example, root cause problem solving of equipment or an issue with quality.
An example of an OEE waterfall is shown below:-
Packaging Line Performance – The Baseline Figures Used to Calculate OEE
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Before going into the detail of the OEE waterfall, it is important to understand the baseline factors of OEE. There are a number of critical factors to calculate OEE:-
• Total Time – this is the total time that the line is available to produce. This is essentially 24 hours per day, 7 days per week (even if the line is never planned to run this amount of time, it is still available). Total time in a 4 week month is 168 hours per week x 4 weeks = 672 hours.
• Scheduled Time – this is the total time that is planned for the line to produce the number of cases required in the period. This time includes changeovers, planned maintenance, tea breaks or production trials and gives allowance for unplanned issues that may occur on the line i.e. breakdowns.
• Planned Time Available – is the time that the line is planning to run without interruption and is typically determined using the planning speed for the line.
• The Balanced Speed - Packaging lines always have a speed rating, for example in units of bottles per minute or cases per hour that is known as the balanced speed. This speed provides essential information about the maximum possible output from the line over a specified period of time. Balance Speed is the higher of A) The maximum speed the line is currently capable of running at Or B) The manufacturers design speed (from original installation). On the OEE waterfall, this number is used as part of the calculation that determines the ‘ Run Time at Full Speed Equivalent’ . The calculation is shown below.
• Run time at full Number of bottles/cases to be produced in the period speed equivalent = Balanced Speed (bottles/cases per hour)
Example:
Over the course of a week Line 1 requires to produce 120,000 (12 pack) cases. The agreed balanced speed of the line is 400 bottles per minute. What is the length of time that the line would be required to run at full speed in order to produce the required cases, or in other words, the ‘Run time at full speed equivalent’?
Answer: (120,000 cases x 12 bottles per case) 400 bpm
1,440,000 bottles = 400 bpm
= 3600 minutes, or 60 hours running at full possible speed
Aggregate OEE
Aggregate OEE measures the time that the line is required to run at full speed divided by the overall time that is available to run the line. Businesses typically use this as a way of determining the utilisation of a production line when deciding where to produce new products. Aggregate OEE can very rarely be influenced by the performance of the line itself as it does not account for the variables of the production
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance process i.e. tea breaks, changeovers or minor stops. It is a straight division of the run time at full speed equivalent by the total time available as shown below:-
Using the example from previous, where Line 1 is required to produce at full speed for 60 hours in the week, the Aggregate OEE for that week would be as follows:-
This means that if the line were to run at full speed for the full production of the 120,000 cases, without any stoppages or changeovers, then it would be utilised for 36% of the time that it is available for production.
Line/Process OEE
Line/Process OEE from a packaging line performance point of view is the most important direct production measure on a site. All of the factors that impact line performance can be measured and, more importantly influenced; therefore all aspects can be improved through analysis and action. The OEE waterfall below shows all the aspects of production that can impact Line/Process OEE:-
As shown, there are two separate aspects used in the calculation. The first are the planned interventions that take place, for example, planned maintenance, scheduled breaks and team meetings (staff planned time not used for production). The second
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance is the unplanned things that take place on a production line, for example, long stops (breakdown of greater than 5 minutes) or when a changeover takes longer than was planned (changeover excess).
Line OEE is calculated by taking the time required to produce all required cases while running the line at full speed and dividing this by the scheduled time as shown on the waterfall diagram.
Measuring everything that happens on the line while it is scheduled to be manned allows businesses to fully understand what they are paying people to do and how effective the machinery on the line is. However, it is critical that the information is accurately recorded in order to truly improve line performance. Accurate data is the key to understanding where the main issues lie and provides leadership teams with the opportunity to undertake line improvement exercises using such tools as root cause problem solving. Continuous improvement can be achieved by attacking problems in a methodical manner and identifying and tackling the priority items first.
Line Efficiency
Line efficiency is the measure used to gauge how effectively a line is running when it has product run but has no planned activities due to take place such as changeovers, tea breaks or maintenance. It is a true reflection on how well the line is performing at speed when it has the opportunity to do so.
Line efficiency is calculated in the following way:-
Essentially, line efficiency measures how long is required to run at full speed to produce the required number of cases as a percentage of how long the line actually took to produce them (when it was planned to). This means that if Line Efficiency is calculated at 50%, the line only ran at full speed for half of the time that it could have done, meaning that such things as long stops (breakdowns), minor stops or quality issues have used up the other half of the time.
The efficiency measure should never be used in isolation as, on its own, it can be misleading. A high efficiency figure does not necessarily mean that the line is performing well in all areas. It does mean that the line is running well when it can, however, this may hide poor changeover procedures, high tea-break times or excessive planned maintenance, all of which impact Line OEE. A line that is performing well will have great performance figures for both Line OEE and Line Efficiency.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance 8.2. “V” curve
In this section you will have:-
• An appreciation of how a ‘V’ curve can be used to optimise the running speed of a line and to determine the balanced speed.
Machine Cycle Times and Packaging Line Design
Line layouts and speeds are of the essence to good line performance. There are many layout alternatives. The end result may depend on existing layouts, but modern objectives plan to achieve best efficiencies and low manning. A way of determining the optimum running speed for a line and to also understand the balanced speed of the line, a ‘V’ curve is produced by using the possible speeds of each piece of machinery. The output of the exercise allows managers to set the optimum running speeds for the line at each machine to ensure they are being provided with enough material and that product is being moved quickly and effectively to the next stage of the packaging process.
Designs depend on Machine Cycle Times and packaging lines are designed so that the key items of equipment are supported by assets (machines) up and downstream.
The limiting machine on a line that will determine the balanced speed is usually the filler, although depending on pack size (50cl vs 1L) or number of bottles in case (i.e. 6 vs 24), the fastest speed of the slowest machine on the line may change.
Generally, this means that palletisers, rinsers, labellers etc. will be able to run at a higher speed than, for example, the bottle filler as illustrated in the chart below:-
Bottling line speed distribution graph - “V” curve
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 De-palletiser Bottle washer Filler Labeller Palletiser De-crater Bottle inspector Pasteuriser Crater
As shown, machines before and after the filler are planned to run faster by increments of 5 to 8%. In this way the line stands the best chance of producing a good OEE. The machine at the bottom of the graph provides the balanced speed for the line. The faster the line, the less robust the efficiency, and stoppages will also give a greater loss of output. Also the more machines there are on the line, the greater the risk is for operational issues and therefore a reduced OEE.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
It is important that the line equipment is run at the specified rate, otherwise quality problems could well be experienced:-
• A palletiser that runs over speed could damage pallets or glass. • A bottle rinser that runs over speed could reduce the time that bottles are blown leading to dirty bottles.
• A filler that runs over speed could result in a higher number of rejects due to under filled bottles.
• A labeller that runs over speed could result in ‘angled’ labels.
• A packer that runs over speed could result in label damage on the bottles.
Accumulation
Accumulation helps to smooth out the periods when a machine could potentially be starved of product due to a slower running machine either up or downstream on the production line. It should be noted that accumulation can be expensive, both to build the line itself, or if problems occur on the line (as there is more faulty product to rework).
For slower lines, <300 bottles per minute (bpm), accumulation is not as crucial, and also the ‘V’ graph can be flatter. For higher speeds, however, accumulation is vital in order to give an effective line balance.
8.3 Spirit and Packaging Material Losses
In this section you will have:-
• An appreciation of the types of spirit and packaging material losses than can occur, the impacts of these losses and some ways in which they can be prevented.
8.3.1. Spirit losses
Typically, if the amount of spirit prepared at the start of the production process is compared with the amount of spirit in bottles/cases at the end, it will be found that some spirit will have been lost during the process.
Losses can be in volume or strength (alcohol %) or a combination of the two.
Losses are incurred in a number of ways, for example:-
• When tanks are filled and emptied, it is inevitable that there is some loss because of the liquid left on the sides of the vessel (sometimes called the wetting loss). • Spirit remains in the pipework on the completion of transfers from vat to vat or vat to line. This is often called the transfer loss. • Filtration losses are made because of the spirit that remains in the filter. • Packaging spirit losses are made when packs are overfilled or when spillages or breakages occur.
Loss control is only possible when the losses are measured. The way to measure losses is to compare the volume before and after a process.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Examples of loss measurement are shown in the diagrams below:-
Filtration losses Spirit in bulk Vat Spirit in bright whisky Vat
5,000 Filtration 4,950 litres litres
Filtration loss 5,000 - 4,950 = 50 litres.
50 = 1% 5,000
Packaging losses
Spirit in bright Whisky Vat Stock in Warehouse
5,000 Bottling litres Process 4,900 litres
Packaging loss 5,000 - 4,900 = 100 litres.
100 = 2% 5,000
The Impacts of Spirit Losses
There are 3 key areas where spirit losses can impact the operation:-
• Financial – spirit waste is extremely costly to drinks packaging businesses with £m’s each year being lost from the balance sheets of bigger companies. • Service – when spirit losses are excessive, the amount of liquid required for a customer order can be compromised and as such the number of cases
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
required may not be met. This can lead to customer order misses and loss of revenue. • Legislative – spirit is tightly controlled by businesses as stringent guidelines from Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs require regular reconciliations to ensure that all relevant taxes i.e. V.A.T. are being paid. On occasions where losses are evident, there is a potential for fines to be imposed, duty charges levied and a loss of reputation with governing bodies.
Spirit Loss Prevention
Spirit losses can be prevented by:-
• Ensuring all product is properly flushed through at completion of transfer. • Plant maintenance and elimination of leaks. • Action taken to reduce packaging breakages. • Strict control of fill heights • Adherence to quality checks and procedures on line i.e. turn off vacuum at filler if line is to be stopped for longer than agreed period to prevent strength losses
8.3.2. Measurement and control of packaging materials wastage.
Packaging materials include such things as:-
• Bottles • Closures and Corks • Cases • Labels • Cartons
Packaging material costs are the main raw material costs in many manufacturing plants, especially those that run bottling lines. Therefore the measurement and control of these losses is very important.
The way that packaging material losses are measured is by calculating a theoretical use and comparing that to ‘actual’ as illustrated in the table below:-
Packaging 5,000 litres of spirit into 75cl bottles (6 packs):-
Packaging Theoretical amount used Actual amount Waste material used Bottles 5,000 = 6667 bottles 6827 bottles 2.3% 0.75
Cartons 6667 Cartons 6748 cartons 1.2%
Cases 6667 = 1112 cases 1184 Cases 6.5% 6
The Impacts of Material Losses
There are 3 key areas where material losses can impact the operation:-
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
• Financial – material waste is extremely costly to drinks packaging businesses with £m’s each year being lost from the balance sheets of bigger companies. • Service – when material losses are excessive or unplanned, the amount of dry goods required for a customer order can be compromised and as such the number of cases required may not be met. This can lead to customer order misses and loss of revenue. • Environmental – as most businesses are pushing towards a more carbon neutral footprint, the more damage to dry materials that leads to disposal, the more impact there is on the environment. Even when damaged dry materials are recycled in the proper ways, additional carbon will have been used to produce it in the first place.
Material Loss Prevention
Material losses can be prevented by:-
• Effective maintenance of packaging machinery. • Action taken to reduce packaging breakages. • Adherence to quality checks and procedures on line i.e. ensure that product is produced right first time to prevent rework • Strict attention to quality standards and finished product specifications • Accurate set up of production machinery i.e. label height settings, change parts • Effective stock control and aged stock management i.e. FIFO (First In, First Out) which means that the oldest materials are being used first • Accurate recording of material losses and on line root cause problem solving where excessive wastage is taking place.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
APPENDIX 1
OEE Calculation & Opportunity Identifier Exercise
• Colin has asked for your help. His packaging line is under-performing and he wants to know what he can do to improve in order to reach his targets.
• To help him, you suggest that you should review the production data taken from his packaging line for one week.
• Colin is unsure how to gather this information, so your first objective is to build an OEE waterfall chart that highlights the areas in which losses have occurred. You should calculate the Aggregate OEE, Line OEE and Efficiency for the week.
• Your second objective is to list the specific things you think Colin could look at in order to reach his 65% production target for line OEE.
Production Information for the Week:-
• The Run Time at Full Speed Equivalent required a total of 52.5 hours of the line running at its full balance speed.
Downtime Information for the Week:-
Below is a copy of the summarised downtime sheets for the week.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance OEE Calculation & Opportunity Identifier Exercise (Cont.)
Below is the table you used to gather your waterfall chart information:-
Over the page is a blank waterfall that you can insert your calculations into:-
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Based on your results, list here the things that you would advise Colin to do in order to improve his Line OEE and Efficiency in order to reach his target:-
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance APPENDIX 2
Key Definitions
Packaging
(Aggregate & Line OEE + Efficiency)
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Downtime Bucket Definition Supporting Commentary Total Available 24hrs * 7 days a week Time Unscheduled Any time that the site is shut or time that the line is not planned to run Would include fire alarms Time External Utilities Any time that the site is shut or time that the line is not able to run due to external utilities Would include power or water outage that the site has no Outage outage. control over. Capex Capex Installation Time will include time from when the line is handed to Project Engineer's So long as finished goods are being produced, production Installations & until it has completed it's agreed stripout, installation and dry commisioning. This duration must be recorded as normal. Annual should be set at the relevant Capex meeting. (eg. Stripout 1wk, Install 2wks, Dry Commissioning 1wk). Annual Maintenance - Any time in which annual maintenance is being Maintenance carried out on the line (this time should be removed from unscheduled time if it takes place during plant shutdown) Capex Any time spent on Capex Installation or Annual Maintenance above the Planned Capex Installations & Installation Time/Annual Maintenance Time Annual Maintenance Excess Planned Is the expected time elapsed from asset stoppage to asset restart to conduct asset care in All Asset Care activities must be recorded as part of Maintenance the period. It is the lower of: 1) Amount of planned time lost in activities to maintain the asset production even when no finished cases have been made on and 2) Actual time spent in maintenance of asset (e.g. planned ma that shift. A maintenance wash off as a result of long running IS NOT included and should instead be recorded as a long stop
Downtime Bucket Definition Supporting Commentary Changeover Planned Time lost due to swapping of equipment, connections or materials to produce All Changeover activities on a line must be recorded no different SKU. Changeover Time is the time elapsed from the moment the last case is matter who is carrying out the activity. e.g. engineer / Planned Time produced to the point the first case is produced. It is the lower of: 1) Planned time elapsed mechanic from the point that the equipment produces the last case to the point the equipment produces For clarification, VAT & Order Changes i.e. label change or the first case and 2) Actual time elapsed from last case produced to first case produced. i.e. spirit strength change, where an equipment change may not (e.g. planned changeover equals 3 hours and actual changeover time taken is 4 hours, then be necessary must still be recorded here. Planned changeover will be 3 hrs; however, if planned changeover is 3 hrs and actual time taken is 2 hrs, then Planned changeover will be 2)
Staffed Planned Time allocated to production (resources deployed) but not used for production time (i.e. Please note that events such as Fire Alarms and Power Time not for team briefing sessions, start-up meetings, line team training, site updates) Cuts should not be recorded under this bucket but instead added to Unscheduled Time. Production
Scheduled Lost time due to scheduled breaks (morning tea, lunch, dinner etc.) This bucket of downtime is for recording breaks only. Breaks New Product Actual time taken to trial new products - Time elapsed from line stoppage until restart due to To be classed as a trial no finished goods/cases produced Trials Planned trials for new products. during this period will be despatched to satisfy a production order. Planned Amount of time spent above planned maintenance time. If actual time spent in maintenance Where Asset Care has taken longer than planned then the Maintenance is lower than planned, then excess will be zero. It is the greater of: 1) Actual time spent on additional time should be entered here. When Asset Care Excess maintenance – planned maintenance time and 2) Zero has not taken place or has taken less time than planned then, the Planned Maintenance Time should be amended accordingly. No negative values should be recorded here.
Changeover Excess time (on top of planned) elapsed from the point that the equipment produces the last Changeover Excess must be calculated on a changeover by case to the point the equipment produces the first case. It is the greater of: 1) Actual time changeover basis. Where a Changeover has taken longer Planned Time Excess spent on changeover – planned changeover time, and 2) Zero than planned then the additional time should be entered here. Where a changeover has taken less time than planned then, the Changeover Planned Time should be amended accordingly. No negative values should be recorded here.
Downtime Bucket Definition Supporting Commentary Long Stops Time lost (greater than 5 minutes) due to equipment and operational failure. Includes items This will include maintenance wash offs (as a result of long such as palletisation failure, operator not at station, lack of material/liquid (internal or external periods of continuous running) that take longer than 5 supplier failure), lack of operator qualification, minutes.
Short stops Time Lost (less than 5 minutes) due to minor obstructions, jams, checking and cleaning . Includes items such as palletisation failure, operator not at station, lack of material / liquid, lack of operator qualification, etc. Quality Loss Time lost due to poor or incorrect quality materials or liquid Speed Loss CALCULATED No data collection required (Speed Loss) Start up losses (time lost due to the ramp up of machinery at the start of a production run) should be recorded and will automatically fall into this bucket. Where machinery failure is experienced in the start up process then this should be recorded as a long or short stop and not as a result of Start- up. Run Time at Full Actual Cases produced in the period divided by the Balance Speed of the line. E.g. 10000 Balance Speed is the higher of A) The maximum speed the Speed Equivalent cases produced at a balance speed of 1000 cases per hour = 10000/1000 = 10 hrs. This may line is currently capable of running at Or B) The plated © Theneed Institute to be calculated of Brewing on an order and by order Distilling basis if the (GCPS balance speed Rev ofision the line Notes changes Versiondesign 1,speed August (from original 2011) installation).
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Scenarios Scheduled Line and resource planners have the opportunity to reschedule their line running plan at the start of each shift - this is the only planning window for that shift. During Time/Line Planning this window, if a planner schedules a line to run for only half a shift before planning to then move resource to another line/business area then the OEE clock would stop at the end of the planned period. This is considered a planned event. Where a line was originally planned to run for a full shift, but the line/resource planner chooses to drop a line outwith the planning window, this is deemed to be an unplanned event. As a result the OEE clock would continue to the end of the planned shift and the line would experience a Speed Loss against their OEE. The only exception to this is when the production plan has been completed earlier than originally planned and the crew is being moved to produce elsewhere.
Commissioning So long as finished goods are being produced and despatched production must be recorded as normal. This would include the wet commissioning of new products /capex installations.
Planned For the purposes of OEE calculation, Planned Maintenance covers all Asset care activities (for example, cleaning (including CIP where no changeover has taken Maintenance place), lubrication, planned wash-offs, etc). In addition, where a line is scheduled to run, but but cannot run due to a required planned maintenance activity, this time must be recorded and will impact OEE. Oppurtinistic maintenance (where the line is not scheduled to run) would not be recorded as the logistics of data collection in all supply centres is not feasible and would therefore drive inconsistency across the business.
Lack of materials / If Materials / Liquid are unavailable to the Line because of an issue within the site, then this downtime falls into Long or Short Stops. This should drive the correct Liquid due to behaviour of the team leader to make a decision, for example, on whether to internal supply changeover to another order or to wait for the materials/liquid to arrive. If the crew is reasons moved off the line, whilst awaiting the materials/Liquid to arrive, then the Long Stop will continue until the end of the scheduled period (or the end of the shift).
Scenarios Lack of External If the line stops due to lack of materials from an external source, then the decision making time must be recorded here. i.e. any time spent waiting for the materials. As Material Supply soon as a decision is made & crew are moved as a result of failure of material suppl
Balance Speeds PLEASE REMEMBER: It is impossible for a line to have a Line OEE or Efficiency above 100%. Start up & As long as this takes place outwith the scheduled period i.e. scheduled shift starts at 7.30am and a couple of operators start earlier i.e. at 7.00am and prepare the line for Shutdown with 1 production. Same at end of shift. operator is not included in line OEE
All maintenance / improvement work carried out by Craft / Fitters / Engineers is not Weekend / Night- shift Planned included in OEE if no operator-equivalent work is going on. Exampleswould be weekend / night-shift Planned Preventive Maintenance. As long as this does not Preventive prevent the l Maintenance
Changeovers All changeovers should be recorded no matter when they are carried out. Should a changeover be carried out by Craft / Fitters / Engineers etc over a longer period of completed outwith time (say at the weekend), then the standard changover time should be recorded. core shifts E.g. Stan
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance APPENDIX 3
OEE Calculation & Opportunity Identifier Exercise – The Answers
Waterfall Chart for Colin’s Production Line in Week 12
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Section 8: The Assessment of Packaging Line Performance
Things that Colin could do to improve performance (not exhaustive):- • Undertake a deep dive root cause problem solving session to establish where the key causes of downtime are coming from in relation to the Depalletiser. • A robust improvement plan should be put in place to tackle the issues that are found (possibly using a T-Card system or similar). • He should ensure that downtime is recorded accurately on all shifts – especially the weekend shift, where a number of minor stops were unaccounted for. • Speak to the team about recording downtime in the correct areas – this would allow focus on the correct areas, not the perceived ones i.e. the asset care that was recorded on Thursday, should actually have been recorded as a long stop at the depalletiser. Without this knowledge, it would have seemed that additional planned maintenance was impacting performance, rather than a machine issue. • There are changeovers nearly every day – is there anything that can be done to improve the planning on the line or to implement more effective cycle scheduling? • Tea breaks are accounting for 10% of all Scheduled Time – is there any way that the line could run through breaks, or even the shorter ones? Even reducing this by half would put him 5% closer to his target. • He should understand that the brand change trials impact will not happen every week, but should also realise the effect this has on his overall line performance. • Ask the question why a spirit strength change took 90 minutes! • Are there any training opportunities or requirements on the line that could improve changeover times, set ups or machine care in general? • Colin should note that reviewing performance over just one week may highlight smaller issues from a shorter period of time – reviewing a longer period of performance may offer a more accurate focus on what can be improved.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
1 GCSP: Section 9: Warehousing Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 9 Warehousing.
10.1 Warehouse Operations – Overview
Warehousing relates to the storage and dispatch of packaged product, and the reception, storage and issue of packaging materials.
Ideally, packaged spirits would be delivered to customers directly from the packaging lines. For packaged spirits however, especially for export products, this is not possible. Not to mention the fact that the exact matching of packaging runs to the customers’ requirements is generally not possible and a buffer store of product ready for sale is essential.
Warehousing is an expensive operation, it requires large areas of space and the multi handling of packages or pallets, depending on how many distribution stops there are in the supply chain. Most production sites have sufficient storage space to handle no more than a few days of production (and in some cases no more than a few hours). Consequently storage external to the production site is required, whether by way of the producers’ own warehouses, or by a third party who is paid for the privilege.
Security is a major issue for spirits producers. In relation to beers, the products are worth much more per packaged unit, and this makes them attractive to thieves who will hijack loads, break into warehouses, and so on, to sell the products on the black market. This aspect of security is prevalent at every stage in the supply chain. For export products it is even more of an issue, given that the producer is likely to use a third party storage and distribution chain in the target market. Petty theft and organised crime are serious concerns in such instances. Petty theft leads to customer complaints as packages are short filled (e.g. a box containing 11 bottles of spirit as opposed to 12) while organised crime, though rarer, is not unknown.
There are also major customs repercussions for producers who do not ensure the security of their products. In the UK for example, HMR&C hold the producer liable for any spirits losses on product that does not have duty paid, so theft is a double whammy for a producer, losing the value of the product and also incurring a duty charge. Different regulations apply in different markets, depending on the governmental legislation of each country. Producers may require import licences, review of which is dependent on their ability to ensure the safety and security of their products.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
2 GCSP: Section 9: Warehousing
Given the importance of security to the distribution chain post packaging, it is no wonder that producers spend large amounts of money on security staff, equipment, and facilities.
The use of vehicles to transport goods from the site is usually dependent on their destination. Goods that leave by road are often loaded into curtain sided vehicles to facilitate easy loading and unloading at the destination. Goods that are leaving site for transport by ship to export markets are often loaded into metal containers. These containers are modularised, allowing easy transport via road or rail to the port, where heavy loading equipment will load them onto the ship. Most plants transport their finished goods by road but where rail links are in place it is common to use them.
10.2 Dry Goods Handling
While the majority of the module will focus on storage and distribution of finished goods, many of the practices are relevant to the receipt and storage of raw materials for use by the packaging lines.
Bottles, labels, closures, cardboard, cartons, pallets, stretchwrap are all examples of materials and commodities that a producer will require to store on site. Many producers use third party companies such as CHEP for pallet provision and management, but certain markets require their own type of pallet (e.g. wood treated pallets for transit to Australia) and these have to be bought and managed locally.
Bottles are bulky items and production lines consume a large quantity of them. It is obviously not cost effective to have a facility that stores weeks and months worth of empties, the preferred solution being that the material supplier produces just in time to order (JIT). This minimises the buffer stock required at the production site, and therefore cuts down on storage costs, however it does mean that if the supplier has a production issue, then delays may quickly occur where bottling lines wait for materials.
Label storage is very important particularly for paper labels. These are cut by the label manufacturer in a certain way so that when glue is applied to them they arch in a manner that allows brushes within the labelling machine to smooth them down simply and with correct alignment and glue smear. Labels are susceptible to moisture and fluctuations in temperature, and stock rotation is very important here. With many producers now using pressure sensitive labels (PSL) this is less of an issue, though stable storage conditions are still desirable.
Cartons and cardboard also require humidity controlled conditions, as exposure to water can rot them.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
3 GCSP: Section 9: Warehousing 10.3 Warehouse Operations - Practice
Space can be used more efficiently if units / pallets are stacked one on top of another. This can be done on racks or by stacking robust pallets, for example pallets of containers. The height that stacks can go depends on the stability of the unit being stacked and the use of mechanical stacking equipment. These practices apply to both finished goods and raw materials storage. For example it is not often a good idea to stack pallets of valuable cardboard cartons on top of each other to a great height! Similarly, pallets of finished goods are often very heavy, and stacks of pallets greater than 3 high are often unwise leading to instability of the column (health and safety issue) and potential damage to the finished goods on the bottom pallets.
Space utilisation is a balance between filling the available volume and keeping products separate for ease of stock management. A warehouse that is bursting at the seams is impossible to manage correctly, and will involve a great deal of multiple handling of goods as they are shuffled about in a tight space.
This potentially multiple number of times that a unit is handled before being dispatched affects the costs of the warehousing operation (particularly drivers time, fuel for the vehicles etc). Obviously, the fewer times the better and it is normal to use computer systems to handle stock control especially when a large number of items are being stored. As the number of stock keeping units (SKUs) increases, so does the complexity of the warehousing operation, both in terms of handling the component raw materials (bottles, closures, labels, cartons etc) and the storage and movement of finished goods.
Best Practices
There are a number of guidelines governing the warehousing of spirits to ensure that maximum quality, customer satisfaction and legal obligations are met:-
• Stock rotation must be on a ‘first in first out’ basis. High strength spirits are not affected by shelf life or “freshness” issues, but ready to drinks and cream liqueurs (as examples) may well be. Finished product must also be acceptable to release, e.g. if there was a fault during production then the product will either require rework, writing down (if a market can be found) or scrapping. Most plants operate a ‘positive release’ system that ensures that only products that meet specification is despatched to customers. • Storage conditions must reflect the product being stored:-
Temperature. The temperature range for most spirits storage is quite wide: it must be above freezing and should be no higher than 25 °C. As with beers, very low temperatures can cause Scotch for example to develop a chill haze. Higher temperatures are less of an issue for high strength spirits (unless they reach
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
4 GCSP: Section 9: Warehousing the flammable range!) as they do not have microbial instability or staling issues as a concern. However for some ready to drinks and spoilable spirit derivative products, this is certainly a key consideration.
Condensation problems can affect tightly stretch wrapped pallets of pasteurised products if they are placed in cold storage conditions after removal from the production line. This can also affect normal spirits products in colder weather. The condensation may ruin the cardboard packaging, and black mould formation is likely which ruins the exterior package appearance and lead to rotting of the cardboard. For this reason it is preferred that air humidity is low, and products are not exposed to water (e.g. transport in a yard during rain).
In terms of raw materials storage, cardboard is quickly ruined by excessive moisture, so it is important that expensive cardboard and carton packaging is kept dry and secure from outside weather influence.
Handling. Spirit packages need to be handled with care, bottles for example may be easily broken if pallets are bashed against each other, and outer cases are easily crushed in similar circumstances. The products are valuable and great care should be taken by warehousing and distribution staff that they are treated in the most careful way possible.
Housekeeping. Pests, for example pigeons, mice and cockroaches are attracted to warehouses, especially if they are not kept clean and tidy. A hygiene procedure needs to be in place to eliminate all types of pests.
Stock taking and control are much easier and more effective in tidy conditions.
Stock control and Taxation (Excise) regulations. Spirits in packaged form are liable for duty although the duty is usually paid when the product leaves the site. Product traceability is a prerequisite. Taxation (Excise) regulations demand that detailed records are kept so that the correct duty is paid, and the supply chain to the customer can be tracked and examined if need be. This usually takes the form of sealed containers or vehicles, with seals specific to the production site. Drivers of vehicles arriving to remove goods from the production site to the next stage of the supply chain usually must provide documentation that matches the seal numbers to be used, where these numbers do not tally then for security reasons the vehicle will not be loaded while an investigation takes place.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
5 GCSP: Section 9: Warehousing 10.4 Health and Safety.
There are numerous hazards associated with warehousing and distribution, these are itemised below along with the normal procedures used to reduce or eliminate them:-
Hazard Safety procedure Manual handling • Plant and systems designed for minimum manual handling. accidents • Staff training in safe working procedures. • Use of hard hats and safety wear. Fork Lift Truck and • Separation of FLTs and all vehicles from pedestrians; use of other vehicle clearly marked walkways. accidents • Audible and visible alarms. • Staff training in safe working procedures, for example pre-use checks on FLTs. • Use of high visibility clothing. Slips, trips and • Use of non slip materials for floors and steps etc. falls • Regular cleaning of floors. • Limited use of hoses. Machinery • Permit to work procedures for maintenance accidents • Guarding of machinery (e.g. palletisers, stretchwrappers, bulk conveyors protected by light curtains)
IMPORTANT It is worth mentioning that bulk storage of spirits (prepackaged and packaged) may constitute a major fire or explosive hazard under the Control of Major Accident Hazard (CoMAH) regulations in the UK, and similar legislation may be applicable in other countries. This requires a separate risk assessment completed under the CoMAH regulations which should be reviewed on an annual basis.
Notes.
Describe the warehousing operation at your plant. What checks, other than for stock control, are carried out in this warehouse?
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
1 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 10 Spirit Quality and Process Control for Packaging.
10.1 Key Packaged Spirit Parameters.
A basic knowledge of key quality parameters is required along with the factors affecting them during the packaging of spirit.
The table below lists the main quality measures taken during and at the completion of spirit packaging along with an explanation why that measure is important.
Parameter Relevance to spirit quality. Alcohol content (ABV) • Indicates the strength of the spirit and value to the consumer. • Indicates the degree to which a consumer can become intoxicated. • Dictates the amount of duty to be paid on the spirit. pH. • Spirit pH affects microbiological growth (for RTDs) • Spirit pH can affect its flavour. • Variable pH indicates possible contamination (e.g. by detergents). Spirit Colour • Spirit colour is immediately perceived by the consumer. Trace flavour compounds. • Trace by-products of fermentation give the spirit its (e.g. Diacetyl, DMS, characteristic and distinctive flavour. Their balance acetaldehyde, esters) ensures that the spirit will be ‘true to type’. • Excess of any substance can cause flavour problems. Total air. • Air contains oxygen which will dissolve in the spirit (see Air in the headspace dissolved oxygen). NB – only for low strength spirits (for low strength spirits) products such as RTD, and cream liqueurs. Dissolved oxygen (DO 2 ) • Dissolved oxygen in the product makes it taste (for low strength spirits) unpleasantly stale and on pasteurisation the product may also taste of wet cardboard. • Dissolved oxygen in the product will make it potentially microbially unstable and it could go cloudy.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 2 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
Dissolved carbon dioxide • Carbon dioxide gives the liquid a lively fizzy character. (CO 2 ) • High levels of CO 2 may make the product overfoam or (carbonated products only) gush when opened.
Spirit flavour. • Spirit flavour is its most important characteristic and it is (Trueness to type). why people consume the product. • Customers expect a specific spirit to have a consistent flavour, that is it should be true to type. Spirit clarity. • Customers expect most spirits that they drink to be ‘bright’, (Haze, potential haze) it looks more attractive. • Cloudy spirit indicates poor quality and perhaps contamination or infection, depending on the product.
Fill level. • The fill level determines the amount of liquid in the package. This is what is sold to the customer who expects to get what is paid for. It also is the volume of liquid that is specified in the ‘contents’ statement.
Label quality. • Customers expect to see an attractive bottle. Labels must be correctly positioned and with the correct amount of glue on them. Glue smears should be minimised. • Legibility. • Conformance to local regulations. Bottle closure quality. • The bottle must be sealed so that product cannot leak out or air leak in. Sterility • Microbiological contamination is the most destructive form (for low strength alcoholic of quality defect. Wild yeasts, moulds and bacteria can beverages including grow readily in some products and affect their flavour, RTDs) aroma and clarity to the degree that makes them undrinkable. • Sterility is a key factor because of the microbes’ ability to grow at phenomenal rates, so a small contamination quickly becomes a major problem.
Notes: What are the local regulations which control statutory declarations (e.g. ABV, fill levels, labelling requirements) in the country where you operate?
Quality Parameters
Quality parameters are measured at each stage of the process so that the performance of each stage can be checked and the final outcome of spirit quality can be predicted.
The table below details the final pack analysis where quality is measured
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging and the factors that determine each quality parameter:-
Packaged spirit production and Packaging operations.
Parameter Determining factors Alcohol content (ABV) • Packaging/liquor flush operations. • Distillation type pre-pack • Maturation & blending operations. Spirit pH. • Filtered spirit pH. • Cleaning operations in packaging hall (mains & filler) Spirit colour • Filtered spirit colour. Trace flavour compounds. • Trace flavour compounds in filtered spirit. (DMS, acetaldehyde, esters) • Contamination. Air in headspace. • Packaging performance (evacuation of filled (for low strength ABV bottles pre-closing). products, RTDs) Dissolved oxygen (DO 2) • Transfer-in procedure. (for low strength ABV • Air levels in the bright spirit tank before products, RTDs) transfer in. • Packaging performance. Dissolved carbon dioxide • Bright spirit CO 2. (CO 2) • Packaging performance, filler counter pressure. Spirit flavour. • Bright spirit flavour. (Trueness to type). • Contamination. • Spirit DO 2 (e.g. RTD) • Pasteurisation performance (e.g. RTD) Spirit clarity. • Bright spirit clarity/stability. (Haze, potential haze) • Packaging performance.
Fill level. • Packaging performance.
Label quality. • Packaging performance, labeller. • Label stock quality. Bottle closure quality. • Packaging performance, crowner / capper • Closure stock quality. Product sterility (if required) • Finished product sterility. • Packaging plant sterility.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 4 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging 11.2 Process Specifications
Process specifications cover manufacturing techniques or process steps which require a specific procedure in order that a satisfactory result may be achieved. These manufacturing techniques may alter the parameters of the product at each stage. Some of these alterations are desirable (and are the reason why the process step is performed!) and some are undesirable (e.g. overdilution of a product leading to lower than expected ABV).
A process specification details the limits for each parameter that is to be analysed at that process step. For most parameters there will be upper and lower limits.
Action must be taken when parameters are out of specification. There are two points to consider when confronted with an out of specification result:- Firstly, what to do with the current problem. Secondly, what to do to prevent things going wrong in the future.
When handling any problem, it is best to start with some form of investigation and not to jump to conclusions. The sort of questions to ask are:- • Is it real? Are the results correct? • What is the extent of the problem? Are other products affected? • When did it happen? Where did it happen? What else was going on at the time? • What are the possible causes? What are the likely causes? • What can be done about it?
This is an example of the action that could be taken to resolve an out of specification high colour spirit.
Investigation and action:-
Are the results correct? Recheck the analysis. -The result is correct What is the extent of the Check other spirit colours. problem? -There are no other defects. When did it happen? Check the cusum graph. - Colours started to increase at sample 5. What else was Check process activities that could affect spirit colour at happening at the time? the time that the sample was taken - Commissioning a new caramel dosing pump. What are the possible or It is likely that commissioning of the pump is causing high likely causes? colours. What can be done about For the current problem:- it? Blend the spirit with a lower colour spirit. The spirit is acceptable and blending will not cause any further problems. For the future:-
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Alter the commissioning programme Ensure that if the pump range is being altered, it is preferential to under-add than over-add caramel.
This is a very basic example, but highlights the questions that should be asked and problem solving approach to use when deciding how to tackle problems. Certain problems may be very complex and require expert problem solving techniques to resolve. For example, for problems caused by packaging line equipment (e.g. labels out of specification for position) then there are a variety of root causes that may be responsible, and a detailed fault finding and problem solving exercise may need to be undertaken. This is where experienced and trained personnel are essential. Skilled and experienced packaging operators can deal with such issues on their own, whereas less experienced personnel may make errors in the diagnosis of the problem, or may identify the wrong root cause and make changes to the process that might make the problem worse.
Notes. Describe the action that was taken to resolve an out of specification parameter in a plant of your experience.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 6 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging 11.3 Process Control.
The people who consume our products expect and deserve a consistently high level of quality. The key factors in maintaining consistent quality are the establishment of, and the measurement for comparison to, a set of process and product specifications .
There are a number of measurements that are taken during the process and at the completion of the process which indicate whether the process is in control and whether the spirit is of the right quality. We have already discussed earlier in the module some of these parameters that determine if the process is doing what it ought to do.
The principle of controlling quality is based on setting specifications for each of these measurements, measuring the process and taking corrective action if the product or process is ‘out of specification’. Having said that, there are some factors to be taken into consideration:- • All measuring instruments have a degree of tolerance. • The raw materials used in the liquid production process are naturally grown and therefore cannot be expected to always behave in exactly the same way. • Errors can be made in sampling, especially when a small sample is taken from a large batch. Therefore it is usual to give specifications a ‘range’ to reflect the normal expected variation in values.
Methods for Recording, Reporting and the Interpretation of Data.
Sampling Schedules. A sampling schedule is a plan specifying where, how and how frequently samples of the product in process and at the end of process are taken.
A routine sampling schedule is required so that:-
• Key measurements are taken without exception and the whole of the process is covered. It is too late if the first warning of a quality problem comes from the consumer.
• The quality picture can be seen from statistically presented data. A very useful quality control method is to look at historical trends. Using this method, current results are compared to those obtained in previous months/years. A sampling schedule makes sure that there is enough data to make these comparisons.
• The work of the people who are sampling and measuring can be organised effectively.
An example of a sampling schedule is detailed in the table below:-
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
Stage. Frequency. Notes. Spirit ready for Each vessel/tank. To confirm conformance and packaging. therefore suitability for packaging and consumption. Packaging materials. Each delivery. Frequency depends on supplier reliability. Spirit in package. Each code. To monitor packaging performance. Plant. A specified number of To monitor plant cleaning tanks per week. performance. Cleaning materials. A specified number of To ensure that the plant is cleaned samples per week. effectively.
Collation and presentation of data.
It is likely that there will be a large number of results from a sampling schedule like the one illustrated, especially in a large plant. The results must then be presented in a way that highlights the information as effectively as possible.
There are two main ways of presenting data so that problems are highlighted and action can be taken:-
• Defect highlighting. • Control charts.
An illustration of how defects can be highlighted is given below:-
Sample Result fo r spirit colour number (Specification = 10 to 15) 1 13 2 13 3 12 4 13 5 15 6 13 7 14 8 16 9 14 10 14
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 8 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
It can be seen very quickly that sample number 8 is out of specification.
This type of presentation is useful, if for example, a simple decision is required as to whether the product is passed as suitable for packaging. It does not however, assist in analysing results so that some clue as to the cause of the problem can be discovered.
• It would be useful to know the average colour of these samples. If that was high, then an adjustment to the process upstream could be made. • It would be useful to know the range or spread of colours of these samples. If the range is very wide, then the process may be out of control and action may be required to resolve the situation.
In order to resolve these problems, statistical analysis in the form of control charts is required. Pictures in the form of graphs have much more impact than simple tables.
Charts can be in different formats and can show:-
• Individual results plotted on a graph. The specifications can be drawn in as well. • Average results or ‘rolling’ average results plotted on a graph. • The range of results obtained. • The cumulative effect of deviation from the target and the effect of any action taken. This is a graph plotting the spirit colours that were shown above as individual results:- 17
16
15
14
13
12
11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
The defect sample 8 stands out from the others. Also it can be seen that there seems to be a trend of increasing colours.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 9 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
The next graph was prepared by plotting a three point moving average of the same spirit colour results. The first point is an average of colours 1, 2 & 3 the second point is an average of colours 2, 3 & 4 and so on.
15
14.5
14
13.5
13
12.5 1-3 2-4 3-5 4-6 5-7 6-8 7-9 8-10
This method of presenting data evens out the highs and lows and illustrates the rising trend very well. From this graph, it can be seen that the spirit colours have been increasing steadily and that, unless something is done about it, they will continue to increase.
The next figure is a bar graph histogram that shows the numbers of samples that have the same spirit colour results, that is how many spirit samples have a colour of 12, how many have a colour of 13 etc.
5
4
3
2
1
0 12 13 14 15 16
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 10 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
In this distribution curve, a wide distribution indicates a very wide range and a control problem, a narrow distribution indicates a narrow range with the process well under control.
The next graph below is called a ‘cumulative sum’ or ‘cusum’. It is designed to exaggerate very graphically, how a trend is going and the effect of any action taken to correct a problem. It is plotted by taking as a starting point, the target value which would normally be the middle of the specification.
(For our spirit colours, the middle of the specification would be 12.5.)
The next step is to calculate the difference between the target value and the actual colour. Then the differences are added up cumulatively as follows:
Sample Result difference Cumulative number from target of sum 12.5 1 13 +0.5 +0.5 2 13 +0.5 +1.0 3 12 -0.5 +0.5 4 13 +0.5 +1.0 5 15 +2.5 +3.5 6 13 +0.5 +4.0 7 14 +1.5 +5.5 8 16 +3.5 +9.0 9 14 +1.5 +10.5 10 14 +1.5 +12.0
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 11 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
The ideal situation for a cusum graph is for it to run along the zero line because that indicates that there is zero deviation from the target. The graph above shows that spirit colours were in control until sample number 5 and from then on they were too high.
Many production plants enter the results of analyses into computer databases. This gives a number of benefits:-
• Recording data is quick and easy. • It means that cumbersome paper records are not required. • Defects can be highlighted automatically. • Records can be easily accessed from a number of points on a network.. • The sort of graphs discussed above can be generated automatically. • Results can be attached to a batch number which allow tracing of the product back to the earliest process step in the plant. This assists in identification of problem processes.
Notes.
Using the table of results for spirit pH given below, plot graphs illustrating individual results, a three point moving average, a distribution curve and a cusum chart.
Sample Result for spirit pH number (Specification = 4 to 5) 1 4.0 2 3.5 3 4.5 4 5.0 5 4.5 6 4.0 7 3.5 8 3.5 9 4.0 10 3.5
What do the graphs tell you about the process?
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 12 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 13 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging Instrumentation for in-line process control.
The spirits industry often uses instruments to measure the quality of the spirit in process or the conditions of a process so that the process can be controlled.
These instruments may be used to simply indicate what is happening to a particular parameter during a process run. In other processes the measurement can be used to actually control the process itself via a feedback loop. For example, if spirits are reduced in strength in-line using an automated blender, the blender has sensors that detect the ABV of the spirit stream and, aiming for a target ABV will adjust the flowrate of water accordingly via feedback loops to control valves in the spirit and water streams.
The table below details the principles of instruments in common use in liquid production and packaging:-
Value measured Instrument description Special points
Temperature. The signal from a e.g. for pasteurization • Transmitting resistance thermometer transmitting temp (for example (electrical resistance ≅ temp). thermometer may RTDs) need checking. Pressure. • Pressure gauge. Pressure sensors are e.g. for filter pressure • Pressure sensor using a transducer. easily damaged and differential. need regular maintenance. Flow rate. • Rotary vane meter. Can be used to e.g. for PU control. • Magnetic flow meter (change in measure total volume. magnetic field ≅ flow). • Pressure differential across an orifice.
Alcohol (ABV) • Infra red adsorption. Results usually backed e.g. for dilution of • Refractive index. up by laboratory high strength spirits analyses. Haze. • Light beam scattered by the particles in Regular calibration e.g. for filtration suspension is measured. using a clear liquid monitoring. (water). Volume. • Pressure sensors at strategic levels in It is useful to have an e.g. for measuring the the tank. alternative method of contents of a tank. • Flow meter on the tank inlet line. checking for example • Ultra sonic beam measures depth of dipping the tank. liquid in the tank. Mass/weight • Load cells Dissolved oxygen. • Gas transfer through a membrane The membrane is e.g. for checking DO 2 where the increase in pressure across sensitive and is easily pickup during RTD / the membrane is measured. poisoned (corrupted) product transfer. by fouling or damage.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 14 GCSP (All Containers): Section 10: Beer quality & process control for packaging
Carbon dioxide. • Gas transfer through a membrane The membrane is e.g. for monitoring where the increase in pressure across sensitive and is easily CO 2 injection the membrane is measured. poisoned (corrupted) systems. • Infra red adsorption. by fouling or damage. Conductivity. • Measuring the electrical differential Regular maintenance e.g. for measuring across two sensors located in the required especially if detergent strength in liquid. the values control a a C.I.P. system. system. pH. • Measuring the electrical differential The membrane is e.g. for monitoring across a membrane between the liquid sensitive and is easily water supplies. and a salt solution. poisoned (corrupted) by fouling or damage.
Notes.
List the instrumentation in an automatically controlled process in spirits packaging that you are aware of. What is the basis of their operation and how do they control the process?
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCSP: Section 11: Spirit Quality – Sensory Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 11 Spirit Quality - Sensory
Flavour – Nose and Mouth
People sense the flavour of a drink in two ways, aroma and taste:-
Aroma – e.g. fruity, floral, honey, sulphury, meaty, spicy, chlorine
Taste – sweet, salty, bitter, sour, metallic
Another factor which influences taste is mouthfeel - that being how the liquid stays on the tongue and helps the flavour to linger. This is more important for lower alcoholic beverages, in spirit the key area to consider is the nose.
The various characteristics of the flavour can be given standard terms so that people tasting the liquid can recognise and describe that flavour in a common language. That way, a spirit can be tested and analysed for flavour just as it can be analysed for other quality parameters like colour or pH. It is possible to relate flavour descriptors to certain chemical components. Many producers have developed their own “flavour profile descriptors” over the course of many years experience, and despite some common ground between companies it is often jealously guarded knowledge.
To some extent sensory profile of a product can be driven by the target market, e.g. it is possible to make changes to the fermentation and distillation regimes of a product to enhance or stifle a particular character, in accordance with what the market wants. Product development pays serious consideration to sensory profile, it being a key determinant of how desirable the product will be to the consumer.
Flavour Evaluation - Introduction
Distilled spirits have alcoholic strengths normally between 30 and 50% ABV, their flavour and character being determined not only by aroma compounds originating from the raw materials used and fermentation, but also from distillation, storage and / or maturation (and in what container they were stored or matured). Indeed for some spirits, having a character identified with their raw materials may be a legal requirement of the product.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 2 GCSP: Section 11: Spirit Quality – Sensory
Aroma compounds in distilled spirits and liqueurs, their levels, odour attributes and thresholds are most important for quality and particularly authenticity. It is possible to distinguish counterfeit product from the real thing by a detailed sensory and analytical approach. Using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, the composition of volatile aroma compounds in distilled spirits is identified and detailed. The table below shows a list of potential flavourcompounds, or congeners, that may be found in distilled spirits, and their thresholds for detection on the nose. This list is in no way exhaustive, but highlights 4 key groups, carbonyl compounds, alchohols, esters and acids.
CARBONYLS Aroma Threshold (mg/L Typical conc (mg/L 40% water) ABV) Acetaldehyde Pungent, sweet 0.025 <2-160 Diethoxyethane Fruity, sherry-like 0.005 <3-72 Triethoxyethane Pungent <0.5-6 Acrolein Horseradish, peppery 0.04 <0.1-1.2 Diacetyl Buttery 0.1 <0.1-12 ALCOHOLS Aroma Threshold (mg/L Typical conc ( mg/L 40% water) ABV) Ethanol Alcoholic 24.9 Methanol Alcoholic 20-1000 1-propanol Stupefying 500 40-800 1-butanol Alcoholic 0.5 1-80 2-methyl-1- Alcoholic 40-400 propanol 2-butanol Alcoholic 0.5 0.4-320 2-methyl-1- Malty 0.32 8-720 butanol 3-methyl-1- Malty 1 4-1,200 butanol Allyl alcohol Unpleasant 19 4-52 Phenethyl Rose-like 1 4-32 alcohol ESTERS Aroma Threshold (mg/L Typical conc (mg/l 40% water) ABV) Ethyl acetate Solvent like, nail 17.6 4-800 polish Ethyl butanoate Fruity, floral 0.001 <0.1-3.2 Methylbutyl Fruity, banana, pear 0.3 1.2-12 acetate 2-phenethyl Rose, honey, fruity 0.02 4-12 acetate Ethyl hexanoate Apple, banana, violet 0.005 0.4-3.2 Ethyl octanoate Pineapple, pear 0.07 4-20 Ethyl decanoate Floral, fatty 0.5 4-36 Ethyl Floral 1.6-3.2 dodecanoate ACIDS Aroma Threshold (mg/L Typical conc (mg/L 40%
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP: Section 11: Spirit Quality – Sensory water) ABV) Acetic acid Vinegar, pungent 100 1-50 Butyric acid Buttery 1 <0.1 Hexanoic acid Rancid, fatty 1-19 Octanoic acid Oily, fatty, soapy 1-4 Decanoic acid Fattyy, citrus 0.3-5
These flavour compounds originate from the raw materials used for fermentation and from that fermentation, by yeasts (primarily Saccharomyces spp.) and other microorganisms that metabolise carbohydrates, amino and fatty acids, and other compounds. It is clear that the sensory relevance of a compound is closely linked to its odour threshold at which it can be detected, and the desirability of that compound in the final product. Some of the volatiles produced during fermentation, particularly acrolein, diacetyl, 2-3- pentanedione, 2-butanol, allyl alcohol and acetic acid, are a result of enhanced undesirable microbial activity and may cause unpleasant off-taints in the final product. This microbial activity may be due to spoilage of the raw material or actual microbial contamination in the fermenting vessel.
Distillation is the “sorting” method, where undesirable compounds are distilled out leaving the desired congener balance within the finished spirit. Esters are probably the group of congeners with the most pleasant properties. Their quantities and mutual proportions are important for the perceived flavour of a spirit since their concentrations are generally above the sensory threshold values.
The Effect of Ageing
Ageing of distilled spirits is an important step to alter and improve the flavour; fresh distillates are often characterised by a raw, pungent odour and taste. Different components of the distillate may react during the maturation period. By storing distillates in wooden casks, volatile aroma compounds migrate from the wood into the distillate. Such compounds give the distillate the characteristic oak wood and vanilla like flavours (and maybe others depending on what the wood was previously used to store, e.g. sherry). The non-volatile compounds of the wood also change the colour of the distillate to an increasing degree over time. The wooden barrels are permeable to air, so air can pass in and alcohol evaporates (in Scotch Whisky production, this is the “angel’s share”); over time the ethanol concentration drops and the aroma of the distillate becomes more intense and complex.
The Effect of Water in the Process
Water is crucially important to flavour in production of neutral, highly rectified spirits (such as vodka, gin, white rum). While it is still important in the production of brown spirits, it might be seen as less so given the greater complexity of the congener mix that often exists in these spirits. Pure water is seen as vital to the production of “pure” white spirits. Deionisation is a common method to produce such water.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 4 GCSP: Section 11: Spirit Quality – Sensory
Nosing
Unlike beers, the vast majority of spirits have their sensory quality assessed by nosing. As already seen, thresholds of congeners can be very low and easily detected by an experienced nosing analyst.
For example, for many Scotch Whisky companies, the nosing profiles of their individual products is seen as commercially sensitive information. Given that each distillery produces its own distillate sensory profile (which can vary between distillation runs depending on conditions), making blended whiskies in particular is seen as something of an art form! The master blender’s task is to combine a number of different distillates to create a congener profile matching that of the finished blend as closely as possible.
A trained and experienced “noser” is a highly valued commodity in Scotch Whisky circles. Humans have intrinsically different thresholds at which they recognise flavours / aromas, and it is common to have a number of “nosers” who can pick up different aromas clearly. This experience and knowledge is developed over a number of years and is highly prized.
Counterfeiting
With the high retail values of distilled spirits, attempts to counterfeit products are common. However, each product has a distinct sensory profile that can be used to identify if a product is true or counterfeit. Consider Scotch whisky again as an example.
Whilst the authentication of Scotch Whisky brands using lab based gas chromatography is well established, there is a definite need for authentication methods able to be used under field test conditions – i.e. in market. A useful method for such field testing is to use the ultraviolet / visible absorbance spectra of the liquid. These usually produce consistent absorbance ranges for each brand, enabling a quick comparison to be made with a test kit (usually a portable handheld spectrophotometer) in the marketplace. Any samples with spectra outside their normal ranges may be deemed suspect, and their authenticity further confirmed or denied by gas chromatography back in the main lab. In this way, manufacturers attempt to maintain control of their brand in the marketplace. It is not difficult to copy a bottle or pack design, but it is much more difficult to copy the congener profile of a product. Cheap, counterfeit copies are often found to contain high levels of undesirable flavour compounds, and possibly even some that are harmful such as methanol if distillation has not removed it to a safe degree.
Sensory Analysis during Processing
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 5 GCSP: Section 11: Spirit Quality – Sensory
Sensory analysis during processing and packaging can ensure that any flavour defects are recognised before the product is released to trade. It is common practice to operate a “positive release” programme of product from bright spirit tank prior to transfer to Packaging.
Sensory analysis within the distillery itself may be very limited, as the final product is a raw distillate and may either be matured, further refined, or purified before it is packaged. Therefore sensory analysis is most often conducted prior to packaging, and reference samples of all packaging batches are kept. It is unlikely that the packaging operation can cause any major change to the product quality in terms of sensory analysis. Air is not a concern for most spirits products, as staling is not a problem. However, great care must be taken not to allow the product to come into contact with untreated water (which may leave a chlorine taint) or to actually mix product streams themselves. Such mixing may drastically alter the sensory balance of a product, such that it will fail a trueness to type test – where the reference is compared to the known sensory standard.
Again unlike beers, most spirits are not affected by ultraviolet radiation in terms of flavour degradation or nosing profile (in beers, particularly those packed in clear glass bottles, this may cause “sunstruck” off flavour, where hop compounds in the beer are altered). Storage conditions do not therefore have to be carefully controlled either prior to or after packaging.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011)
Qualifications
General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits) GCP(S)
Learning Material © Institute of Brewing and Distilling 2011
Section 12 Legislation and the packaging of spirits. tax, such as value added tax (VAT) or sales tax; a 12.1 Definition of Excise Tax “collected” tax is one which is collected by intermediaries who turn over the proceeds to the government and file the “In this world nothing can be said to be certain, related tax return. except death and taxes." - Benjamin Franklin (1706-90) An economic definition states that direct tax may be adjusted to the individual characteristic of the taxpayer, To tax is to impose a financial charge or other levy upon a whereas indirect taxes are levied on transactions taxpaye r by a state or the functional equivalent of a state irrespective of the circumstance of buyer or seller. such that failure to pay is punishable by law. Examples of Direct and Indirect Taxes. In modern taxation systems, taxes are levied in money. The method of taxation and the government spending of taxes Direct Tax Indirect Tax is often highly debated by politicians and economists. Taxes Income Tax Value Added Tax are collected by government agencies such as: Capital Gains Tax Sales Tax Corporate Tax Excise Tax Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs (HMRC) – Inheritance Tax Customs Duty United Kingdom Transfer Tax / Stamp Duty Internal Revenue Service (IRS) – United States Social Security contributions Australian Taxation Office (ATO) – Australia South Africa Revenue Service (SARS) – South Africa Note: This list is not exhaustive and uses general terms only that may differ in legal definition from country to country. When taxes are not fully paid, civil penalties (such as fines or forfeiture) or criminal penalties (such as imprisonment) In the brewing and distilling industries, it is primarily the may be imposed on the non-paying entity or individual. imposing of indirect taxation that is of interest through the charging of excise tax, value added tax, and/or sales tax – Money provided by taxation has been used by states and/or commonly referred to as consumption taxes – although their governments throughout history to carry out many businesses and their employees are still responsible for different functions. These include the enforcement of law their own direct taxation. and public order, expenditure on wars, protection of property, economic infrastructure (roads, legal tender etc), Indirect Taxation. public works, social engineering, and the operation of government. Governments also use taxes to fund welfare An indirect tax can is a tax collected by an intermediary and public services including education, health, pensions, (such as a brewer, distiller, or retail store) from the person unemployment payments, or public transport. Energy, who bears the ultimate economic burden of the tax (the water, and waste management are also common public consumer). The intermediary later files a tax return and utilities. forwards the tax proceeds to government with the return.
Governments use different kinds of taxes to vary the tax An indirect tax may increase the price of an item so that rates. This is done to distribute the burden of tax among consumers are actually paying the tax by paying more for individuals or classes of the population involved in taxable the product. Examples would include fuel, alcohol and activities, such as business, or to redistribute resources cigarette taxes. between them. Modern taxation systems are intended to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by imposing Value Added Tax – a value added tax (VAT) applies to the taxes on those who are still working. In addition, taxes can market value added to a product or material at each stage be applied to fund foreign aid, to influence the state’s of its manufacture or distribution. If a retailer buys a bottle economy, or to modify patterns of consumption (eg of spirit for £20 from a wholesale distributor, and sells it for alcohol, tobacco) within an economy by making some £30 to a retail customer then this tax would apply to the transactions more or less attractive. £10 difference between the two amounts.
Taxes are sometimes referred to as direct taxes or indirect As an example, a spirits company will buy raw materials taxes . (raw materials, glass, labels etc) and will pay the VAT on the purchase price from the suppliers, passing this to the A direct tax is one paid directly to the government by the government. The spirits company will then charge VAT on persons on whom it is imposed, often accompanied by a tax the selling price to the wholesale distributor, but will pass return filed by the taxpayer. Examples include some on to the government only the amount related to the sales income taxes, some corporate taxes, and transfer taxes mark-up. The wholesdale distributor will then continue the such as estate (inheritance) tax or gift tax. In this sense, a process, charging the retail distributor the VAT on the direct tax is contrasted with an indirect tax or “collected” 2 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
entire price to the retailer, but passing on to the select a product suitable for this purpose (excisable government only the amount related to the distribution product) is basically that it should be fast-moving, high- mark-up. The last VAT amount is paid by the eventual retail volume, daily consumables and, in addition to this, mostly customer (end consumer) who cannot recover any of the non-essential products e.g. alcohol and tobacco products. the previously paid VAT. For a VAT and Sales Tax of identical rates, the total tax paid is the same but is paid at differing A secondary function of these duties and levies is to points in the process. influence consumer behaviour, meaning that Government may manipulate Excise duties and levies to discourage the A VAT may exclude certain goods, such as food or children’s consumption of certain harmful products; i.e. harmful to clothing, so that the burden of taxation is seen to be human health as well as harmful to the environment distributed fairly. (plastic bags and electricity production from non-renewable sources). Sales Tax – are levied when a commodity is sold to its final consumer. It is common to exempt food, utilities and other 1. Public Safety and Health necessities from sales tax, since poorer people spend a • To deter individuals from harming their higher proportion of their incomes on these commodities. health by abusing substances such as Sales taxes can be referred to as a ‘pay for what you spend’ tobacco and alcohol. tax, as only those who spend money on non-exempt, or • To deter individuals from engaging in luxury, items pay that tax. morally objectionable activities such as gambling. Customs Duties – a duty is a kind of tax, often associated 2. Environmental protection with state borders and customs control, which is applied on • To deter individuals or organisations from certain items purchased abroad. Properly, a duty differs harming the general environment, from a tax in being applied to specific commodities, including curbing activities which financial transactions, estates, etc rather than on contribute to pollution. individuals. A customs duty is a kind of indirect tax which is charged on goods of international trade, and in an Money raised through excises are often, but not always, economic sense is also a form of consumption tax. Duties directed towards specific social costs commonly associated charged by the government in relation to imported items with the product or service being taxed. Tobacco tax are referred to as import duty, and on exported items as revenues, for example, might be spent on government anti- export duty. A tariff is a list of commodities, along with the smoking campaigns. chargeable rate of customs duty, issued by a state which is popularly understood as customs duty. Examples of Excise Taxes by some Countries.
Note: These examples by country guide candidates towards Duty Free Goods are those bought at airports and ports further information specific to their location, but do not that do not attract the usual government taxes and customs form part of the examination. duties. Some countries impose allowances in order to restrict the number of duty free items that one person can Canada: Both the federal and provincial governments import into a country. impose excise taxes on goods such as cigarettes, gasoline,
alcohol, and for vehicle air conditioners. A great bulk of the Excise Tax – is a form of sales tax that applies to a specific retail price of cigarettes and alcohol are excise taxes. class of goods, typically alcohol, petrol (gasoline), or Canada has some of the highest rates of taxes on cigarettes tobacco. It is commonly understood to refer to an inland and alcohol in the world. These are sometimes referred to tax on the sale, or production for sale, of these goods. as sin taxes. Excises are distinguished from customs duties , which are www.cra-arc.gc.ca taxes in importation. Excises are inland taxes, whereas duties are border taxes. Unites States: Both the federal and state governments levy
excise taxes on goods such as alcohol, motor fuel, and Rationale for Excise Taxes tobacco products. Even though federal excise taxes are geographically uniform, state excise taxes vary Excise duties were first levied in England in 1643 by Charles considerably. However, taxation constitutes a substantial II to help fund the civil war against Charles I. He however proportion of the retail prices on alcohol and tobacco spent most of the excise revenue on himself and gave £500 products. a month to his mistress. Local governments may also impose an excise tax. For The basis for the imposition of Excise duties and levies is example, the city of Anchorage, Alaska charges a cigarette primarily fiscal by nature, meaning that it is levied to tax per pack, which is on top of the federal excise tax and provide the State with an easy collectable and constant the state excise tax. stream of revenue. For this reason, the criteria used to www.irs.gov
Revision Notes Version 1 August 2011 3
United Kingdom: Her Majesty's Customs and Excise (HMCE) Australia: Excise duty is a tax on certain types of goods was, until April 2005, a department of the British produced or manufactured in Australia. These excisable Government in the UK. It was responsible for the collection goods include alcohol, tobacco and petroleum and of Value added tax (VAT), Customs Duties, Excise Duties, alternative fuels. The Australian Taxation Office provides and other indirect taxes such as Air Passenger Duty, Climate links to information on excise. Change Levy, Insurance Premium Tax, Landfill Tax and www.ato.gov.au Aggregates Levy. It was also responsible for managing the
import and export of goods and services into the UK. HMCE was merged with the Inland Revenue (which was
responsible for the administration and collection of direct taxes) to form a new department, HM Revenue and Customs, with effect from 18 April 2003.
www.hmrc.gov.uk
South Africa: Excise Duties are applicable to the following products consumed in the whole of the Southern African
Customs Union (SACU), consisting of the Republic of South Africa, the Republic of Botswana, the Kingdom of Lesotho, the Republic of Namibia and the Kingdom of Swaziland:
• Specific Excise Duty Products o Fuel/Petroleum Products o Tobacco Products
o Malt Beer o Traditional African Beer
o Spirits/Liquor Products o Wine o Other Fermented Beverages o www.sars.gov.za
work is released under CC-BY-SA: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0
4 General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
1 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 13 Spirit Quality – Contamination in Packaging
13.1 Product Cross Contamination
The many and varied spirit types can quite often be packaged in the same plant. Product cross contamination is a serious quality consideration in such circumstances.
Aged spirits pose a potential problem of their own. Due to the self-cleaning nature of high strength spirits, it is quite common to run one product stream to a filler without the line being rinsed first. The manufacturer has a duty to ensure that the integrity of the product being filled is not compromised. For example, if 15yr old spirit is run after a 5yr old spirit, the manufacturer must ensure that the 15yr old spirit is exactly that, and not an unintended blend of the two. This can be achieved by ensuring that pipework and plant is setup such that the line is correctly drained at the end of each filling batch. Thus when the next batch comes onstream, if it is of different quality, it suffers no pickup of the previous batch. This would likely affect the first few turns of the filler, after which fresh product will be unaffected.
Another solution may be to insert water flush sequences to the filling lines, such that the line is rinsed prior to and post the filling of a batch. This ensures there will be no cross contamination, however it is necessary to ensure that the ABV of the initial bottles is not affected. Normal quality checks should pick this up during the course of a run.
For products like Scotch Whisky, where the liquids are differentiated not only by age, but by type (i.e. single malt, single grain, vatted malt, blended) it is imperative that liquids are kept separate, otherwise it is impossible to guarantee that the product in the bottle is what the manufacturer states it is. Failure to do so could lead to consumer complaints as well as legal action.
Most spirits products are highly susceptible to changes in character if cross contamination occurs with a different spirit. Given the importance of the “nose” character on spirits, even slight changes in the volatiles contained in the liquid may be easily discerned, even by inexpert noses. Certain nosing profiles are expected for each spirit type, and an expert nosing panel will quickly identify any changes, even to the parts per million (ppm) level if the
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 2 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging compound being nosed is distinctive enough.
For example, a filling line may be setup to produce one litre bottles of spirit. It may be that the first batch to run on that line will be gin, and then the same bottle type will be used to fill vodka. It is essential that there is no cross contamination from the end of the gin batch to the start of the vodka batch. A water rinse (hot or cold) will ensure that no such contamination occurs.
Rinsing sequences should apply to ALL parts of the plant that are touched by the final product, i.e. Packaging Tank, transfer lines and pumps, and the filler itself.
13.2 Product Contamination & HACCP
If the manufacturer has processes in place to ensure the integrity of the product from cross contamination with other products, there is another potential issue of contamination that must be managed. This is where objects or substances that are NOT product related are allowed to contaminate the product stream, or the empty bottles prior to them being filled and closed.
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) is an internationally recognised systematic preventative approach to managing food safety. It is not restricted to the drinks industry and is commonly applied to food production and preparation, including restaurants.
The primary aim of HACCP is to address the risk of physical, chemical, and biological hazards as a means of prevention rather than rely on finished product inspection to spot issues. In this way it acts both as a support to guarantee the quality of product to the consumer, and minimises expensive reworks or product losses to the manufacturer. The basis of the system is the HACCP Plan.
There are seven principles to HACCP:
1. Conduct a Hazard Analysis This identifies food safety hazards (physical, chemical, biological) and identifies preventative measures that can be applied to control these hazards.
2. Identify Critical Control Points A Critical Control Point (CCP) is a point or step in the process at which the hazard can be controlled, and as a result is prevented, eliminated or reduced to an acceptable level.
3. Establish Critical Limits for each CCP A critical limit is the maximum or minimum value to which a hazard must be controlled at a CCP. If this value is exceeded, then food safety cannot be guaranteed.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging 4. Establish CCP Monitoring Requirements Monitoring is essential to ensure that the process is controlled at each CCP. The frequency and type of monitoring being used should be stated in the HACCP Plan.
5. Establish Corrective Actions This describes the action to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from a prescribed critical limit. This action must bring the situation back within the critical limit, so that the CCP is successfully controlling the hazard. Again, these corrective actions should be listed in the HACCP Plan.
6. Establish Record Keeping Procedures In HACCP, several documents require to be maintained and controlled. These include the HACCP Plan (showing the hazard analysis, CCPs, monitoring procedures and corrective actions), and documents used in the monitoring process itself.
7. Review Process Involving auditing, validation and verification, this ensures that plants produce inherently safe products. Plants should validate their own HACCP plans. It is also important to include HACCP as an item of note in any major plant project, especially where changes to process or plant are involved. The new setup needs to be assessed in the same way as the old. Verification ensures that the HACCP plan is fit for purpose and is working as intended.
These seven HACCP principles are included in the international standard ISO 22000 FSMS (2005). This being the standard covering food safety and quality management systems.
Hazard Types
Physical Primarily this entails “foreign bodies”, be it dust, glass fragments, metal fragments etc, that might potentially make it into the finished product in bottle.
Chemical Detergents, oils and other lubricants that are used for cleaning and lubrication purposes. Or any other chemical that may make it into the liquid at any stage in the process.
Biological Microorganisms, including bacteria and moulds. Viruses are less of an issue as they cannot survive and grow outside of living cells. For high strength spirits, microbial contamination is not an issue from a food safety perspective, but from a point of consumer disgust, having films of dead mould or bacteria within a bottle of product is highly undesirable.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 4 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging
Identifying a Critical Control Point (CCP)
The following diagram shows what is termed the Critical Control Point Decision Tree. This is a simple process designed around four questions to help identify whether or not each process stage is a critical control point.
By using this decision tree at each stage in the production process, it is possible to identify if that stage is a critical control point for a particular hazard.
For example, in Scotch Whisky production, the Bright Spirit Tank (holding stage) would not be a Critical Control Point for foreign body prevention. This is because there is a process step further downstream (trap filter prior to filler) that will control the hazard. It is the trap filter itself that is a CCP, as there is no further step downstream that will control foreign bodies prior to the liquid entering the bottle.
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By applying this decision tree at every stage of the production process, and considering physical, chemical and biological hazards at each, it is possible to generate a HACCP plan showing all CCPs for the packaging process, together with their monitoring procedures and corrective actions.
Developing a HACCP plan
The following twelve tasks are a simple step by step process that is required to develop a HACCP plan. They are designed to ensure that the seven principles are applied correctly. Principle 1, which is to conduct a hazard analysis, requires that the first five tasks have all been addressed in a logical and honest manner so that all real hazards associated with the commodity have been identified. The twelve tasks are discussed briefly below and summarised at the end of the section.
Task 1 - Establish a HACCP team
To fully understand the plant and its processes, and be able to identify all likely hazards and CCPs, it is important that the HACCP team is made up of people from a wide range of disciplines. The team should include:
• A team leader to convene the group and to direct the work of the team ensuring that the concept is properly applied. This person must be familiar with the technique, be a good listener and allow all participants to contribute. • A specialist with a detailed knowledge of the plant is required. This specialist will have a major role in the production of the plant flow diagrams. • Several specialists, each with an understanding of particular hazards and associated risks, e.g. a microbiologist, a chemist, a mycotoxicologist, a toxicologist, a QC manager, a process engineer. • People, such as packaging specialists, raw material buyers, distribution staff or production staff, farmers, brokers, who are involved with the process, and have working knowledge of it, may be brought into the team temporarily in order to provide relevant expertise. • The team's progress and results of the analysis should be recorded by a technical secretary.
If any changes are made to composition or operational procedures, it will be necessary to re-assess the HACCP plan in the light of the changes (as already stated).
The first activity of the HACCP team is to identify the scope of the study. For example, will the whole plant be covered, or only selected areas? This will make the task more manageable and specialists can be added to the team as and when they are required.
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Task 2 - Describe the product
To start a hazard analysis, a full description of the product, including customer specification, should be prepared. This should include information relevant to safety, e.g. mycotoxin regulation/target level, composition, physical/chemical properties of the raw materials and the final product, the amount of water available for microbial growth (a w), the amount of acid or alkali in the product (pH). Also information regarding how the product is to be packaged, stored and transported should also be considered together with facts regarding its' shelf life and recommended storage temperatures. Where appropriate, labelling information and an example of the label should be included. This information will help the HACCP team to identify 'real' hazards associated with the process.
Task 3 - Identify the product's intended use
For spirits, this should be pretty clear!
Task 4 - Draw up the plant flow diagram
The first function of the team is to draw up a detailed plant flow diagram, showing that part of it which is relevant to the study. The expertise of the plant specialist is important at this stage. Plant systems may differ in detail in different parts of the world, and even within one country there may be a number of variants. Secondary processing will need to be detailed for each factory, using generic flows only as a guide.
Task 5 - On site confirmation of flow diagram
Upon completion of the plant flow diagram, members of the team should visit the plant to compare the information present on the flow diagram with what actually happens in practice. This is known as "walking the line", a step by step practice to check that all information regarding materials, practices, controls etc. have been taken into consideration by the team during the preparation of the flow diagram. The part of plant for which the HACCP plan is being designed should be visited as many times as possible to ensure that all relevant information has been collected.
Task 6 - Identify and analyse hazard(s) - (Principle 1)
Effective hazard identification and hazard analysis are the keys to a successful HACCP Plan. All real or potential hazards that may occur in each ingredient and at each stage of the plant should be considered. Food safety hazards for HACCP programmes have been classified into three types of hazards as already described – physical, chemical and biological.
The probability that a hazard will occur is called a risk. The risk may take a value from zero to one depending on the degree of certainty that the hazard
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging will be absent or that it will be present. After hazard identification, a hazard analysis must be conducted to understand the relative health risk.
Once a food safety hazard has been identified, then appropriate control measures should be considered. These are any action or activity that can be used to control the identified hazard, such that it is prevented, eliminated, or reduced to an acceptable level. The control measure may also include training of personnel for a particular operation.
Task 7 - Determine the critical control points (CCPs) - (Principle 2).
Each step in the commodity flow diagram, within the scope of the HACCP study, should be taken in turn and the relevance of each identified hazard should be considered. It is also important to remember the stated scope of the HACCP analysis at this stage. The team must determine whether the hazard can occur at this step, and if so whether control measures exist. If the hazard can be controlled adequately, and is not best controlled at another step, and is essential for food safety, then this step is a CCP for the specified hazard. A decision tree can be used to determine CCPs, and an example of the Codex decision tree is included in Appendix IV. However, the HACCP team's judgement, expertise and knowledge of the process are the major factors in establishing CCPs.
If a step is identified where a food safety hazard exists, but no adequate control measures can be put in place either at this step or subsequently, then the product is unsafe for human consumption. Production should cease until control measures are available and a CCP can be introduced.
Task 8 - Establish critical limits for each ccp - (Principle 3)
Critical limits must be specified and validated for each CCP. Criteria often used include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level, pH, water activity, and sensory parameters such as visual appearance. All critical limits, and the associated permissible tolerances, must be documented in the HACCP Plan Worksheet, and included as specifications in operating procedures and work instructions.
Task 9 - Establish a monitoring procedure - (Principle 4)
Monitoring is the mechanism for confirming that critical limits at each CCP are being met. The method chosen for monitoring must be sensitive and produce a rapid result so that trained operatives are able to detect any loss of control of the step. This is imperative so that corrective action can be taken as quickly as possible so that loss of product will be avoided or minimised.
Monitoring can be carried out by observation or by measurement, on samples taken in accordance with a statistically based sampling plan. Monitoring by visual observation is basic but gives rapid results, and can therefore be acted upon quickly.
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Task 10 - Establish corrective action - (Principle 5)
If monitoring indicates that critical limits are not being met, thus demonstrating that the process is out of control, corrective action must be taken immediately. The corrective action should take into account the worst case scenario, but must also be based on the assessment of hazards, risk and severity, and on the final use of the product. Operatives responsible for monitoring CCPs should be familiar with and have received comprehensive training in how to effect a corrective action.
Corrective actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought back under control. They must also include appropriate disposition of any affected product. Whenever possible an alarm system should be introduced which will activate when monitoring indicates that the critical limit is being approached. Corrective action can then be applied to pre-empt a deviation and prevent the need for any product rework or disposal.
Task 11 - Verify the HACCP plan - (Principle 6)
Once the HACCP plan has been drawn up, and all of the CCPs have been validated, then the complete plan must be verified. Once the HACCP plan is in routine operation, it must be verified and reviewed at regular intervals. This should be a task of the person charged with the responsibility for that particular component of the commodity system. The appropriateness of CCPs and control measures can thus be determined, and the extent and effectiveness of monitoring can be verified. Microbiological and/or alternative chemical tests can be used to confirm that the plan is in control and the product is meeting customer specifications. A formal internal auditing plan of the system will also demonstrate an ongoing commitment to keep the HACCP plan up to date, as well as representing an essential verification activity.
Ways in which the system can be verified include:
• collecting samples for analysis by a method different from the monitoring procedure • asking questions of staff, especially CCP monitors • observing operations at CCPs • formal audit by independent person
It is important to remember that the HACCP system is set up for a particular formulation of product handled and processed in a given way.
Task 12 - Keep records - (Principle 7)
Record keeping is an essential part of the HACCP process. It demonstrates that the correct procedures have been followed from the start to the end of the
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 9 GCSP: Section 13: Spirit quality – Contamination in packaging process, offering product traceability. It provides a record of compliance with the critical limits set, and can be used to identify problem areas. Furthermore, the documentation can be used by a company as evidence of 'Due Diligence Defence' as required, for instance, by the Food Safety Act 1990 (HMSO), in the UK.
Records that should be kept include: all processes and procedures linked to CCP monitoring, deviations, and corrective actions.
Documents should also include those that recorded the original HACCP study, e.g. hazard identification and selection of critical limits, but the bulk of the documentation will be records concerned with the monitoring of CCPs and corrective actions taken. Record keeping can be carried out in a number of ways, ranging from simple check-lists, to records and control charts. Manual and computer records are equally acceptable, but a documentation method should be designed that is appropriate for the size and nature of the enterprise.
To recap then – the twelve tasks required to develop a plan in accordance with the seven principles are:
1. Establish a HACCP team.
2. Describe the product
3. Identify the product’s intended use
4. Draw up the Plant Flow Diagram
5. On site confirmation of Plant Flow Diagram
6. Identify and analyse Hazard (s)
7. Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs)
8. Establish critical limits for each CCP
9. Establish a Monitoring Procedure
10. Establish Corrective Actions
11. Verify the HACCP Plan
12. Keep Records
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCSP (All Containers): Section 14: Quality assurance and quality management Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 14 Quality Assurance and Quality Management.
15.1 Quality Management.
Candidates should have an understanding of the fundamental principles of Quality Management and be familiar with the methodology of at least one quality system appropriate to their region/country of operation.
The key features of a Quality Management system are:-
• To understand precisely what is to be achieved. This means having specifications to meet and it means having procedures to follow. This also means that the procedures and specifications will have to be documented .
• To monitor actual performance against what is to be achieved. This means keeping records of performance and it means auditing .
• To correct things when they go wrong. This means having a system of initiating corrective action .
• To review the overall quality management system and to plan for improvement .
Specifications.
Process and product specifications must detail all those parameters that are required to be measured, including flavour or nose where they are , and they must identify an ideal value together with an acceptable range for each parameter.
Procedures.
Documented procedures are there to explain what has to be done and when and how it should be done. Procedures can cover a wide range of topics:-
• An explanation of the organisation and responsibilities. • Procedures to be followed in the case of non-conformance’s. • Procedures on how the processes are managed.
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• Instructions on how to operate the plant to achieve the procedure consistently • Procedures to be followed when auditing. • Documentation.
Quality management systems rely on documents to ensure that procedures are followed. The theory being that ‘if it isn’t written down, it isn’t done’. It is worth noting that many spirits packers also use electronic means for storing documents and maintaining procedures, to ensure that the current version of a procedure is being used in all relevant places.
It is important that documents are ‘controlled’ so that people are confident that the document they are working to is current and valid.
Monitoring.
Quality performance is monitored on a regular basis and the results can be presented in a way that highlights problems.
Auditing.
The purpose of auditing is to check that the quality system is being followed. Audits are concluded with a report back which usually identifies areas for improvement. Auditing procedures have the advantage that they can be conducted internally. Audits do not necessarily have to cover the whole quality system, often following a trail of evidence will reveal how rigorously procedures are being followed.
Corrective Action.
Action must be taken to put things right and how this is done is usually covered by a procedure.
The procedure will ensure that the following areas are covered:-
• Detail of the problem. • Nominating the person responsible for taking the action. • When the corrective action will be completed. • A review of the result of the corrective action taken.
Review.
An overview is required so that it can be confirmed that, for example:-
• Corrective actions are being followed (implemented) in time.
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• Audits are taking place as specified. • The packaging plant’s quality is meeting requirements.
The procedure for a review is specified and documented in the same way as all other procedures.
Improvement.
It may be that an overall improvement in quality is required, many world class manufacturers have a ‘zero defect’ policy. In this case a plan to achieve the required improvements is necessary. The quality management system will contain all the specification and monitoring procedures to enable an improvement plan to be implemented.
Control of Quality
The control of quality through a ‘Quality System’ gives the following advantages over a ‘Final Inspection’ approach:-
• The use of documented procedures and specifications ensures that everybody knows what they are supposed to be doing. • The responsibility for quality sits with the people who are operating the plant and manufacturing the product. • Quality problems will be identified as soon as they occur rather than much later when the process is over (which can lead to costly product holds and reworks if the volume of faulty product produced is excessive) • Maintenance of accurate records makes it easier to track back and investigate raw materials or processes so that ‘due diligence’ in manufacturing can be proved.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
A good quality system includes:
• Motivated and well trained workforce • Well maintained plant • Adequate capacity for peak demand • Good plant cleanliness and house keeping • Sufficient time for operations, cleaning and maintenance • Good relationships between suppliers and customers.
Typical Quality Management Systems include:
• ISO 9000 - Quality Management • ISO 14000- Environmental Management • GMP - Good Manufacturing Practice
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• GLP - Good Laboratory Practice • NAMAS - National Accreditation of Measurement and Sampling • HACCP - Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points.
Notes. Give details of a quality management system that you are aware of.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 5 GCSP (All Containers): Section 14: Quality assurance and quality management 15.2 Roles and Responsibilities
Individual Actions on Product and Service Quality
Quality is the responsibility of everyone working within an organisation. However, the following actions are required of a quality system:
• It is the responsibility of top management to formulate the Company’s quality policy and to ensure commitment at all levels to comply with the Quality System and to improve its effectiveness. • Communication to all members of staff so that all understand it and are involved with its implementation. • All staff members responsibilities and level of authority should be defined and understood. • A management representative should be appointed as Quality or Business Systems Manager, responsible for: - managing the requirements of the quality standard, - issuing amendments to manuals, - arranging audits, - checking suppliers, - taking minutes of quality meetings, - investigating problems and initiating corrective actions, - following up corrective actions, - handling complaints.
The Control of Documents
All Quality Systems require control of documentation. It is necessary to identify Controlled documents (i.e. updated) and Uncontrolled documents.
• Examples of Controlled documents include: - Quality Policy - Quality Manual - Procedures - Work Instructions - Specifications - HACCP systems - Codes of Practice
• Controlled documents must be: - approved before issue - reviewed and updated - changes identified - up-to-date - legible - external documents also controlled - obsolete documents removed.
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• Document control is usually achieved by: - issuing on coloured paper or including colour logo - no photocopying - uniquely identified - pages numbered (e.g. Page 1 of 10 ) - maintaining distribution list of holders - ensuring documents are not issued without authorisation - only being available to staff who need to use them - limiting number of copies issued.
• Document change is controlled by: - approval of changes before issue - issue of an amendment sheet so that changes are identified - keeping a master list of document numbers to ensure all staff use up-to-date copies - retrieval of obsolete copies as replacements issued - archiving one copy.
The Maintenance of Conformity
Adherence to a well established quality system will ensure that conformity of product quality and company operation is maintained. However, all quality standards strive for improvement and this is often best achieved by regular management reviews of the quality system and appropriate communication to all staff, especially for changes to systems and Regulations.
Regular Quality Review meetings should: • review the Quality Policy and Quality System at defined intervals (at least annually) • be additional to departmental or section quality meetings • be chaired by senior management • include QA staff, production managers, auditors, purchasing staff • review the operation of the quality system • ensure the policy and system are suitable and effective • recommend changes • record actions and responsibilities • meeting agenda should include: - audits (internal and external) - process performance - complaints - preventative and corrective actions - changes - training needs - supplier performance - future developments.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCSP (All Containers): Section 14: Quality assurance and quality management 15.3 Benefits
The control of quality through a ‘Quality System’ gives the following advantages over a ‘Final Inspection’ approach:- • The use of documented procedures and specifications ensures that everybody knows what they are supposed to be doing. • The responsibility for quality sits with the people who are operating the plant and manufacturing the products. This is key to efficient operation and rapid problem identification during production. • Quality problems will be identified as soon as they occur rather than much later when the process is over as a result. Maintenance of accurate records makes it easier to track back and investigate raw materials or processes so that ‘due diligence’ in manufacturing can be proved.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 15 Cleaning Chemicals.
Plant Cleaning - Introduction
The purpose of cleaning is to permanently remove all the soil from the surfaces of the plant and to leave it in a condition suitable for use.
The purpose of sterilising is to kill any micro-organisms that remain on the internal surfaces of the plant after cleaning so that the product is not subsequently contaminated. Note this is reflected primarily in the production of ready to drink liquids (RTD) as spirits are self cleaning from a microbiological perspective.
Note on Spirits Producers
The high alcohol content of spirits acts to maintain a sterile condition in plant, process pipework, and finished containers of spirits. The traditional term used is “self cleaning”. However over time inorganic materials can build up in process pipework, and to avoid nuisance these will require removal. For strongly flavoured spirits, or the use of the same equipment to package brown and white spirits, a liquor flush is often all that is used to clean the plant. Of particular interest for products such as aged spirits (e.g. Scotch Whisky), it is important that different blends or types of whisky are not allowed to cross- contaminate each other, so again in these instances liquor flushes will often be used.
Microbiology of Cleaning
The degree of cleanliness required for a processing plant is defined by the potential impact of the soil (soil and/or microbes) on the resultant product. This is largely determined by the type of product being produced in that particular plant.
Products that are sensitive to spoilage (such as beers, RTDs, cream liqueurs) require higher degrees of cleanliness (hygiene) than those that are not as susceptible (such as spirits); therefore knowledge of the products propensity to spoil is essential in determining an appropriate cleaning solution. This may or may not include a sanitising/sterilisation step. • Sterilisation is defined as the elimination of all forms of life including microbial spores, typically this is most effectively achieved with live steam
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at a minimum temperature of 120°C for a contact time of at least 15 minutes and typically is found in the pharmaceutical manufacturing environment, but also in a microbiological laboratory autoclave for preparing growth media, etc. • Hygienic conditions are defined as a degree of cleanliness that eliminates all vegetative forms of life, typically found to be suitable for most aspects of liquid production and other beverage plants. • Clean conditions are defined as those suitable for the removal of all soils but not all vegetative cells. Thus the higher the required degree of cleanliness the more robust the cleaning process has to be and the more important it becomes to ensure that the plant is designed for efficient cleaning.
Control of microbiological growth thus becomes the objective of any cleaning and sanitising programme.
Growth control can be effected by:
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• limiting microbial growth by the removal of nutrients (cleaning); or the removal of protective materials and films in the forms of scales and biofilms; • by removing all viable microbes by either total removal (sterilisation) or removal of vegetative cells only (application of bactericidal agents to kill microbes or by the application of agents that prevent growth – bacteriostatic).
Typically control measures follow the cycles of:
• decontamination (or cleaning);
• disinfection (by chemical and/or physical agents, such as heat) to prevent growth or eliminate viable microbes;
• sterilisation to prevent the growth of any surviving organism in product, thus eliminating spoilage.
Detergents A detergent is a blend of chemicals, which is put together to solubilise soil and remove it from the surface and ensure that it does not re-deposit itself back on the cleaned surface.
Detergents help the cleaning process by:-
• Penetrating the soil, usually by increasing the wetting power of the cleaning liquid. • Dissolving the soil. • Dispersing the soil and holding it in suspension so that it does not re- deposit. • Carrying the soil away as the cleaning liquid is rinsed off.
Sterilants (Sanitisers) Sterilants (sanitisers) are formulated to kill microbes and bring micro-organism load to an acceptable level and work by:-
Creating the conditions of temperature, pH, chemical or surface activity that destroy (kill) micro-organisms.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 4 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals 16.1. Detergents
16.1.1. Action of Detergents
(a) Wetting Power .
Water is always used as the medium for carrying the detergents used in cleaning brewing plant and water has a relatively high surface tension. That is, it forms ‘beads’ on a surface rather than wetting it. Most detergents contain a substance that reduces surface tension and so increases the detergent’s wetting power.
'Bead' of water sitting on a surface.
Water with a 'wetting' agent added.
Wetting agents have a tendency to foam so they may be supplemented with some form of antifoam.
(b) Dissolving .
When a substance is dissolved, it becomes chemically bound into the liquid and the liquid is usually clear. If soil can be dissolved in the detergent liquid, not only can it be removed from the plant surface, it can also be carried away easily. The same soil Particles of soil dissolved in a liquid
There are two main types of soil that need to be removed from the surface of brewing and packaging plant:-
• Organic soil which includes yeast, protein, fat and sugar. Plant which has a lot of organic soil that needs to be removed should be cleaned with a detergent that contains compounds that can dissolve it.
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Alkalis like caustic soda dissolve organic soil and caustic solutions are often used to clean fermenting vessels and brewhouse plant.
• Inorganic soil which includes scale or ‘stone’. Plant in some factories becomes scaled up quite quickly especially in hard water areas. This plant needs to be cleaned regularly with a detergent that dissolves scale. Acids like nitric acid or phosphoric acid are good at dissolving inorganic soil. Sequestering agents which can be added to alkaline detergents, are also capable of dissolving scale.
(c) Dispersion.
Not all the soil on packaging plant is soluble though insoluble soil can be removed if it is ‘dispersed’ so that it can be carried away in the liquid. Soil on the The same soil plant surface dispersed in a liquid
Detergents contain substances that help to disperse the soil and to hold it in suspension so that it can be rinsed away.
(d) Rinsing.
It is important that at the completion of a cleaning cycle, no detergent and accompanying soil remains on the plant surface. In other words, the detergent must be ‘rinsable’. Thus to be effective, a detergent must be capable of adhering to the plant surface being cleaned; when the job is done, however it must be rinsed away. Rinsing agents are added to the detergent to enable these two incompatible actions to take place.
16.1.2. Detergent Chemistry
A detergent is made of the base of acids or alkalis, therefore the chemical properties are acidic or basic.
Alkaline detergents tend to work better for two reasons: • organic soil tends to be ‘acidic’ in nature, organic acids, polyphenols, etc.; • basic detergents can hydrolyse organic polymer chains, which add to the easy removal of soil as smaller molecules.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 6 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals (a) Ingredients
Formulated detergents used in the beverage industry comprise:
• base material, which is either alkali or acidic
• surface active molecules as wetting agents
• chelating agents or sequestrants
• flocculating agents (sometimes).
The sequestrants or chelating agents are added in order to soften water by grabbing metal ions like calcium and magnesium. The presence of these metal ions tends to bond dirt together by providing multiple charges for multi- site attachment.
The surface-active molecules act as wetting agents that assist with penetration of dirt otherwise water clings to itself due to the bipolar nature of the water molecule. During cleaning of organic soil, like proteins, surface- active molecules are created out of hydrolysed proteins hence foaming is observed during cleaning.
Flocculating agents are sometimes added to facilitate the easy removal of dirt by pulling dirt together into lumps, which are easily flushed away.
(b) Ingredients of Caustic or Alkali Detergents
Caustic detergents are made of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) as the main ingredient with sodium gluconate/heptonate or amino tris(methylenephosphonic acid) as chelating agents. Other agents like EDTA, sodium polyphosphates, zeolites are sometimes used.
Caustic or alkali detergent can be chlorinated. The choice of chelating agents or sequestrants depends on the pH of the working solution. Their effectiveness is pH dependant. Caustic detergents are not suited for the cleaning of aluminium tanks. To clean surfaces where caustic is not allowed, alkali detergents are used. These detergents use sodium metasilicates as a base. Sometimes soda ash or phosphates salts are used as alkali source with builder (sequestering) properties.
Dealing with stubborn dirt found in paraflows (heat exchangers), chlorinated caustics or chlorinated alkalis are used. The amount of available chlorine of the working solution should not exceed 200ppm to protect stainless steel from pitting. Sometimes, wetting agents are added to caustic or alkali detergent to improve penetration and rinsability of caustic.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals (c) Ingredients of Acid Detergents
In the beverage industry, acid detergents are used for descaling. The scale is made of metal salts of oxalates, phosphates, carbonates, silicates, etc.
The acid detergent should be able to penetrate scale, for which a strong acid component is required. To facilitate the peeling of scale molecules, a component of acid is required that will attach itself to metal ions and act as a sequestrant. Acid detergents are often made of a blend of phosphoric acid and nitric acid to a 1.2:1 ratio.
Nitric acid is a strong acid, which is good for penetrating the scale and phosphoric acid has sequestering properties for easy removal of scale.
Acids with a higher level of nitric acid than phosphoric acid are recommended for passivation of stainless steel.
Adding wetting agents and flocculants in acid detergent improves penetration and removal of scale especially when the scale is not only inorganic soil.
The table below summarises the details of the most common constituents and their contribution to the effectiveness of the detergent:-
Constituent. Effects. Benefit/prob lem. Caustic soda. Dissolves organic matter. Does not rinse well. Sterilises especially when Very hazardous and cannot be used by hand. hot. Dissolves aluminium. Denatured by CO2 . Spraying a tank containing CO2 with caustic can create a vacuum and collapse the tank. Other alkalis. Dissolves organic matter. Less aggressive than caustic soda. e.g. silicates Very good dispersants. Oxidants. e.g. Help dissolve protein. Very corrosive unless at high pH. Hypochlorite Sterilises. Phosphates. Soil removal. Very good rinsing properties. Acids (nitric, Dissolves scale. Corrosive in high concentrations. phosphoric). Not denatured by CO2 . Wetting Reduces surface tension. May cause the detergent to foam. agents. e.g. teepol. Sequestering Prevent the formation of Expensive. agents. e.g. scale. EDTA.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 8 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals (d) Temperature.
The temperature that a detergent operates at influences its effectiveness. The action of caustic soda, for example is much more powerful at high temperatures than at low temperatures. 1 2 0
1 0 0
8 0
6 0
4 0
2 0
0 1 5 C 3 5 C 5 5 C 7 5 C 9 5 C 2 5 C 4 5 C 6 5 C 8 5 C
The graph illustrates how caustic soda reaches maximum effectiveness at 85 °C.
(e) The factors affecting the selection of Detergents
The table below gives details of the types of detergent used to clean in the various situations encountered in breweries and packaging plants:-
Plant to be cleaned. Detergents often used. Finished Product Tanks Acid with wetting/rinsing agents. • Variable level of soil. • Inert gas atmosphere. • Requirement for sterility. Process pipework. Caustic soda with wetting/rinsing/sequestering • Variable levels of soil. agents. Probably used at high temperature. • Complexity means it is difficult to clean. Packaging plant. Caustic soda with wetting/rinsing/sequestering • Low level of soil. agents. May be used at high temperature if the • Complexity means it is difficult plant is suitable. to clean. • Requirement for sterility.
Returnable bottles/ kegs. Caustic soda with wetting/rinsing/sequestering • Care with materials of agents. Will be used at high temperature. construction. Use non-caustic detergents with aluminium. • High levels of organic soil. • Need for good rinsability.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 9 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals Notes:- Identify the detergents used in the following areas of your plant:- Finished Product Tanks. Packaging machines. Container washing machines (if applicable)
16.2 Sterilants.
There are several different types of sterilising agent, however many are either toxic, corrosive or likely to taint the product. Consequently some plants rely on heat in the form of hot water or steam to achieve sterilisation (see 16.3 below).
Chemical Sterilants
The main types of chemical sterilant are:-
• The ‘halogens’ like chlorine, bromine and iodine. Chlorine is often used in the form of sodium hypochlorite or chlorine dioxide. Iodine can be used in the form of an iodophor.
• Formaldehyde.
• Ammonia in the form of quaternary ammonia compounds.
• Peracetic acid.
• Ampholytic surfactants.
16.2.1. Ingredients of Sterilants (Sanitisers)
Sterilants (sanitisers), especially those for traditional non-rinse application, are acidic when peracetic acid or hydrogen peroxide is used as sanitiser. When halogens like chlorine are used as sanitiser, the base material is made of alkali for stability.
The table below summarises the properties of the various types of sterilant:-
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 10 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals
Sterilant Properties, benefits and problems. Halogens, chlorine Very effective but loses effectiveness in presence of organic matter or iodine releasing Cheap in most forms. compounds. Dangerous as a gas. e.g. sodium Corrosive to plant. hypochlorite, Leaves a very strong and lingering taint if it contaminates the product. iodophors. Formaldehyde. Very effective. Cheap in most forms. Dangerous as a gas (its use is banned in some countries). Has a very unpleasant pungent aroma. Chlorine dioxide Effective at low concentration Effective against a wide spectrum of micro-organisms Chlorine dioxide does not chlorinate; no risk of flavour taints. Chlorine dioxide is used for disinfection in many areas: • water disinfection, • post or final rinse sanitiser, • biocide for cooling towers and tunnel pasteurisers. Quaternary Effective at low concentrations. ammonium Adverse effect on foam stability. compounds. Hydrogen peroxide. Not very effective. Will not affect product flavour. Safe to use but strong oxidising agent and could be a fire hazard. Peracetic acid. Effective. Safe at working strength, but dangerous in concentrated form. Will not affect product flavour. Unstable unless combined with hydrogen peroxide. Amphoteric Effective especially on uneven surfaces. surfactants. Innocuous and safe to use.
16.2.2. The factors affecting the selection of Sterilants
There are different types of sanitisers for use in different areas of the plant and they are formulated differently to minimise the negative effects that they might have on the finished product.
• Sterilants Recommended for Non-Rinse Application
These are peracetic and hydrogen peroxide based sterilants. They are made from the blending of acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide in the presence of a stabilising agent. When used, the breakdown products will be oxygen and water for hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid and oxygen for peracetic acid.
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These types of sanitisers break down in the presence of metal ions. Because peracetic acid is oxidising, residues could affect flavour stability of product if not rinsed. Apart from being used in vessel sanitation, they are also used in sanitiser baths and in environmental sterilant formulation.
• Sterilants Recommended for Sterilant (Sanitiser) Baths
Iodophors are used in sanitiser baths because their presence can be easily be detected with brownish red colour. Iodophors combine elemental iodine with surface-active compound. Acid is added to ensure that the usage concentration is at lower pH. Iodophors can taint the product when not handled properly. Where a fear of tainting exists, peroxide/peracetic acid based sterilants are used in baths.
• Environmental Sterilants
Environmental sterilants are used in sanitising floors, walls, external surfaces of tanks and pipes and cleaning of drains. For these to work effectively on surfaces, they must be able to cling to the surface to allow for extended contact time. When rinsed off the walls, they must be easily removed. Because the risk of contact with the product is low, there is a wider choice of ingredients that can be used.
Quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) sterilants work by surface action. The QAC formulations contain non-ionic surfactants like ethoxylated fatty alcohols to boost foaming properties of the product. In order that micro- organisms do not develop a resistance to sanitisers, different types should be used over specific periods of time.
Gluteraldehydes are commercially available as acidic solutions and they are activated before use by making them alkaline. They have a wide spectrum activity against different micro-organisms. For sanitising purposes, a 2% solution is recommended.
Biguanides and Chlorhexidines have widespread bactericidal properties. For the product to foam, non-ionic surfactants are added. Because of their cationic nature, anionic compounds deactivate these sanitisers. They are also not compatible with phosphate, borate, chloride, carbonates ions because they form salts, which are insoluble. This will make active ingredients unavailable.
• Sterilants used in Different Areas of Processing
Chlorine dioxide has gained popularity as an effective, safe to use sterilant. It is effective at low concentration and it is not affected by pH.
Chlorine dioxide is effective against a wide spectrum of micro-organisms. It is effective in removing biofilms.
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Chlorine dioxide does not chlorinate, therefore there is no risk of flavour taints. The breakdown products are chlorite and chloride. Chlorine dioxide is used for disinfection in many areas: o water disinfection, o post or final rinse sanitiser, o biocide for cooling towers and tunnel pasteurisers.
• Sanitiser for Drains
The most popular sanitiser for drains is sodium hypochlorite solution that has been diluted to release about 5% available chlorine during use. These must be kept separate from stainless steel equipment, as the free chlorine settles on the moist surface causing pitting corrosion.
16.2.3. Choice of Sterilant. The choice of sterilant depends on a number of factors:-
• Is a sterilant required? The microbiological condition of the plant may be suitable for its purpose after the standard clean. For spirits producers, sterilants are not required.
• Is the sterilant to be rinsed off and if so what is the microbiological quality of the rinse water?
• Would a residual ‘taint’ affect the product quality?
• Safety factors. Are people working in or near to the plant which is to be sterilised?
The table below gives details of the types of sterilant used to sanitise in the various situations encountered in production and packaging plants:-
Plant to be sterilised. Sterilants often used. Transfer mains, filter mains and Hot water or steam. packaging mains. Amphoteric surfactants. Peracetic acid. Product vessels. Amphoteric surfactants. Peracetic acid. Filtration plant. Hot water or low pressure steam. Amphoteric surfactants. Peracetic acid. Packaging plant. Hot water or steam. Amphoteric surfactants. Peracetic acid.
Notes. Give details of the detergents and sterilants used in a cleaning regime that you are familiar with.
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Why have those particular materials been chosen?
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 14 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals 16.3 Heat Sterilisation.
There are several different types of sterilising agent, however many are either toxic, corrosive or likely to taint the product. Consequently some plants rely on heat in the form of hot water or steam to achieve sterilisation.
Heat is very effective as long as the plant is held at high temperature, say 90 °C for at least 15 minutes.
Heat sterilisation for all micro-organisms: there is a maximum permissible temperature for growth and survival and exceeding this will result in death (macro-molecules lose their structure and cease to function). This is a combination of time and temperature.
To achieve total sterilisation using steam requires contact at 120 ºC for at least 15 minutes (as in a laboratory autoclave), but for practical purposes for plant or for container sanitising, contact time with steam usually only requires 2 – 3 minutes to achieve the necessary level of hygiene.
Steam
Adding heat to water will increase its temperature until it reaches boiling point. Any more heat energy added at boiling point will be absorbed, but the temperature will not increase – instead the water will convert to gaseous steam. This energy absorption without change in temperature will continue until all the available water has been evaporated. There is a huge volume increase – 1 kg of water occupies 1 litre, but 1 kg of steam at the same pressure occupies about 1680 litres. Evaporation and condensation are referred to as ‘phase changes’ – from the liquid phase (water) to the gas phase (steam), or vice-versa.
° At normal atmospheric pressure, water boils at 100 C and the boiling point increases if it is pressurised. For example at 170 kPa (gauge) or 24.5 psig, it will not boil until 130 oC (266 oF). 130 oC is a common temperature used for disinfection.
Just as heat has to be added to turn water into steam, the same amount of heat will be released when steam turns back into water. So when steam condenses onto the surface to be disinfested, the very large quantity of latent heat is delivered onto the surfaces. This is the biocidal agent that is so important and effective, and is absolutely vital for assured disinfection.
If more heat is added after evaporation is complete, the temperature will increase, and the steam becomes ‘superheated’; or ‘dry’ because there is no moisture around. However, dry or superheated steam is much less effective at heat sterilisation than “wet” or “saturated” steam. Microbial contaminations are of course destroyed by heat, but because of the huge difference in energy release, 1 minute of ‘condensing’ heat is equivalent to many minutes, even hours, of ‘dry’ heat. The table below shows the
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 15 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals comparative disinfection times for various conditions, also a target for assured destruction of product spoilage organisms.
1 TABLE 1 COMPARATIVE STERILISATION TIMES M O IST HEAT DRY HEAT (Saturated steam ) (Superheated steam ) Temp. ºC Time Temp. ºC Time 100 20 hours 120 8 hours 110 2½ hours 140 2½ hours 115 50 minutes 160 1 hour 121 15 minutes 170 40 minutes 125 6½ minutes 180 20 minutes 130 2½ minutes
Recom m ended procedure for destroying all beer-spoilage organism s 2 : 135 ºC 1 minute
It is not just enough to have high pressure steam for disinfection. The steam must have a minimum temperature, which varies, from plant to plant, but should be in the region 130-135 oC. The steam should be close to saturation, with no more than 4 oC of superheat, so that it will condense on the surfaces and deliver up its latent heat. And a minimum contact time must be maintained for assured disinfection.
As an example, assured high-quality disinfection will be achieved if a contact time of 60 seconds is achieved with saturated steam at 135 oC.
Some packaging installations use clean steam from a clean steam generator for use on the internal wash and fill areas. This removes the risk of there being any traces of feedwater treatment chemicals and pipe scale in the steam. The steam is raised typically from demineralised water. Clean steam is corrosive thus components of the system should be manufactured from 316 stainless steel
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 16 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals 16.4 General Plant Cleaning.
Cleaning Techniques
(a) Manual
In manual cleaning, the normal steps of cleaning are followed i.e. pre-rinsing by removing as much loose dirt as possible followed by use of detergent at the correct concentration and scrubbers. The scrubbing material should not scratch the surface being cleaned. Therefore scrubbers or steel wools should be avoided. The surface that has been cleaned should be rinsed thoroughly with potable water.
(b) High Pressure Cleaning
High pressure cleaning combines high pressure, high temperature and detergent. This cleaning technique allows effective cleaning of surfaces that are difficult to access, e.g . top of pipes and ceilings. Cleaning at high pressure (high hydraulics) and high temperature will minimise the detergent usage. The use of a high pressure gun at appropriate pressure will ensure that even stubborn soil is removed.
(c) Foam Cleaning
In foam cleaning, the working solution is diluted with air. Strong detergent solutions can be used. Because of dilution with air, small quantities of water are used. The generated foam adheres to dirt, emulsifying and loosening it. The foam is removed by rinsing with water.
(d) Cleaning In Place (CIP)
Cleaning-in-place (CIP) systems allow vessels, piping, valves and other equipment to be cleaned without dismantling all or part of the items. Surfaces are exposed to controlled conditions where detergents act on the surfaces to eliminate soil and to sanitise.
Details on in-place cleaning systems are covered in Section 17.
(e) Room and building finishes.
The buildings that house production and packaging plant should be designed so that:- • The floors can be cleaned easily. This means good drainage and well finished floors possibly tiled. • The walls can be cleaned easily. Possibly tiled walls. • The plant can be accessed for maintenance, ideally without the need for scaffolding. • There is adequate lighting with access for maintenance. • There is good ventilation.
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16.5 Safety - Potential Hazards when working with Detergents and Sterilants.
Detergents are designed to dissolve organic matter and sterilants are designed to kill it; consequently, these are dangerous materials for people to handle.
In the most countries, under the control of substances hazardous to health or C.O.S.H.H. legislation, manufacturers are required to issue technical information on any cleaning materials they supply. This information covers recommended usage concentrations and actions to be taken in case of accidents.
An analysis of the risks indicates the following methods of reducing the hazards:-
• If a detergent or sterilant is considered too dangerous then choose an alternative which is safer.
• Isolate people from the hazard, for example in CIP (Cleaning in Place) systems, detergents and sterilants are kept in automatically topped up tanks and away from the staff. They are also stored in suitably sized bunds and kept away from other materials that would react together.
• Implement control measures like ‘safe systems of work’ that when followed, eliminate risks to the staff. An example would be a ‘permit to work’ procedure for the maintenance of CIP equipment.
• Ensure that people in the proximity of detergents and sterilants use protective equipment especially eye protection (goggles), gloves, boots and overalls.
• Install safety showers in areas where risks are highest like detergent and sterilant delivery points.
• Inform people who work with detergents and sterilants of the potential hazards.
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Safety Requirements of Cleaning Chemicals and Materials
Cleaning of tanks and pipe lines require the use of harsh chemicals which are strong acids and strong bases. Sometimes, oxidising compounds are used. Safety precautions, as required by Occupational Health and Safety legislations (ISO 18000), have to be considered when using these chemicals. Components of these chemicals may have short or long-term affect on the health of the employees. Some components can affect the health of the consumer at parts per million levels.
The safety of the environment has to be considered as well, which means that the products used have to comply with environmental legislation with respect to handling of spillage.
Every material used must be accompanied by Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
An MSDS should disclose the following: manufacturer’s details product identification composition information on ingredient hazards identification safety first measures fire fighting measures accidental release measures handling and storage exposure control and personal protection physical and chemical properties stability and reactivity toxicological information ecological information.
The MSDS is meant to give enough data about the product that assist the user to make an informed technical decision. A user will only know about this safety information if the information provided is read and the supplier is questioned to get clarity. There is still a culture of not going through the MSDS document before the product is used.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 19 GCP (All Containers): Section 15: Cleaning chemicals Hazards Identification - European hazard symbols
These hazard symbols for chemicals are defined in Annex II of Directive 67/548/EEC.
Corrosive (C) Oxidizing agent (O)
Highly flammable (F) Extremely flammable (F+ )
Harmful (Xn ) Irritant (Xi )
Toxic (T) Very toxic (T+ )
Explosive (E Dangerous for the environment (N)
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Notes. What type of detergents and sterilants are used in your plant? What safety precautions during both storage and use are employed in this plant?
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCSP (All Containers): Section 16: Plant cleaning – In-place cleaning systems Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 16 Plant Cleaning – In-Place Cleaning Systems.
16.1 Types of Systems and 16.2 Cleaning Cycles.
Cleaning in place has replaced older methods where plant was dismantled for manual cleaning. Modern plants do not have the manpower or time for manual cleaning operations and they need the higher standards that an effective CIP system can deliver.
CIP is the circulation of detergents, water rinses and sterilants through fixed plant without dismantling. In order to achieve this, tanks have to be fitted with spray balls/heads and pipework has to be linked into a ‘ring’ main.
Delivery
Tank
C.I.P. system Return
Pipework
Delivery
The detailed features of a CIP system to be considered are:-
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The CIP could be a ‘recovery’ or a ‘total loss’ system.
• The CIP programme or sequence of cleaning elements.
• Tank CIP choice of spray head.
• Flow rates, delivery and return.
• Choice of cleaning/sterilising materials (se Section 15).
• Automation and monitoring.
• Running costs.
Choice of System - Recovery or Total Loss.
A recovery CIP system consists of tanks where supplies of detergent and sterilant are held at the required concentration for use. Cleaning fluids are delivered from the tanks and returned to them. Detergent and sterilant strength is maintained in the tank. A total loss system doses concentrated detergent or sterilant into the delivery line and although they are recirculated, at the end of the clean the cleaning fluids are run to waste.
CIP Cleaning and sterilising Programmes.
The standard programme is:-
• A rinse to remove as much soil as possible and to flush this to drain.
• A detergent recirculation to clean the plant.
• A rinse to remove traces of detergent.
• A sterilisation to destroy any remaining micro-organisms (if the product requires it)
• A final rinse if it is decided that no sterilant should remain in the plant.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP (All Containers): Section 16: Plant cleaning – In-place cleaning systems Recovery System (Multi-use).
First rinse:- C.I.P. Recovery system stage 1 Rinse.
Drain Dilute Dilute Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
Fresh water is delivered to the plant and returned to drain. When cleaning tanks with spray balls, several burst rinses may be more effective than one. The time taken for these rinses will depend on the plant and how easy it is to clean.
Detergent circulation:-
C.I.P. Recovery system stage 2 Detergent.
Drain Dilute Dilute Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
The dilute detergent tank is maintained at the correct strength and its contents are circulated through the plant. As the plant may contain rinse water, the first delivery may be run to drain so as not to dilute the tank. The time of recirculation will depend on the level of soil in the plant, but times of 30 or 60 minutes are common.
Second rinse:- Fresh water is delivered to the plant and returned to drain. As the plant may contain detergent, the first delivery may be returned to the tank to save detergent.
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C.I.P. Recovery system stage 3 Sterilant.
Drain Dilute Dilute Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
The dilute sterilant tank is maintained at the correct strength and its contents are circulated through the plant. As the plant may contain rinse water, the first delivery may be run to drain so as not to dilute the sterilant tank. The time of sterilisation will depend on the level of microbiological contamination in the plant, but times of 10 or 20 minutes are common. Micro-organisms are destroyed by contact so that actual circulation of the sterilant is not necessary.
Final rinse:- C.I.P. Recovery system stage 4 Rinse.
Drain Dilute Dilute Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
This is similar to the initial rinse although the water that is used must be uncontaminated. If it is considered, however, that residual traces of the sterilant will not harm the product, the final rinse may be omitted. Water from the final rinse can be collected and used as an initial rinse when the next vessel is cleaned. The benefits of a final rinse recovery being a reduction in water use, a reduction in effluent and a more effective pre-rinse.
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First rinse:-
C.I.P. Loss system stage 1 Rinse.
Drain Buffer Bulk Bulk tank Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
Water from the second rinse of the previous clean is delivered to the plant and returned to drain. Depending on the size of the buffer tank, the rinse may be supplemented with fresh water. When cleaning tanks with spray balls, several burst rinses may be more effective than one. The time taken for these rinses will depend on the plant and how easy it is to clean.
Detergent clean:-
C.I.P. Loss system stage 2 Detergent.
Drain Buffer Bulk Bulk tank Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
Fresh water is delivered to the plant and dosed with detergent at a rate that meets the required concentration in use. When this concentration is achieved, the detergent is circulated back to and from the buffer tank. The cleaning liquid is topped up with detergent or fresh water as required during the clean.
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The time of recirculation will depend on the level of soil in the plant, but times of 30 or 60 minutes are common.
Second rinse:-
C.I.P. Loss system stage 3 Rinse.
Drain Buffer Bulk Bulk tank Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
Fresh water is delivered to the plant and returned to the buffer tank. The contents of the buffer tank provide the first rinse for the next clean.
Sterilisation:-
C.I.P. Loss system stage 4 Sterilant.
Drain Buffer Bulk Bulk tank Detergent Sterilant Plant tank tank
Rinse water
Fresh water is delivered to the plant and dosed with sterilant at a rate that meets the required concentration in use.
The time of sterilisation will depend on the level of micro-organisms in the plant, but times of 10 or 20 minutes are common. Micro-organisms are destroyed by contact so that actual circulation of the sterilant is not necessary.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCSP (All Containers): Section 16: Plant cleaning – In-place cleaning systems Final rinse:-
Fresh water which must be uncontaminated is delivered to the plant and returned to drain. If it is considered that residual traces of the sterilant will not harm the product, the final rinse may be omitted.
Comparison of Recovery versus Total Loss Systems
The benefits and problems associated with ‘Recovery’ and ‘Total Loss’ systems are detained in the table below:-
Recovery System Total Loss System Capital costs are higher because of Lower capital cost the need for large tanks Running costs are lower because all Higher running costs chemicals are recovered Only able to clean one type of plant One cleaning unit can clean different from a cleaning unit. types of plant. Simple to operate. Complex control system relying on detergent/sterilant strength sensors.
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Notes.
Write down details of a CIP programme for a piece of plant that you are familiar with. Include times, temperatures and flow rates for rinses, cleans and sterilisations. Include chemical strengths. What precautions are taken to ensure that the plant is not re- contaminated before re-use?
Spray heads for tank CIP.
There are two main types of spray head, the fixed spray head and the rotating spray head.
Tank fitted with low Tank fitted with high pressure fixed spray pressure rotating spray head head (spray ball)
Fixed spray ball .
This uses large volumes of cleaning liquid at low pressure. It relies on the cleaning liquid flowing over the surface of the tank, therefore the whole surface must be covered. Positioning of the head must ensure full coverage.
Burst rinsing is effective because the liquid finds new routes to flow down with each burst.
The large volume of cleaning liquid used means that attention needs to be paid to tank drainage/scavenge. The base of a poorly drained tank is not cleaned because the cleaning liquid does not flow over the surface at sufficient speed.
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Spray balls are relatively cheap and they are easy to maintain although they can block up especially if the cleaning liquid is unfiltered. The choice of spray balls or rotating spray cleaners is a key factor in the effective design and operation of a CIP system. There are a number of reputed manufacturers of this equipment. The dimension of the vessel dictates the type of spray device required for an effective covering of the entire surface during the CIP cycle. Spray balls shower the entire surface all the time the pump is operational by directing the impact flow of the fluid on the area where most of the soil is located, e.g. at the yeast ring in a fermentation vessel.
The fluid runs down the side of the walls of the vessel in a continuous curtain contributing to the effect of the chemical, timing and temperature to assure a clean surface.
Rotating spray head.
This is a mechanically driven head that rotates to direct a high-pressure jet to the tank surface, usually in a pattern to ensure that the entire surface is jetted. This principle means that it takes a specific time to complete the pattern and cover all surfaces. Rotating spray cleaners require a high pressure to direct the fluid onto the surface of the vessel; the fluid flows down the rest of the surface cleaning on its way.
The rotating jets have a higher impact force on the surface exerting greater mechanical effect on the soil or scale, than the flooding low pressure system applied on fixed spray balls. The mechanical force is a powerful aid to the cleaning process and the system can use colder and or less aggressive detergent than the fixed head.
The jets on a rotating mechanism direct the fluid at one point a specified number of times for a complete cycle, at the end of which the entire surface will be covered.
Rotating spray heads are relatively expensive and are made up of moving parts, therefore there is wear and tear during use. Rotating spray heads are often fitted with rotation detectors because a stationary head will only clean a small section of the tank.
Notes. Write down the type of spray heads fitted to a tank installation that you are familiar with. Why was that type of spray selected?
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Complex CIP systems are ideally controlled automatically, the advantages being:-
• A programme can be designed and set when the plant is commissioned to maximise cleaning and this will be consistently adhered to.
• Detergent and sterilant strengths can be optimised.
• A cleaning cycle can run unsupervised.
• Automated recording of cycle times, detergent strengths and temperatures by the monitoring equipment is available. Cleaning can be held up if a problem is detected.
• Sensors can detect detergent/sterilant strength on the return line and direct the return to tank or drain saving chemical costs.
In the CIP system illustrated (below), the following items are automatically controlled:-
• Inlet and outlet valves of detergent/sterilant tanks. • Delivery pump. • Rinse water and drain valves. • Detergent/sterilant strength detection and tank top up from bulk supplies. • Detergent/sterilant strength detection on the return line.
Auto sensing Drain
Auto Dilute Dilute Auto sensing sensing Plant and Detergent Sterilant and top up tank tank top up
Rinse water
Notes. Draw an automated CIP system that you are familiar with and specify the pieces of equipment that are automatically controlled.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 11 GCSP (All Containers): Section 16: Plant cleaning – In-place cleaning systems
16.3 Plant Design - Hygiene Considerations.
Candidates should have a basic knowledge of those plant design features which improve hygiene.
Effective cleaning is the result of a combination of four factors:-
• Time . How long is the cleaning agent/detergent in contact with the plant?
• Temperature . How hot is the cleaning agent/detergent?
• Chemical activity . How strong/effective is the cleaning agent/detergent?
• Physical activity . How vigorously is the cleaning agent/detergent applied to the plant?
If one of these factors is reduced, for example if the plant has to be cleaned quickly, then another factor must be increased to compensate, for example hot instead of cold detergent could be used.
Plant design needs to take this concept into consideration in the following ways:-
• The plant capacity needs to be large enough to allow time for cleaning.
• The parts of the plant where very high standards of hygiene and sterility are required should be capable of being cleaned hot.
• The materials of construction should be capable of withstanding strong detergents like caustic soda.
• The plant design should either allow access for manual cleaning or more commonly, ensure that detergent can flow over the surface at the speed required to give a vigorous clean.
16.3.1. Plant capacity.
If, for example it was planned to install a new facility to filter 1,000 hectolitres per day that required cleaning once per day and it took four hours to clean it, then the capacity calculation would have to take the cleaning requirement into consideration as follows:-
Total time = 24 hours. Production time = 20 hours. Cleaning time = 4 hours. Requirement = 1,000 hectolitres. Filter capacity = 1000 = 50 hectolitres per hour. 20
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 12 GCSP (All Containers): Section 16: Plant cleaning – In-place cleaning systems 16.3.2. Hot Cleaning.
Some plant is designed to be cleaned at high temperatures because of the importance of hygiene and sterility, an example could be an ready to drink storage vessel. Plant design features that allow high temperature cleaning are:-
• Strong construction, for example thick walls to a vessel. • The presence of a pressure relief valve, which must be regularly tested. • Vacuum relief system, to prevent the collapse of the vessel due to the very low pressures that will occur if the vessel cools quickly.
16.3.3. Construction materials.
The choice of material that the plant is made from needs to allow for the detergents and sterilants that are going to be used. Most modern plant is constructed of a suitable quality of stainless steel; however, pump glands, sensing equipment like thermometers, hoses and valves must also be compatible with what might be very corrosive substances. Some of the more obvious problems are listed below:-
• Caustic soda will dissolve aluminium. • Chlorine is a very strong oxidising agent and will corrode most metals. • Acids will seriously damage concrete. • Dilute sulphuric acid corrodes many grades of stainless steel. • Hoses and rubber seals, for example plate heat exchanger gaskets can pick up taints from sterilising agents.
16.3.4. Plant design.
When taking the need for effective cleaning into consideration during the design of the plant the main areas are:-
• As few encumbrances in vessels as possible. • Vessels must drain well. • There must be no ‘dead legs’ in the pipework. • Pipes must be designed for fast flow of detergent during cleaning. • Spray heads must be sited in the correct position. • Where necessary, the plant must be accessible for cleaning or maintenance.
(a) Vessel design.
Vessels in modern plants are designed for being cleaned in place, that is by spray head rather than manually by personnel having to enter and clean. They drain well and have very few internal encumbrances.
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C onical vessel. G ood drainage S m ooth w alls N o encum berances
S quare vessel. P oor drainage. A ttem perators difficult to clean.
(b) Vessel drainage :-
Good drainage. Poor drainage. Fast flow of liquid Slow flow doesn't clean the base cleans the base and re-deposits and carries away the soil. the soil.
(c) Pipework design.
Pipes and mains in modern breweries are designed to be cleaned in place, they have smooth bends and no ‘dead legs’. Flow of cleaning fluids is fast through all the pipework, an ideal is 2 meters per second.
Pipes with angled bends Pipes with are difficult to smooth bends clean, they are easy to leave soil in the clean. areas shown.
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'Dead legs' in pipework never get cleaned at all.
Slow flow of cleaning fluid through a pipe is ineffective Fast flow of cleaning because there is no fluid through a pipe scrubbing action. causes turbulence and a good scrubbing action.
A pipe circuit for CIP should consist of pipes of the same diameter, otherwise the flow in the larger diameter pipework will be too slow.
(d) Valve design.
Valves in modern breweries are designed so that they can be cleaned in place as part of the pipework cleaning cycle.
A 'butterfly' valve is easy to clean, it is smooth, it has hygienic glands to house the spindle and there are no areas where soil can hide. Activator
A 'plug' valve is very difficult to clean, the housing surrounding the plug hides soil which can only be removed by dismantling the valve. Activator
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(e) Pump design. A piston pump is difficult to clean, soil stays on the A centrifugal pump cylinder wall and is easy to clean, A stainless steel in the 'one way' the impellor creates 'lobe' pump is fairly valves. turbulence and easy to clean, the there is only one internal surfaces gland. are polished and there are no difficult corners.
Sometimes pumps are fitted with pressure relief by-pass systems. This by-pass must be opened during the cleaning programme.
(f) Room and building finishes.
The buildings that house production and packaging plant should be designed so that:-
• The floors can be cleaned easily. This means good drainage and well finished floors possibly tiled.
• The walls can be cleaned easily. Possibly tiled walls.
• The plant can be accessed for maintenance, ideally without the need for scaffolding.
• There is adequate lighting with access for maintenance.
• There is good ventilation.
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Hygiene of plant environment assured .
All floors must be constructed from cement, tiles or suitable material that is durable and has a flat surface that will allow for regular cleaning and sanitation. Skirting of the wall to floor joints must be 100mm high and of the same material as the floor finish. Floors must have a 1 to 1,5% fall towards the drains to prevent ponding of water after hosing down. Floors of the process and packaging areas must be made from materials that resist acid and caustic at the concentrations found in the operational areas. Where areas are earmarked for storage of the concentrated forms of detergents and other materials, the floors and walls should be able to resist those materials. All drains in the process areas and packaging areas should have appropriate airlocks. Drain covers in the packaging areas should be constructed with baskets to retain glass. Walls in the process areas should be tiled to the ceiling or coated with a durable and washable coating. Ceilings should be painted with durable and washable coating. Where possible, anti-mould coatings should be used. Walkways and hand rails should be made of corrosive resistant material or coated with a suitable corrosion resistant material. Walls of the storage areas should be painted with a suitable durable coating. Natural ventilation or air-conditioning should supply sufficient air movement to prevent mould growth and eliminate odours. No protrusions should be allowed on walls and windows should have sills facing the outside. Any internal protrusion or beams should have a 30° fall to prevent dust from accumulating and to facilitate cleaning. All holes to the exterior should be covered by plastic mosquito netting. All process areas should be protected against entry of insects, vermin, dirt and dust. Hot and cold water points should be positioned strategically around the plant for hand cleaning and cleaning of equipment, walls and floors. All factory drainage systems should be dimensioned (size and falls) to allow for effective discharge of effluent with solids without having any blockages. Ablutions must be positioned away from the process area and be fitted with suitable lockers, showers, washbasins and other required sanitary fittings.
Materials Used for General Cleaning
• Suitable bins to hold all waste material should be positioned around the plant; • brooms and brushes to sweep and clean the floor; • squeegees to push excess water from the floors; • drain pumps and pull through to clear blocked drains; • sufficient hoses and hose points to clean all surfaces (walls, floors and equipment); • special brushes for cleaning surfaces of the plant: care must be taken not to scratch inside and outside surfaces of stainless steel plant; • personnel performing cleaning duties should be suitably clothed and protected.
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Cleaning Agents
• Sufficient 70°C water must be available on tap to facilitate cleaning in all process areas. • A suitable detergent should be used for general cleaning of all surfaces: choices of the detergents need to take account of the fact that chlorine based chemicals are corrosive on stainless steel equipment. MSDS certificates must be available for all materials on site.
Control of Environment
• Physical inspection of all plant and buildings to assess the level of hygiene must be done on a routine basis. • Microbiological surveys of the environment (walls, floors, equipment and the air) will indicate the effectiveness of the plant hygiene programme.
Notes. Draw a diagram of a piece of plant with which you are familiar. Identify parts that are easy to clean. Identify parts that are difficult to clean.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCP (All Containers): Section 9: Engineering maintenance Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 17 Engineering Maintenance
9.1 Packaging Plant Maintenance - Aims and Approaches.
Maintenance is the management of activities that contribute to optimum levels of availability and performance of plant.
The AIMS of maintenance are: • To sustain and optimise the functionality of plant • To minimise downtime • To provide a safe environment for personnel operating/cleaning/maintaining the plant • To protect product quality • To prove due diligence, for example for consumer safety • To ensure legal requirements are met, for example environmental compliance • To protect the value of plant
There are four approaches to maintenance. 1. No maintenance / breakdown maintenance While they may sound different, they are in essence the same thing. No checking and no maintenance takes place at all, EXCEPT that Equipment is only attended to if it breaks down. With this system, there is a big risk of lost production because breakdowns often occur at the worst time. There is no control over when this occurs. It may be applicable if duplicate plant is installed; otherwise a big stock holding of spares is needed. Breakdown maintenance can also be known as Corrective maintenance.
This applies to certain items like electrical components that as and when they fail are discarded and replaced. This approach will only be appropriate in some circumstances, where failure has low impact or consequences, and doesn’t unacceptably impact running time.
2. Preventative maintenance. This is where plant is maintained to a plan whether or not it shows signs of wear.
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Usually components are replaced at the same time, for example pump glands or wear strips on conveyors. Planned maintenance can vary from a weekly inspection and oil top, through two or three day mini-overhauls, up to a complete line or major item annual overhaul. The concept is that unforeseen breakdowns are much less likely to occur. Preventative maintenance can also be known as Planned maintenance or Planned Preventative maintenance.
3. Predictive maintenance. This is where plant condition is monitored and a prediction is made about when it is likely to break down. A maintenance programme is developed based on the information gathered. This is called ‘Condition Monitoring’ and specifically it is a maintenance process where the condition of equipment is monitored for early signs of impending failure. Equipment can be monitored using sophisticated instrumentation such as vibration analysis, oil analysis, laser alignment of shafts in rotating equipment and thermal imaging. More traditionally, temperature, over voltage or current and liquid level has been monitored to warn of problems. Equally monitoring can be manual often using the human senses. Where instrumentation is used (automatic monitoring) actual limits can be imposed to trigger maintenance activity, generally through a computerised maintenance management system. Predictive maintenance can also be known as Condition Based maintenance. A further variation can be Risk Based maintenance where maintenance tasks are arranged to reflect the risk of failure based on predicted plant life and plant history.
Comments a) Whatever maintenance system is employed all activities must be carried out safely and meet all legal requirements. To meet these requirements a system of ‘safe working practices’ should be employed to ensure that Health and Safety is treated as a priority at all times. A system of safe working practices would include items such as: • Some form of permit to work. • Standard Operating Procedures • Use of the correct personal protective equipment. • Interlocked guarding systems. • Isolation • Training • System reviews
b) Most maintenance systems now employ computers for recording information, issuing work and storing plant history. This also enables automatic electronic spares ordering and easily obtainable financial information about maintenance. Machine manufacturers often supply lists of required spare parts and maintenance procedures as a part of the purchase
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCP (All Containers): Section 9: Engineering maintenance of equipment, and this can be uploaded to a maintenance system. It should be remembered that spare parts are expensive however! A critical spares assessment allows decisions to be made about which items must be retained as spares. c) The cost of engineering maintenance needs to be controlled so annual budgets and regular reviews (normally monthly) of expenditure are a pre- requisite for control purposes. The normal costs for day to day maintenance activities are usually referred to as revenue items whereas the purchase of a new machine like a de-palletiser or filling machine are capital items.
The advantages and disadvantages of the various maintenance systems are detailed in the table below:
System Advantages. Disadvantages. No maintenance / Easy to set up. Risk of plant unavailability at key breakdown Appropriate in some times. maintenance circumstances High cost of replacement parts, spares and reactive maintenance. Potential impact on culture. Preventative Work done on the plant at a Expensive. Maintenance. convenient time. Risk that plant may be worked on Less likelihood of unnecessarily. breakdowns. Predictive Most effective use of Complex information system needs to maintenance. engineering resources. be maintained & setup initially Work done on the plant at a convenient time. Less likelihood of breakdowns.
9.2 Maintenance Tasks
Types of tasks associated with engineering maintenance.
Whether the conditions are breakdown, planned, preventative or associated with an overhaul the majority of engineering maintenance tasks can be linked to the following headings: Mechanical Lubrication Electrical Software/hardware
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Calibration Inspection Condition monitoring Cleaning of plant Health and Safety Recording and updating information.
Notes.
Specify important pieces of mechanical and electrical plant that you are familiar with. What method of maintenance is employed to ensure that these pieces of plant or equipment perform as required? Describe in detail a variety of maintenance tasks that are performed under the headings shown above. How much does engineering maintenance cost on an annual basis. How is the budget controlled? Find out the costs of major capital plant items. Describe how health and safety and other legal requirements are met under the engineering maintenance banner.
9.3 Systems for Continuous Improvement.
Poor plant performance and plant failure in one form or another has a major impact on business performance; consequently systems that improve plant reliability are becoming widely implemented.
Three process improvement initiatives are:
• Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM) where teams of key personnel for example maintenance engineers and plant operators decide on how the plant can fail, the consequences of failure and finally the most appropriate maintenance procedures that will reduce the incidence of failure.
• Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) where the plant technicians/operators are trained to pay strict attention to detail, to take great pride in their equipment and to tolerate zero plant defects.
• Workplace Organisation (5S) where technicians/operators focus on achieving and maintaining visual order and cleanliness. 5S aims to remove unneeded items and organise the workplace so that it is easy for the operatives to carry out their tasks and maintain a clean and orderly environment.
In more detail:
(a) Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM)
The principles, which define and characterise RCM are:
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• A focus on the preservation of system function; • The identification of specific failure modes to define loss of function or functional failure; • The prioritisation of the importance of the failure modes, because not all functions or functional failures are equal;
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• The identification of effective and applicable maintenance tasks for the appropriate failure modes. (Applicable means that the task will prevent, mitigate, detect the onset of, or discover, the failure mode. Effective means that among competing candidates the selected maintenance task is the most cost effective option).
These principles, in turn, are implemented in a seven-step process:
1. The objectives of maintenance with respect to any particular item/asset are defined by the functions of the asset and its associated desired performance standards. 2. Functional failure (the inability of an item/asset to meet a desired standard of performance) is identified. This can only be identified after the functions and performance standards of the asset have been defined. 3. Failure modes (which are reasonably likely to cause loss of each function) are identified. 4. Failure effects (describing what will happen if any of the failure modes occur) are documented. 5. Failure consequences are quantified to identify the criticality of failure. (RCM not only recognizes the importance of the failure consequences but also classifies these into four groups: Hidden failure; Safety and environmental; Operational and Non-operational.) 6. Functions, functional failures, failure modes and criticality analysed to identify opportunities for improving performance and/or safety. 7. Preventive tasks are established. These may be one of three main types: scheduled on-condition tasks (which employ condition-based or predictive maintenance); scheduled restoration; and scheduled discard tasks. Although one of the prime objectives of RCM is to reduce the total costs associated with system failure and downtime, evaluating the returns from an RCM program solely by measuring its impact on costs hides many other less tangible benefits. Typically these additional benefits fall into the following areas: (1) improving system availability; (2) optimizing spare parts inventory; (3) identifying component failure significance; (4) identifying hidden failure modes; (5) discovering significant, and previously unknown, failure scenarios; (6) providing training opportunities for system engineers and operations personnel; (7) identifying areas for potential design enhancement; (8) providing a detailed review, and improvement where necessary, of plant documentation.
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(b) Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
TPM aims to establish good maintenance practice through the pursuit of "the five goals of TPM": (1) Improve equipment effectiveness: examine the effectiveness of facilities by identifying and examining all losses which occur - downtime losses, speed losses and defect losses. (2) Achieve autonomous maintenance: allow the people who operate equipment to take responsibility for, at least some, of the maintenance tasks. This can be at:
• The repair level (where staff carry out instructions as a response to a problem);
• The prevention level (where staff take pro-active action to prevent foreseen problems); and the
• Improvement level (where staff not only take corrective action but also propose improvements to prevent recurrence). (3) Plan maintenance: have a systematic approach to all maintenance activities. This involves the identification of the nature and level of preventive maintenance required for each piece of equipment, the creation of standards for condition-based maintenance, and the setting of respective responsibilities for operating and maintenance staff. The respective roles of "operating" and "maintenance" staff are seen as being distinct. Maintenance staff is seen as developing preventive actions and general breakdown services, whereas operating staff take on the "ownership" of the facilities and their general care. Maintenance staff typically move to a more facilitating and supporting role where they are responsible for the training of operators, problem diagnosis, and devising and assessing maintenance practice. (4) Train all staff in relevant maintenance skills: the defined responsibilities of operating and maintenance staff require that each has all the necessary skills to carry out these roles. TPM places a heavy emphasis on appropriate and continuous training.
(5) Achieve early equipment management: the aim is to move towards zero maintenance through "maintenance prevention" (MP). MP involves considering failure causes and the maintainability of equipment during its design stage, its manufacture, its installation, and its commissioning. As part of the overall process, TPM attempts to track all potential maintenance problems back to their root cause so that they can be eliminated at the earliest point in the overall design, manufacture and deployment process.
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TPM works to eliminate losses: • Downtime from breakdown and changeover times
• Speed losses (when equipment fails to operate at its optimum speed)
• Idling and minor stoppages due to the abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of work on chutes, etc.
• Process defects due to scrap and quality defects to be repaired
• Reduced yield in the period from machine start-up to stable production (ramp up, and also ramp down at the end of stable production)
(c) Workplace Organistion (5S)
5S can be broken down into 4 activities and one conviction to continue with the 4 activities. 5S originated in Japan and there are many translations of the Japanese words for 5S – a common set is listed below:
• “Seiri” - Sort • “Seiton” - Set in order • “Seiso” - Shine • “Seiketsu” - Standardise • “Shitsuke” - Sustain
Sort The aim of Sort is to remove from the workplace items that are not needed, such as tools, materials and parts, and to identify what items are needed to perform the operations at each of the workstations.
Set in order Set in order is the part of the 5S technique that arranges materials, components and tools in such a way that the operatives can easily access them. An example of this is a shadow board, where each tool has its own place and can be easily located. Additionally, if an empty place exists on the board the missing tool can easily be identified.
Shine For Shine, the workplace needs to be kept clean so that it is safe for the operators to carry out their tasks and move around their workstation. This also benefits productivity as the easier it is for the operatives to move around the quicker it is for them to carry out their tasks.
Standardise Formalise the Sort, Set in order and Shine activities to standardise their practice so that all involved can achieve the same results. Application of this will ensure that the workplace is clean and organised.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 9 GCP (All Containers): Section 9: Engineering maintenance Sustain The sustain activity will ensure that 5S is ingrained in the organisation culture. Sustain aims to keep the workforce focussed on carrying out 5S activities on a regular basis, usually daily. Performance is measured to maintain consistency and ensure that all involved are informed of their progress.
The direct changes resulting from carrying out 5S are workplace tidiness and orderliness; these have a beneficial effect on a large number of other factors which improve efficiency. These range from reduced time searching for tools, reduced changeover time, reduced inventory to reduced cycle time.
All three methods rely on detailed records and analysis and ‘problem solving’ in a teamworking environment. These methods also depend on the teams being supported by senior management. High initial set-up costs ultimately enable the achievement significantly improved and sustainable plant reliability.
Comments: There are a number of performance improvement initiatives that are similar to RCM, TPM and 5S, and many manufacturers use their own improvement programmes, which may or may not draw on these recognised terminologies. The majority of them focus on improving plant performances by combining a number of simultaneous initiatives and typically include the following:
• ‘Organisational Changes’. • Computerised systems for maintenance, measuring plant breakdowns and performance. • Predictive maintenance techniques. • Cleaning-inspection-lubricate. • Teamworking. • Improvement analysis (various techniques). • Defining roles, responsibilities and accountabilities. • Training and education.
Two further improvement initiatives, generally but not exclusively targeted at high-speed small-packaging lines with complex secondary packaging streams, are Design of Experiments (DOE) and Maintenance Excellence (MEX) :
Design of Experiments (DOE)
Design of Experiments is a structured, organised method that is used to determine the relationship between the different factors (Xs) affecting a
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 10 GCP (All Containers): Section 9: Engineering maintenance process and the output of that process (Y). It involves designing a set of perhaps ten to twenty experiments, in which all relevant factors are varied systematically. When the results of these experiments are analysed, they help to identify optimal conditions, the factors that most influence the results, and those that do not, as well as details such as the existence of interactions and synergies between factors.
Maintenance Excellence (MEX) “Maintenance excellence” is a general term that has been used widely over many years to describe “best practice”. However, Maintenance Excellence (MEX) is the title used (often by suppliers) for a variety of specific approaches to performance improvement, a number of which may be relevant to packaging lines.
Two such examples are:
Maintenance Excellence (MEX) 1 The alignment of interdependent elements of (a) reliable, fit for purpose plant (b) an organisation which has the skills and competence to maintain and operate the plant efficiently (c) business and work processes which optimise design, operations, maintenance and inspection activities. These interdependent elements are aligned to the asset business requirements and balanced against the constraints of safety and environmental impact. This alignment is aimed at optimising maintenance strategy in a cost effective matter.
Maintenance Excellence (MEX) 2
A Japanese variant on Reliability Centred Maintenance which does not have the necessity to spend a great many hours or days looking at failure modes. Equipment and component criticality is also based on the knock-on effect of a failure and the severity of the consequences but the rating and response to it is arrived at in a much simpler way. Those failures which cause safety or environmental risks are prevented from happening and either the components are carried as spares and replaced before failure or the plant item is put on a condition monitoring programme. Those failures which cause production loss or affect quality are also prevented from happening or put on a condition monitoring programme. Those failures which are of no significant consequence are treated as breakdowns.
Notes . Describe the typical features of a performance improvement initiative you are familiar with. Describe your role and responsibilities, who you consult and who you inform.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCP) Section 18 Utilities - Water and Effluent in Packaging.
18.1 Water Treatments.
A plentiful supply of water is essential to the packaging plant; but unlike distilleries and liquid production plants, packaging plants (where they are remote from liquid production sites) generally do not abstract their own water but are connected to the mains. Where water abstraction does take place, it is usually in the form of local wells or boreholes. These original sources are still used in some plants but most have to rely on the local water authority for their supply. The nature of the water source can affect the quality of the finished product and this has resulted in some manufacturers using their local water source as a marketing aid to its quality. The quality of the water will also affect the efficiency of the processes where it is used, for example in boiler feed water or in plant cleaning systems. Water can be sourced from underground wells (boreholes) or from a surface supply like a reservoir.
Borehole Water: Surface Water:
Rain Bore hole
Top soil Rain
Sub soil
Reservoir Water bearing rock
Impervious rock
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 2 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging The Principal Characteristics and Requirements of a Packaging Water Supply.
The source of supply will affect the characteristics of the water in the following ways:
Source Mineral Salt Microbiological Taints Consistency of Content Content Supply Boreholes. Will contain some Likely to be low Likely to be Very good over of the soluble because the water low unless long periods of material present has been filtered the water time. in the rock strata through the rock has been where the water strata. contaminate is held. d by surface water, for example in built up areas. Surface Likely to be low Likely to be high Likely to be Can be variable Water. unless because of low unless especially in agricultural contamination the water is periods of chemicals are from farm land. contaminate drought. being washed off d by the land. accidental spillage.
Public Depends on Likely to be low Likely to be Very good Supply. whether the because of low because because of the source is treatment by the of treatment water authority’s borehole or water authority. by the water legal surface. Any authority. obligations. anomalies should be known if the supplies alternate.
A packaging plant water supply should have the following characteristics:
Characteristic Standard Appearance. Clear and colourless. Wholesomeness/Potability. Freedom from taint. Mineral salt and Metallic Contents that meet the process requirements. content. Microbiological standard. Freedom from any micro-organisms that would spoil the product or affect the people that drink it (for liqueurs and ready to drinks)
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Reliability of supply. There must be water available at all times.
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Water used in a packaging plant can be identified as: • Product Water – actually used in the production of the product. • Process Water – used for cleaning plant, washing containers before filling. • Service Water – used to raise steam (in Boilers), in refrigerants for cooling (including cooling towers) and general hygiene.
Methods for Pre-treatment of Water.
Some water sources require no treatment at all, so the selection of a ‘perfect’ supply is the ideal; however a water supply that meets all requirements is rare and usually some form of water treatment is used.
Quality Standard Treatment Clear and colourless Filtration, usually sand filtration or by flocculation. appearance. Wholesomeness/potability - Filtration, usually by carbon filtration. Freedom from taint. Mineral salt and Metallic Salt removal by boiling, or more usually by de- content that meets the process ionisation requirements. Freedom from any micro- Sterilisation by UV light, by sterile filtration, by organisms that would spoil the pasteurisation or by the addition of a sanitiser. product or affect the people that drink it. There must be water available An alternative (backup) supply may be used. at all times. Where this is the case, different water treatment may be needed to achieve the same end result
De-ionisation (removal of the salts) in Ion exchange columns is common in packaging plants. The columns contain special resins that are capable of exchanging the unwanted ions for harmless ones. The resins can be regenerated when exhausted, usually by washing through with mineral acids.
In the plant illustrated below, carbonates are removed in ion exchange columns and CO 2 is formed. This is removed in the degassing towers.
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Acid regeneration tank
De- Ion Gassing Exchange Tower Break Column Tank
Alternative primary treatments are:
• Sand filtration for the removal of solids.
• Carbon filtration for the removal of flavour taints like chlorine.
• Ion exchange columns for de-mineralisation or de-alkalisation.
• Membrane filters or reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is a process where water is passed via a high pressure pump through a semi-permeable membrane which allows the passage of water but not the dissolved solids in the water, which are concentrated and directed to the drain. With the appropriate selection of membrane, water can be totally de-mineralised and have bacteria, trihalomethanes (THM's), some pesticides, solvents and other volatile organic compounds (VOC's) removed.
• Removal of iron or manganese using a BIRM filter.
De-aerated Water. It is common to intake spirits of high alcohol content and dilute them to the specified alcohol content at a later stage, for example post filtration. Unlike ready to drinks and other products that may spoil or stale however, production of high strength spirits does not require water to be free of microorganisms (though this is desirable!) or to be deaerated. This is primarily because such products are not pasteurised, and do not spoil due to the alcoholic content. However, where the product is spoilable or may stale due to excessive oxygen content, then the water used for dilution has specific quality
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 6 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging requirements ie it must be free of unwanted micro-organisms and of any dissolved oxygen. The de-aerated water plant is designed to supply water to that standard:
Pre- treated W ater
F in e U .V . C o arse Cooler Filte r Steriliser
F ilte r Column De-aeration
De-aerated W ater Supply T a n k
The plant illustrated has the following features: • A filtration system that ensures that the Ultra Violet (UV) light steriliser is effective. • A de-aeration system that works by spraying the water through an atmosphere of inert gas (carbon dioxide or nitrogen) where any oxygen in the water is replaced by the inert gas. • Sterilisation by UV light (chlorine sterilisation would taint the water). • Temperature adjustment if required (the water may be added to spirits at low temperature).
Other plants remove oxygen by heating the water. Some sterilise the water using heat or by membrane filtration.
Notes: Describe how the de-aerated water plant (if applicable) operates in your plant. Use flow diagrams to illustrate your description.
Methods for Sterilising Water.
The method of water sterilisation depends on the level of infection and on the subsequent use of the water. If the water is heavily infected it may require filtration followed by heat treatment.
If the water is to be used for addition to the product, for example the dilution of high strength spirits and it is considered that chlorine would taint the product, then sterilisation by UV light or by sterile filtration are common methods of preparation.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 8 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging 18.2. De-aerated, Process and Service Waters and Water Conservation.
De-aerated Water – use in spoilable or staleable product preparation
De-aerated water is that water used for:
• Additions make up (e.g. for ready to drinks) • Product dilution to sales strength • Jetting of empty bottles (in particular ready to drinks)
In all cases – the water must be free of microbial contamination and of dissolved oxygen.
Process Water
Process water is that water used for:
• Cleaning packaging plant and surfaces of plant • Washing product packages before filling (if air is not used) • Heating, for example in tunnel pasteurisers (for products such as ready to drinks
Water Use Problems Treatment Cleaning Formation of scale in CIP Carbonate removal as described packaging plant delivery systems and spray above. (CIP and heads caused by the presence Selection of a detergent that works surface of carbonates in the water. best with the water in use. cleaning) Detergent deterioration caused by the presence of carbonates. Rinsing plant Re-infection of the product or Water sterilisation as described and packages plant through the presence of above. after cleaning micro-organisms. Tunnel Formation of scale in the Carbonate removal as described Pasteurisers. pasteuriser sprays caused by the above. presence of carbonates. Use of additives that suppress Formation of mould in the mould. pasteuriser caused by the Use of additives that inhibit rust presence of micro-organisms. formation. Rust on the bottle crowns caused by the activity of the water. Notes:
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Describe the problems experienced with your plant’s Process Water and how these are overcome.
Service Water
Service water is that water used in boilers to raise steam, in cooling towers as part of the refrigeration plant and general hygiene cleaning.
Boiler Water
The main requirements for boiler water are that it does not form scale deposits on the heating surfaces and that it does not corrode the plant. Consequently, the removal of carbonates is essential and often the standard de-ionisation process described above is supplemented with further treatment. To prevent corrosion, additives are used to scavenge oxygen from the water and its pH is adjusted.
Cooling Tower Water
Water used in cooling towers is prone to the growth of bacteria of which the most important is Legionella .
Legionnaire’s disease is a potentially fatal pneumonia caused by Legionella bacteria. The infection is caused by breathing in small droplets of water contaminated by the bacteria. The disease cannot be passed from one person to another. Legionella bacteria are common in natural water courses such as rivers and ponds. Since Legionella are widespread in the environment, they may contaminate and grow in other water systems such as cooling towers, evaporative condensers and hot and cold water services. They survive low temperatures and thrive at temperatures between 20 oC – 40 oC if the conditions are right, e.g. if a supply of nutrients is present such as rust, sludge, scale, algae and other bacteria. They are killed by high temperatures. In many countries there are regulations for managing the risks from Legionella . These regulations generally include: • The identification and assessment of sources of risk; • The preparation and management of a scheme to prevent or control the risk; • The keeping of records to check that what has been done is effective. Cooling towers and similar systems are often treated using biocides but other treatments are available such as UV irradiation, copper / silver ionisation and ozone. In hot and cold water systems Legionella has traditionally been controlled by storing water above 60 oC and distributing it above 50 oC - and cold water below 20 oC if possible. Other methods which are used include copper / silver ionisation and chlorine dioxide treatment.
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General Cleaning Water :
This is water that is used for hosing down and general hygiene and the normal standard supply can be used.
Notes: Describe the treatment used for your plant’s boiler water and cooling tower water (if applicable).
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 11 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging Water usage Ratios, Conservation Methods and Costs.
Water is an expensive commodity, it is charged for by the Water Authority whether or not it comes from the plant’s own boreholes and the plant is charged for any liquid sent down the drain. Consequently, a knowledge of how much water is used is essential for its control.
18.3 Sources of Effluent and Measurement.
Effluent is the waste material discharged to the plant drains. It is expensive to process and the plant is charged for this processing. The local authority will also impose limits to the amount of and content of the effluent that the plant is allowed to discharge.
Packaging Effluent Effluent from the Packaging Hall comes from the rinsing of bottles (where water is used), from filling machines and from pasteurisers. In addition, some effluent is generated from finished product vessel and pipework cleaning operations. Manual cleaning operations also contribute to effluent generation.
Plant integrity is vital to ensuring that product is not released to drain, as most alcoholic beverages are high in BOD / COD, and spillages are costly not only in relation to lost product and duty charges, but in increased charges that may be levied by the water authority in dealing with the effluent. For this reason it is also vital that correct procedures are followed with relation to product transfers and filling operations in particular to avoid such accidental spillages.
Many tunnel pasteurisers use large volumes of water, some of which is carried over with the packages on the exit conveyor.
Effluent Values
Effluent is measured in five ways - Volume, Suspended Solids, COD, pH and temperature. A brewery can often be charged by the Water Authority using a formula (such as the Mogden formula) incorporating a number of the key values. The formula is adjusted to comply with local needs. The values are explained in the table below:
Value Explanation Source Volume The volume of effluent discharged, usually Wastage of water measured in cubic metres. described above. Suspended The amount of solid material in the effluent, Filter aid, paper
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Solids measured in ppm (parts per million) or fragments, ready to mg/litre. drink pulped ingredients etc C.O.D. Chemical oxygen demand. The amount of Organic materials ‘work’ that the effluent plant has to do to primarily from the break the effluent down to a quality that can product itself. be discharged into a local river. B.O.D. Biological oxygen demand. Similar to C.O.D. Organic materials primarily from the product itself. pH A measure of the acidity/alkalinity of the Detergents and effluent. Water is neutral at 7. product. Temperature. A measure of the heat in the effluent. Hot effluent from the boilerhouse or pasteurisers.
Reduction in Effluent loading.
Effective monitoring is necessary for the control of effluent. This is usually done using flow meters, by sampling the effluent to measure its suspended solids and COD and by sensing for pH and temperature. Swift detection of problems, for example product spillage can help manage the costs of effluent.
Taking individual samples of effluent, of course will only provide information on the state of the effluent at a particular point in time.
The ‘Pie Charts’ below illustrate how the various areas of a brewery influence the effluent picture:
Brewery Effluent Volume
Filtration
Fermentation
Bottle washer Brewhouse
Pasteuriser
Fillers
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Brewery Effluent Solids
Trub
Lauter Tun
Pasteuriser Filler Fermentation Bottle Washer
Filtration
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 14 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging Brewery Effluent COD
Trub Lauter Tun
Pasteuriser Filler
Bottle Washer Filtration Fermentation
Packaging effluent can be reduced by taking the following action:
Source of Effluent Control Methods
Bottle washing machines. • Run at the specified speed to limit water ‘carry over’. Please note that modern plant is designed • Maintain detergent strengths at the to reduce effluent and that operating the specified levels to keep the system in plant as recommended by the balance. manufacturers is essential. • Collect dumped detergent in settling tanks and dispose of by alternative methods. Keg washing machines. • Ensure that the cycle timers are operating as specified. Operating the plant as recommended by • Maintain detergent strengths at the the manufacturers is essential. specified levels. • Recycle washing water. Filling machines. • Maintain to reduce bottle breakages. • Maintain to control filling heights. Please note that modern plant is designed • Make use of burst bottle detectors. to reduce effluent and that operating the • Control over foaming. plant as recommended by the manufacturers is essential.
Tunnel pasteurisers. • Run at the specified speed to limit water ‘carry over’. • Maintain and check to control temperature to specified levels. Line stoppages. Ensure rinsing water and line lubrication is automatically switched off.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 15 GCP (All Containers): Section 18: Utilities – Water and Effluent in packaging Effluent Costs The authorities which operate the effluent plants often have particular problems to resolve and their charging policies reflect these. The charge for discharging effluent generally takes into account volume, suspended solids and COD and these values are used in a formula eg Mogden to calculate the cost per unit of effluent. Individual authorities may adjust the formula itself to reflect their own problems.
Notes: Identify the charges for your plant and how they are calculated:
Statutory Controls Water Authorities generally impose limits to the amount of and condition of effluent being discharged from a plant into their systems. They can levy penalties and fines to companies who persistently exceed the limits.
A typical set of limits is detailed in the table below:
Parameter Limit Maximum volume 100,000 litres per 24 hours Maximum suspended solids 500 mg/litre Maximum COD 10,000 kg per 24 hours pH range 6 – 10 Maximum temperature 40 o C
Notes: Identify below the limits set for your plant.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCSP (All Containers): Section 19: Utilities – Process Gases Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 19 Utilities - Process Gases.
19.1 Properties, Applications and Safety of Gases.
Requirements. Candidates should be familiar with common practices aimed at ensuring economy of use and purity of supply of Process Gases. Familiarity with safety features of the supply systems is also required.
Depending on the product, the plant may need inert gases to protect the product quality. All these utilities are potential safety hazards and procedures must be in place to protect the people who work in the plant.
The main uses of Gases in Brewing and Packaging
Gas Purpose Method of use Air. To drive pneumatic equipment. Pipework direct to plant Nitrogen. • By injecting N2 into the product, • To replace air in tanks and usually during the packaging packages creating an inert process. atmosphere. • By pressurising the package with • De-gassing product that has N2. a high level of dissolved • Flooding tanks and packages oxygen or carbon dioxide. with N2. • Purging from the base or outlet of a tank.
Carbon • To give product its fizzy • Injection into product. dioxide. character. • To replace air in tanks and • Flooding tanks and packages packages creating an inert with CO2. atmosphere. • To act as an oxygen • Filling de-aeration tower with scavenge in de-aeration CO2. plants. • De-gassing product. • Purging from the base or outlet of a tank.
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The Quality of Gases in relation to their use
Gas and its Quality parameter Reason use Air for Dry and clean. In operation of equipment. pneumatic plant. Nitrogen for • Purity, especially absence • Even a small amount of oxygen air of oxygen. may cause flavour staling and elimination. • Sterility. product instability. • Freedom from • Product will become infected. contaminants e.g. oil or grease. • Contamination. Carbon • Purity, especially absence • Even a small amount of oxygen dioxide for of oxygen. will cause flavour staling and carbonation product instability. or air elimination. • Sterility. • Product will become infected. • Freedom from • Contamination. contaminants e.g. oil or grease.
Gases are sterilised by filtration through very fine filters which have to be steam sterilised.
Carbon dioxide, especially that collected from fermentations, is checked for purity, cleaned and dried as necessary. Only pure CO2 must be re-used.
The collection of, purchase of and the production of these gases is expensive. Wastage is a problem because the gas distribution systems are under high pressure and leaks are common.
The detection of and repair of gas leaks are important areas in cost control.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP (All Containers): Section 19: Utilities – Process Gases 19.2 Health and Safety.
Carbon dioxide is a safety hazard especially in fermenting rooms. There are several features of this gas to be considered: • It is a toxic gas at high concentrations in the atmosphere. 5% of CO2 in the atmosphere is dangerous. • It is heavier than air and it will accumulate in low-lying areas. • It is generated in very large quantities during fermentation.
The risks associated with CO2 can be reduced by: • Effective removal of the gas from FV rooms using extraction systems. • CO2 collection from fermentations. • The installation of gas detectors. Alarms indicate levels above 0.5% • Safety measures that include permits to work, permits to enter confined spaces and evacuation procedures.
Nitrogen is potentially dangerous because it will suffocate and it is difficult to detect (air is 80% N2). People required to enter tanks where N2 is used for back pressure are especially at risk. Dangers can be reduced by the installation of gas detectors (Oxygen deficiency meters).
All pressurised process gas systems (including compressed air) present safety hazards. If pressure systems fail, they can seriously kill or injure people. Most countries have regulations dealing with the risks created by a release of stored energy should the system fail and detailing the measures that should be taken to prevent failures and reduce risks. The regulations generally cover: • Safe operating limits. • Written schemes of examination. • Specific requirements relating to most pressure vessels, all safety devices and any pipework which is potentially dangerous.
Compressed gas cylinders can present severe hazards to personnel and property. Many gas cylinders are stored at extremely high pressure. A sudden release of gas can cause a cylinder to become a missile-like projectile of fracture catastrophically. There are well recognised procedures to minimise risks covering: • Labelling • Handling • Storage • Transporting • Use of personal protective equipment.
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Notes:
Candidates should familiarise themselves with their own plant’s procedures for:
• the safe entry into tanks, cold rooms and other confined spaces where carbon dioxide or excessive nitrogen may be present
• the use of portable and fixed alarms together with other personal protective equipment
Candidates should also investigate their own national (and any local) safety regulations and procedures relating to:
• the storage of liquid gases and their distribution in high-pressure mains
• compressed air systems and equipment
• the safe handling and storage of compressed gas cylinders
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment Institute of Brewing and Distilling General Certificate in Spirits Packaging (GCSP) Section 20 Packaging and the Environment
20.1 Sustainability and climate change
The spirits packaging industry, in common with other industries, impacts on the environment in many different ways. For example: • As a user of energy. • As a ‘consumer’ of water and other natural resources. • As a source, both directly and indirectly, of atmospheric emissions, trade effluent and packaging waste.
Sustainable development
The challenge of sustainable development is to achieve economic, social and environmental objectives at the same time.
In the past economic activity and growth have often resulted in pollution and wasted resources. A damaged environment impairs quality of life and at worst may threaten long term economic growth, for example as a result of global climate change.
Climate change
Climate change is being caused by an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These gases come from both natural and man-made sources, but the increase is the result of human activity, mainly the release of carbon dioxide from the use of fossil fuels such as coal, gas, oil, petrol and diesel.
All businesses and societies, to a greater or lesser extent, will feel the impact of climate change and the policies of governments around the world to address it. These may include: • restrictions on emission levels • restrictions on water use • changes in agricultural growth patterns • increases in energy prices • changes in consumer habits
Sustainability guiding principles
Companies committing to minimising the total impact of their activities on the environment, to using natural resources wisely, to pursuing social progress
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 2 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment and to playing leading roles in their economies adhere to certain guiding principles typified by the following:
• To comply with all relevant national and local legislation and regulations. • To design, operate and maintain processes and plants to: - optimise the use of all resources (materials, water, energy etc) whilst ensuring that unavoidable wastes are recovered, reused or disposed of in an economically sustainable and environmentally responsible manner. - minimise the potential impact on the environment from site emissions to air, water and land. • To regularly assess the environmental impacts of processes and plants and, based on the assessments, set annual objectives and targets for the continual improvement of environmental performance. • To use and develop packaging distribution systems for which packaging/product combination will make fewer demands on non- renewable and renewable natural resources. • To minimise the use of substances which may cause potential harm to the environment and ensure they are used and disposed of safely. • To encourage a culture of awareness on sustainability issues amongst employees through management commitment, appropriate communications, training and other initiatives. • To establish and maintain appropriate procedures and management systems to implement these principles through policy commitment. • To work with suppliers and other business partners in the supply chain to maintain high environmental standards.
The role of carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide emission is seen as a key measure of environmental damage. It is a greenhouse gas which, as they increase in concentration in the upper atmosphere, lead to a greater amount of radiation from the sun’s rays being retained as heat within the atmosphere.
Distillation in particular, due to its large usage of heat energy, has the potential to be a major net producer of carbon dioxide, much more so than drinks producers which simply ferment and condition their products. However, in this paper we are concerned principally with the packaging operation, and so the carbon dioxide produced by liquid production will not be considered here.
The principal source of carbon dioxide emissions in the spirits packaging industry is the combustion of fossil fuels – either at the plant itself for heating purposes and in the generation of the electricity supplied. There is therefore a
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 3 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment need for continuing improvement in the efficiency with which fossil fuels are used, whether through the use of electricity or through the combustion of fuel at the plant.
• Electricity, as compared with natural gas, gives rise to three times the quantity of carbon dioxide for the same amount of delivered energy. • Whereas electricity provides only perhaps 25% of the energy requirements of the brewing industry, the generation of electricity creates almost 50% of carbon dioxide emissions. • Where available, natural gas generally provides perhaps 66% of the total energy requirement but creates only 40% of carbon dioxide emissions.
A considerable amount of carbon dioxide is also generated by the use of fuel powered lift trucks and heavy goods vehicles in the loading, shunting, and transportation of raw materials and finished goods to, within, and from the packaging plant. For packaging plants remote from liquid production sites, this consideration becomes much larger.
20.2 Energy conservation
The energy use in brewing where it interfaces with the processes takes the form of Heat (steam and hot water) and Power (electricity). The heat energy is normally generated on site in boilers using primary fuels such as gas, oil or coal. Electricity on the other hand is usually purchased from national grids, even though some breweries generate a proportion in-house.
Principal energy consuming activities
Within the spirits packaging industry the main energy usage will vary between plants (large, small, old, modern), with product (spirit, ready to drink, liqueur), with package type and with location (ambient air temperature and water temperature).
Typical energy reduction strategies
The approach to achieving savings in the use of energy can be categorised under the following headings:
Horizontal technologies Overall energy management
1. Horizontal technologies
Horizontal technologies (with demonstrable Best Available Techniques) can invariably be applied across many industries. Examples include:
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Steam raising Refrigeration Compressed air Utility pipework distribution systems and insulation Combined heat and power Electric motors and drives Biomass solutions as alternative energy sources
2. Overall energy management
A number of well tried techniques can be employed in the effort to reduce energy use: a) Analysis of energy use and implementation of a monitoring and targeting (M & T) system
This is the fundamental energy management technique that must always be implemented first. It ensures that all energy usage is monitored on a regular basis.
The key is strategically positioned effective metering to provide reliable data. Best practice is to develop the energy metering to allow the transfer of measured energy costs into the user cost centres with a comparison of usages against calculated standards, any variance being reported.
The energy data provided by the monitoring and targeting system must be disseminated inside the plant. This is of prime importance, in conjunction with awareness training, to motivate the staff to save energy and allow them to participate and improve the efficiency of the equipment.
b) Targeted investigation and action plan
Here an investigation is initiated to look at an area (or areas) of high energy usage or known inefficiency. For a generalised approach the highest users of energy would be targeted first (adopting the Pareto principle). Examples for electricity would be refrigeration, compressed air, large pumps and conveyor systems.
The key stages in the investigation process are:
• Audit the process • Produce findings
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• Evaluate findings • Produce action plan • Make modification / investment • Re-evaluate process performance • Assess energy saving and financial implications
This technique can be developed into one of continuous improvement:
• Evaluate against standard / benchmark • Assess options • Make change • Re-evaluate • Monitor improvement • etc c) Pinch analysis and pinch technology
Introduced in the mid 1980s pinch analysis provides a systematic approach to analyse energy networks and improve the energy performance of industrial processes. Pinch technology uses graphical representations of the energy flows in the process and utility streams to determine the minimum energy consumption a process should use to meet its specific production requirements.
Pinch technology proceeds in two steps:
• In the first step, composite curves are created considering all the streams within the process that require cooling as “hot” lines and all the streams that require heating as “cold” lines. The theory is then compared with the actual amount of utility to pinpoint to what extent there is room for improvement. The points on the composite curves at which the “hot” and “cold” lines come closest to each other are called the “pinch point”. • In the second step of the pinch technology analysis, aspects that can be improved are studied from the perspective of energy conservation, operational costs and new plant capital cost. Finally the heat exchange network is improved and optimised.
The concept is designed principally for new plants or for retrofit situations. In its widest application it can take account of all the energy flows on a site and identify projects that look attractive on their own or inappropriate when considered in a wider context. d) Alternative technologies
In most instances, these require significant capital investment to be realised. Examples of such technologies might be:
Combined heat and power
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Wind power Generation of methane from biomass
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 7 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment 20.3. Water conservation
Access to a sustainable water supply is critical to the plant as one of the key raw materials. Quality and availability are of major significance.
It could, perhaps a little cynically, be said that packaging plants “borrow” water from the environment: • treat it as needed • use it once (mostly) • treat it again (in rare circumstances where the BOD / COD of the effluent is too high) • throw it away
This can be represented as the “Water Supply Chain”
The Environment
Water Water Effluent Supply Use Treatment
The Environment The Environment
Principal water consuming activities (see Section 2.3 for more detail)
There are three distinct purposes:
• Product water (liquor) - for the production of the product itself (usually by dilution of high strength spirits) • Process water - for cleaning packaging plant, washing packages before filling, cooling and heating • Service water - for boilers, utility cooling towers, general cleaning water
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 8 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment Typical water conservation strategies
Strategies to conserve water are, unsurprisingly, very similar to those to conserve energy (see Section 21.2). The adoption of Process and Horizontal Technologies incorporating Best Available Techniques (BAT) is essential in seeking step-wise reductions in water use.
As described in the section on energy reduction, similar approaches can be adopted:
a) Analysis of water use and implementation of a monitoring and targeting (M & T) system b) Targeted investigation and action plan c) Feasibility studies into alternative technologies
An example of a well proven staged approach to improve water management is detailed below: • Produce mass balance - Start with survey of water use across plant - Include all water use – product, process, and service - Aim to account for > 80% of water use • Construct simple model - Build simple network model based on information known (flows, concentrations) to identify areas of inaccuracy - Resample critical nodes to improve accountability to 90 to 95% • Reduce Waste - Focus on poor housekeeping to reduce wastage o routine inspection for leaks o prevention of losses from taps, triggers by fitting flow restrictors o or shut-off valves • Improve Management - Examine CIP programmes to ensure the water is being used effectively - Examine operations of bottle washers (where water is used) and all small pack pasteurisers to prevent unnecessary wastage of water - Examine utilities (cooling systems, water purification, boiler operation) to check for inefficient water usage • Identify Reuse or Recycling Options - Using network model, identify opportunities for water reuse and water recycling - Identify minimum economic water consumption for site • Generate Strategic Vision - Incorporate new plant, expansions, discharge consent levels (new plant will be designed for minimum economic water use) - Identify new minimum economic water consumption for site • Improvement Plan - Identify steps to implement water management strategy and - Prepare economic cases • Implement water reuse and recycle improvements
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It is generally accepted that full savings cannot be achieved in one step. There is often merit in starting with the cheapest and most cost effective. Typical savings may then build up in the following way:
• Reduction in uncontrolled use (housekeeping) 20 to 30% • Improved control (management) 20 to 30% • Water reuse 10 to 20% • Water recycling 10 to 20% • Design improvements 10 to 20% Diagramatically this staged approach might be represented as shown:
WATER SAVING
100 % REDESIGN
80 %
RECYCLE 60 %
REUSE 40 %
MANAGEMENT 20 %
HOUSEKEEPING CAPITAL COST 0 %
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 10 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment
20.4. Packaging Waste
Focusing purely on packaging, the beverage industry is one of the most environmentally efficient of industries. The cost of most beverages tends to be relatively low and yet they are relatively heavy and bulky; therefore, the cost of packaging as a proportion of sales tends to be higher than is the case with many consumer goods. This creates compelling financial and environmental arguments for minimising beverage packaging and is entirely in line with society’s aims of sustainable development. This argument however is somewhat in conflict with the need to make premium spirits brands stand out from the crowd. High end products frequently feature expensive and complicated packaging, which may not lend itself to easy recycling, and by its nature, is hardly minimal.
The impact of packaging waste on household (consumer) recycling
Factors such as market expectations and cost will always be among the foremost drivers of packaging minimisation but in the 1990s such factors came to be rivalled in their impact by legislation. The purpose of the legislation was to divert packaging waste from landfill by forcing the recycling of packaging materials.
Much of the legislation was pioneered separately in Europe and the United States. In 1989 Germany introduced a law mandating ambitious recycling and refilling targets for beverage packaging. This legislation led to the creation of the European ‘Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 1994’ in order to preserve a free market across Europe.
The Directive initially specified that by June 30 th 2001:
1. Between 50 and 65% of packaging must be ‘recovered’ (collected for some acceptable form of processing, which does not involve landfilling). The term ‘recovered’ is specified as consisting of any of the following; • Recycling – whereby the material is recycled into usable product(s), although not necessarily the same product. • Energy recovery – incineration with recovery of the resultant energy, whereby the energy gained from the combustion process is utilised in some useful form, such as electricity generation or combined heat and power (CHP). • Composting and biodegradation – where biodegradable packaging is turned into useful compost, or otherwise biodegrades to the extent that most of the resultant material ultimately decomposes into carbon dioxide and water.
2. Between 25 and 45% of packaging must be recycled as defined above, with a minimum of 15% of any individual packaging material being
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recycled. The remaining 5 to 40% of packaging which has been recovered but not recycled, may be incinerated with energy recovery or composted. The initial targets were varied for individual EU countries and have since been revised upwards a number of times with the latest being set for 2008. The mechanics of achieving the recovery and recycling targets vary considerably between countries. However a typical system would involve:
• The country in question legislating to make product suppliers liable to achieve the required levels of recovery and recycling. • The setting-up, with state encouragement, of an industry-controlled recycling organisation. • Product suppliers joining the recycling organisation and paying it levies (based on their tonnage of packaging marketed) to undertake the legally-mandated recycling burden on their behalf.
The existence of rather different legislation in the USA demonstrates another way of proceeding. The view of the US legal system is that, once money has changed hands, only the owner of a product can have any responsibility for it. This fundamental conceptual difference has influenced US packaging legislation, since producers of beverage packaging are less likely to be held responsible for recycling packaging waste owned by consumers. Apart from this underlying difference in thinking compared to Europe, however, there is a wide variation in requirements of individual US states. For example states variously:
• ban particular products from landfill • ban all containers from landfill • ban the disposal of recyclable packaging materials • mandate deposits on beverage containers • require the payment of an ‘advance disposal fee’
These regulations are further enhanced by the Producer Responsibility Obligations (Packaging Waste) Regulations 2007. These initially arose in 1997, and are specific to the United Kingdom. These regulations work on the principle of “collective” producer responsibility, enforcing producers of packaging to take responsibility for their environmental impact. The Regulations require obligated producers to pay a proportion of the cost of the recovery and recycling of their packaging. Once a company knows its obligation, it must demonstrate that it has paid for the recovery and recycling of the required amount of packaging. This is achieved through the Packaging Waste Recovery Note (PRN) system. A company falls under this legislation if they:
- have a turnover of more than £2million - handled more than 50 tonnes of packaging in the previous calendar year
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Local household recycling of packaging materials
Recycling of household packaging materials began on a voluntary basis over 30 years ago with bottle-banks (green, brown and clear glass) being strategically positioned near supermarkets, car-parks etc. Many of these schemes started in northern Europe and Scandinavia. In due course receptacles were added for metal cans and cardboard (and later still, beyond packaging materials, clothes, shoes etc).
In the 1980s and 1990s national waste regulations increasingly gave rise to regional and local regulations, policed by local authorities, district and city councils etc. These local regulations required compulsory schemes to be introduced covering all households living in the catchment area. Households are generally issued with coloured bins or plastic sacks to segregate waste streams. The schemes vary considerably depending on the sophistication of the waste reception and sorting centre run by or on behalf of the authority or council. One scheme, which is typical of many, requires households to segregate packaging waste streams as follows:
• glass (all colours)
All glass is collected in a blue rigid plastic bin the contents being emptied into a special section of the refuse lorry when it calls on a weekly basis. The glass is subsequently recycled by returning to glass manufacturers for use in coloured bottles, jars etc.
• paper, cardboard, cans and non-rigid plastic containers
All the above are collected in pink plastic sacks which are taken away in the weekly refuse collection. At the waste reception station the packaging materials are sorted mainly by hand but with some automation (eg powerful magnets to separate steel cans and tins). The segregated wastes are then returned via intermediate waste transfer stations to the appropriate manufacturers.
The scheme described here extends to garden waste (collected in large “wheelie-bins”) collected separately every two weeks. Another scheme has an additional small closed bin for domestic food waste. These schemes are evolving continually with ever higher recycling targets being imposed from national governments.
Variations in local council recycling / collection schemes can add to confusion over which materials are recycled and how the UK wide targets are subsequently met.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 13 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment Strategies to minimise packaging material and encourage recycling
Around the world governments’ objectives are broadly similar:
• to minimise packaging and packaging waste as far as possible • to promote reuse of packaging materials • to encourage the recovery and, in particular, the recycling of packaging waste
There are four key drivers to minimise packaging material and encourage recycling: • legislation • market mechanisms • the consumer • cost
1. Legislation
Much of the packaging waste legislation imposes considerable responsibility on packaging ‘producers’ who generally include:
• manufacturers of raw materials for packaging • businesses that convert raw materials into packaging • fillers, who put goods into packaging, or use packaging to wrap goods • sellers, who sell packaging to the final user or consumer of the packaging
Producers are subject to the essential requirement that packaging must be minimal. A typical interpretation of minimal is: ‘Packaging shall be so manufactured that the packaging volume and weight be limited to the minimum adequate amount to maintain the necessary level of safety, hygiene and acceptance for the packed product and the consumer’.
The following is an example checklist which may help to determine if a package is minimal:
• Have other ways of packaging this product been considered? • Have ways of minimising this packaging been considered? • Do other packaging suppliers offer lighter weight versions of this pack which do the job just as well? • Has this pack been benchmarked against competitors’ packs? • How does this pack compare with similar products on the market? • If this pack had to be defended in court, is there a compelling defence as to why this pack has to be this way?
In terms of reuse, recycling or disposal, for most countries with packaging and/or packaging waste regulations, packaging technologists have to be able to answer the following question in the affirmative: ‘Is the packaging biodegradable (made of paper or board) or able to be incinerated cleanly with
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 14 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment the release of calorific energy (paper or board, plastics and even aluminium foil usually meet this criterion), or recyclable (meeting the requirements of the recycling process in operation where the packaging is sold)?’
How are packaging materials affected by legislation? Clearly, glass is encouraged. Plastics are discouraged, except for PET (Polyethylene terephthalate), which is sometimes well received due to the high recycling rates achieved and the existence of PET refill systems. PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is the least favoured plastic. Metals are discouraged in some regions in order to encourage the use of refillables and treated favourably in others, due to the high recycling rates achieved for metal cans. Laminates are discouraged due to their poor recyclability despite the fact that they meet minimisation requirements to a greater extent than any other packaging material and offer good calorific value for incineration. (The attractiveness of laminates is ensuring that much work is being done to improve their recyclability and a wider use of laminates can be anticipated in the future).
2. Market mechanisms
Environmental issues have come to drive market mechanisms to a greater extent than ever before. This is because what began as informal environmental interest has evolved into more formalised market mechanisms.
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) forms an illustrative example. There may be little in the way of legislation banning PVC yet less formal market mechanisms have a huge negative impact on the use of this plastic. For example Greenpeace has called for a ban on PVC and indeed all chlorine chemistry.
PVC beverage packaging is generally accepted in the USA and most countries outside Europe and within Europe is banned by legislation only in Switzerland. However, in practice, PVC beverage packaging cannot be used throughout much of Europe. This is due to a variety of negative mechanisms. For example, in several countries, such as the Netherlands, retailers refuse to stock beverages packed in PVC. In other countries, just one handling retailer may refuse to stock PVC for selected product lines. In still other countries, PVC is accepted by most retailers but discouraged by a few (the UK is such an example). Part of the problem with PVC is that if it is burnt, carcinogenic compounds are released into the atmosphere.
In the face of these difficulties, many beverage manufacturers have chosen to package their products in non-PVC containers throughout Europe. Most switched to PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) to enable continued access to key markets.
3. The consumer
The impact of consumer attitudes to environmental issues concerning beverage packaging is a complex matter. Consumer surveys tend to show
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 15 GCSP (All Containers): Section 20: Packaging and the Environment that the majority of consumers take an interest in environmental issues and yet only a small majority shop as if they do.
In the beverage market there can be little doubt that packaging is the major perceived determinant of the environmental performance of a beverage. Therefore, environmentally responsible packaging is likely to grow in importance as a significant determinant of the market success of a beverage brand, while packaging that is environmentally inferior to market norms will increasingly represent a significant brand weakness.
Against this background brewing companies are acknowledging the concerns of their various stakeholders, including consumers, in employing scientific methods to assist packaging technologists design environmentally responsible packaging systems. The leading method is known as Life Cycle Assessment or Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). In Germany and Switzerland, the term Eco-Balance is preferred but the method is substantially the same:
1. The entire life cycle of an item of packaging is investigated: extraction of raw materials, shipping, processing, manufacture of packaging, transport, filling, distribution, sale, use by the consumer and waste management. 2. At each of these stages, environmental impacts are measured – materials and energy consumed, emissions and wastes produced. 3. These impacts are summed-up and analysed to give an overall picture of the environmental impact of the pack. Repeating this for several pack types enables comparisons to be made.
4. Cost
Scientific studies provide the clearest message when it comes to the consideration of minimal packaging. When the amount of material used in the construction of a package is reduced, a certain amount of material is saved and so never used. Material that is not used is not mined or harvested, nor is it transported, processed, used or disposed of. In other words, the environmental impact is reduced throughout the entire lifecycle. Identifying net gain does not involve weighing-up costs and benefits, as it does with recycling and refilling – the environmental benefit of minimisation is total.
Clearly it is in a company’s interest to drive down costs through the process of minimisation whilst ensuring no reduction in the protection afforded to the liquid by the pack.
A number of methods are employed. Examples include:
• Value Engineering
Value engineering analyses packaging by function rather than by content and looks to reduce the cost. Focussing on function allows the analysers to concentrate on essential features and avoid any preconceived notions.
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Each study will comprise the following steps: 1. Information gathering 2. Definition of function 3. Speculation on alternatives 4. Evaluation of all alternative ways of meeting the requirements 5. Verification 6. Presentation of proposals 7. Implementation and subsequent follow-up
• Lightweighting
Lightweighting of packaging features under many initiatives, not least cost reduction.
Much progress has been made in the last ten years or so in all aspects of packaging from primary containers to secondary packaging. Examples include the lightweighting of glass bottles, PET bottles, cans, cartonboard, corrugated board and plastic films.
• Technological developments
Manufactures and suppliers often work with companies or representative industry bodies to improve the companies’ or industry’s competitiveness through technological developments often leading to cost reduction. Examples include the two-piece can (where previously three pieces had been used) and the progressive reduction in can-end size.
© The Institute of Brewing and Distilling (GCPS Revision Notes Version 1, August 2011) 1 GCPS Syllabus
The General Certificate in Packaging (Spirits)
GCPS
Examination Syllabus (July 2011)
This document details the course of study necessary to prepare for the examination for the General Certificate in Packaging of Spirits (GCPS) The specifications to which the respective examination papers are prepared are also shown.
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Introduction.
The General Certificate in Packaging of Spirits (GCPS) gives international recognition of a basic, under-pinning knowledge and understanding in the principles of spirits packaging operations.
The General Certificate examinations have been designed for candidates who may have little or no formal academic or technical qualification. Typically a candidate will be employed as a senior operator or team leader in a brewery, distillery or packaging plant, however the scope of these examinations will enable candidates from smaller operations to obtain this recognised qualification. This examination is open to anybody with interest in distilling or spirits packaging. They are a measure of basic knowledge (theoretical and practical) underpinning distilling, packaging and associated operations.
- The General Certificate in Packaging of Spirits can be an end in itself, or the start of professional development leading to the Diploma in Packaging of Spirits #.
- The General Certificate in Packaging of Spirits has City & Guilds accreditation at Level 3 of the National Qualifications Framework in the UK (or equivalent internationally recognised standards),.
- The General Certificate in Packaging of Spirits takes the form of one multiple choice paper of two hours.
Candidates can register to sit the exam on-line instead of using the traditional paper format. Candidates sitting within brewery or university centres will be encouraged to take the on-line version. The exam itself appears on the screen very much like the paper version and with the same number of questions, but there are various different ways of asking the questions which make the exam a more interesting experience. The marking is done electronically and candidates will received a detailed feedback on how each section of the syllabus has been answered.
The pass mark is set at 66% (40 correct answers from 60 questions for GC exams. Candidates attaining 90% or more achieve a Distinction pass and 80 - 89% achieves a Credit pass.
# In development
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The full list of sections in the GCSP syllabus is as follows:-
1. An overview of spirits types and their packaging. 2. Filtered spirits production, storage and handling. 3. Ready to Drink (RTD) preparation and packaging. 4. Glass bottles and associated packaging materials. 5. The glass bottle line. 6. Bottle inspection, plant and packaging materials preparation, and on-line checks. 7. Labelling and coding. 8. The measurement and reporting of packaging performance. 9. Warehousing. 10. Spirit quality and process control for packaging. 11. Spirit quality – Sensory 12. Legislation and the packaging of spirits 13. Spirits quality – Contamination and microbiological infection. 14. Quality management. 15. Plant cleaning – Detergents and sterilising agents. 16. Plant cleaning – Cleaning in-place (CIP) and general cleaning. 17. Engineering maintenance. 18. Utilities – Water and effluent in packaging. 19. Utilities – Process gases. 20. Spirits packaging and the environment.
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Syllabus Section 1: An overview of spirits types and their packaging.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 2) 1.1 Definition of 1. A generic, non-legalistic definition of distilled spirit spirits and types in terms of its typical ingredients and methods of of spirit production.
2. Characteristics which differentiate white spirits, brown spirit and flavoured spirits.
1.2 Definition of 1. The definition of packaging in terms of its aims to packaging meet the needs of the packager, customers, consumers, and typical regulatory requirements. Package types 2. The concept of due diligence to ensure consumer safety.
3. A general knowledge of different types of packaging containers and their suitability to meet differing market conditions.
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Syllabus section 2: Filtered spirits production, storage and handling.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 2.1 Spirit filtration 1. The purposes of spirits filtration.
2. The basic principles of spirits filtration.
2.2 Transfer of 1. A working knowledge of the key operational filtered spirits and procedures. spirits handling 2. Basic design features of plant and pipe work (not cleaning).
3. Significance of control of liquid and cost / health and safety aspect of spillage. [Also refer to syllabus sections 12.]
4. The essential plant items from the outlet of a filter to a bright spirit tank and from the bright spirit tank to a filling machine. [A representation as a flow diagram.]
2.3 Storage 1. The purposes of storage (holding).
2. Equilibration and sampling.
3. Minimum and maximum residence times.
4. Spirit blending procedures.
5. Calculations using spirit blend parameters.
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Syllabus section 3: Ready to Drink (RTD) preparation and packaging
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 5) 3.1 RTD preparation 1. Overview of RTD - ingredients and manufacture. 2. RTD – preparation of a batch. 3. RTD Packaging. 4. Methods to avoid oxygen pick-up.
3.2 Pasteurization 1. The purposes of pasteurization.
2. A description of pasteurization and the concept of pasteurisation units (P.U.).
3. The significance of the presence of dissolved oxygen before pasteurization.
3.3 Types of 1. The principal features of plate (flash) and tunnel pasteurizers and pasteurizers. their principal features 2. The differences between tunnel and flash pasteurizers in the achievement of typical values.
3. The diagrammatic representation of the beer/container flows through the sections/zones of plate and tunnel pasteurizers, and their typical operating parameters.
3.4 Sterile filling 1. The special arrangements at the filler for sterile filling.
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Syllabus section 4 – Glass bottles and associated packaging materials.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. Of questions to be familiarity with: answered = 3) 4.1 Bottle design 1. A detailed description of the principal characteristics of a non-returnable bottle – shape, dimensions, suitability for spirits and RTD, special features, and wear and tear.
2. A simple labelled diagram of a glass bottle, including the sealed closure.
4.2 Glass bottle 1. Glass bottle manufacture manufacture 2. Characteristics of glass colours.
3. The importance of glass weight and dimensions
4. NRB permanent decoration.
5. Glass recycling and sustainability.
4.3 Associated packaging materials 1. Types of associated packaging materials and their application.
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Syllabus section 5 - The glass bottling line.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 5.1 Principal plant 1. The purposes of each plant item. items 2. The key operational features of each plant item.
3. The sequence of events for a bottling line from empties handling to finished products being discharged from the line. [A representation of a total glass line operation as a labelled flow diagram.]
5.2 Bottle filling 1. The principal operating features of filling systems. systems 2. A simple diagram of a filler.
3. Sequence of events and processes during filling.
4. A simple diagram of a bottle being filled.
5. The control of filling levels and the causes of over / under filling.
6. The use of a filling control chart system.
7. Full bottle transfer and systems to prevent spillage and loss.
8. The reasons for closure damage.
5.3 Bottle capper 1. The principal operating features of a capper and and other tolerances. closure methods 2. A simple labelled diagram of a bottle closure.
3. Other methods of closing a bottle.
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Syllabus section 6 –Bottle inspection, plant and packaging materials preparation, and on-line checks.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 4) 6.1 Empty bottle 1. The purposes of bottle rinsing and inspection. rinsing, inspection and 2. Checking the effectiveness of inspection and reject full bottle systems. inspection 3. The purpose of full bottle checks
4. The importance of record keeping.
5. Dealing with complaints.
6. The implications of local and national legislation.
6.2 Preparation of 1. The procedures and checks carried out on a glass plant and bottling line before production (including utilities). packaging materials. 2. Incoming quality control, on-line checks and processes carried out on a bottle prior to filling.
3. Incoming quality control, on-line checks and processes carried out on packaging materials
4. The procedures for size, spirit type and package changes.
6.3 On line checks 1. The purposes of on-line checks during filling, and record sampling and record keeping. keeping 2. A qualitative working knowledge of all on-line production checks and recording of information for a glass bottling line.
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Syllabus section 7: Labelling and coding.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 1) 7.1 Labelling and 1. The purposes of labelling and coding. coding 2. The reasons for bar coding and radio frequency tracking devices.
3. Locations on containers and final packages for coding information.
4. The importance of record keeping.
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Syllabus section 8: The measurement and reporting of packaging performance.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 8.1 Efficiency 1. The purposes of efficiency reporting. reporting 2. Typical efficiency calculations and the analysis of data. [Candidates will be presented with data to carry out typical calculations of performance indicators.]
3. A description of a typical efficiency reporting system and its use for performance improvement.
4. Visual performance measurement (VPM).
8.2 The “V-curve” 1. Line capacity rating conventions.
2. The basic principles of a “V- curve” applied to typical packaging lines.
3. Rate limiting factors and critical processes.
4. Machine cycle times and the reasons for maintaining a packaging line in balance.
8.3 Spirit and 1. The analysis of data and basic loss calculations. packaging [Candidates will be presented with data to carry out material losses typical loss calculations.]
2. The causes and control of spirit and material losses.
3. Spirit and material losses.
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Syllabus section 9: Warehousing.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 2) 9.1 Warehouse 1. The purposes of a warehouse operation. operations and best practices 2. The handling of empty and full packages with forklift trucks or mechanical systems.
3. Reception and storage of packaging materials and pallets.
4. The reasons for stock rotation.
5. Working knowledge of a stock control system.
6. A quantitative knowledge of the environmental storage conditions for packaged spirit and materials.
9.2 Health and 1. The hazards associated with warehousing and safety typical safety procedures to help avoid them.
2. Typical housekeeping tasks.
3. The importance of pest control.
4. The importance of regular inspection checks for full
and empty stock, pallets and packaging materials.
5. Operator duties for fork lift truck operation: - inspections at the beginning of a shift. - basic FLT maintenance requirements.
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Syllabus section 10: Spirit quality and process control for packaging.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 4) 10.1 Key packaged 1. The significance of key parameters (including their beer parameters units of measure) for monitoring spirit quality.
2. Factors which can affect the values of these parameters during packaging.
10.2 Process 1. The purpose of process specifications. specifications 2. The influence of packaging processes on final package parameters.
10.3 Process control 1. The principles of monitoring and adjustment to achieve product consistency and in-package specification.
2. Pre-package nosing [see section 11].
3. Statistical quality control charts.
4. Typical specifications which differentiate spirit types.
5. Typical applications for in-line and on-line instruments for process control.
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Syllabus section 11: Spirit quality – Sensory
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 2) 11.1 Terminology 1. The reasons for adopting industry standard descriptors for the nose.
2. The flavour wheel.
3. The more commonly used components.
11.2 Evaluation and tasting during 1. Nosing profiling. processing 2. Individual’s ability to perform.
3. Common faults / contamination by contact materials that may be detected by tasting during packaging operations.
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Syllabus section 12: Legislation and the packaging of spirits
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to be familiarity with: answered = 2) 12.1 Definition of excise 1. A generic, non-legalistic definition of excise duties. tax 2. Non-specific examples of international excise systems
12.2 Excise duty in 1. Excise duty implications on the packaging line relation to distilled spirits packaging 2. Accounting for duty, importance of control of losses on the packaging line.
3. Calculation of duty returns.
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Syllabus section 13: Spirits quality – Contamination and microbiological infection.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 4) 13.1 Non- 1. Sources of contamination from: microbiological - empty containers and closures contamination of - conveying systems spirit - plant cleaning - oil and grease - water and the atmosphere.
13.2 Microbiological The principal categories of spoilage organisms relevant to contamination spirits and RTD packaging . and spoilage - their microscopic appearance organisms of - potential points of contamination in bright beer RTD or container - their respective characteristic effects on RTD in package.
13.3 Other organisms 1. Water-borne coliform ( Escherichia, Enterobacter ); indicative of contamination of 2. The implications of their presence. RTD 13.4 Detection and 1. Methods of sampling for microbiological monitoring and examination. control 2. Key sampling points.
3. Laboratory detection methods.
4. Routine practices to protect against infection.
5. Special measures to eliminate on-going sources of infection.
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Syllabus section 14: Quality management.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 14.1 Features of a 1. The key features of a quality system : quality system - written specifications - written procedures - monitoring of performance - corrective actions - auditing - regular reviews for improvement.
14.2 Roles 1. The impact of individual actions on product and responsibilities service quality. and benefits 2. The control of documentation.
3. The maintenance of conformity.
4. The business benefits of an effective quality management system.
14.3 Product safety 1. The control of product safety - Hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP)
2. The importance of traceability for product recall.
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Syllabus topic 15: Plant cleaning – Detergents and sterilizing agents.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 4) 15.1 Detergents (for 1. Types of detergent (alkali, acid and neutral). the RTD line) 2. The constituents of detergents.
3. The individual functions of the constituents.
4. Criteria for choice of detergent for an application.
5. Considerations for the use of hot detergent cleaning.
15.2 Sterilants (for the 1. Types of sterilant as defined by the active agent. RTD line) 2. Criteria for choice of sterilant for an application.
3. The effect of sterilant residues on RTD quality.
15.3 Heat sterilization
15.4 Safety 1. The hazards associated with chemical cleaning and sterilizing agents.
2. Good practices for the storage of chemicals.
3. Use of personal protective clothing.
4. Procedures in case of accidental spillage or discharge of chemicals.
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Syllabus section 16: Plant cleaning - Cleaning in-place (CIP) and general plant cleaning.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 4) 16.1 Types of CIP 1. The general differences between single use and systems recovery systems – advantages and disadvantages.
2. The types of cleaning head used and reasons for their choice.
3. The operating principles and diagrammatic representation of CIP systems.
16.2 CIP cleaning 1. Typical cleaning programs and cycle times. cycles 2. The function of each of the cleaning cycle stages.
16.3 CIP plant design 1. Design features that minimize soil accumulation in hygiene brewery vessels and pipelines. considerations 2. Design features that facilitate vessel and pipeline cleaning using a CIP system.
3. Design features which promote a hygienic working environment.
16.4 General plant 1. Cleaning plant surfaces, walls and floors. cleaning 2. The constituents of foam cleaning agents.
3. The use of foaming systems.
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Syllabus section 17: Engineering maintenance.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 17.1 Objectives and 1. The key business reasons for an effective approaches maintenance system.
2. The features, advantages, disadvantages and applications of: - no maintenance - breakdown maintenance - preventive maintenance - predictive maintenance
3. The contribution of maintenance tasks to plant safety, reliability, quality, economics and environmental impact.
17.2 Maintenance 1. A detailed description of key maintenance tasks: tasks - mechanical - electrical - calibration - inspection - condition monitoring - cleaning of plant - health and safety
2. Maintenance planning and record keeping.
3. Autonomous maintenance.
17.3 Systems for 1. The key features of the following performance continuous improvement systems: improvement - Reliability Cantered Maintenance (RCM) - Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) - Workplace Organisation (5S)
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Syllabus section 18: Utilities – Water and effluent in packaging.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 3) 18.1 Water treatments 1. The basic principles and diagrammatic representation treatment plants for: - water filtration - water sterilization - water softening / deionization - water de-aeration
18.2 Water types and 1. Differentiation and typical uses of: uses - de-aerated water - process water - service water
2. Legionella in cooling water and service water and the health risks associated with the organism.
3. Points at which water is introduced into the process and the special water quality needed at these points.
18.3 Sources of 1. The nature and characteristics of effluent from effluent and its principal packaging and bright beer room sources. measurement 2. The components of effluent quality: - volume - suspended solids (SS) - chemical oxygen demand (COD) - biological oxygen demand (BOD) - pH - temperature
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Syllabus Section 19: Utilities – Process gases.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to familiarity with: be answered = 2) 19.1 Properties and 1. The essential properties and quality of compressed applications air for use as a process gas.
2. The essential properties of carbon dioxide and nitrogen for use as process gases.
3. The significance of inertness.
4. Typical uses for process gases.
5. The economic importance of leak prevention.
19.2 Health and 1. Safe entry into tanks, cold rooms and other Safety Issues confined spaces.
2. Safe handling and storage of compressed gas cylinders.
3. Safety hazards associated with storage of liquid gases. and their distribution in high-pressure mains .
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Syllabus section 20: Spirits packaging and the environment.
Ref. Topics Candidates should understand and be able to explain and describe in simple terms, or demonstrate (No. of questions to be familiarity with: answered = 3) 20.1 Sustainability and 1. The concept of a sustainable industry. climate change 2. The role of carbon dioxide – the carbon cycle.
3. Sources of carbon dioxide emissions.
20.2 Conservation 1. The principal energy consuming activities on a packaging line.
2. Typical energy reduction strategies.
3. Principal water consuming activities.
4. Typical water conservation strategies.
20.3 Packaging waste 1. Waste generating activities and issues for disposal.
2. Strategies to minimize packaging material and encourage recycling.
3. The impact of packaging waste on household (consumer) recycling.
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