“Assessment of Plant Diversity Loss Along the Flood and Landslides Hit Areas of Nelliyampathy Forest Range, Palakkad”

Principal Investigator: Dr. V Suresh Asst. Professor, Dept. of Botany Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad

Department of Botany, Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad Kerala State Biodiversity Board January - March, 2019

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“Assessment of Plant Diversity Loss Along the Flood and Landslides Hit Areas of Nelliyampathy Forest Range, Palakkad”

Principal Investigator: Dr. V. Suresh Asst. Professor, Dept. of Botany Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad

Agency : Govt. Victoria College, Palakkad

Principal Investigator Principal Dr. V. Suresh

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Project Fellows:

1. Mrs. ADHITHYA MOHAN, Project Fellow, Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad 2. Ms. SMITHA M, Project Fellow, Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad 3. Mr. ASHIQ PP, Project Fellow, Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad 4. Mr. ANAND PP, Project Fellow, Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad 5. Mr. TIBIN THOMAS, Project Fellow, Department of Botany, Government Victoria College, Palakkad

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CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 16 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 20 2.1 STUDY SITES ...... 20 2.1.1 NELLIYAMPATHY...... 21 2.1.2 KOLLENGODE PANCHAYAT ...... 21 RESULTS ...... 28

-Plants-...... 28 3. 1 Assessment of Floral Biodiversity of Selected Areas ...... 29 3.1.1. Cherumkaadu (Aluvuseri- Nemmara) ...... 29 3.1.2. Perumal mala (Parathodu colony – Kollengode) ...... 29 3.1.3. Nelliyampathy Road side (Road side 1 to 55) ...... 29 3.1.4 Padagiri ...... 30 3.1.5 Kaikatty ...... 30 3.1.6 Cherunelli ...... 31 3.1.7 Ayiloor panchayat ...... 31 3.1.8 Kayaradi ...... 31 3.1.9 Brookland ...... 31 3.1.10 Marappalam ...... 32 3.1.11 Sooryapara ,Chandramala...... 32 3.1.12 Elavanchery ...... 32 3.1.13 Kundrachola , seetharkund ...... 32 -Animals- ...... 162 3.2 Assessment of Faunal Biodiversity of selected areas ...... 163 3.2.1 Nelliyampathy Roadsides ...... 163 3.2.2 Ayyappan Thittu ...... 163 3.2.3. Kaikatty ...... 163 3.2.4 Padagiri ...... 163 3.2.5 Marappalam ...... 164 3.2.6 Cherunelli ...... 164 3.2.7 Nelliyampathy Forest Roadsides 1 to 55 ...... 164 3.2.8 Cherumkaadu (Aluvuseri- Nemmara) ...... 165 3.2.9 Perumal mala (Parathodu colony – Kollengode) ...... 165 3.2.10 Brookeland And Alexandria ...... 165 3.2.11 Vazhakkund ...... 166 3.2.12 Ayiloor Panchayat ...... 166 Page | 4

3.2.13 Kayaradi- Ayalamudichi ...... 166 3.2.14 Elavancherry ...... 167 3.2.15 Sooryapara and Chandramala ...... 167 3.2.16 Seetharkund ...... 167 3.2.17 Kundrachola ...... 167 4. BASELINE DATA ...... 226 4.1 BMC REPORT OF NELLIYAMPATHY ...... 251 4.2 BMC REPORT OF AYILOOR ...... 252 4.3 BMC REPORT OF NEMMARA ...... 252 5. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION ...... 258 5.1 Ambiguities in the study ...... 262 6. REFERENCES...... 265 CONTRIBUTORS AND AKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 269 Plates ...... 271 Index of Generic Names ...... 272

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List of Tables Table 1 Phytodiversity of Cherumkaadu- (Aluvuseri, Nemmara Panchayat) 34 Table 2 Phytodiversity of Perumal Mala – Parathodu Colony -Kollengode 36 Table 3 Phytodiversity of Padagiri -Nelliyampathy Forest Range, Road side 37 Table 4: Phytodiversity of Kaikatty, Nelliyampathy Forest Range 38 Table 5: Phytodiversity of Nelliyampathy Road Sides in different sample lcations (Q1) 39 Table 6 Phytodiversity of Vazhakkund – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 47 Table 7 Phytodiversity of Ayiloor Panchayat 49 Table 8 Phytodiversity of Ayalamudichi – Kayaradi 51 Table 9 Phytodiversity of Brookland – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 53 Table 10 Phytodiversity of Alaxandria – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 54 Table 11 Phytodiversity of Marappalam – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 54 Table 12 Phytodiversity of Ayyappanthitte - Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 55 Table 13 Phytodiversity of Cherunelli - Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 56 Table 14 Phytodiversity of Elavancherry 56 Table 15 Phytodiversity of Soorymapara – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 57 Table 16 Phytodiversity of Chandramala – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 58 Table 17 Phytodiversity of Seetharkund – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 60 Table 18 Phytodiversity of Kundrachola – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 61 Table 19 IVI of Plants in Cherumkade (Aluvuseri- Nemmara) 67 Table 20 IVI of Plants in Perumal mala, Parathodu colony – Kollengodu 70 Table 21 IVI of Plants in Alexandria - Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 72 Table 22 IVI of Plants in Ayiloor Panchayat 72 Table 23 IVI of Plants in Kayaradi – Ayalamudichi 74 Table 24 IVI of Plants in Brookland – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 75 Table 25 IVI of Plants in Ayyappan Thitte - Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 78 Table 26 IVI of Plants in Kaikatty -Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 79 Table 27 IVI of Plants in Padagiri - Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 80 Table 28 IVI of Plants in Marappalam 81 Table 29 IVI of Plants in Cherunelli 81 Table 30 IVI of Plants in Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road sides 82 Table 31 IVI of Plants in Elavancherry 113 Table 32 IVI of Plants in Sooryampara – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 114 Table 33 IVI of Plants in Chandramala – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 115 Table 34 IVI of Plants In Vazhakkund – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 118 Table 35 IVI of Plants in Seetharkunde – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 121 Table 36 IVI of Plants in Kundrachola – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 123 Table 37 Representing the list of trees destroyed by landslides in different study sites with special reference to GPS coordinates. 142 Table 38 Showing the details of plants destroyed in various study sites. 149 Table 39 No: of species in each plant group 150 Table 40 No: of Species in each plant family 151 Table 41 No: of plant species observed in selected localities 156 Table 42 Conservation status of plants. 160 Table 43 Coordinates of Cherumkade 169 Table 44 Animal Diversity in Cherumkkad- Aluvuseri, Nemmara Panchayat 169 Table 45 Coordinates in Perumal mala 173 Table 46 Faunal Diversity of Perumal mala – Parathodu colony, Kollengode Panchayat 173

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Table 47 Coordinates in Nelliyampathy Road sides, Cherunelli, Kaikkatty, Ayyappanthitte, Marappalam & Padagiri 174 Table 48 Faunal Diversity of Ayyappan Thitte – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 179 Table 49 Faunal Diversity of Kaikatty – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 180 Table 50 Faunal Diversity of Padagiri – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 181 Table 51 Faunal Diversity of Marappalam – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 181 Table 52 Faunal Diversity of Nelliyampathy ROAD SIDE – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 182 Table 53 Faunal Diversity of Cherunnelli – Nelliyampathy Forest Range Road side 188 Table 54 Coordinates of Sites in Brookland & Alexandria – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 188 Table 55 Faunal Diversity of Brokland & Alexandria 189 Table 56 Coordinates in Vazhakkund - Nelliyampathy 191 Table 57 Faunal Diversity of Vazhakkund – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 192 Table 58 Ayiloor Panchayat - Thekkekulambu, Manaloor – Chella&Pooncheri - Kalchadi 196 Table 59 Faunal Diversity of Ayiloor - Thekkekulambu 197 Table 60 Faunal Diversity of Manaloor – Chella (Ayiloor Panchayat) 198 Table 61 Faunal Diversity of Pooncheri – Kalchadi (Ayiloor Panchayat) 198 Table 62 Coordinates in Kayaradi – Ayalamudichi 200 Table 63 Faunal Diversity of Ayalamudichi - Kayaradi 200 Table 64 Coordinates in Elavancherry 202 Table 65 Faunal Diversity of Elavancherry 202 Table 66 Coordinates in Sooryapara & Chandramala - Nelliyampathy Forest Range 203 Table 67 Faunal Diversity of Sooryapara – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 204 Table 68 Faunal Diversity of Chandramala – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 205 Table 69 Coordinates In Seetharkunde – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 207 Table 70 Faunal Diversity of Seetharkund - Nelliyampathy Forest Range 208 Table 71 Coordinates in Kundrachola – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 209 Table 72 Faunal Diversity of Kundrachola – Nelliyampathy Forest Range 211 Table 73 Showing the destruction rate of animals in Nelliyampathy. 214 Table 74 Number of species in each faunal group 214 Table 75 No: of Families in each faunal group 215 Table 76 No: of species in each faunal family 216 Table 77 No: of Faunal species observed in selected localities 219 Table 78 Conservation status of fauna 223 Table 79 The complete list of plants recorded by the previous research report 228 Table 80 The base line data collected from Nelliyampathy region over a period of one year. 231 Table 81 The mammals previously recorded from the Nelliyampathy forest range 239 Table 82 Commonly found fauna in the region and the recorded fauna in Biodiversity Register of Nelliyampathi 241 Table 83 The details of the flora found in Nemmara People’s Biodiversity Register are given in the table below. 242 Table 84 showing the details of the herbarium collected from Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur. 246 Table 85 Showing the details of plants destroyed in Ayiloor as per PBR. 253 Table 86 Details of fauna affected during the landslide as per PBR 254 Table 87 Showing the details of plants with rate of destruction in Nemmara as per PBR. 254 Table 88 Showing the details of animals with destruction rate in Nemmara. 255

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Chapter 1

Introduction

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1. INTRODUCTION

Nearly half of the forest cover on the globe is tropical forests and the remaining are boreal and temperate forests. Tropical forests are very rich in biodiversity and there is a huge concern over their destruction, both natural and human induced (George Mathew et al 1998).

The Western Ghats encompassing the forests of Kerala is one of the 34 Biodiversity hotspots in the World and Kerala has close to 90% of its vertebrate fauna. Very high levels of species diversity and endemism provide importance to the faunal wealth of Kerala.

GROUP NO. OF SPECIES Mammals 145 Birds 486 Reptiles 164 Amphibians 85 Freshwater Fishes 196 Insects 4027 Source: Kerala Forest Department

Out of the 3800 angiosperms occurring in Kerala, 1272 species are endemic which is 33.5% of its Flora. Nelliyampathy hills, a biodiversity diversity rich area, harbours diverse habitats borders the southern part of Western Ghats to Palakkad Gap, spread over an area of 285 Km² (Vijayakumar et al. 2015). Recently, a number of plant species new to science has been reported from this area (Jose et al. 2015, Prabhukumaret al. 2016, Soumya et al. 2017, Kumar et al. 2018). Floristic literature reports on Nelliyampathy emphasize that that many plant species were endemic to this area. Natural calamities are one of the major reasons for the biodiversity loss and species extinction (Hallam and Hallam 2005, Brook et al. 2008). Though man made calamities like forest fires and habitat destruction is claiming the existence of a large number of species and hastens biodiversity loss (Lande 1998), natural calamities like volcanos, flood and landslides contributes much to the same and also accelerates the biodiversity loss.

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The TIMES OF INDIA on August 30, 2018 reported that over 52% of Kerala’s land area is covered by forests. And while the impact of the recent floods and landslides on these forests has not yet been studied, it is likely to become a concern in the future.

THE HINDU Newspaper on September 12, 2018 reported that the scientists in the state are planning to assess the impact of floods on different areas of Kerala. One of the project components of the Council of Scientists involves a study on the impact of the floods on the forest, aquatic and agro-biodiversity and their role in climate change adaptation.

The online news portal FIRST POST reported on August 30 that “The month of August and September saw one of the worst rains in Kerala since 1924 which have left many dead and rendered thousands of people homeless. The floods in Kerala have taken a toll on the state’s fauna. Several wild animals died and forest lands suffered extensive damage as landslides and flash floods struck various parts of the state.” The heavy rain caused severe landslides and several trees were uprooted inside the forests of the state. Bridges such as the Kundrachola in the Nelliyampathy Road were washed away by the flood water. The Nelliyampathy Forest Range is also one of the worst hit areas in the flood which showed heavy destruction of roads and high number of landslides. While the damage caused by landslides were recorded in the outskirts of the forest, the damage inside the forest is yet to be assessed which is of greater extend. Thus, a detailed documentation of the biodiversity, fauna and flora, in the landslides hit areas of the forest range of Nelliyampathy, both inside the forest and adjoining areas becomes a necessity to address the issue in larger scale.

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The present study focuses on the documentation of both flora and fauna in the landslide hit areas of Nelliyampathy Roadsides and affected areas in Kollengode Panchayat. The above image shows the various locations where current study hs been carried out.

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Chapter 2

Materials & Methods

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2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was carried out in the flood and landslides hit areas of Nelliyampathy Forest Range and adjacent Panchayat. To document the distribution of fauna, transect methods were used. In the forest areas, walking transect was used where animal taxa encountered were noted down along with the GPS coordinates including Latitude, Longitude and Altitude. Line transect was taken between the two ends of the affected area and the sightings were noted down. In the Roadsides, walking transect was applied and the sightings were recorded. The most abundant animal taxon was recorded by repeated encounters.

To document the floral diversity and distribution, quadrat method was used with a frame size of 10m X 10m and the occurrence of plants were recorded using Importance Value Index (IVI). The GPS coordinates including Latitude, Longitude and Altitude were recorded for each quadrat. The IVI calculated for the invasive plants and native plants in the respective quadrats were compared and analyzed. Line transect method was applied to document the surviving plants.

For both fauna and Flora, photo documentation was done. Plant specimens were collected from the sight for observation and Identification was done later in the laboratory using keys and photos taken. Further identification was done by consulting taxonomic experts.

2.1 STUDY SITES The Western Ghats which is the most imposing, but extremely threatened topographical, floristic and faunistic feature of the Indian sub-continent, is one of the 18 biodiversity hotspots of the world spread over an area of 175,000 Sq. km in six States, this mountain range extends more or less parallel to the west coast of Indian Peninsula from Kerala to Gujarat traversing a length of about 1600 km. Parts of this mountain range are also present In Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra (George Mathew et.al, 1998).

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The present study was carried out at different locations of Nelliyampathy Forest range and in the adjacent areas of Kollengode Panchayath in the light of the Flood and landslides that happened as a result of the heavy downpour of August and September, 2018 which resulted in the heavy damage all over the state of Kerala, India.

2.1.1 NELLIYAMPATHY The Nelliyampathy forest which comes under the Nemmara Forest Division is located between 10º 20' and 10º 48' North latitudes and 76º 30' and 76º 55' longitudes (Viswanathan. 1958). The forest areas are hilly and the altitude of the hills range from 40 m to 1530 m, the highest being the padagiri ridge (1530 m). The study area selected include the Nelliyampathy roadsides from Kaikatty region down to Paadagiri and the lower altitudes. The altitude of the study site ranges from 562 m to 940 m.

2.1.2 KOLLENGODE PANCHAYAT Kollengode panchayat covers a total area of about 49.33 km² with a population density of 574 (Census data 2001). The mountain slopes in the North of Nelliyampathy range is in the Kollengode Panchayat. The landslide hit areas of Kollengode Panchayat covering the Nelliyamapthy Forest Range include Perumal Mala (Parathodu colony) and Cherumkaadu region. The Altitude of the Perumal Mala region ranges from 74 m to 176 m whereas the Altitude of Cherumkadu region ranges from 84 m to 111 m. Both areas were greatly affected by the landslides and suffered greater damage to both Flora and Fauna.

The detailed satellite map of study areas using google earth imagery has been depicted below.

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Chapter 3

RESULTS -Plants-

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3. OBSERVATION

The flora and fauna of Nelliyampathy Road side and Kollengode region were studied and recorded. The regions showed biodiversity loss and high rate of secondary succession. Native species were greatly affected and the number of invasive species are gradually rising.

3. 1 Assessment of Floral Biodiversity of Selected Areas 3.1.1. Cherumkaadu (Aluvuseri- Nemmara) During the flood, the Cherumkaadu (Nemmara Panchayat) region suffered huge landslides and about 10 people lost their life. The clear evidence of the landslides can be seen and the remnants of the effect can still visible in cherumkadu region. For biodiversity loss analysis, the entire area was investigated and maximum details collected for the flora. The area was previously a rubber plantation but the landslides filled the area with debris of rocks and sand. Many rubber trees were destroyed and the remnants were seen. The plants were noted down and photographs were taken. After taking the respective altitude, latitude and longitude of the area the plants were recorded. Some of the major plants seen in that locality are Hydrolea zeylanica, Ammannia baccifera, Scoparia dulcis, Heliotropium indicum, Ludwigia hyssopifolia, Oldenlandia corymbosa. The major invasive plants are, Pennisetum polystachyon, Chromolaena odorata, Mikania micrantha , Lantana camara, Mimosa pudica, etc.. 3.1.2. Perumal mala (Parathodu colony – Kollengode)

The Perumal mala, Parathodu Colony (Kollengode Panchayat) was greatly affected by landslide. A major portion of the area was destroyed which was inhabited by different types of plants. Huge trees were destroyed during the calamity. Invasive species such as Mimosa pudica, Mimosa diplotricha, Chromolaena odorata, Mikania scandens, Mikania micrantha were noted.

3.1.3. Nelliyampathy Road side (Road side 1 to 55)

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The present study involves fivety five major regions of Nelliyampathy forest range greatly affected by landslides which are found in the roadsides. Each of these roadsides were once rich in biodiversity of plants, but now they are almost barren terrain filled with rocks and soil. Many trees were destroyed during landslides and their remains can still be seen in the road sides of Nelliyampathy. It was found that large number of plants were destroyed in the regions. Plants observed in the region were noted down along with their respective GPS location including Latitude, Longitude and Altitude. Photographs were also taken. Many large trees were destroyed during the calamity and their data were also collected. The major plants found in Nelliyampathy Road sides are Dillenia pentagyna, Trema orientalis, Persicaria chinensis, Stachytarpheta indica, Bridelia retusa, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Xylia xylocarpa, Solanum torvum, Mallotus tetracoccus. The invasive plants found in the area are Mikania scandens, Mikania micrantha, Ageratum conyzoides and Chromolaena odorata. Macaranga peltata seem to be raising in these regions, since it is a native plant it shows a competence hike among other exotic plant species. Trema orientalis is high in number. Musa acuminata were noticed there which were not found early in this areas. It is considered as the parent plant of existing hybrid plant varieties of musa which is commercially useful. Trema orientalis is an exotic plant which is widely distributed in all nelliyampathy road side areas. It shows its competence among native plants.

3.1.4 Padagiri In this area about 23 plants data was collected. It is the area which need to be conserved because of the presence of some important plant species. As per IUCN data, Arenga wightii which is considered as vulnerable was found in padagiri. Two plants Strobilanthes ciliates and Strobilanthes barbatus which rare among plant popoulation were noticed in this area. Begonia floccifera were six in number among these areas.

3.1.5 Kaikatty

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Exotic plants like pennisetum polystyachyon and synedrella nudiflora was common among these areas. Ivi index of plant is high.

3.1.6 Cherunelli Cherunelli region which was previously coffee plantations. The landslides destroyed the coffee plantations and now contain remains of uprooted trees. Many Invasive species are seen in all these regions. Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens, Chromolaenaodorata, Ageratum conyzoides are common

3.1.7 Ayiloor panchayat

The study areas of this panchayat include Thekkekulambu, Poocheri, Manaloor chella. In thekkekulambu it was the area of least destruction but the emerging plants are of diverse range. Trema orientalis was common among the invasive plants. And some shruby trema was noticed there. Ziziphus oenoplia, Orthosiphon thymiflorus, Tragia praetervisa ,Potulaca oleracea was the native plants inhabiting there.

In pooncheri stereospermum colais was noticed, it is one of the medicinal plants in kerala. In manaloor chella about seven number of mallotus philippensis was noticed. Chromolaena odorata & Mikania micrantha was more in this area .

3.1.8 Kayaradi

This is a wide area of destruction; high rocky remnants of landslide were noticed and it suspected that a high destruction existed plants in that area. Chromolaena odorata, Pennisetum polystachyon was more in number two Cycas revoluta was noticed.

3.1.9 Brookland This is the most destructed area ,where lot of destructed tree remnants was noticed there . many lauracea family members was noticed one of them is Litsea wightiana .Drymaria cordata, Persicaria chinensis was common among all GPS location study

Page | 31 area.Mikania mikaratha Mikania scandens ,Ageratum conyzoides are the exotic species found ,among that most common is ageratum .

3.1.10 Marappalam Mikania micrantha was the common exotic plant avail there. Other native plants are Cipadessa baccifera,Macaranga peltata, Bridelia retusa etc were found.

3.1.11 Sooryapara ,Chandramala. The landslides caused major damages to the Coffee plantations there. Many Coffee tress were destroyed during the landslides and the remainings of some of them are clearly visible in that area. Many invasive plants are found in those areas, that are Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens, Chromolaena odorata, Ageratum conizoides etc The landslides were not caused much damages to Meera Flores.Most of the areas in Chandramala are filled with Tea plantations. For the analysis of the biodiversity loss we have reached to the landslides affected areas in Chandramala. Many numbers of Tea plants were destroyed when landslides hit. Trees like silver oak were also found destroyed in the landslides affected areas. Interestingly majority of the landslides affected area contains invasive species like Mikania scandens, Mikania micrantha, Ageratum Conizoides, Chromolaena odorata, etc. Lepianthes umbellata, Oxalis corniculata, Blumea belangeriana, Justicia diffusa, Cynodon dactylon, Camellia sinensis,drymaria cordata,Grevilea robusta was the common plants.cardamine hirsuta ,Coronopus didymus,piper nigrum etc are less in number. Riccardia scabra was 12 in number in chandramala,

3.1.12 Elavanchery The area contains trees such as Tectona grandis, Mallotus philippensis, Wrightia tintoria, Azadirachta indica etc.Invasive plants are also found in those areas which are Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens,Chromolaena odorata,Lantana camara.Out of which Chromolaena odorata is found dominant In Minukkaserry area.

3.1.13 Kundrachola , seetharkund Page | 32

The Seetharkund region was faced many damages with respect to biodiversity. Both flora and fauna were found to be largely affected. area. For the proper analysis of the biodiversity loss, we have divided the area into different quadrates and noted down the respective Altitude, longitude and latitudes. A portion of the entire area was found to be largely affected by the landslides. The holotype of the Premna species were found previously in the Seetharkund region but after the landslide the entire plant was destroyed and now the broken remnants of the plant could see there. The native flora was destroyed but the presence of the invasive species still visible there. Invasive plants like Mikania micrantha,Mikania scandens, Ageratum conizoides were observed in the region. Many pteridophytes can be seen in that locality. Caryota urens, Arenga wighitti, Polygonum chinensis, Trema orientalis, Debregeasia longifolia , Vitex altissima , Erythrenia varigata are the major plants found in the Seetharkund region. Vitex altissima and Erythrenia varigata were found destroyed there.

During the flood, huge landslides were happened in the Kundracola region. The road that connecting the Nelliyampathy from the other palakkad regions were destroyed during the flood, so the entire Nelliyampathy region was isolated. The reconstruction work was still going in the Kundracola region. For our study we have reached to the origin were the landslide happened and the respective coordinates were noted down. For the proper analysis of the biodiversity loss, we have divided the area into different quadrates. Each of the quadrates were studied and the respective plants and animals was noted down. The area was filled with many invasive plants like Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens, Ageratum conizoides,Chromolaena odorata. Each of the quadrates were studied was filled with many invasive plants most of them were Mikania species. Many pteridophytes and other plants like Arenga wighitti, Leucas aspera,Leucas chinensis,Calamus, Caryota urens, Peperomia pellucida , Macaranga peltata, Debregeasia longifolia, Trema orientalis etc were found.

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Chapter 3

-Animals-

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3.2 Assessment of Faunal Biodiversity of selected areas

By using the transect line sampling method for fauna in Cherumkaadu (Aluvuseri - Nemmara), Perumal mala (Parathodu colony - Kollengode) Kaikatty, Padagiri, Cherunelli and five different localities of Nelliyampathy Roadsides, it was observed that class Insecta dominated over other animal taxa. Among the class Insecta, Order Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) showed greater diversity.

3.2.1 Nelliyampathy Roadsides Nelliyampathy Roadsides were greatly affected in the flood and the roadsides were destroyed by landslides. Huge rocks blocked the connection from high altitude region with the lower areas and the roads were completely washed away in many sights. In addition to the five major areas of Nelliyampathy Roadsides including Ayyappan Thittu, Kaikatty, Padagiri, Marappalam and Cherunelli, there were 55 small damaged areas along the roadsides.

3.2.2 Ayyappan Thittu In Ayyappan Thittu region, a total of 13 species of butterflies (Lepidoptera), one species of odonate and three species of birds were observed. In Lepidoptera, 6 species were found under the family Nymphalidae followed by 4 species from Pieridae, two species from Papilionidae and one species from Lycaenidae. The common Ground Skimmer dragonfly was also found. The vulnerable Great Hornbill was also observed in the region.

3.2.3. Kaikatty In the region, a total of 14 species of butterflies, one species of Erebidae moth and a black hooded oriole was found. Nymphalidae was dominant in the region followed by Pieridae. Papilionidae, Lycaenidae and Erebidae were each represented by one species.

3.2.4 Padagiri In the Padagiri region, the endangered Macaca Silenus and five species of butterflies were recorded. Pieridae and Nymphalidae were represented by two species each and one species of swallowtail was noted.

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3.2.5 Marappalam The region showed a diversity of two species of Lepidoptera and two species of birds. Common rose butterfly and Marbled White Moth represented Lepidoptera whereas Red Whiskered Bulbul and Black drongo represented Aves.

3.2.6 Cherunelli In Cherunelli region, four species of Lepidoptera were observed containing two species of Pieridae and each species of Nymphalidae and Papilionidae.

3.2.7 Nelliyampathy Forest Roadsides 1 to 55 The Nelliyampathy forest range faced greater damage due to landslides. Many regions of road sides were destroyed. Fifty-five different regions of Nelliyampathy road sides were investigated for biodiversity loss.

The Nelliyampathy Roadsides showed 55 regions of affected sides that suffered landslides and damage. The whole region showed a total of 41 species of Lepidoptera belonging to six families, 33 species of birds belonging to 18 families, 7 species of Odonates from three families, four species of Hymenoptera, four species of Mammals, three species of Hemiptera, two species of Orthoptera, and each species from Arachnidae, Mantodea and Coleoptera and Reptilia. Among the Mammals, the endangered Lion Tailed Macaque (Macaca Silenus), Vulnerable Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecusjohnii), Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata) and Malabar Giant Squirrel (Ratufaindica) were observed among which Malabar Giant Squirrel Showed highest diversity. Among Lepidoptera the highest species were observed under family Nymphalidae with 17 members followed by 8 members under Pieridae, 7 members each under Papilionidae and Lycaenidae followed by one species in each of Hesperidae and Erebidae. Tiny Grass blue (Zizulahylax) butterfly showed the highest number of sightings followed by Psyche (Leptosianina), Dark Grass Blue (Zizeeriakarsandra), Common Albatross (Appiasalbina) and Chocolate Pansy (Junoniaiphita). Among birds, the families Pycnonotidae and Muscicapidae showed the highest diversity with five species each followed by four species under Dicruridae. The vulnerable Great Hornbill (Bucerosbicornis) was also observed. White Cheecked Barbet (Megalaimaviridis) showed the highest number of sightings of all the birds.

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3.2.8 Cherumkaadu (Aluvuseri- Nemmara) During flood, the Cherumkaadu (Aluvasseri, Nemmara Panchayat) region faced huge landslides and people lost their life. The entire area was destroyed by landslides. The Cherumkadu area was divided into five major regions for biodiversity assessment. Among the five regions, one region is a marshy wetland region containing high biodiversity compared to other regions. In Cherumkade, a total of eight species of Odonates (Dragonflies) from Libellulidae family, 10 species of Hymenopterans (Bees and wasps), four species of Orthopterans (Grasshoppers and Crickets) under Acrididae family, 32 species of Lepidopterans (Butterflies), One species of Coleopteran (Beetle), two species of Reptiles and seven species of Birds were recorded. Among Hymenoptera, Apidae and Formicidae groups were well dominant over the others. The invasive species Anoplolepisgracilipes was found in all regions of Cherumkaadu locality. By analyzing the diversity of Lepidoptera, 13 species were found under Nymphalidae, eight species under Lycaenidae, six species under Pieridae and five species found under Papilionidae family. Interestingly, the birds usually found in wetland habitat were seen in Cherumkadu locality, which include Asian openbill, White breasted waterhen and Red wattled lapwing. Birds such as Blue-tailed bee-eater, White cheeked barbet, Coppersmith barbet and Black hooded oriole were also found in Cherumkadu region.

3.2.9 Perumal mala (Parathodu colony – Kollengode)

The Perumal mala region (Parathodu colony-Kollengode Panchayath), is a portion of Nelliyampathy forest range which is completely destroyed by landslides. For biodiversity documentation, the affected area was divided into five different regions and data was collected. Totally 12 species of butterflies (Nymphalidae and Papilionidae were the dominant family) and three species of birds were recorded in that particular area, among which one species of invasive ant Anoplolepisgracilipeswas also found.

3.2.10 Brookeland And Alexandria In the region, a total of 11 species of butterflies, 7 species of Odonata, 5 species of birds and one species each in Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Hemiptera were observed.

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Indian Rat Snake and Malabar Giant Squirrel (Ratufaindica) were also recorded. In Lepidoptera, seven species belonging to Nymphalidae, three species in Lycaenidae and one species under Papilionidae were seen with Chocolate Pansy (Junoniaiphita) and Lemon Pansy (Junoniahierta) dominating the area. Among Odonates, Scarlet Marsh Hawk (Aethriamantabrevipennis), Rusty Darner (Anaciaeschnajaspidea) and Blue Tailed Forest Hawk (Orthetrumtriangulare) were dominant. Birds include Crested Hawk Eagle, Blue Capped Rock Thrush and Oriental White Eye.

3.2.11 Vazhakkund In this region, 29 species of Lepidoptera belonging to six families, 9 species of Odonates belonging to three families, 7 species of Hymenoptera, three species of Aves, 5 species of Orthoptera, three species of Hemiptera, two species of Diptera and each species of Coleptera, Arachnidae, Reptilia and Mammalia were observed. Among Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae showed the highest number followed by Papilionidae and Pieridae.Four species of from family Libellulidae, three from Calopterygidae and one species from Coenogerionidae was seen. The birds include Mountain Imperial Pegion, Indian Pond Heron and Racket Tailed Drongo and the rodent Indian Palm Squirrel were also seen.

3.2.12 Ayiloor Panchayat Three regions namely Thekkekulambu, Manaloor-Chella and Pooncheri-Kalcheri were landslide hit areas. In Thekkekulambu, a total of 15 species of butterflies with the highest number of species under Nymphalidae followed by 4 species under Pieridae were recorded. The common Ground Skimmer Dragonfly was also seen.

In Manaloor-Chella region, a total of 8 species of Lepidoptera, Malabar Giant Squirrel and Milvus migrans were observed. Pooncheri-Kalchai region showed a diversity of 7 species of Aves, 6 species of Lepidoptera, Ground Skimmer Dragonfly and Ratufaindicawere observed. Birds include Black kite, Rose ringed parakeet, White throated kingfisher, Common flameback.

3.2.13 Kayaradi- Ayalamudichi The region showed a total of 11 species of Lepidoptera, 5 species of birds and two species of Odonates. Nymphalidae showed the highest diversity followed by Pieridae and Page | 166 papilionidae. Birds include Chest nut Headed Bee-eater, Yellow Browed Bulbul and White Cheeked Barbet. Granite Ghost and Ground Skimmer are the two Odonates recorded.

3.2.14 Elavancherry The region showed a record of 8 species of Lepidoptera, three species of Odonates coming under family Libellulidae, two species of Aves and a species of Apidae. Papilionidae and Pieridae consisted of each species and two species of Nymphalidae were seen. Birds observed were White Cheeked Barbet and Racket Tailed Drongo.

3.2.15 Sooryapara and Chandramala Sooryapara showed a total of 15 species of Lepidoptera, two species of Aves and one species each from Odonata and Hymenoptera. Nymphalidae showed the highest diversity with 6 species in Lepidoptera followed by Pieridae with four species. The swallowtail butterfly paris peacock was seen and the birds observed were White Cheeked Barbet and Flame Throated Bulbul. In Chandramala region a total of 8 species of Lepidoptera belonging to three families, 8 species of Aves and 8 species of Odonates belonging to three families were recorded. Among butterflies, Psyche, Tiny Grass Blue and Chocolate pansy showed highest diversity and among Odonates, Blue Grass Dart and ground Skimmer were higher. Birds include Spotted Dove, Little Cormorant and White Cheeked Barbet.

3.2.16 Seetharkund The region showed a total of 8 species of Lepidoptera, 6 species of Aves, four species of Odonata and the flying mammal, Fruit Bat. Among Lepidoptera, Nymphalidae showed the highest diversity whereas in Odonates, Blue darner was frequently observed. The birds observed in the region include Orange Minivet, Gray Wagtail and Red Whiskered Bulbul.

3.2.17 Kundrachola The Kundrachola region is one of the worst hit areas during the landslide. It showed a greater destruction and the bridge was almost washed away by the water. The region is barren and shows high humidity. The affected area stretches from the mountaintop to the bottom. The area shows a total of 14 species of Odonates, 10 species of Lepidoptera, four

Page | 167 species of Aves, three species of Hemiptera, two species of Coleoptera and two species of Mammals. Among Lepidoptera, Common Bush Brown, Three Spot Grass Yellow and Southern Birdwing showed higher diversity whereas in Odonata, Libellulidae family showed the highest diversity with 10 species including Black Stream Glider, Blue Tailed Forest Hawk and Blue Marsh Hawk. Birds include Indian Paradise Flycatcher and Indian Pond Heron. The Vulnerable Sambar Deer (Rusa unicolor) and Bonnet Macaque represented the mammals in the region.

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Conservation Status - Fauna Species 160 148

140

120 111

100

80

60

40

20 1 1 3 0 Unknown DD EN LC VU

Unknown DD EN LC VU

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Chapter 4

Baseline Data

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4. BASELINE DATA

For the preparation of the baseline data, Kerala Forest research institute, Peechi, Thrissur was visited and various research papers and project reports were studied and respective data were collected. Later by analysing the research report titled “Insect biodiversity in disturbed and undisturbed forests in the kerala parts of western ghats “by George Mathew, P. Rugmini, V.V. Sudheendra kumar, it was observed that the study was carried out at four locations in the Kerala part of Western Ghats namely Silent Valley, Nelliyampathy. Sholayar and Parambikulam. The location, vegetation types and the major reasons of disturbance in each of the sites selected for the study are discussed. The study was conducted over a period of one year. From the research report it was observed that the Nelliyampathy forest which comes under the Nemmara Forest Division is located between 10o 20' and 10o 48' North latitudes and 76o30’ and 76o 55’ longitudes. Topographically the whole area is hilly. The ghat forests are characteristically precipitous. Padagiri ridge and Kara Para Valley are the major forest bearing areas. The former runs through the northern half of the Nelliyampathy range. The altitude of the hills ranges from 40 m to 1530 m. the highest being the padagiri ridge (1530 m). The major patches of forests in this region are of the wet evergreen type and are located on the western slopes. There are several rivers that drain in to these forests which include the Kuriarkutty river, the Vethiar river and the Karapara river all of which merge to form the Chalakudy river. The top canopy is very dense and consists of Palaquium ellipticum, Calophyllum tomentosum, Mesua ferrea, Dipterocarpus indicus, Cullenia exarillata, Artocarpus hirsuta, Mangifera indica, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Holigarna arnottiana, Myristica malabarica ,Polyalthia fragrans, Vateria indica and Eugenia jambolana.In the lower canopy, Aporosa lindleyana,Canarium strictum, Hydnocarpus wightiana, Mallotus philippensis, Macaranga roxburghii, Litsea sp. and Garcinia sp. are commonly found. The under-growths consist of Antidesma sp., Calamus rotang, C. travancoricus, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Ixora sp., Laportea crenulata, Pavetta sp. etc. The ground vegetation is composed of wild arrowroot. Curcuma sp. and Strobilanthes sp.

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Epiphytes like mosses, ferns and orchids are present in large numbers. Canes are seen in the evergreen patches. Climbers like Entada scandens, Dioscorea sp. and Derris sp., are also present. By comparing the previous data with the present study in assessing the plant diversity loss along the flood and landslide hit areas of Nelliyampathy Forest range Palakkad, it was observed that the top canopy of Nelliyampathy Forest is very dense with varieties of trees. Along the roadside many landslides hit areas can be observed which was destroyed as a result of the flood that happened in August, 2018. The huge landslides destroyed everything on its the way and many trees and animals were affected too. Huge trees with great timber value were destroyed completely. Many animals died and the entire ecosystem in the landslide hit area was destroyed. The trees mentioned above in the previous report was found destroyed completely or partially. Majority of plants including large trees were destroyed by the enormous force of the landslides. Most of the Herbs and shrubs were destroyed and the number of the small organisms like odonates, butterflies, beetles and other ground dwelling organisms were greatly reduced. Some of the landslide hit areas of Nelliyampathy forest range are still not recovered fully to its normal habitable area Kundra Chola was one of the major floods affected area in Nelliyampathy forest range in which the entire area was found destroyed. The bridge connecting the high altitude and lower valley in Kundrachola was destroyed in the landslide and still the recovery work is going on. Huge amount of sand along with rocks were carried from the top which destroyed various living organism in the path. The clear evidence of biodiversity loss is still visible in those areas. But after the flood, the affected areas recover life with many small plants and animals undergo secondary succession. From the present study it was observed that the invasive plant species like Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens were found dominant over the native species. Large number of them were documented in almost all areas in which landslide hit. Some of the trees mentioned above like Mesua ferrea, Cullenia exarillata, Artocarpus hirsuta, Mangifera indica, , Hydnocarpus wightiana ,Mallotus philippensis, Macaranga roxburghii, Litsea sp. and Garcinia sp.are still seen in the affected areas. From this Macaranga roxburghii i.e.,Macaranga peltata were seen in many

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The list of plants shown in the given table represents the entire Nelliyampathy area. But the present study was mainly focused on the landslide hit areas in Nelliyampathy forest range and other places. Hence plants such as Thottea siliquosa, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cinnamomum malabaricum, Citrus sp., Cullenia exarillata, Erythrina sp., Ficus sp., Litsea floribunda, Macaranga indica, Syzygium cumini, Vernonia arborea are recorded from various regions of the study sites.

George Mathew et. al (1998) stated that the species diversity in the disturbed areas are far less than the undisturbed areas as is evident from the insect diversity data from the Nelliyampathy region. Three hundred and twelve insect species belonging to 79 families were observed in undisturbed area whereas the disturbed area account for only 119 species belonging to 53 families from the study conducted in the Nelliyampathy Forest range for a period of One year. He also states that the dry conditions with the onset of summer cause a decline in collection and that the least collection was obtained during January and February in both locations.

The study concludes that the dominant insect Orders with respect to the number of individuals in the undisturbed area were Coleoptera (55.50) and Lepidoptera (22.18) and in the disturbed area, Coleoptera (28.05), Trichoptera (26.99), Lepidoptera (20.38) and Heimiptera (16.62). Maximum number of species collected belonged to Coleoptera (35.26% in the undisturbed and 38.66% in the disturbed area). The data collected from Nelliyampathy region over a period of one year is given in the table below.

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indica, Macaranga indica, Mallotus philippensis, Schleichera oleosa, Hydnocarpus pentandra, Cinnamomum malabatrum, Ixora brachiata, Artocarpus hirsutus, Xanthophyllum Arnottianum, Lagerstroemia microcarpa..

“Ethnobotanical Studies on The Tribals of Palakkad and Malappuram Districts of Kerala ,South India” by K.Yesodharan et. al. 2010 states that the major plants utilized by tribal group in Nelliyampathy region includes Achyranthes aspera, Anacardium occidentale, Alstonia scholaris, Azadirachta indica, Calycopteris floribunda, Bridelia scandens, Cassia fistula, Chromolaena odorata, Cissampelos pariera, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cocos nucifera, Cycas circinalis, Cyclea peltata, Eucalyptus globulus, Euphorbia hirta, Ficus hispida, Ficus racemosa, Grewia tiliifolia, Helicteres isora, Hemidesmus indicus, Hyptis suaveolens, Mallotus philippensis, Mangifera indica, Naravelia zeylanica, Ocimum sanctum, Olea dioica, Phyllanthus amarus, Phyllanthus emblica, Piper longum, Psidium guajava, Scoparia dulcis, Sida acuta, Streblus asper, Strychnos nux vomica, Syzygium aromaticum, Syzygium cumini, Tectona grandis, Thottea siliquosa, Vitex altissima, Ziziphus oenoplia, Caryota urens, Bambusa bambos, Cullenia exarillata, Lantana camara, Glinus oppositifolius and Mucuna pruriens. These plants are also found in selected areas of the present study. The tree Mallotus philippensis is recorded from most of the study sites such as Kundrachola, Nelliyampathy road sides, Cherumkadu, Ayiloor, Padagiri, Alexandria, Brookland etc. Numerous Azadirachta indica were also recorded in Cherumkadu and Parathod colony.

The People’s Biodiversity Register of Nelliyampathy Panchayat includes the commonly found fauna in the region and the recorded fauna are given in the table below.

Table 82 Commonly found fauna in the region and the recorded fauna in Biodiversity Register of Nelliyampathi Sl. Binomial Name Category No 1 Potamarcha congener Odonata 2 Agriocnemis pygmaea Odonata

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4.1 BMC REPORT OF NELLIYAMPATHY

Westem Ghats, to which the forests of Kerala belong, is highly significant in view of biodiversity. It is one of the 18 'Hot Spots' identified all over world and one among the two identified within the country harbouring about 4000 flowering plants and 250 pteridophytes. Southern Western Ghats have forest areas in patches covering 12000 km² having 3900 species of flowering plants of which 1286 species arc endemic (Nayar,1996). Nelliyampathy Grama panchayat is situated in Chittur Taluk, Palakkad. During the month of june, 2018 minor landslides occured in Nelliyampathy region and it became worse by August 16. The flood affected 9 wards in Nelliyampathy Panchayat and the water rose up to 9 meter in Nooradi river. The flood caused many damages to nearby houses and shops. Many houses drowned in water and washed away by landslides. The BMC report states that In Nelliyampathy panchayat 10 wards faced damages by landslides and serious biodiversity loss were recorded. Many small plants and trees were also destroyed. Fauna such as Lepidoptera, odonates, reptiles, amphibians, mammals faced serious threats with greater damage to host plants and their habitat. About 65 plants were reported to be destroyed in Nelliyampathy forest and many plants showed high rate of destruction. The destruction of the flora in the forest region were caused by runoff, landslides, mudslides and flood. Many large trees were uprooted while small plants like grasses decayed. The landslides have caused much damages to many ground plants, majority of them have completely lost and some large trees were found destroyed. In Nelliyampathy region many large trees with timber value were found lost during the landslides. The analysis of the BMC report says that the landslides have done huge damages to forest regions than the inhabited area. The place named Brookland faced great damage and the area was completely desertified. Large number of Coffee plants were destroyed, many large trees were found fallen. Midway to Nelliyampathy forest, the place named Kundrachola faced similar damages. Large trees were destroyed and rocks were drifted off from the top and it destroyed almost everything in its path. Vazhakund region also faced serious damage by landslides. All of these areas have serious biodiversity loss

Page | 251 including all taxa of flora and fauna. Many subterranean organisms such as earthworms and millipedes disappeared as a result of heavy landslide. The insect population especially butterfly population were reported to be low because of climatic variation and most birds lost their habitat due to vegetation loss.

4.2 BMC REPORT OF AYILOOR

Ayiloor grama panchayat is located in Palakkad district. It is a local government organisation that governs the villages of Ayiloor, Kairady and Thiruvazhiyad. After the analysis of BMC report it was found that the trees were destroyed as a consequence of water run off, landslide, uprooting of trees and soil erosion. Invasive aquatic plants such as Eichornia and Pistia were also destroyed in flood. Large trees with commercial importance and timber value were found to be uprooted whereas many herbs and shrubs with medicinal importance were lost due to landslide. Soil invertebrates, birds, butterflies, reptiles and mammals were reported to be affected by landslides and flood. Among invertebrates, earthworms, crickets and Three Spot Grass Yellow butterflies were greatly affected which showed a high rate of destruction. Mammals such as the Indian Mongoose and reptiles like the Tree lizard were badly affected. Many birds lost their habitat as a result of vegetation loss and landslides. 4.3 BMC REPORT OF NEMMARA

Nemmara is a gram panchayat in the Palakkad district, state of kerala, India. It is the local government organisation that serves the villages of Nemmara and Vallanghy. Nemmara panchayat consist of 20 wards out of which 6 wards are affected by flood. The BMC of nemmara panchayat contains the details of the biodiversity loss. Detailed documentation of the major plants and animals in the nemmara panchayat which are affected by the landslides can be observed in the PBR. The plants and animals are represented with rate of destruction and the nature of destruction. Many herbs, shrubs and trees were destroyed due to landslides in Nemmara. The Cherumkadu region was one of

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Chapter 5

Discussion & Conclusion

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5. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

All 13 of the 14 districts of Kerala except the coastal district of Alappuzha are prone to landslides. About 8% (1,400 km²) of area in The Western Ghats of Kerala is classified as critical zone for mass movements (Thampi et al. 1995). The region experiences several types of landslides especially during the monsoon seasons. This includes rock falls, rock slips, slumps, creeps, debris flows and, in a few cases, rotational types of slides. The most prevalent, recurring and disastrous type of mass movements noted in Kerala are the ‘‘debris flows’’. They are called ‘‘Urul Pottal’’ in the local vernacular. The characteristic pattern of this phenomenon is the swift and sudden down slope movement of highly water saturated overburden containing a varied assemblage of debris material ranging in size from soil particles to huge boulders destroying and carrying with it everything that is lying in its path (Thampi et al. 1998). Infiltration and the resultant transient changes in the hydrological systems as proposed by van Asch et al. (1999) is the most common trigger of landslides in the region.

The Chundakkadu landslide (year 2000) was the first of its kind that occurred in the Nelliyampathy hills in the recent history. However, environmentalist groups active in the region claimed that the landslide occurred in a region deforested of hardwood tropical trees some years prior to the event. Based on the above discussions, it is evident that the physical and climatic setting of Kerala favours slope instability. Majority of mass movements in Kerala occur in hill slopes along the Western Ghats scarps, only exception being the coastal cliffs. Shallow landslides and debris flows are more common than deep seated ones. Almost all mass movements occur during monsoons indicating that the main triggering mechanism is pore pressure variations as a result of the combination of prolonged and high- intensity rainfall. Piping is also a major intrinsic contributor to landslide initiation in the region. Landslides in the past, probably confined to rainfall intensities of extreme return intervals. The intensity of landslides is observed to have increased since the population expansion in the late 19th century (Kuriakose et. al. 2009). This is accelerated by

Page | 258 anthropogenic activities such as forest clearing, deforestation, construction activities, blocking stream flow and crop cultivation in steep that lack the capacity to prevent soil erosion. This also resulted in the blocking of natural drainage that causes excess surface drainage during high intensity downpour. The expanding population and the unsustainable anthropogenic activities in the landslide prone areas especially in the Palghat gap and Nelliyampathy forest range, and the lack of data that explains the extent of damage to wildlife and vegetation in these areas urge for the implementation of a scientific as well as sustainable action plan with periodic surveys, documentation and conservatory measures to preserve the valuable biodiversity in the Nelliyampathy region

The Nelliyampathy road sides are greatly affected by landslides with fifty-five locations along the road side that are greatly affected. Many plants which were present in these habitats earlier where destroyed by the landslide. All the flood affected areas studied are abundant with many invasive plants such as Mikania micrantha, Mikania scandens, Pennisetum polystachion etc. The presence of the invasive species negatively influences the growth of native species.

Trema orientalis, an exotic species is abundantly seen in all the areas. Trema orientalis is showing secondary succession with the seedlings emerging to the shrubby stage and in course of time it is expected to flourish in these areas. Musa accuminata was noticed in N30 location which is supposed to be the parent plant of all hybrid varieties of cultivable musa. This plant is not reported earlier in Nelliyampathy.

In padagiri two endemic species were observed, Strobilanthes ciliates and Strobilanthes barbatus. In Pooncheri location of Ayiloor, a medicinal plant called Stereospermum colais commonly called as yellow snake tree was found whose parts are used as medicine for intestinal worms. Many phytochemical studies were carried in this plant because of its medicinal properties.

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In Ayiloor panchayat, numerous Tectonia grandis were destroyed across the region. In Chandramala, Sooryapara and Brookland, coffee and tea plantations were widely destroyed. Comparing with all the areas studied, the vast destruction was noticed in brookland. Many Lauraceae family members like Litsea wightiana, Alseodaphne semicarpifolia were destroyed. Many woody plants like Casuarinas equisetifolia (No: 30), Syzigium aromaticum, Holigarna arnottiana, Schleichera oleosa, Erythrina variegata, Toona ciliata, Macaranga peltata, Szygium cumini etc. were destroyed. Thirteen acres of coffee plantation and 40 eucalyptus trees were destroyed.

In seetharkund region, a type specimen which is considered as holotype of Premna paucinervis, (Lamiaceae) were found to be destroyed during the landslide. The specimen of this is first collected by Gamble and in 2013 later studies confirmed that Gamble collected the specimen from seetharkund which is now destroyed. Remnants of Premna is still in seetharkund. Macaranga peltata also shows emergence along the landslide hit areas. It is one of the native species and shows high competence rate towards other invasive species.

Important value index data Shows that the IVI index is high among plants having higher diameter compared to invasive plants that usually have lower diameter. But the current condition is that the number of invasive plants is higher compared with the plants having larger diameter. The number and diameter of a plant stands contradictory to this condition. This shows the defect of this calculation. Thus it can be concluded that the diversity can be focused on density of invasive species rather than on their respective diameter. In this perspective, the population density of invasive species is high.

The vulnerable Arecaceae plant, Arenga wightii is predominant in many sights of Kundrachola, along Nelliyampathy Roadside (Altitude range of 300-600m), padagiri and Seetharkund whereas Cleistanthus collinus was recorded along the Nelliyampathy Roadside (Altitude of 270m) and also at Kayaradi region. The vulnerable tree Dalbergia latifolia was recorded in Kaikatty, Ayiloor and also along the Nelliyampathy Roadside in the range 270-380m and euonymus angulatus was recorded from Seetharkund at a height Page | 260 of 900m. The endangered Hopea ponga was recorded at an altitude of 600 m . The vulnerable Cayratia pedata was recorded from Ayiloor and Thekkekulambu at an altitude of 80m. All these Vulnerable and endangered plants survive in the landslide hit areas of Nelliyampathy Forest range with damage. A proper documentation and revival strategy planning of these biodiversity in the damage hit areas provide a scope for conservation. A comparison of the baseline data available in the Nelliyampathy region with that of the data collected from the flood and landslide hit areas clearly shows that many plants and trees seen in these areas have been destroyed by the landslide and that many species are in a stage of succession which is seen by the number of seedlings observed. It can also be seen that many invasive species such as Mikania micrantha, M.Scandens and Chromolaena odorata showa a greater extent of emergence where once native species flourished.

Near Kundrachola region, an interesting observation was recorded in which a single Ficus racemosa tree harbored a large number of animals including Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), Macaca silenus, Grey Hornbill and Nilgiri Langur. There were two large Great Hornbill, one Grey Hornbill and Lion tailed macaques were in large numbers exceeding 20. The nearby areas were all landslide hit and were without adequate fruit trees. This must have caused these animals to compete for food in a single keystone species in large numbers. This scarcity of enough fruit plants can lead to competition and the weaker animals may starve.

Compared to other faunal groups, ground active forms are greatly affected by the landslide which is clearly visible from the reduced recordings in the affected areas. Butterflies and Odonates show higher diversity in the landslide hit areas which serves an open area for these winged animals. A total of 81 faunal families were recorded among which the Nymphalidae shows highest diversity. The highest diversity was recorded in the Aluvuseri region with 65 species followed by Vazhakkund region with 62 species.

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The beetle Sandracottus sp. belonging to family Dytiscidae, is a new report from Kundrachola region of Nelliyampathy forest range. This is the second recorded observation of this Coleoptera in Kerala. The first report of this beetle was in Silent Valley in 1979 by ZSI. The species reported from Silent Valley is Sandracottus dejeani.

Badamia exclamationis belonging to the family Hesperiidae of Lepidoptera is also not reported in the detailed insect collection of KFRI that happened back in 1996. It is also the first report from Nelliyampathy.

A comparison of baseline data collected from People’s biodiversity Register available in the respective Panchayats and previous research and scientific reports carried out in Palakkad and nelliyampathy Forest Range, it is evident that the landslide and flood greatly affected the faunal diversity and their habitat adversely. This is clearly evident from the reduced faunal diversity recorded from the landslide hit areas. Smaller mammals are greatly affected which were only rarely encountered. The ground active forms especially the beetle and other active forms whih were once abundant in the area were rarely encountered during the survey. A proper documentation and periodic survey with a view to implement revival plans is the need of the hour.

5.1 Ambiguities in the study

Since several plants are seasonal and many animals emerge occasionally during different seasons of the year, a short-term survey of the landslide hit areas will only provide a small part of the big picture. And also, the dry conditions of the period from January to March fetch less diversity due to the lack of availability of water and resources to survive. This affects the data collection since many plants and animals cannot be documented during the period. In order to get a full idea of the extent of the flood and landslide of the Nelliyampathy forest range, a year-round documentation and survey is required which can be divided into pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon survey. The data collected from these three surveys can be integrated and the diversity analysis can be used to obtain a full

Page | 262 picture of the effect of landslide on the faunal and floral diversity, and the rate of their recovery in these landslides hit areas.

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Chapter 6

References

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6. REFERENCES

A.R.R.Menon., N.Sasidharan. 2005. Biodiversity Characterization at Landscape Level Using Remote Sensing and GIS in Kerala. KFRI Research Report No. 274

Brook, B. W., N. S. Sodhi, and C. J. Bradshaw. 2008. Synergies among extinction drivers under global change. Trends in ecology & evolution 23:453-460.

George Mathew P. Rugmini V.V. Sudheendrakumar. 1998. Insect biodiversity in disturbed and undisterbed forests in the kerala parts of western ghats. KFRI Research Report 135.

Hallam, A., and T. Hallam. 2005. Catastrophes and lesser calamities: the causes of mass extinctions. Oxford University Press on Demand.

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Census data 2001

NEWSPAPER REPORTS TIMES OF INDIA, August 30, 2018 THE HINDU, September 12, 2018 FIRST POST (Online), august 30, 2018 WEBSITE KERALA FOREST DEPARTMENT- http://www.forest.kerala.gov.in/ KERALA FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, PEECHI- https://www.kfri.res.in/ INDIA BIODIVERSITY PORTAL- https://indiabiodiversity.org/ IFOUND BUTTERFLIES- http://www.ifoundbutterflies.org/ AVIBASE- https://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/ IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES- https://www.iucnredlist.org/

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CONTRIBUTORS AND AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Mrs. BINU PRAKASH P.M, CMPR, KOTTAKKAL AVS, CHANKUVETTY Mr. RAJAPPAN, PULLUKADU COLONY, NELLIYAMPATHY Dr.PRABHU KUMAR .K.M, CMPR, KOTTAKKAL AVS, CHANKUVETTY Mr. AJEESH .C, NEMMARA Mr. MOHAN DAS .S, PALAKKAD Mr. SIVADASAN, PALAKKAD Mr. SUBASH.K.M, PALAKKAD Mr. JANARDHANAN, PALAKKAD Mr. SUKESH, NOORADI, NELLIYAMPATHY Mrs. RUKMINI, MULLANKULAMBU, AYILOOR Mr. LATHIF, KAYARADI, AYILOOR Mr. ANTONY, ALEXANDRIA ESTATE, NELLIYAMPATHY Mr. SIVARAMAKRISHNA, PULINKOOTTUTHARA ,KOLLENGODE Mr. RATISH, KOTTAKURUSHI, PARATHOD COLONY MR. SAKKIR HUSSAIN KOLLENGODE

MR. KHAJA HUSSAIN KOLLENGODE MR. CHANDRAN KOLLENGODE MR. NIRMAL KUMAR, KARIM KULAM MR. VINOD, BFO, NELLIYAMPATHI MR. DIVAKARAN WATCHER NELLIYAMPATHI MR. SURESH KUMAR, ASST. PROFESSOR GOVT. COLLEGE, CHITTUR MR. SOJAN JOSE, ASST. PROFESSOR GOVT. COLLEGE, CHITTUR DR. SHYAM KUMAR, GOVT. MAHARAJAS COLLEGE, ERNAKULAM DR. KR LEENA, ASST. PROFESSOR GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE, PALAKKAD

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DR. LEEJA L, ASST. PROFESSOR GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE, PALAKKAD MR. ALEN ALEX PHILIP, ASST. PROFESSOR GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE, PALAKKAD MRS. MAYA A, RESEARCH SCHOLAR, GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE PALAKKAD

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Index of Generic Names

Bridelia · 8, 30, 32, 34, 40, 47, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 68, 74, A 78, 81, 82, 88, 92, 94, 118, 143, 144, 241 Buceros · 12, 180, 187, 261 Abelmoschus · 8, 39, 61, 110, 245 Abutilon · 8, 39, 88, 243 C Acalypha · 8, 36, 39, 242 Achyranthes · 8, 35, 39, 50, 53, 57, 58, 62, 75, 87, 88, 93, · 12, 188 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 104, 107, 108, 114, 116, 241 Cacomantis Caesalpinia · 8, 40, 50, 52, 75, 92 Acmella · 8, 47, 118, 119, 120 Calopogonium · 8 Acritillas · 12, 201 · 12, 171, 185 Adiantum · 8, 39, 48, 54, 57, 72, 83, 114, 120 Caprona Careya · 8, 40, 55, 79, 92 Agariocnemis · 12 Cassia · 8, 35, 36, 40, 69, 71, 84, 90, 91, 93, 112, 241 Alangium · 8, 39, 62, 84, 140 · 12, 185, 198, 200, 234 Allophylus · 8, 37, 39, 80, 84, 120 Castalius Cayratia · 8, 40, 50, 73, 82, 101, 261 Alpinia · 8, 62, 135 · 12 Alstonia · 8, 37, 39, 50, 60, 62, 75, 80, 84, 89, 91, 96, Celatoxia · 12, 192, 206, 208 100, 103, 109, 121, 122, 123, 125, 127, 129, 136, 142, Ceriagrion · 12, 171, 197 241, 253, 255 Chilades Chromolaena · 8, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 47, Alternanthera · 8, 39, 60, 62, 87, 89, 99, 100, 122, 133, 49, 51, 55, 57, 59, 60, 62, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 79, 80, 138, 242 83, 85, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, Ammania · 8, 67 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, Amomum · 8, 39, 86 117, 118, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127,130, 132, 135, Anacardium · 8, 34, 39, 57, 67, 83, 88, 113, 241, 253 136, 137, 139, 140, 142, 241, 249, 250, 261 Anaciaeschna · 12, 190 Cinnamomum · 8, 47, 55, 86, 119, 228, 230, 241 Ancistrocladus · 8, 37, 62, 80, 128, 130, 131, 249 Cipadessa · 8, 32, 37, 40, 54, 55, 56, 63, 78, 80, 81, 82, Angiopteris · 8, 39 83, 85, 86, 87, 91, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, Anthoceros · 8, 39, 83 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, 141 Apluda · 8, 39, 62, 94, 96 Cirrochroa · 12, 179, 180, 183, 208, 211, 232 Appias · 12, 171, 179, 180, 184, 193, 194, 200, 202, Citrus · 8, 40, 84, 85, 185, 228, 230 205, 206, 233 Cleome · 8, 36, 41, 50, 63, 71, 73, 87, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, Ardeola · 12, 195, 213, 254, 256 105, 106, 107, 110, 111, 136, 243 Artocarpus · 8, 30, 39, 62, 82, 84, 128, 139, 143, 226, Clerodendrum · 8, 34, 41, 50, 52, 55, 57, 58, 68, 73, 75, 227, 228, 230, 241 78, 85, 94, 104, 106, 108, 115, 116, 126, 243, 253, Arundinax · 12, 188 254 Asparagus · 8, 51, 73, 74, 254, 255 Cochlospermum · 8 Coffea · 8, 61, 63, 122, 123, 131, 150 B Colebrookea · 9, 47, 118 Commelina · 9, 243 Conyza · 9, 59, 115, 116, 117, 118 Bambusa · 8, 80, 241, 255 Copsychus · 12, 187 Barleria · 8, 49, 72 Crassocephalum · 9, 36, 41, 49, 51, 53, 55, 57, 59, 63, Begonia · 8, 30, 37, 39, 80, 90, 92, 249 70, 74, 76, 77, 79, 83, 86, 96, 105, 107, 110, 114, 115, Biophytum · 8, 34, 39, 50, 54, 67, 69, 73, 77, 94, 107, 116, 117, 118, 119, 124, 127, 130, 133, 134, 135, 136, 109 137, 141 Blumea · 8, 32, 40, 48, 57, 62, 84, 87, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, Crotalaria · 9, 35, 36, 41, 59, 68, 71, 72, 99, 116, 118 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 109, 111, Cullenia · 9, 48, 121, 226, 227, 228, 230, 240, 241, 249 112, 114, 120, 126, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134, 137, 139 Cupha · 12, 181, 193, 206, 208, 232 Boehmeria · 8, 38, 40, 61, 62, 80, 83, 84, 89, 90, 92, 100, Cuscuta · 9 123 Cyanotis · 9, 48 Boerhavia · 8, 40, 49, 52, 57, 73, 75, 85, 91, 113 Cycas · 9, 31, 36, 41, 52, 57, 71, 75, 88, 90, 113, 241 Bombax · 8, 50, 51, 55, 75, 81, 244 Cyclea · 9, 53, 57, 75, 113, 241, 244 Breynia · 8, 60, 62 Page | 272

D Gracula · 12, 187, 213 Graphium · 12, 179, 180, 193, 198, 201, 211, 231 Grewia · 9, 37, 42, 80, 93, 102, 103, 142, 143, 144, 145, Dalbergia · 9, 38, 41, 51, 63, 73, 79, 89, 90, 97, 98, 101, 146, 147, 148, 241, 248, 255 103, 139, 142, 245, 246, 255, 260 Debregeasia · 9, 33, 41, 55, 60, 63, 81, 87, 90, 122, 133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141 H Delias · 12, 171, 173, 184, 197, 198, 202, 233 Desmodium · 9, 63, 242, 253 Halcyon · 12, 199, 213 Dicrurus · 12, 180, 181, 187, 188, 190, 195, 199, 201, Helicteres · 9, 37, 38, 42, 50, 51, 56, 64, 71, 74, 79, 83, 203, 208, 213 88, 89, 92, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, Diploclisia · 9, 41, 61, 97, 105, 122 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, 124, 125, 126, 135, Diplocodes · 12, 169, 190, 197, 199, 201, 202, 205, 141, 241, 243, 253, 254 206, 208, 212 Heliotropium · 9, 29, 34, 67 Drymaria · 9, 31, 41, 48, 53, 59, 60, 63, 76, 77, 88, 115, Hemidesmus · 9, 35, 42, 49, 69, 70, 72, 75, 107, 241 117, 121, 122, 128 Hibiscus · 9, 42, 49, 64, 73, 84, 91, 95, 97, 106, 125, 126, Drynaria · 9, 41, 56, 81, 99, 103 127, 129, 135, 137, 255 Ducula · 12, 195 Holigarna · 9, 145, 149, 226, 229, 260 Hydrolea · 9, 29, 34, 67 E Hypoestes · 9, 49, 76, 120 Hyptis · 9, 34, 50, 52, 67, 68, 69, 70, 75, 241, 243

Elatostema · 9, 41, 48, 60, 63, 119, 122, 124 Emilia · 9, 41, 51, 59, 63, 74, 91, 94, 115, 117, 134, 245 I Eranthemum · 9, 37, 41, 47, 49, 63, 72, 80, 89, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, Ichnocarpus · 9, 34, 42, 68, 93, 243 108, 109, 112, 118, 120, 125, 140 Impatiens · 9, 43, 248, 249 Erigeron · 9, 54, 72 Ipomoea · 9, 34, 35, 36, 42, 43, 48, 51, 55, 59, 64, 74, 78, Eryngium · 9, 53, 75 85, 86, 88, 89, 95, 96, 97, 99, 105, 106, 107, 116, 118, Esme · 12, 206 124, 126, 127, 134, 137, 243, 244 Eumyias · 12, 188 Ischnura · 12, 242 Ixora · 9, 43, 64, 88, 89, 92, 124, 130, 226, 241 F J Ficus · 9, 35, 42, 47, 50, 52, 54, 55, 61, 63, 64, 68, 70, 74, 75, 78, 81, 83, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, · 12, 171, 179, 180, 183, 184, 189, 193, 197, 98, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 111, Junonia 200, 201, 202, 206, 232 118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 129, 132, 134, 135, 136, 138, Justicia · 9, 10, 32, 43, 58, 92, 107, 110, 115, 247, 254, 141, 145, 147, 149, 229, 230,241, 244, 255, 261 266

G L Galinsoga · 9 Laggera · 10, 64, 141 Garcinia · 9, 54, 72, 226, 227, 229 · 12, 171, 194, 206 Getonia · 9, 64, 132, 135, 138, 140 Lampides Lannea · 10, 64, 124 Girardinia · 9, 42, 90, 97 Lantana · 10, 29, 32, 35, 36, 38, 43, 49, 57, 59, 60, 64, Givotia · 9, 42, 64, 138, 139, 141, 244 69, 71, 72, 80, 82, 83, 85, 86, 103, 112, 113, 114, 115, Glinus · 9, 42, 50, 64, 73, 74, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 133, 117, 121, 122, 126, 135, 241 134, 135, 136, 138, 141, 241 Leea · 10, 37, 43, 51, 61, 74, 80, 84, 91, 92, 103, 123 Globba · 9, 48, 119 Lepianthes · 10, 32, 43, 47, 57, 87, 90, 114 Glycosmis · 9, 35, 36, 42, 49, 52, 57, 64, 69, 71, 73, 75, · 12, 171, 173, 181, 183, 197, 198, 202, 206 91, 100, 101, 112, 113, 132, 135, 138, 140, 226, 228, Leptosia Leucaena · 10, 244 243

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Leucas · 10, 33, 43, 58, 64, 88, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, N 102, 106, 108, 110, 115, 125, 126, 128, 129, 131, 135, 136, 137, 245, 247, 254 Naravelia · 10, 44, 48, 82, 92, 98, 99, 100, 104, 105, Lindernia · 10, 34, 67 106, 107, 108, 112, 121, 241, 245 Litsea · 10, 31, 43, 54, 78, 84, 90, 92, 226, 227, 229, 230, · 13, 171, 173, 179, 180, 182, 193, 197, 198, 199, 247, 260 Neptis 205, 208, 211, 232 Loriculus · 12, 188 · 13, 192 Ludwigia · 10, 29, 34, 50, 53, 65, 67, 73, 76, 133, 134, Neurobasis · 13, 191 138, 242 Nisaetus

M O

Ocyceros · 13, 187 Macaca · 12, 13, 163, 164, 181, 186, 213, 242, 261 · 13, 169, 185, 190, 192, 206, 212, 238 Macaranga · 10, 30, 32, 33, 36, 43, 47, 51, 54, 58, 65, Orthetrum Orthosiphon · 10, 31, 44, 50, 73, 94, 105 71, 73, 74, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 95, 99, Osbeckia · 10, 56, 79 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, Oxalis · 10, 32, 44, 53, 58, 59, 83, 86, 114, 115, 116, 117, 111, 112, 114, 122, 123, 129, 131, 135, 136, 139, 140, 118 142, 143, 149, 150, 226, 227, 229, 230,241, 255, 260 Mallotus · 10, 30, 32, 38, 43, 48, 50, 52, 55, 56, 65, 73, 74, 75, 78, 79, 82, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 121, P 130, 132, 138, 140, 142, 144, 147, 150, 226, 227, 241 Marcalesis · 13 Papilio · 13, 171, 173, 179, 183, 185, 188, 189, 193, Mecardonia · 10, 48, 53, 59, 61, 115, 118, 121 198, 201, 202, 205, 208, 211, 231 Megalaima · 13, 172, 186, 201, 203, 205, 207, 208, 213 Paragomphus · 13, 213 Merops · 13, 172, 186, 187, 201, 207 Passiflora · 10, 44, 52, 65, 85, 101, 103, 126, 127, 129, Merremia · 10, 43, 49, 56, 65, 73, 86, 92, 95, 96, 97, 99, 133, 141, 243 100, 101, 102, 103, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 134, Pavetta · 10, 50, 51, 55, 57, 74, 78, 85, 113, 226, 249 135, 137, 141 Pellionia · 10 Mikania · 10, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 44, 47, 48, Pennisetum · 10, 29, 31, 35, 36, 37, 38, 45, 48, 50, 51, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 65, 67, 68, 70, 73, 74, 76, 55, 56, 59, 65, 68, 69, 71, 74, 79, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 88, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 89, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 106, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 107, 112, 117, 119, 125, 127, 133, 136, 259 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, Peperomia · 10, 33, 45, 51, 61, 65, 74, 85, 91, 107, 123, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 125, 132, 133, 136, 138, 240, 243, 247 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 227, 259, Pericrocotus · 13, 187, 208 261 Phyllanthus · 10, 36, 38, 45, 49, 65, 71, 73, 74, 79, 84, Mimosa · 10, 29, 35, 44, 50, 53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 65, 68, 85, 96, 97, 99, 106, 125, 128, 142, 241, 242, 243, 245 69, 70, 71, 73, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 95, 96, 100, Phyllocephalum · 10 101, 102, 103, 106, 110, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, Pimpinella · 10, 45, 94 122, 134, 136, 243 Piper · 10, 45, 56, 59, 65, 81, 86, 87, 88, 116, 118, 119, Mitracarpus · 10, 34, 36, 44, 53, 59, 68, 69, 76, 85, 95, 137, 241, 245, 253, 254, 255 96, 97, 98, 115, 116, 117, 118 Pityrogramma · 10, 65, 123, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, Monticola · 13, 186, 191 132, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141 Motacilla · 13, 186, 190, 207, 208 Pogostemon · 10, 45, 48, 58, 65, 85, 93, 101, 108, 121, Mucuna · 10, 37, 44, 55, 71, 79, 87, 88, 241 135, 139 Murdannia · 10, 44, 84, 242 Polyalthia · 10, 45, 48, 119, 120, 226, 229 Musa · 10, 30, 259 Polytrichum · 10, 53 Muscicapa · 13, 174, 186, 187 Polyura · 13, 211 Mycalesis · 13, 183, 184, 194, 211, 233 Portulaca · 10, 50, 73 Prosotas · 13, 173, 185, 189, 211 Pseudagrion · 13, 185, 206 Pseudocoladenia · 13, 211 Psittacula · 13, 187, 199

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Psuedarthria · 10 Tephrodornis · 13, 188 Pteris · 10, 36, 45, 58, 59, 61, 66, 70, 83, 84, 89, 92, 95, Terpsiphone · 13, 213 98, 99, 103, 106, 114, 118, 119, 123, 127, 129, 134, Thoressa · 13 136, 137, 139, 244 Thottea · 11, 46, 82, 84, 90, 92, 228, 230, 241 Pterocarpus · 10 Thunbergia · 11, 54, 78 Pycnonotus · 13, 174, 181, 187, 205, 207, 208 Tiliacora · 11, 48, 61, 119, 123 Tinospora · 11, 46, 93, 94, 95, 96 Tirumala · 13, 171, 173, 174, 179, 185, 194, 232, 233 R Tractaria · 11, 84 Tragia · 11, 31, 50, 73 Racosperma · 11, 50, 52, 75 Trema · 11, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 46, 47, 49, 54, 60, Rathinda · 13, 185 66, 68, 70, 72, 73, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, Ratufa · 13, 186, 191, 198, 199, 239 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103, 105, 106, Rhinacanthus · 11, 49, 52, 72, 74, 75, 87, 94, 95, 98, 107, 108, 109, 111, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 106, 108, 109 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 134,135, 137, 138, 140, 141, Rhynchoglossum · 11, 45, 83, 87, 89, 90, 127, 138, 139, 246, 259 242 Trematodan · 11 Rubia · 11, 48, 121 Treron · 14, 209 Rungia · 11 Trithemis · 14, 170, 192, 206, 212, 238 Triumfetta · 11, 34, 36, 47, 48, 49, 52, 56, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 79, 87, 88, 92, 97, 100, 103, 105, 106, 107, S 108, 111, 121, 124, 126, 128, 133, 134 Turdoides · 14, 187, 201 Schleichera · 11, 34, 45, 48, 50, 66, 68, 73, 84, 88, 89, 93, 94, 105, 107, 109, 120, 121, 140, 143, 149, 150, 241, 260 U Scoparia · 11, 29, 34, 45, 50, 59, 66, 67, 69, 73, 96, 97, 99, 100, 110, 116, 117, 133, 134, 241, 245 Urena · 11, 35, 60, 68, 69, 70, 122 Sida · 11, 34, 45, 49, 54, 58, 66, 67, 68, 73, 77, 85, 96, 99, 101, 103, 107, 114, 126, 241, 243, 245 Solanum · 11, 30, 35, 36, 45, 46, 48, 50, 53, 55, 58, 60, V 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87, 88, 99, 102, 107, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 134 Vernonia · 11, 48, 54, 58, 61, 72, 115, 120, 121, 122, Sphaeranthus · 11 229, 230, 250 Spilanthes · 11, 46, 58, 60, 66, 86, 87, 88, 94, 96, 97, 99, Vigna · 11, 47, 88, 91, 107, 113, 124, 127 100, 101, 106, 108, 110, 111, 114, 115, 133, 134, 135 Spilopelia · 13, 207 Stachytarpheta · 11, 30, 36, 46, 56, 71, 79, 81, 82, 87 W Sterculia · 11, 46, 85, 91, 94, 101 Stereospermum · 11, 46, 51, 66, 85, 140, 259 Waltheria · 11, 35, 68, 69 Streblus · 11, 46, 57, 66, 89, 91, 100, 102, 113, 241 Wendlandia · 11, 55, 79 Strobilanthes · 11, 30, 38, 80, 226, 228, 259 Wrightia · 11, 32, 38, 47, 57, 66, 79, 83, 89, 91, 92, 113, Strychnos · 11, 37, 72, 75, 241 130 Surniculus · 13, 199 Synedrella · 11, 34, 38, 46, 49, 58, 60, 66, 67, 69, 73, 80, 83, 85, 86, 87, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, X 102, 103, 106, 108, 110, 111, 114, 122, 134 Xanthophyllum · 11, 55, 78, 241 Xylia · 11, 30, 47, 82, 148, 245, 255 T

Tectona · 11, 32, 35, 46, 49, 52, 56, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, Y 75, 93, 94, 97, 98, 108, 112, 113, 145, 150, 241, 253, 255 Ypthima · 14, 171, 179, 183, 184, 188, 198, 205, 233 Tephrodomis · 13, 201

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Z Ziziphus · 11, 31, 34, 47, 49, 52, 56, 57, 67, 72, 75, 79, 93, 100, 113, 241, 246 Zoothera · 14, 199 Zehneria · 11, 87 Zosterops · 14, 191 Zingiber · 11, 47, 85

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