Äs T Studies Association «Bulletin^ 12 No. 2 (May 1978)

.** äs t Studies Association «Bulletin^ 12 no. 2 (May 1978),

ISLAMIC NUMISMATICS Sections l and 2

Michael L. Bates The American Numismatic Society

Every Student of pre-raodern Islamic political, social, economic, or cultural history is aware in a general way of the importance of nuraisraatic evidence, but it has to be admitted thst for the roost part this awareness is evidenced raore in lip ser-vice than in practice. Too many historians consider numismatics an arcane and complex study best left to specialists. All too often, historians, if they take coin evidence into account at all, suspend their normal critical judgement to accept without cjuestion the readings and interpretations of the numismatist. Or. the other hand, numismatists, in the past especially but to a large extent still today, are often amateurs, self-taught through practice with little or no formal.historical and linguistic training. This is true even öf museum Professionals in Charge of Islamic collections, ho matter what their previous training: The need tc deal with the coinage of fourteen centuries, from Morocco to the Fr.ilippines, means that the curator spends most of his time workir.g in areas in which he is, by scholarly Standards, a layman. The best qualified Student of any coin series is the specialist with an ex- pert knowledge of the historical context from which the coinage coraes. Ideally, any serious research on a particular region and era should rest upon äs intensive a study of the nvunismatic evidence äs of the literary sources. In practice, of course, it is not so easy, but it is easier than many scholars believe, and cer- tainly much «asier than for a numismatist to become =. fully qualified historian in every field of Islamic civilizaticr..

The ourren-t survey is intended specifically äs a =-aide for the historian, äs an introduction to the literature and some of the Problems of Islamic numismatics. It is divided into four sections: general surveys and reference works; research and study facilities; general problems in Islamic numismatics; and a survey of specialized research^ arranged chronologlca l ly and geograpücally. The latter two sections will appear in t3ie next issue of the Bulletin. Published works cited below'by author's name and date can be identified by reference to thfr bibliography at the end, arranged alphabetically by author and then by date. Catalogues of museum collections are cited by coarttry in section two. A survey such äs this necessarily draws upon Information supplied in conversation or correspondence by many friends and colleagues over the years; I hope tihey will forgive me if space does not always permit me to acknowledge their help individually, but I am gratefnl to them all.

General works an^ reference tools for Islamic nuntismatics.

Just a few months ago one had to say that there was no general handbook covering all or even a large part of Islamic coinage. This has been changed by the very recent publication of two such vorks, both intended for collectors and dealers, but likely to be

-1- useful to scholars äs well. Stephen Album's Marsden's Numismatica the like, which appear on coins. Ünfortunately these lists are Orientalia Illustrata (1977) is conceived äs a revision of the not äs useful äs they might be because thelr occurence on coins original publication of 1823 and 1869. The text is completely new. is only vaguely indicated. The book is out of date, but still treating each dynasty and coin series brief ly but with Album's occasionally helpful. characteristic expertise. The work is illustrated with line drawings from the original plates or newly drawn by Irene Fraley Preston. An indispensible tool for numismatic research is Zambaur's Die The potential advantage of line drawings is that they can portray Münzprägungen des Islams (1968). The work is essentially a print- the ideal coin, äs the die Cutter conceived it, rather than the ed conpilation of Zambaur's card files, listing all the mint defective physical erabodiement of the ideal äs manufactured by the cities of the Islamic world west of the Hindu Kush, giving for often careless medieval mints. ünfortunately this potential is each a brief geographical identification, a list of dynasties which not completely realized, because most of the drawings are attempts struck coins there (identified by two-letter abbreviations) with at precise rendering of a sgecJJEic coin. A particularly valuable the recorded years of issue, citations of «edieval and modern geo- part of the work is the annbtated bibliography, listing the impor- graphical references to the place, and a list of citations of pub- tant reference tools for the eoinage of each dynasty. There is lished exaraples of the eoinage. Footnotes to the latter list pro- also a brief introduction to general problems of Islaroic coin de- vide extremely valuable commentary. The ecitor, Peter Jaeckel, has added to Zambaur's text a set of 26 folöout charts showing ciphering. year by year which mints issued coins; these charts include cita- The second new general handbook i* M. Bv Mitchener's Oriental tions not in the text. Text and chart citations are by number, Coins and Their Values: The World of Islam (1977). \e work i s keyed to an alphabetical bibliography which itself is one of the organized by dynasty, like Album's, and illustrated by about 8,000 best available for important works on Islasic nuraismatics. Two coin photographs. Text is large ly limited to the general intro- caveats: First, the publication date is deoeptive; the book was ductory section and brief remarks on each dynastyr the autJior's actually printed in 1943, and is based only on works published be- ideas on the evolution of the coinages are reflected in his organi- fore 1939. It is therefore out of date in many respects. Secondly, zation of the material. As in Album*s book, estimates of current impressive äs it is, the book is the product of one man's scholar- prices are given. Both books should be useful äs guides to the ship. -It is not necessarily coraplete for ar-.y one mint, nor is it identification of coins äs well äs in providing compact overviews always accurate (the extensive use of numerical citations invited of the developroent of Islamic eoinage; both should be irt any large typographical errors). The Münzprägungen is an invaluable time research library. A more scholarly narrative treatment of Islamic saver, but it cannot replace reference to the original works it eoinage is projected by the present author for the Methuen/Dhiver- cites. sity of California "Library o^ Numismatics" series, but it will not appear for several years at least. Miles (1971) listed 55 roint names recorded after Zambaur's compilation. An alphabetical card index of Islaraic mints and their Other general: references include a little book by Plant (1973) known issues, similar to the Münzprägungen. is maintained at the 'intended to enable collectors to read Islamic coins without American Numismatic Society (ANS) . It is arvailable for direct studying Arabic. For the scholar, it may be useful for its illu- consultation, and is used to answer limited incruiries, but i t is strations of the diversity of Arabic epigraphy on coins of the not possible to reproduce large sections of it. entire Muslim world. It is also cheap and portable. Philip Grierson's Numismatics is valuable not only for its very brief Zambaur is also the author of another essential reference for but good survey of Islamic eoinage, but also äs the best general the numismatist, his well known Manuel de eenealogie et de Chrono- introduction to all aspects of numismaticxmethodology by a master logie (1927). Although later dynastic lists by Bosworth (1967) of the discipline. The articles "OSr al-Darb" (Ehrenkreutz), and Bacharach (1974) are more up to date and handier, they are "Dinar," "Dirham" (Miles), and "Fals" (Udovitch) in the second less comprehensive and, in contrast to the Genealogie, neither of edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam are brief but useful; an ar- them provides what the numismatist needs mcst: the extended titu- ticle "Sikka" is projected. Adolf Grohmann surveys Islamic numis- lary of most of the individuals listed, with an analytical index matics in his Einführung (1954), with special relevance for Egypt. to the elements of titulature; for the portion of a ruler's name A chapter by George C. Miles, "Numismatics," in the Cambridge ^.^ legible on a coin is not always that by which he is generally known History of Iran. IV (1975), covers a large part of the Islaroic-^ -- today. The Genealogie is somewhat out of date; a revised edition, world in the first four centuries. Museum catalogues (which are- which should be the product of a co-operative effort by specialists listed in the next section) often are preceded by surveys of the in the history of each dynasty, would be valuable not only to eoinage they describe; Lane-Poole's introductions to the British numismatists. Museum catalogues are still useful. In Arabic there are surveys of the origin and development of Islamic coinayge by Fahml (1965) The bibliography of Islamic nuraismatics is large and scattered. and al-Husant (1969). Finally, a rather different' sort of guide The starting point is L. A. Mayer's Biblioc?ra^v of Moslem Numis- is Codrington's Manual of Musalman Numismatics (1904), which con- matics (2nd ed., 1954), which includes virt^ally everything pub- sists of calendrical tables, tables of Arabic letters and numerals, lished up to about 1950, no matter how trivial. Its arrangement and lists of personal names and titles, religious legends. and is strictly alphabetical by author's name, v-ith a subject index of dynasties, but this latter is impracticai for the more impor-

-2- -3- tant dynasties (there are nearly 400 numerical citations under trative worlcs. All then known references to coins in the medieval •Abbäsidss. For subject access to the literature since 1900, writers were gathered by Sauvaire (1879-82) in his "MateViaux," one can also use the Index Islamicus (Vind. Numismatics), Which which is still important. For the medieval manuals of raint prac- until recently lists periodical articles only. . The printed Die- tice, see below under general problems In Islamic numismatics. tionarv Catalogue of the Library of the American Numismatic Society (1962? Supplements, 1967, 1973, 1978) can also he 1p in compiling Research and study facilities. the bibliography of a subject. In it, roost Islamic subjects will appear äs subheadings under "Mohananadan," but one should also con- If the raw material of numismatic research is the coinage it- sult the country headings. The ANS library catalogues both rnono- self, it follows that the place to do research is in the cabinets graphs and periodical articles. The printed catalogue will be of the world's great public coin collections. Unfortunately not found in many large U.S. research libraries. Album's handbook, every historian lives within comrauting distance of such a collecti mentioned above, includes annotated bibliographies on each Islamic nor would study of a single col^ection snffice to build up a com- dynasty. For current bibliography, in addition to the Supplements plete corpus of the material for even a limited topic. Since it to Index Islamicus, there ie the ANS publication Numismatic is difficult and expensive to bring the r-istorian to the coins, Literature (1947-r twice yearly) which provides an abstract of ways nrust be found to bring the coins, or adeouate reproductions each entry: each issue has a subject index, but there is no cumu- of them, to the historian. One obvious answer to this problera is lative index. Since 1953 there has been published in connection the museum catalogue, but so far it has not been an adeouate an- with each International Numismatic Congress a survey of recent swer. Most of the world's raajor collections have been catalogued numismatic research, including a section on Islamic numismatics to sorae extent, which is another way of saying that most of their by a leading scholar; these are of great value (Miles, 1953, 1961, holdings remain uncatalogued. It is not likely that progress in 1967; Brown, 1973). cataloguing will be rapid: A full-scale catalogue on modern Stan- dards is very time-consuming to prepare and expensive to publish. Medieval Muslim writers have much to teil us about coins, al- Moreover, even the best of the traditional catalogues provide though their Statements should not be accepted uncritically. For photographs of only some of the coins, substituting raore or less example, it is quite unfair to accuse the Ayyübid al-Kamil Muham- füll verbal descriptions of the rest. Often one would like to be mad of a "huge fraud" merely because the coin evidence does not able to confirm or correct these descriptions by looking at the support the assertion of much later Mamlük historians that in coins itself, while research on epigraphical style, omamentation, 622/1225 he withdrew all of Egypt's silver currency and replaced die study, and the like necessitates visual examination. To a it with new dirha-Tis of twice the silver content of the old; far limited extent, museums can provide photographs or plaster casts more probably, the historians were simply misinformed about the of coins to researchers, but this too is expensive and time-con- nature of the reform, if indeed any such reform was claimed or suming; someone has to do the work and foot the bill. At the ANS, intended. Similarly, our understanding of Dmayyad monetary history for example, the Charge for photography is $5.25 per coin. has been nruch beclouded by efforts to raake the numismatic evidence fit the conflicting Statements of later writers, none of whom A solution which has been adopted in Greek and medieval British seems to have ever looked at a coin. In general, it is preferable numismatics is the sylloge. A sylloge reduces introductory matter to draw conclusions directly from the coins in isolation; if later and coin description to the rainiraumr it can do so because every historians happen to support these conclusionfe, so much the better. coin in the collection is illustrated, ofcverse and reverse, on a More valuable, of course, are Statements by well-informed contem- plate facing the page on which i t is described. The need for poraries about monetary events, and especially passing references specialized expertise and complicated typesetting is greatly re- to coinage and monetary practice in contexts not specifically con- duced, making sylloges faster and cheaper to publish. For example, cerned with the subject, for such references are not normally the ANS produces at least one fascicle per year of its Sylloge tendentious. Numismatists are most grateful for having such ref- Numorum Graecorum, each one presenting the Society's contplete hold- erences drawn to their attention. ings of a single region or district, mint by mint. With 800 to 1500 coins, each fascicle is comparable in coverage to Walker's The two best known medieval works on coins are al-Baladhürl's two British Museuro catalogues combined, tfee product of a lifetime's Amr a l nucrüd. a section of his Kitäb futub al-buldän, written in work. Greek sylloges are published in eight other countries, the second half of the 9th Century A.D., and al-MaqrlzI's Shudhür covcring both institutional and private collections. A subcoramitte« al-'uerüd fi dhikr al-nuqüd, written in 1438. The best edition of of the International Numismatic Comraission loosely co-ordinates each of these is by Eustache (1968, 1969), with French translations the sylloges, but they are actually produced by and at the expense and sophisticated commentary. Earlier editions of each are listed of individuals, institutions or societies in each country. The by Eustache, but one may add a new edition of the Shudhür by Sylloge of Coins of the British Isles uses a smaller format, but Muhammad Bahr al-'ülüra (Najaf: al-Maktaba al-Haydariyya, 1967). is similar in organization and principle to the Greek sylloges, In English, the Amr al-nuoÄtd will be found translated by Hitti and Murgotten äs part of the Futüb (1916-24) ; an English trans- Uniform sylloges (perhaps instead they should be called lation of Maqrlzl's Shudhür would be desirable. Many other authors Malmü'it. or the like) of Islamic coins would be worthwhile and touch on the history of coinage in historical, legal, and adminis- feasible. Ideally, these should be initiated and orgar.ized cn an

-4- -5- international level; with some prelirainary planning, the next available for consultation. Corrections and addifcions to the International Numismatic Congress in Basle, 1979, or the Orienta- list Congress in Teheran, 1980, would be appropriate venues for following Ust are invited and will be added to our file. Only institutions with substantial holdings (over 100 coins) are an organizational meeting. Or a U.S. group could set the example included. by producing sylloges of our own collections, in hopes that other countries might follow*. CALIFORNIA. Lowie Museunr of Anthropology, Dhiversity of California, At present one still has to go to the museums or their cata- Berkeley 94720. Over 20O Isla»ic. mostly Ilkhanid. logues. What follows is a listing of major collections of Islamic COLORADO. American Numismatic Association, Colorado Springs 80901. coins, with those of Nbrth America discussed first. Uninventoried collection. CONNECTICUT. Museum of Connecticut History, Connecticut State Library, Hartford 06115. Some 200 Islamic. North American collections s \5\e American Numismatie Society (156th Street and Broadway, Nuraismatic Collection, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, New Haven 06520 (John ?. Burnham, Cura- New York, N.Y. 10032) has this continent's pre-eminent collection tor). Over 13,000 coins of Asia and Africa; no separate of Islamic coins, one of the world's best. Although no overall figures for Islaraic. figure for the size of the collection can be given, it is rieh in ILLINOIS. Dept. of Classical Studies, Loyola University, Chicago every series and generally well-organized. Any researcher is wel- 60626. About 117 'Abbasid and AyySbid. coae to study the collection in the Society's coin room without i __• Oriental Institute Museum, üniversity of Chicago 50637. fomality, but it is best to arrange extended study in advance. About 300 "Arabic, Turkish and Persian." .The Society can provide casts, Polaroid and ordinary photographs, - World Heritage Museum, University of Illinois, Urbana ar.d slides of its coins (a Charge is made, and large orders are 61801. 1,089 Ottoman, plus 28 raiscellar.eous Islamic. discouraged). In addition to its coin collection, the ANS has the MARYLAND. Evergreen House, Johns Hopkins Vniversity. Baltimore wcrld's best numismatic library, which offers interlibrary loan 21210. About 1000 Islamic coins; Status uncertain, not available for study at present.' ar.i ohotocopy Services (for Information, write' to Mr. Francis Caapbell, Librarian). The library has rare 18th and 19th Century MASSACHUSETTS. Mead Art Building, Amherst College^ Amherst 01002. works, complete runs of aost numismatic Journals, a large file of Uninventoried Umayyad, 'Abblsid, Turkomän, etc., coppers (seen by G.G. Miles, Feb. 1964). mnismatic offprints fro« other Journals, extensive holdings of dealers' auction and fix«d-price catalogues, and a fairly good MICHIGAN. Kelsey Museum, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 48109. library of works on Islamic history and civilization. The ANS is Substantial Islamic collection; no figures available. '^r.i^ue araong the world's great coin cabinets in that it is a pri- NEBRASKA. University of Nebraska State Museum, Lincoln 68588 (Dr. va-e Institution, supported by its endowment, private gifts, the Lloyd Tanner, Director of Systeinatic Collections) . occasional special purpose foundation or government grant, and Important holdings of Islamic and Muslim South Asian the dues of its members. Membership is $15.00 per year, which in- coins; present Status uncertain. cludes receipt of the annual Museum Notes, a research Journal; the NEW JERSEY. Drew University Institute for Archaeological Research, ser:i-annual Numismatic Literature. which lists and abstracts cur- Madison 07940. Large holdings of excavation coins, in- rer.t publications; and the Annual Report, including descriptions cluding early Islamic. of new accessions in each department. — - Firestone Library, Princeton Tniversity, Princeton 08540. Large general collectionr Miles has noted some The Smithsonian Institution (Numismatic Departnent, Museum of interesting Islamic coins, but no specific Information History and Technology, Washington, D.C. 20560) has this country's is available. Also, a few Islamic coins are owned by second major Islamic collection. The collection of several thou- the University's Art Museum. sar.i coins is well-organized and includes raany rarities. Inooiiries NEW YORK. American Museum of Natural Histcry, New York 10024. ar.d requests for research permission should be addressed to one of Dept. of Anthropology has r.early 200 coins from an expe- the Curators, Dr. Vladiair Clain-Steffanelli or Mrs. Elvira Clain- dition to Afghanistan, 1949. Steffanelli (sometimes it is helpful to follo*» up with a phone - _• Metropolitan Museum of Art, N'ew York 10028. Dept. call: 202-381-5028). The resident Islamic specialist, Mr. Ray- of Islamic Art has 45 raiscellaneous Islamic coins, some r»-d Hebert, has a large and well indexed data file. of special artistic interest. plus 640 coins frora the Nishapur excavations. A number of North American museums and institutions of higher OHIO. Toledo Museum of Art, 43697. 111 Islamic glass coin weights. leaming have holdings of Islamic coins. Recently the ANS committee or. Islamic and South Asian Coins conducted a survey of institutions ONTARIO- National Currency Collection, Bank of Canada, Ottawa lixely to have Islamic aaterial; the listing below, by state or K1A OG9 (Maj. Sheldon S. Carroll. ^hief Curator) . About 477 Islamic coins. province, is based upon replies to that survey and to earlier surveys by the ANS of raore general scope. An integrated and indexed _ . Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto M5S 2C6 'Lisa Golumbek, file of the returns fro« these surveys is kept at the ANS and is Curator of Islamic Art). About 143 coins and 100 weights, stamps, and seals. PENNSYLVANIA. Oniversity Museum, University of Pennsylvania, found in Finland. in various nruseuras) . Philadelphia 19174. Considerable recent accessions of FRANCE, Cabinet des Medailles, Bibliothegue Nationale, 58, rue Islamic coins, in addition to a major collection on de Richelieu, Paris 75002. One of the world's great permanent loan to the ANS, New York. collectiona, with much new uncatalogued material. Cura- tors Raoul Curiel (retiring 1978). Catalogues: Lavoix Collections Abroad: (.1887, 1891, 1896); Cottevieille-Giraudet, Revue numismatique 1934-35; Launois (1971); Guillou (1953). Gilles Much of the Information below comes from reports to me by scho- Hennequin has undertaken a fifth volume of the series lars who have visited the collections, to whom I am most grateful; begun by Lavoix, "from the Turks to the Mongols." but I have not acknowledged this he 1p by narae, for it is better Plans for the fourth volume are unknown. that responsibility for errors and misunderstandings rest on me GERMANY (EAST). Staatliche Museen zu Berlin. Bedestrasse 1-3, alone. Additions and corrections are welcome. Even though most 102 Berlin, DDR. A major collection, with some 35,000 collections are easily accessible for study by qualified scholars, "Oriental" coins; guite accessible. Curator: Dr. M. it is always a good rule to inform the curator or director of the Simon. Catalogue: Nützel (1898-1902); includes Guth- institution well in advance of arriving. Some countries also re- rie collection, catalogued by Lane-Poole (1874). quire government approval for any research within the country by GREAT BRITAIN. Department of Coins and Medals, Fitzwilliam Museum, foreigners. Scholars planning numismatic research overseas are Cambridge. A small collection, but with many interesting welcome to write to the ANS for additional Information about the rarities. Curator: Mr. Terry Volk. museums they intend to visit. . Department of Coins and Medals, The British Museum, London WC 1B 3DG. One of the world's great collections, AFGHANISTAN. Kabul Museum, Darul-Aman, Kabul. Catalogue: and the only one to have beer, fully catalogued, although Sourdel (1953) the catalogue is now out of date. Curator: Mr. N'icholas ALGERIA. The Musee Gustav Mercier, Constantine, and the Musee Lowick. Catalogues: Lane-Pocle and Poole '18~5-90)• National des Antiquites, Algiers (formerly Musee Stephane Poole (1887)• J. Allan, Numis-atic Chronicle 1919 (new Gsell) both have Islamic collections. accessions); Walker (1941, 1956^. A'third volume in the AUSTRIA. BundesSammlung von Medaillen, Münzen und Geldzeichen, series begun by Walker has beer, undertaken by Lowick, Kunsthistoriches Museum, Vienna. The Islamic material on the coinage of the 'Abbasids. is uncatalogued and little known; apparently it includes . . Heberden Coin Room, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford OX1 2PH. the former Zambaur collection. A very large and fine collection, well-organized. Cura- BELGIDM. Cabinet des Me'dailles, Bibliotheque Royale. The Cabinet tor: Mrs. Heien Mitchell Brown. recently acquired 372 coins from the collection of the IRAN. Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz. Curator: Jamal Turäbi late Robert Gurnet. Tabatabä'I. Catalogues: Tabätabä'I (1969, 1972, 1973). CZECHOSLÖVAKIA. Naprstek Museum of Asian, African, and American . Numismatic Department, Bank-i Sepah Museum, Teheran. Culture, Betlemske nam. l, Prague 1. Collection pri- Described äs a useful collection, directly accessible. marily of 8-10th Century dirhams found in Czechoslovakia. Curator: Mrs. Shlrin Bayäni. Curator: PhDr. Jarmila St^pkova". . Iran Bastan Museum, Teheran. A large collection; DENMARK. Den kgl. Mont- og Medaillesamlung, NationaLmuseet, study requires an official government permit for re- DK-1220 Copenhagen K. Curator: Dr.phil. Otto M^rkholm. search in Iran, but teraporary research authorization Catalogue: 0strup (1938); not wholly reliable, but the raay t>e obtainable while waiting for the official permit. staff is very good about providing photographs for con- Curator: Dr. Firuz Bagherzadeh. General Director (of firmation or correction of Östrup's descriptions. the museura). EGYPT. Greco-Roman Museum, Alexandria. George Miles noted some IRAQ. Iraq Museum, Baghdad. This is the most active center of interesting Islamic coins there in the early 1950's; numismatic research in the Middle East, with a large their present Situation is unknown. well-organized collection-and^a staff öf specialists. _. Dar al-Kutub (National Library) , Cairo. An important Accessibility is good, provfdecNpne has permission to collection. A recent visitor reports that the collection do research in Iraq. Curator: Mrs. Mahab Darwish al- seems to be äs Lane-Poole recorded it, without addition Bakrl. Catalogues: Naqshabandi (1953, 1969); Naqshabandl or loss; but it is stored away and not easily accessible, and al-Bakrl (1974); and numerous articles in the Iraai despite the co-operative attitude of the staff. Cata- Journals Sumer and al-Maskükit. by various authors. logue: Lane-Poole (1897)r includes Rogers Bey Collection ISRAEL. Israel Museum, Hakirya, Jerusalem 91000. The Islamic (for additional details, listed Journal of the Royal coins are primärily excavation finds. Curator: Dr. Asiatic Society 1875, catalogued Numismatic Chronicle Yaakov Meshorer. 1883). _. Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo. Curator: Dr. 'Abd . L.A. Mayer Memorial Institute for Islamic Art, 2 Pal- al-Rahmän Fahml. Catalogues: Fahral (1965. 1966). mach St., Jerusalem. This new institution now has only FINLAND. Soumen Kansallismuseo, PL 913, 00101 Helsinki 10. Cata- a very small collection of its cvn, but is primärily logue: Granberg (1966; includes all Islamic hoards known for a fine exhibition catalogue including much borrowed material (Berman, 1976). coins, äs do many provincial Spanish museums, especially INDIA. arv- Indian musetnns have large collections of Islamic in the south; but these latter are often disorganized roins, but these are mostly issrues of thc subcontinent, and neglected. Miles, on pp. 1-14 of his corpus of the r-utside the scope of the present survey. A list of Uraayyads of Spain (1950), has brought together rauch use- catalogues will be found in Singhai (1952). The Journal ful inforraation on Spanish public and private collections of the Numismatic Society of India 23 (1961) included and catalogues. brief histories and descriptions of Indian cabinets. . Gabinete Numisra^tico de Cataluna, Palacio de la ITALY. Gabinetto Numisaatico Manieipale. Castello Sforzeaco, Ciudadela, Barcelona. Uhcatalogued sraall collection. Milan. A large collection. Catalogues: Castiglioni SWEDEN. Royal Coin Cabinet—National Museum of Monetary Hiatory, (1819), Schiepati (1820), Ghiron (1878). Box 5405, S-114 84, Stockholm. The Islamic collection . Museo Archeologico Nazional*. Naples. Catalogue: rauat number several tens of thousands, mostly 8-10th Oman, Annali. Istituto Italiano di Numismatica 9-41 Century dirhams found in Swedish hoards. Keeper: Dr. (1962-64), pp. 175-207. ^— Brita Malmer. Catalogue: Tornberg (1848). A team of . Museo Nazionale, Piazza Olivella, Palermo, yfatalogue: Swedish scholars headed by Malmer has undertaken the Lagumina (1892). Important for Sicilian coinages. ~ complete publication of all hoards of the Viking era rCRDAN. Jordan Archeological Museum, P.O. Box 88, Amman. Cata- found in Sweden; the first volume (1975) covers finds logue: Forthcoming. by Dr. Aida Arif. of 7 parishes in Gotland in 197 pages. 1E3ANON American University Museum, Beirut. Catalogue: Porter, SWITZERLAND. Münzkabinett, Bernisches Historisches Museum, Numismatic Chronicle 1921; cf. Zambaur, Numismatische Helvetiaplatz 5, Berne. Nearly 1200 Islamic coins. Zeitschrift 1922. Catalogue: In preparation, by Heinz Gaube; aeanwhile, 1I3YA. The numismatic collections of Libya have been surveyed by see Miles (1966). Dr. Dickran Kouymjian for UNESCO: his report, however, 3YRIA. National Museumt Damascus 4. An important but uncatalogued has not been released for public distribution. collection. Curator: Mr. Muhammad al-Khouly; or Dr. •.:?.ccco Musee Numismatique, Bank du Maroc, Casablanca. The Afif Bahraassi, General Director of Museums and Antiquities nacleus of the Sank's holdings is the collection of (offLee at the museura). 12,000 Maghribi coins of Brethes. Curator: M. Daniel TURKEY. Istanbul Arkeoloji Mäzeleri. One of the -world's major Zustäche. Catalogues: Brethea (1939; previously unpub- Islamic cabinets, where all government owned Islamic lished coins only). Euatache projects a series of articles coins are gathered (including, e.g., the foraer collection and raonographs cataloging the entire collectionr see the of the Ethnographical Museum, Ankara). Not all the first of these (1970-71), p. xvi, for a complete list. collection is organized, and rauch is stored elsewhere Also in Morocco. the Musees des Antiouites in Rabat and in a bank vault. I am told that until recently, at '-'olubilis report holdings of Arabic coins. leaat, the Museum Director can authorize liraited work on Islamic dirhans found in Norvegian hoards, and possibly the coins by foreigners without official research per- other Muslim coins, are to be found in the Historisk mits. Curator: Dr. Ibrahim Artuk (to retire in 1978). Museum of the Vniveraity of Bergen and the Universitetets Catalogues: Ghälib (1393-94, 1894-95); Mubarak (1900-01) r Myntkabinett, Oslo. Tevbld (1903-04); Halll (1915-16); Artuk (19~0-74; coins PAKISTAN Central Museum, Lahore. The very fine collection in- on exhibition only). cludes not only coins of the subcontinent but also of . Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi, Galatasaray, Istanbul. A con- the Afghan highlands and further west. Catalogue: siderable collection; can be studied upon direct appli- '""hitehead (1934; other museum catalogues relate mostly cation to the bank. Curator: Tuncay Aykut. Catalogues: to the subcontinent). The National Museum of Pakistan, Pere (1968); Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi "Numismatik Yayinlari" Karachi, also has an important collection. (1972-76). POLAND. National Museum, Warsaw. About 2,000 Islamic coins, r.o TUNIS LA. Musee du Bardo, Le Bardo, Tunis. A considerable col- doubt mostly frora dirham hoards of the 3-lQth r*>nturies lection, strengest in N'orth African material. Curator: found in Poland. Director: Dr. Alexsandra Xrzyzanowska. Mme. Skikh. Catalogues: articles by J. Farrugia de Several provincial museums in Poland also contain such Candia, Revue tunisienne 1932-48; Cahiers de Tunisie, hoarda. 1956. A comprehensive catalogue is reportedly in pro- PORTUGAL Museu Numismätico Portugues, Casa de Moeda, Av. Dr. A.J. gresa. de Almeida, Lisbon 1. Catalogues: Figanier (1949, 1959? Leningrad. Numismatic Dept., The Hermitage (Gosudarst- the first volume has many errors, partly listed in the vennyi Erraitazh). One curator has estLmated the Islamic second volume, p. 168). collection at 400,000 coins; another specialist estimates Gabinete Nuraismatico, Museo Arqueologlco Nacional, Madrid. the body of classified and labelled material at 200,000. A rieh collectionr äs would be expected, »specially ?ood At any rate, the Hermitage has beyond doubt the world's for Spanish Arabic and Maghribi coinages. Cor.servadore- largest Islamic coin collection, comprising r.ot only its Jefe: Clarisa Millan. Catalogue: Hada v "elgado ;1392). own material but also that of several other Leningrad Also in Madrid, the Museo de la Fabrica Nacional de institutions. Curators: Dr. Igor Dobrovolsky (early Moneda y Timbre has a substantial collection of Arab

-11- -10- Sheets" treatin<^coinages not otherwise covered in the literature; Islamic)T Dr. M. Severova (late Islaaic). Cai et for example, Tarizzo's three valuable information sheets (nos. 13, Markov (1896). Markov's catalogue and its four au^ple- 15, and 18) on the Islamic coins of Tunisia, A.D. 704-1228. The ments, without table of Contents, Index, or illustrations, Sforth American membership secretary is Patrick D. Hogan, 614 So. is in cursive Rcssian script and merely lists most coins Johnson St., Iowa City, IA 52240 (initial membership is $7.00, by raint and date without description. Oespite these thereafter §5.00 annually). obstacles to its use, it ia an essential reference. especially for cjynasties of regions nov in the U.S.S.R. Teaching of Islamic numismaticsi or whose coins ^*cre imported into the Soviet Dhion. Am- plified descriptions of roany of the coins may be found A seminar in Islamic numismatics was offered by Andrew Ehren- in catalogues and other publications by Markov's pre- kreutz at the TÄiiversity of Michigan in 1966 and 1967, but there decessors and snccessors äs curaton FrÜhn, Dorn, are no plans to repeat it. Seminars in numismatics with prominent Tiesenhausen, Vasmer. and-Bykov (see Mayer, Biblio-Bead of Dept. Berkeley^ The major opportunity for numismatic instruction is the American Numismatic Society1s Graduate Seminar, from raid-Oune to There are dozens of substantial museua collections of mid-August every year. Lectures provide a general introduction Islamic coins in the U.S.S.R., mostly drawing from the to the history of coinage and numismatic raethodology. The students rieh finds of coins of Muslim dynasties that flourished undertake an original research project under the supervision of in southern Russia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, äs the relevant curator, presenting their results orally in the last well äs the enoraous Imports of Islamic dirhams in the week of the Seminar, and then in_writing. Many of the projects 9th-llth centuries A.D. Most of these collections are result in publishable articles. Only graduate students or recent little known in the West, except for outdated 19ÖT cen- Ph.D.s associated with North American institutions may applyr the tury catalogues of some of them. Any Information on the deadline each year is March 1. There is a stipend of $750. Islamic collections and staff of Soviet institutions Alumni of the serainaf may apply for a $3000 grant to support dis- would be gratefilly received at the ANS. sertation research on a numisraatic subject.

Numisraatic Organizations: Bibliography;

The vorld co-ordinatincr body for numismatics in general is the Works cited in the text are listed alphabetically by anthor, International Numismatic Kommission, a body raade up of 77 delegates then by date of publication. The publisher is given only for of rrajor coin cabinets, --.^nisniatic societies, and national mints works believed to be still in print. in 26 ccuntries and 20 r.rr.orary members elected for distinguished scr.alarship. The conraission, affiliated with the Comite Inter- Album, Stephen. Marsden's Numismata Orientalia Illustrata. New national des Sciences Hisroriques-, meets every six years in con- York: Attic Books, 1977. nection with the Interna-ional Numismatic Congresses (which the American Numismatic Society. Dictionarv Catalocpje of the Library Comission organizes) ar.i may also meet on the occasion of an In- of the American Numismatic Society. Boston: G.K. Hall, 1962; ternational Congress of.Historical Sciences. Between Meetings it Supplements, 1967, 1973, 1978. is govemed by a bureau of 3 to 12 elected members which meets Artuk, Ibrahim and Cevriye. Istanbul Arkeoloii Mflzeleri Teshirdeki anr.ually in Europe. The Commission encourages scholarly co-operation islaml Sikkeler Katalogu. ">- vols. Istanbul: Milll E^itim in nuaistnatics by lendirig its patronage (financial and otherwise) Basimevi, 1970-74. tc synpcsia and publications (such äs sylloges) and by discussion Bacharach, Jere L. A Near Säst Studies Handbook, 570-1974. of and. where possible, Statements of principle on matters of Seattle: Univ. of Washington Press, 1974. co-anon interest. It publishes an annual Compte rendu, reporting al-Balädhurl. see Eustache (1968); Hitti (1916-^4). on activities of the yeax and also including surveys of numismatic Berman, Ariel. Islamic Coins; Sxhibition. Winter 1976, L.A. collections in different countries. Copies of the Conrote rendu Mayer Memorial Institute for Islamic Art. Jerusalem. 1976. are available from the ASS. The Commission pays too little atten- Bosworth, C.E. The Islamic Dvnasties (Islamic Surveys, V). tion to Islamic numismatics, but this would change if Islamicists Edinburgh: Edinburgh U.P.; Chicago: Aldine Press, 1967. becorae raore vocal in deaanding attention. Brethes, J.D. Contribution a l'histoire du Maroc par les re- cherches numismatiques. Casablanca, 1939. The only other international organization of interest to Islamic Brown, Heien Mitchell. "Oriental Numismatics," in A Survey of numisaatists is the Oriental Numismatic Society, with headouarters Numismatic Research, 1966-71, II, Mediaeval and Oriental in England. The ONS is iominated by collectors*. but it is well Numismatics (New York: American Numismatic Society, 1973), worth the money for scholars äs well. The bimonthly newsletter pp. 315-46. contair.s news of activities in the field, an up-to-date list of Castiglioni, Carlo Ottavio. Monete cufiche dell' I.R. Museo di recent and forthcoming p-^blications, and short reviews and notes. Milano. Milan, 1819. Menbers also receive se--«ral times a year mimeographed 'Information

-12- -13- Codrington. O. A Manual of Musalman Numisraatics. London, 1904. _• Catalogue des .ônnaies musulmanes de la Bibliotheoîe Reprinted, Chicago: Argonaut Press, 1970. Nationale; Espagne et Afrioîe. Paris, 1891. Eustache, Daniel. "Studes de numismatique et de netrologie musul- Cataloque des lonnaies musulmanes de la Bibliothegue manes, I, " Hesperis -Tanuda 9 (1968), pp. 74-107 (edition and Nationale; Sgypte et Syrie. Paul Casanova, ed. Paris, 1896. translation of al-3alidhurl, Amr al-nucrud) . Malmer, Brita, et al. Corpus nummorum saeculorum IX-XI gui in "Studes de nuraismatique et de metrologie musulmanes, II," Suecia reperti sunt. I. Gotland; Akebäck-Atlingbo. Stock- Tamuda 10 (1969), pp. 96-18* (edition and trans- holm: Aluiqvist & wiksell, 1975. lation of al-MaorlzI. Shudhür) . al-MaqrlzI. see Eustache (1969). Corpus des dirhaaa idrlsitea et contemporaina. Banane du Markov, A. Inventamii kataloq musulmanskikh monet Imperatorskavo Maroc. Studes sur la nustisraatique et l'histoire roone'taire Ermitazha. St. Petersburg, 1896; bound with Supplement l? du Maroc, I. Rabat, 1970-71. Supplements 2-4 bound together, undated. Fahsry, Abdel Rahman. Fair al-sikka al-Ba'ra al-ISiahabl, Kitab kashf al-aarSr al-'ilmiyya Miles, George C. The Coinage of.the Umavyads of Spain. Hispanic bi-dar al-darb al-aisriyya. Cairo: Council for the Revival Nuraismatic Series, monograph 1. New York, 1950. of the Islamic Heritage, 1966 (with a catalogue of the Ayyu- .. "Islamic and Sasanian Numismatics: Retrospect and Pros- bid coins in the Dir al-Kutub) . pecc," Congres International de Numismatigue, Paris, 6-11 Figanier. Joaquinu Casa da Moeda, Museu Numismatico Portuguts. lüillet 1953. Vol. I, Rapports (Paris, 1953), pp. 129-44. Moedas Ärabes, Inventur io e Descriclo. 2 vols. Lisbon, \, TsmI'Il. Muze-i 2umiyün. MasktTklt-- "Islamii cturkumantyy Numisraaticsa gata: A- Progress Report," Conqresso Internazionale di Numismatica. Roma, 11-16 Settembre 1961. _ löghl. Constantinople, 1311/1893-94. Also published in Vol. I, Relazioni (Rome, 1961), pp. 181-92. French: Musee Iraperial Ottomane. Catalocnie des monnaies . "Some Islamic Coins in the Berne Historical Museum," turcomanes. Constantinople, 1894. Schweizerische Numismatische Rundschau 45 (1966), pp. 131-42. _ . Mnze-i Humäyün. Xaskükät-i qadlme islämiyyeh gatalSghl. .. "Oriental Numismatics, " A Survey of Numismatic Research, Constantinople, 1312 "1394-95 (7-10th Century Muslim dynasties) . 1960-65. II-, Medieval and Oriental Numismatics (Copenhagen, Ghiron, Isaia. Monete arabiche del Gabinetto Numismatico di 1967), pp. 273-89. Milano. Milan, 1873. • "Additions to Zambaur's Münzpracrungen des Islams. " American Granberg, Beatrice. Forteckning over kufiska Myntfynd i Finland. Numismatie Society Museum Notes 17 (1971), pp. 229-33. Studia Orientalia edidit societas orientalis fennica, 34. Mitchiner. Michael B. Oriental Coins and Their Valuest The Wprld Helsinki, 1956. of Islam. London: B.A. Seaby Ltd, 1977. 3rierson, Philip. Numisraatics. London: Oxford U. P., 1975. Also Mubarak, Mubammad. Muze-i Humäyün. MaskOkät-i gadlme islämiyyeh in paperback. g:atalö<7hl. Hl. Constantinople. 1318/1900-01 (.-nongols etc.). :-rc-jnar.r., A. Einführe.-.- —-.2 Chrestomathie zur arabischen al-Naqshabandl, Nlsir Maimüd. al-Dlnir al-islaml fl al-matbaf Paovruskunde, I. Prague, 1954. al-irlgl, I: al-Dlnir al-umawi wa'l-'abbSsi. Baghdad, 1953. •ûillou. Andre. Les y.o—.avages oehlevi-arabes (Cataloque) . Paris. • al-Dirham al-isllml, I; al-Dirham al-isläml al-madrüb 1953 (collection of -i-.e Bibliotheoue Nationale) . 'all al-tirlz al-sas3nl. Baghdad: The Trag Academy, 1969. Halll. Idhem. Muze-i Hunly'n. Maskükät-i gadlme islämiyyeh -gata- . and Mahäb Darwlsh al-Bakri. al-Dirham al-umawi al-mu'arrab. iSqhl. vi. Constantinople, 1334/1915-16 (Ottoman, to 1003 H.). Baghdad: Ministry of Education, 1974. Hitti, ?.K., and F.C. M'.irgotten. The Origins of the Islamic State Nütze!, H. Königliche Museen zu Berlin. Katalog der orientalischen (Kew York. 1916-24). II, 262-69 (English translation of al- Münzen. I: Die Münzen der östlichen Chalifen (Berlin, 1898); Baladhurl, Amr a l r.urud) . II: nie Münzen der muslimischen Pynastieen Spaniens und des al-5usaynl. Muhammad 3äqir. Tatawwur al-nuqüd al-'arabiyya al- westliehen Nordafrika (Berlin, 1902). islamiyva. Baghdad. 1969. 0strup, J. Cataloque des monnaies arabes et turgues du Cabinet Lagumina, Bartolomeo. Cataloqo delle monete arabe esistenti nella Royal des Medailles du Musê National de Copenhag-ue. Copen- Biblioteca Comunale di Palermo. Palermo, 1892. hagen, 1938. Lane-Poole, Stanley. Catalogue of the Collection of Oriental Pere, Nuri. Osmanlilarda Madenf Paralar. Istanbul: Yapi ve Coins Belongino, to Col C. Seton Guthrie. Fase. I: Coins Kredi Bankasi, 1968. of the Amawi Khallfehs. Hertford, Eng., 1874. Plant. Richard. Arabic Coins and How to Read Them. London: B.A. _ , and Reginald Stuart Poole. Catalogue of Oriental Coins in Seaby Ltd., 1973. the British Museua. 10 vols. London, 1875-90. Poole, Reginald Stuart. Cataloque of the Coins of the 5hahs of _ . Catalogue of the Collection of Arabic Cfeins preserved in Persia in the British Museum. London, 1887. the Khedivial Library at Cairo. London, 1897. Rada y Delgado, D. Juan de Dios de la. Catalogo de monedas ara- Launois, A. "Catalogue des raonnaies fatimites entrees au Cabinet bigas espanblas que se conservan en el Museo Aroêologico des Medailles depuis 1396," Bulletin des Etudes Orientales Nacional. Madrid, 1892. 24 (1971), pp. 19-53. Sauvaire, H. "Materiaux pour servir a l'histoire de la numisma- Lavoix. Henri. Cataloo^g des monnaies musulmanes de la Bibliotheoue tique et de la rnetrologie musulmanes, " Journal asiaticrue, 7th Nationale; Khalifes orientaux. Paris, 1887.

-15- seriea, 14 (1879), 455-S33) 15 (1890), 228-77, 421-78; 18 (1881), 499-516; 19 (1882), 23-|77, 97-163, 281-327; published separate ly, Paris, 1882. Schiepati, Guiseppe. Descrizione di alcune monete cufiche del mus.eo di Stefano de Mainoni. Milan, 1820. Sinyhal, C.R. Dtbliography of Indian Coins. Part II. (Muhammadan aud l.nt«>r !i «r},«» s).. Bombay i Numismatio Society of India, •Sourdel, Uuuilniqutt. inyentairt? dos mon.na.ieg mqaulmajnef du MUH»» ih> Caboul. üamüweuu, 1953. ., Jamäl Toräbl. ijikkt.-t>8-i ialäml___ » üaure-i Ilkhanl ve Gürganl. _Tabriz: Azerbaijan Museum, 1347/1969. Sikkehä'i Shähän-i Isläml-i Iran. Tabriz: Azerbaijan Museum, 1350/1972. Rasmu'1-khatt Ighürl ve-aayri dar sjkke shinBal. Tabriz Azerbaijan Museum, 1351/1973. Tarizzo, M.L. "Early Arab Coins of Tuniaiai I, The Governors of Ifriqiyah, 85-184 All (704-800 A.D.); II, The Aghlabid». 184- 296 AH (800-909 A.D.); in. The Fatimids of Ifriqiyah and Their Succeasors..., 296-625 AH (909-1228 A.D.)," Oriental Nuiiüamatlc Society Information Sheets no. 13 (Jan. 1976), 15 (Nov. 1976), and 18 jJuly 1977). Tevbid, Alxmed. Muze-i Humäyün. MaskükSt-i qadlme isiamiyyeh gatal5ghl. IV. Constantinople, 1321/1903-04 (Ilek Khans, Ghaznavids, Seljuks, Anatolian dynasties). Tornbery, C.J. Numi cufici regii numophylacii holmiensis. quos omnea in terra Sueciae repertoB.. Upaala, 1048. W a Ike r, John. A Catalogue of tho Muhammadan Coins in the Briti.s1i Mutmuin; A Cataloque of the Arab-Saasanian Coina (London, 1941); II; A Catalo^ue of the Arab-Byzantine and Post—Reform lhnai.Y_atl Cpin» (London, 1956). Whitehead, U.U. Catalogut; o t Cpiga in the l'anlob Mutteui«^. Labore. III; Coina of Nadir Shäh and the DurrSnl Dynasty. Oxford, 1934. Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi, Istanbul. Numismatik Yayxnlarx. 1. Nadir Osmanli Maden! Paralan, 1972. 2. Selcuklularin Nadir Paralarindan Bazilarx ve Cimri'nin Sikkeleri, 1972. 3. Tolunogullarx ve Paralarj., 1972. 4. Iran Mogullari ve Altin Paralarx, 1973. 5. Nadir Oamanli Madent Paralari, 1973. 7. Arab-Stsfini Paralarx, 1975. 8. Arab-sisa*ni Paralari II, 1975. 9. Nadir Osmanli Madent Paralari, 1976. Zambaur, Eduard von. Manuel de genealogie et de Chronologie pour l'hiatoire de l*Islam. Hanover, 1927. . Die Münzprägungen des Islams. Zeitlich und Örtlich geordnet, I: Der Westen und Osten bis zum Indus mit synoptischen Tabellen. Peter Jaeckel, ed. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1968.

-16- fcast "tudies Association Bulletin 12, no. 3 December 1978) »V ISLAMIC Wl/MISMATICS c of the ordi^vy austere, unornamented (but nevertheless attractive) Kufic of the overwhelming mass of early Islamic coinage. The nasWn. iy and nasta'liq scripts of later issues also await sophisticated anal- Michael L. Bates ysis. The introduction of naskhl, is discussed by Sourdel (1963~6'0 The American Numismatic Society and Balog (19^*9). One can find general remarks on style in the introductions to most large dynastic catalogues. 3. General Problems in Islamic Numismatics Orthography and grammatic usage also remain largely unstudied. Content and Form of Inscriptipns on Islamic Coins An example of the use of orthography äs evidence for early dialects is provided by Curiel (1966), who argues that the translIteration Since Islamic coins characteristically bear no Images, they have of Arabic jim by Pahlav? K, äs well äs by Z, indicates that both ample room for inscriptions; a typical coin of the Classical Period hard and soft jün were acceptable to first-century Arabs. A paral- bears 50 to-100 words in a total area (obverse plus reverse) of lel instance is the Arabic spelling "Jayy" for the Pahlavi name"GY," about 10 cm . Each coin ?s thus a small document bearing several an old name of Isfahän (Mochiri, 1972, pp. 27-31). In later times, explicit messages which its makers intended to convey. But inscrip- coin inscriptions also occasionally reflect colloquial or dialectal tions, like other features of a coin, also carry implicit Informa- pronunciations, äs on an Ottoman issue of Tilimsän, 1003 H, where tion unconsciously provided by the makers. Analysis of orthography, the year is clearly spelled tztlit, with points (unpubl i shed, in the grammatical constructions, phraseology, and epigraphical style can ANS). illuminate the evolution of the Arabic language and script; the comparative study of titulature brings out changes in the self-image In several respects, the study of mint names can go beyond the and philosophy of government of rulers; religious inscriptions on numismatist's traditional preoccupation with listing and identify- coins show what their issuers regarded äs fundamental, äs opposed ing names, and adding to the l ist. For example, the province Siji- to the beliefs attributed to them by hostile or later writers. Such stän appears commonly äs a mint name in the first four centuries, topics must, of course, be studied in the context of the evidence but often one finds instead the name of its capital Zaranj, some- from literature and monumental inscriptions. Coins have the advan- times in the form Madinat Zaranj. What is the significance of these tage that their evidence is usually firmly dated and placed—and changes in the nomenclature of what is presumably the same mint? undoubtedly official—although one must beware of the strongly con- Do changes from province name to city name, and back again, indi- servative tendency of coin design: inscriptions and designs may re- cate changes in the administrative level at which the mint is con- flect traditional practice rather than current attitudes. trolled? And what is the significance of the prefix Madina? Does ?t indicate that the mint at certain periods was actually located Lists and broad surveys of the phraseologies used on Islamic within the walls of the citadel, not in the surrounding town? The coins to express place and date of issue, governing authorities, re- same phenomena occur on coins of other mints; only comparative study ligious beliefs, denomination, fineness and value can be found in can show whether such variations are significant. the general works described in the last installment, notably those of Album (1977), Mitchiner (1977), Plant (1973), and Codrington The appearance of the same orthographical peculiarities on the (190*1). Such lists are mainly valuable äs aids in the decipherment coins of different mints may suggest some degree of centralized con- and attribution of coins. * trol of minting, and thus provlde evidence for administrative boundaries. Similar evidence is provided by changes in the distribution More sophisticated analyses of such matters are few. No study of mints. In the Umayyad East at certain periods, there were many yet exists of the development of numismatic epigraphical style in dirham mints scattered throughout Iran and Iraq; at other times, general for any major dynasty, region or period. Grohmann, in his coins were struck only at one or two central mints. Centralization manuals of Arabic paleography (1967~71). uses numismatic evidence and decentralization of minting were no doubt reflected äs well in extensively, especially for the earliest period, but his approach other aspects of administration, especially in tax collection. More- is rather generalized; for the Umayyads alone, a substantial study over, extreme centralization of minting must have had economic ef- could be made of chronological and geographical variations in epi- fects, lowering the "price" of money at the center and raising it graphical style. An excellent example of the application of numis- in outlying areas because of transportation costs. matic epigraphical evidence by an art historian to a more limited topic is Lisa Volov's 19&6 study of plaited Kufic on coins and Sam- One might say in general that numismatists have traditionally anid pottery. The highly decorated script she studied is perhaps approached Islamic coinage at the wrong end, in certain respects. more "artistic" and thus more interesting to the art historian; Muslim coins have always been catalogued and studied by the issuing would that someone make a similarly precise study of the evolution authority, that is by dynasty and ruler; whereas, a better understanding of the historical development of Islamic money and its significance for administrative, economic and cultural history might be achieved by studying first the issues of fndividual mints, re- Sections l and 2 appeared in MESA Bulletin, Vol. XII, No. 2, gardless of political changes, and then combining these mint studies of May l, 1978. into provincfal and regional hfstories. [The latter approach is customary in most fields of Western coinage.] „ Mint; historfes are not new in Islamic numisma^rs. Extended coins. Tlie^ special attractfon for Western scholars has produced studies of major mints_inc1ude the classic work of Miles (1938) on_ a large literature, but the often obscure problems of their meaning Rayy, Stern (1967) on Ämul, Welin (1955-56) on Wäsit, and al-Husayni and the motivation for their use in each specific case are not sus- (1970) on KOfa. Al-cUsh has prepared a history of the issues of ceptible to generalization. Sometimes these images provide evidence Damascus, still in press. As for provincial histories, one can for details of costume not elsewhere available; e.g., Miles (1967) think only of studies relating to provinces which correspond in some on the regalia of the Umayyad caliph. Notable examples of the use way with modern national entities: Adharbayjan (Pakhomov, 1959-63), of images up to the 8th/l*»th centuries are listed by a1-°Ush (1971), Armenia (Mushegian, 1973), and Ifriqiyya (Tarizzo, 1976-77), äs well who regards them all äs vestiges of classical influence. äs many works on Spain and Egypt. Despite the diverse merits of these studies, there is still no history of an Islamic mint, even More abstract Ornaments, ranging from complicated interlaced for a limited period, comparable to (e.g.) Margaret Thompson's The tamghas to mere dots, often prove to have significance beyond dec- New Style Silvev Coinage of Athenst which not only lists every known oration. For example, the changes in the pattern of marginal dec- die variety of a massive coinage during 113 years, but also pul 1s oration on anonymous eighth-century Umayyad dirhams of Iraq has been all the details together into a comprehensible history of the Athen- shown to coincide with the tenures of the province's governors (De- ian mint usable by economic and political historians äs well äs nu- Shazo and Bates, 197*0; the presence or absence of the bow-and-arrow mismatists. tamgha on Seljuk coins may reflect changing political relationships among members of the dynasty (Bulliet, 197*0; revisions of the or- For the Muslims, the ruler's name on coins was an important ex- namental frame and the arrangement of the legends of MkhSnid dir- pression of sovereignty; hence, the importance to the numismatist hams denote modifications in their weight Standard (Smith, 1969). of a firm grasp of Islamic titulature, äs well äs the importance of Unfortunately, this kind of non-verbal information was often meant numismatic evidence for the study of titles. Al-Husayni (1970) pro- to be accessible only to those who understood the code; today one vides one instance of the rieh data for titulature to be found on can see the pattern without always being able to discern the mean- the coins of a single mint, Küfa. Most numismatic monographs have ing. analytical indices of names and titles, and often discuss titulary in extenso in their introductions—an excellent example is Hazard, Numismatic Methodelogy 1952, on late medieval North Africa. Interesting recent studies of titulary using numismatic evidence include Madelung on the Büyids A good up-to-date introduction to methodology is Dentzer et al.t (1966), Bosworth on the Ghaznavids (1962), and Richter-Bernberg on Nimismatique antique: Proble~mes et methodes (1975), the product of the KhwSrizmshahs (1976). a colloquium designed to present the basics of numismatics in a sophisticated way to non-specialist historians and archeologists. The Most religious legends on Muslim coins are conventional, but general articles by Hackens and Master are especially useful. Al- even cliches must have had a living meaning at the time of their though the work deals primarily with Greek and Roman coins, this is introduction. Why did cAbd al-Malik select the three Qur'änic pas- not a disadvantage for the Islamicist; most of the techniques are sages he used on the first truly Islamic coins of A.D. 696-697, pas- equally applicable to any kind of hand-struck coinage. Ancient nu- sages which became Standard on Islamic coins for many centuries mismatics is the most advanced specialty within the discipline, but thereafter? An illuminating answer is suggested by Grabar (1973), because of the master/disciple method that has generally prevailed in his discussion of the same passages in the context of the Dome in transmitting numismatic methods, many Islamic numismatists are of the Rock inscriptions. One can imagine that other equally sug- unaware of the high level of the state of the art in other fields. gestive answers could be provided, especially if these inscriptions One can also learn a good deal about methods from Grierson's Numis- are considered by specialists in religious and intellectual history. matics, Chapters *» to 7, even though it is rather brief on most as- The many instances of the introduction of new religious Slogans, and pects. the abandonment or revival of old ones, are too numerous to begin to l ist here. Recent examples of the kinds of studies which can be Since the dies for pre-modern coins were engraved by hand, each made include those by Launois on the Zirids (196*0 and Fäfimids one was different in detail, even if the inscriptions and ornamenta- (197D, and Bulliet (1969) on the issues of NJsäbür, 387 H. S.M. tion were the same—paoe Balog, 19**9, 1951, whose argument that mul- Stern comes to mind äs a leading intellectual historian who consis- tiple identical dies were cast from a single master has not won gen- tently made use of numismatic evidence, not only in his numismatic eral acceptance. By close study of a series of "duplicate" coins, articles (19^9, 1967), but also in such works äs his study of the one can identify each of the dies used to strike the obverses and succession to the Fätimid Caliph al-Ämir (Oriens, 1951). A useful reverses. Furthermore, s?nee the two parts of a pair of dies were l ist of several hundred religious Slogans, with indications of the _ not ordinär?ly fastened or kept together, one usually finds that a coins on which they are to be found, has been compiled by al-Husayni particular obverse die was used with more than one reverse die, and (1975). vice versa. The ramifications are complex (see Hackens, "Terminol- ogie"), but from a knowledge of the number of obverse and of reverse Images and Ornaments dies used for an issue, the ways they were used together, and the stages of deterioration each die went through during its life, one Although religious opinion in Islam frowned on the use of Images can teil a great deal about the operations of the mint, the size of in public official contexts, images are common enough on Islamic . the §qlnage fn question, and the chronology of the issue. It is without knowing of al-HamdänT's Statement, Bacharach and Awad (1973 this latter benefit that has made die study the für tal tech- found that t^kside with mint and date was consistently struck by «lique im ancient, medieval and Byzantine numismatic ere coins the upper di^Tbut in a note appended to their article, Lowick was are not usually explicitly dated. In these fields ,,« v,winage is äble to cite a coin with the mint/date formula and shähada struck considered to be fully "known" until a complete repertory of ob- by the lower die, an exception also to al-Hamdäni's Statement. Ob verse and reverse dies and their relationships has been estab- viously, it is impossible to generalize. lished, supported by published photographs of enough coins to il- lustrate every obverse and reverse die and every obverse/reverse Other evidence, including coins struck from two "obverse" or tv combination. "reverse" dies, shows that in many cases Islamic minters did not particularly care which side of the coin was struck from which die No such full-scale die study has been published for any Islamic As Bacharach and Awad recommend, it is safest to ignore dies in des series, but some limited work has been done. Miles (196?) studied ignating obverse and reverse. Rather, in catalogues and other pub the issues of the Cordoba mints in kQQ H, but merely recorded the lications, one ought merely to be consistent internally and with number of dies found for each obverse and reverse variety; die links established practice. The determination of which side of the coin were noted only when a single obverse variety was found with more was struck by which die must be made separately for each series. than one reverse variety, and there are no illustrations. The most active Student of Islamic dies is Andrew Ehrenkreutz, who has The study of hoards is another fundamental technique of numis- amassed a large file of photographs of Egyptian dinars from cAbbä- matics. Strictly speaking, a hoard is a body of coins deliberatel sid to Ayyübid times. His work, äs exemplified by his most recent hidden by someone who was unable to recover them, but the term i s study, on Tülünid dinars (1977), is primarily concerned with. count- often extended to other finds of coins in quantity, such äs acci- ing dies äs an index of fluctuations in annual production. No at- dentally lost purses and cash boxes, and with less justification, tention is paid to the pattern of die links, although it can be re- funerary deposits and votive accumulations. Although hoards are constructed from the l i st of dinars examined—the results are rath- often a source of new coin varieties, the value of a hoard is great er interesting—nor are there any il1ustrat?ons.v One hopes that er than the sum of its parts: the fact that a body of coins was Ehrenkreutz will ultimately publish his füll photographic documen- found together teils us something about the nature of the monetary tation, so that students who come upon a new Egyptian dinar can teil stock in circulation at a given time and place. Just so, the valu« whether i t i s a die duplicate of one of those Ehrenkreutz studied, of a number of hoards from the same area and period, studied in or is from a new die, thereby modifying his estimates of production. comparison, is greater than the sum of the evidence each of them On statistical grounds, it can be expected that more dies and more provides in Isolation. The context in which a hoard is found is obverse/reverse combinations will be found. In any case, great important evidence for the Interpretation of the find, but unfor- caution must be exercised in the use of the die-count method (see tunately, most Middle Eastern hoards are not found in controlled Grierson, Numismatics, pp. 156-157). scientific excavations, nor do the treasure trove laws of most countries encourage finders to come forward so that scholars can In any die study i t is important to know—and die study i s one examine the context and ensure that the hoard i s complete. way to find out—which side of the coin was customarily struck with the upper die and which with the lower, because of the differing On the contrary, Islamic hoards most commonly appear suddenly rates of wear of the two dies. This question, unfortunately and on sale in the bazaars, or are smuggled out to Europe or America, wrongly, has become linked with the problem of designating the ob- or worst of all, go directly into the melting pot. Nevertheless, verse and reverse of Islamic coins. Since Greek numismatists, who a hoard provides valuable evidence even when divorced from its con- set the style for the entire discipline, have agreed by convention text. By examination of the Contents, one can usually date its to regard the obverse of their coins äs the side struck by the lower original deposition and judge whether it has been subjected to non- die, considerable heat (but only a little llght) has been produced random selection—the parts of a hoard that have been arbitrarily by efforts to determine which side of Islamic coins was struck by split up are still useful äs evidence, but when a dealer or collec- which dies. There is, however, no inherent reason to link what are tor has pulled out the more interesting or valuable coins, much of really three separate questions: the scholarly value is lost—or whether coins have been added. Foi ~ Which side of the coin did contemporaries regard äs the obverse, general guides to the study and Interpretation of hoards, see Grler face, or front? son (1975, Chapter 6) and Hackens1 "Circulation." - Which side of the coin was struck by the lower die? and - Which side of the coin should modern scholars designate äs the There are too many good publications of Islamic hoards to l ist obverse in their publications? them all, but Lowick (1975) may be cited äs an excellent model. Th< problem in this area is really a lack of personnel: more hoards The falsity of the link between obverse and the lower die is appear in trade than there are scholars to study them, so that ofte proven by al-Hamdäni, a ninth-century authority on mint practice, in they are broken up before they can be recorded. The ANS Committee his Jatiharatayn (pp. 3M-3*5), where he says that the side that he on Islamic and South Asian Coins has tried to solve this problem ir (and we) considers to be the obverse, the side with the shahada,uas part by maintaining a file of experts in various fields who arewil struck by the upper die. On the evidence of the coins themselves, ling to study such hoards; those who would like to add their names to the l i st should write to the ANS. Study of a hoard i s an ideal : projeqt. for Student research papers. More concretely, the Royal only for an aximation of the fineness of relatively pure gold ' Numismatic Society in 1975 began publication of the a^^l Coin coins, and Dnly if the other main constituents are known from Hoards, which briefly lists and describes all hoards Wit have literary ev e or some other method of analysis. Neutron acti- come to the editor's attention, whether published or not. Every vation analysis and X-ray spectroscopy provide data on all the con- Islamic collector, dealer or scholar should cooperate with this stituents of the alloy, but require specialized technical expertis« project by sending brief notices of hoards to the editor of the and expensive equipment. In effect, numismatists and historians Islamic section, Mr. Nicholas Lowick, Department of Coins and Med- are dependent upon the cooperation of interested scientists for thi als, The British Museum, London, England. kind of study; only one of the world's major coin cabinets, the Bri tish Museum, has the necessary equipment and expertise available or Coins found at excavation sites are of obvious value äs evidence demand within the Institution. for monetary circulation over the centuries, in addition to their archeological Utility in dating their context. A number of Islamic This is a sharne, because, äs Claude Cahen constantly insists, sites have been published; in too many other cases, the Islamic fineness i s an essential feature of coins that ought to be includec coins from past excavations are still stored away, unstudied and in any catalogue. Indeed, fineness is even more important for mon- unpublished. An article by Dolley (197*0 describes the ideal pro- etary history than weight Standard, because coins were often tradec cedure for dealing with coins from digs; even if his Standards may by weight, not tale, especially in exchange transactions. be too high in practice, the article should be required reading for anyone undertaking an excavation. The volume which includes 00116/5 There is a substantial body of published data on fineness of Is article and the colloquium edited by Dentzer et al. (1975). are use- lamic coins. Metcalf, in the Hall and Metcalf volume (pp. 391-398) ful guides to the treatment and Interpretation of excavation coins. gathers the Islamic studies to that time (ca. 1970) with extremely An exemplary study of coins from a nön-Islamic site is Hackens useful commentary. He overlooked an important and well-done study (1970). of dinars of a number of dynasties of the tenth and eleventh centuries by Ehrenkreutz (1963). Other, more specialized, studies are The weight and the fineness of a coin are the two elements that cited in Part *» of this survey. determine the base value of a coin—äs opposed to its actual market price, determined by supply and demand. Moreover, the weight Stand- Large gaps in our knowledge of the metal composition of Islamic ard and metal composition of an issue can be important clues to its coins still remain, especially with silver and copper coins for attribution. Handmade pre-modern coins varied in weight, even be- which the relatively convenient specific gravity method is unusable tween die duplicates. For several reasons, a technique called the Two important suggestions may be made for future studies. First, a "frequency table" i s the correct method for finding the intended substantial number of coins has to be analyzed for reliable conclu- weight Standard from the different weights of extant specimens. One sions to be drawn. One cannot safely extrapolate the alloy Stand- divides the ränge of weights in grams into .05 or .10 gram intervals ard of a dynasty, ruler, mint or year from the analysis of one or and counts the number of coins with weights falling into each in- two coins. Even die duplicates, that is, coins known to have been terval. The interval with the largest number of coins should cor- struck in the same workshop at nearly the same time, can vary some- respond to the intended Standard. Often this approximate figure in what in fineness because of deficiencies in mint technique or slip- grams can be translated into relevant medieval units. The frequen- shod quality control. Furthermore, all methods of measurement of cy table is simple in principle, but there are complexities in its fineness, except destructive chemical analysis of the whole coin, use and Interpretation (see Grierson, 1975:1*t6-1^9 and Master, 1975)- are subject to error because the metallic composition of a coin is The medieval Islamic gold dinar has been established at A.25 grams not homogeneous, nor is the density of an alloy always uniform—the and the silver dirham at 2.97 grams, but it must be remembered that density and therefore the specific gravity of a gold coin, for exam there were theoretical legal Standards, not always met in practice. ple, can vary according to the force of the blow by which i t was Additional evidence for weight Standards can be obtained from text- struck. One has therefore to analyze a number of specimens and tak« ual sources and glass or bronze coin weights. Literary evidence an average figure, or the mode. for coin weight Standards has been collected by Sauvaire (1879-82) and Hinz (1970). The second imperative is to identify and describe each coin analyzed äs specifically äs possible. It is not sufficient to analyze Fineness, the proportion of precious metal in a coin, is the one or several coins of, say, the Fätimid al-Mustansir without fur- other component of its basic value. The principal methods used now- ther identification; al-Mustansir had six successive coin types, adays to find the metal composition of a coin are specific gravity which can be closely dated, and the historians indicate that at determination, neutron activation analysis, and X-ray spectroscopy. least some of the changes in type correspond to changes in silver These methods are described, and their advantages and disadvantages fineness. The types can be distinguished by changes in the arrange compared, in an indispensable collection of articles by scientists rrent and content of the inscriptions. It cannot be taken for grant- and numismatists, edited by Hall and Metcalf (1972)—the general ed that fineness was unchanged throughout a ruler's reign, or that considerations advanced in the article by Naster and Hackens are it was the same at every mint of a dynasty. Aside from this des- equally valid for Islamic analyses—and in Condamin's article in criptive identification, each individual cofn must be specifically Dentzer et al. (1975). Specific gravity determination is useful and unambiguously distinguished from other similar examples, so that 8 t'he evioence may be restudied, If necessary. Coins in m^eum col- BSOAS, 195*4, p^06 n.l., for additional citations). The_first such lections should be identified by their individual catald^^ or in- work is that ol^ne early tenth-century Yemeni, al-Hamdäni, in his ventory numbers. Where these numbers do not exist, äs at the ANS K. al-Jauharatayn (ed. Toll, 1968; Dunlop, 1957, extracts^the In- for colns acquired before 1977, the weight to the nearest thousandth formation on mines). From Egypt in the Ayyübid period, with reU-o- of a gram will serve to distinguish otherwise identical specimens. spective interest for late Fätimid practice, come three descriptions that reproduce one another to some extent, by al-Makhzümi (trans. A second utilization of analysis of the metal composi t ion of Cahen, 197*»); Ibn MammätT (ed. Atiya, 19*»3); and Ibn Bacra (ed. coins is the use of trace element levels to identify the origins of FahmT, 1966; translation and summary, Ehrenkreutz, 1953, JAOS, 195*«; the metal from which coins are made. 11 has been shown, for exam- Levey, 1967). The Daüha of al-HakTm (ed. Mu'nis, I960; French ple, that any silver ore source has a fairly consistent level of translation in Brethes', 1939, PP- 253-267) was written in Fas in gold äs an impurity, which is too low to be recognized by the re- the mid-1*ith Century. Abu'1-Fadl CA1 lamT ' s Äcln-i Akbwl (transla- finers, and so enters undetected and unchanged into coinage. The tor Blochmann, 1871) describes Äkbär's mint, and the anonymous Tadh- silver coins of a mint which draws primarily on local metal sources klrat al-Mulük describes the §afavid mint in the 17th Century. will thus have a consistent percentage of gold äs an impurity of silver, äs will nearby mints using the same source. For the Islamic There are many studies deriving Information about mintlng tech- world, the technique has mainly been used so far for the drachms niques from features of the coins. The modern commentaries on the and dirhams of late Sassanian and early Islamic Iran (Gordus, 197*1, medieval works listed above will provide a basic bibliography; in cites his earlier studies). At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, partlcular, Toll (1970-71) precedes his summary of the medieval man- Meyers (197*0 has attained more precise results, using elements uals with a survey of modern findings. Balog (1955) summarizes his such äs Iridium which are present only in parts per million or per valuable work on this field. The works cited above on die studies, billion. Gold impurities can also be used in the study of silver metrology and analyses of metal content all shed light on mint tech- coins struck not from ore, but from imported bullion or remelted nique and procedure. Errors and defects in striklng of coins are coins, äs the present author has found in a comparative study of the most fruitful source of Information on production methods; re- Ayyübid silver coins and their Crusader imitations (in preparation cent examples include Misch (1971, 1973), Bacharach and Awad (1973X for publication). Messier (197*0 has pioneered in the use of cop- and Stepkova (1975). per äs a trace element in gold coins for Almoravid and Fätimid dinars. Modern descriptions of mints operating in traditional fashion are not to be overlooked äs evidence for medieval practice. One ob- The Mint viously cannot uncritically project these descriptions back into earlier periods, but they provide models for the Interpretation of An understanding of how mints operated in the Muslim world is medieval evidence. l can cite only a few such descriptions; there essential for the numismatist, to Interpret the coin evidence, and must be many more that could usefully be collected in an anthology. equally important for the economic historian, because the mint was The I8th-century Ottoman mint in Cairo was described in great de- virtually the only source of money in the era before the invention tail by Samuel Bernard, who was made director of the mint by Napol- of paper bills and the development of our complex credit and bank- eon, in the Description'de l'Egypte, VI (1813); no recent author ing System. The mint was the Institution through which were deter- seems to have utilized this work, nor have l seen it myself. Floyer, mined the nature, cost and availability of money for daily life and quoted in NC (1882, p.300), describes the mint of K[rmän in 1878; commerce. Three aspects of mint organization need to be considered: other Information on the mints of Iran under the Shähs is collected by Rabino (19*»5). - Mechanical procedures, including the manufacture of metal blanks, dies, and the coins themselves, äs well äs regula- Descriptions of Indian mints in the l8th and 19th centuries are tion of weight and fineness Standards; numerous; Temple (1889), on the Patiala mint, and Ahmad (1961, 1962), - Personnel and internal organization of the mint; and quoting East India Company reports on the l8th-century Banaras mint, are illuminating examples. Bhatt (197M used surviving mint records - External control and administration of the mint. to describe the worklng of the Indore mint in the I8th and 19th centuries. Perhaps such mint records survive undiscovered from furthe A fourth aspect, the economic function of the mint, will be consid- West: Olcer (1978) recently rescued the 19th-century records of the ered separately. All these are touched upon in "Dar al-Darb," El , Constantinople mint (from the period after the adoption of Western with a general survey of the Arab lands by Ehrenkreutz, and the more machinery) just äs they were about to be burned. The records were extensive and detailed studies of Ottoman and Indian practice by in Ottoman Turkish, but written in Armenian script, since the offi- Inalcik and Burton-Page. cials were Armenian. The two sources of Information on mint technology are the coins The medieval and modern descriptions are also the prlncipal themselves and descriptions of mints. The medieval texts describ- sources for the personnel and the internal organization of mints, ing mints have been surveyed by Toll (1970-71), with summaries of along with casual references in other sources to persons who hap- their content and comments on previous studies (see also Ehrenkreutz, pened to hold mint Offices. The Geniza documents are a rieh source

10 11 x>f such incfdental references, äs evident from Go?ten his administra^Ton. The numismatic evidence shows that cofnage was ea& Society. The personnel included Supervisors, clerl« smelters, indeed sometimes highly centralized and carefully regulated, but it die engravers, strikers, assayers, etc., äs one might expect. Hypo- is clear that at other times monetary policy was set by regional, thetically, these all might be salaried employees of the state, but provincial or city officials. Often gold and silver coins were in fact, whenever the evidence is explicit, it seems that their re- closely controlled, while copper was left to local authorities. An muneration was exclusively from fees paid to each worker by the cus- interesting example of the complexity of this question is the re- tomers of the mint (Goiten, Med. Soc., II, p. 358; al-MakhzümT, tr. formed silver coinage of the Umayyads, which is uniform in arrange- Cahen, 197*»; Ahmad, 1961, 1962). In the Banaras mint (Ahmad), the ment and content of inscriptions from Spain to Khurasan, but varies lower employees paid (annually?) fixed "entrance fees" to the higher at some periods from province to province in weight Standard and officers for the privilege of working in the mint; these fees were fineness. Were such variations due to local autonomy, or to differ- recouped (or not, depending on the volume of production) by fees ing interpretations of central directives? It has been all too com- charged to the customers. Generally, the fees of the workmen and mon to speak of Umayyad, Fätimid, Mamlük or Ottoman monetary policy, officers were in addition to the seigniorage, the government's fee without attention to the evident regional variations in the coinage or tax on minting. The seigniorage might be collected directly, or of even the most centralized dynasties. farmed to private contractors (Ehrenkreutz, BSOAS, 195*», pp. 509- 510; cf. Goiten, cited above). The total charges for minting, äs It would be interesting to know what were the theoretical con- stated in the mint descriptions cited above, ranged from 0.875% to siderations which shaped monetary policy decisions in the medieval 5%. Muslim world. No comparative examination seems to have been made of the Statements of Muslim legists and political thinkers about The mint's customers were the state, on one hand, and private the function of coins and the mint. One ought also to undertake a individuals on the other. The state would have recourse to the careful analysis of the motivations ascribed to rulers by histori- mint only when it had revenues in bullion or non-current (old or ans in their occasional references to changes in the currency. The foreign) coin, primarily from booty, confiscations, or state-owned economics of money i s notoriously arcane still today; i t seems dan- mines; taxes would normally be paid in current coin. Private citi- gerous to assume much sophistication on the part of medieval rulers. zens would bring bullion and non-current coin to the mint only when the cost of coin obtained there was less than the cost of current It is interesting to see that Ibn Khaldun, in discussing the coin obtained from money-changers. In Egypt specialists called role of the mint (Muqaddima, 11:^7-48), limits it to the Provision of nruinds or mawrids handled the business of assembling small lots of coinage of reliable fineness with a mark of guarantee, so that tran- bullion and bringing it to the mint (Ehrenkreutz, BSOAS, 195*»; Goi- sactions may be made with confidence. If the coinage is also of ten, Med. Soc., l, p. 267). Presumably their buying prices for regulär weight, transactions can be made by count, but this he im- gold and silver reflected a profit for themselves in addition to plies is only a convenience, not a necessary element of sound coin- the mint fees and seigniorage they had to pay, adding to the cost age. The level of fineness is also immaterial, äs long äs it is of coinage to the ordinary citizen. generally acceptable and uniform in a locality. One wonders whether medieval Muslim rulers were more sophisticated than this in their Although some modern writers speak of the state's or the mint's notions of coinage äs a factor in economic welfare; on the other search for supplies of precious metal for coinage, this seems to be hand, it is not unlikely that they were sometimes more sophisticated a misconception. All the evidence suggests that the mint only re- in their understanding of how coinage could be manipulated for their sponded to demand: if the state or individuals had metal and own profit. Beldiceaneau (1960-6*0 has collected a number of mint brought it to the mint, it would strike their metal into coins; if directives of the early Ottoman sulfäns, which are first-hand evi- no one needed this Service at a given moment, the mint did not oper- dence of the considerations affecting mint policy in one late medi- ate. Theoretically, large mints may have struck coins in anticipa- eval state. tion of demand, ready to deliver immediately to anyone who brought in bullion, but even this possibility seems a hazardous assumption The role of coins and the mint in the pre-modern economy has in the absence of explicit evidence for it. been already touched upon more than once; a füll consideration of monetary economics would exceed the bounds of this survey. Never- Modes of external control and administration of the mint seem theless, some understanding of how coins were used in daily life is to have varied widely. The essential questions are: usually a prerequisite for interpreting numismatic evidence. The indispensable starting point for pre-modern monetary history is the - Who determined monetary policy? and work of Gilles Hennequin, principally his Problämes (1972), but al- - Who saw to it that it was carried out? so his other more recent articles, of which the latest (1977) citei the others. With a wealth of citation, not only of works on Isla- Control of the mint was an important attribute of sovereignty for mic money but also studies in classical, medieval Western, Byzantine, medieval Muslims, and in legal theory, supervision of the mint was Indian and Chinese economic history, äs well äs modern economic a responsibility of the caliph or sultan; but in practice, this texts, Hennequin sets forth clearly the differences between the mon- must have depended largely on the interest and competence of the etary Systems of earlier times and those of the 19th and 20th cen- sovereign in such matters and on the degree of centralization of turies. In particular, Hennequin shows convincingly that all coins

12 13 r *> ^ before the 19th Century liberal era must be presumedM^ have circu- Album, StepfiW. Marsden's Numismata Orientalin Illustrata. New «Jated at a premium over their fntrinsic bullion value/a premiumset York: Attic Books, 1977. at ffrst by the costs of minting (seigniorage, mint workers' fees, Anonymous. Tadhklrat al~Mulük. See Minorsky (19*3). transportation, etc.), but thereafter varying in the marketplace in Ashtor, Eliyahu. Eistoire des prix et des salaires dans l'Orient accordance with supply and demand. Not only did gold, silver and medieval. Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1969. copper coins fluctuate in price in relation to the corresponding Ashtor, Eliyahu. Les metaux precieux et la balance des payements raw metals, but also against each other; moreover, even the exchange du Proche-Orient a la basse epoque. Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1971. rate of two different coinages in the same metal would fluctuate Atiya, Aziz Suryal, ed. Kitab Qawäwln al-Dawauln by Ihn Mammätl. around a norm set by their relative precious metal content. Henne- Cairo: 19*3. quin Stresses that, in the absence of explicit evidence, we cannot Bacharach, Jere L. and H.A. Awad. "The Problem of the Obverse and assume that any pre-modern government ever effectively guaranteed the Reverse in Islamic Numismatics," NC, pp. 183-191 (1973). the exchange rate of any of its issues against bullion or against Balog, Paul. "Apergus sur la technique du monnayage musulman au other coins, by Standing ready both to buy and seil at a single Moyen-age," BIE, 31:95-105 (19*9). fixed rate. In this context, dinars and dirhams, even when issued Balog, Paul. "Apparition prematuree de 1'^criture naskhy sur un by the same mint at the same time, were äs much two separate curren- dinar de l'imam fatimite al-Moustaly-billah," BIE, 31:181-185 cies äs are pounds and dollars today. The Operation of Gresham's (19*9). law takes on quite a different character in such a Situation, and Balog, Paul, "ttudes numismatiques de l'Egypte musulmane: Periode« such terms äs "gold Standard" or "bimetalism" become vfrtually mean- fatimite et ayoubite, nouvelles observations sur la technique di ingless. monnayage," BIE, 33:1~*1 (1951). Balog, Paul. "Notes on Ancient and Medieval Minting Technique," Two books by Ashtor collect a mass of data on the monetary his- NC, PP. 196-202J1955). tory of the Near East, his Prix et salaires (1969) and Les metaux Beldiceanu, Nicoara. Les Actes des premiers sultans conserves dans precieux (1971); on the latter, of. Hennequin (197*). Goiten's Aferf- les manuscrits turcs de la Bibliotheque Nationale a Paris. Paris, iterranean Society shows in concrete detail how coins were used in The Hague: Mouton 6 Co., 1960-196*. one medieval Muslim society, especially I, pp. 229-266. It seems Bhatt, S.K. "Mint Records of Malharnagar (Indore 1866 A.D.)," JNSI that much of the work that has been done on the monetary history of 36:92-108 (197*). the Muslim world is concentrated on Egypt and its Mediterranean Blochmann, H., tr. The A'ln-i Akbarl [by] Abu 'l-Fazl 'Alläml. 2nd neighbors; the eastern Islamic countries have been more neglected, ed. [reproduced from 1871 original]. Delhi: 1965'. perhaps because of a relative paucity of data. Bosworth, C.E. "The Titulature of the Early Ghaznavids," Oriens, 15:210-233 (1962). Brethes, J.D. Contribution a l'histoire du Maroc par les recher- PERI0PICAL ABBREI/IATI0WS ches numismatiques. Casablanca, 1939. Bulliet, Richard W. "A Mu'tazilite Coin of Mahmud of Ghazna,">MfäM7 15:119-129 (1969). ANSMN American Nwnismatic Society Museum Notes Bulliet, Richard W. "Numismatic Evidence for the Relationship Be- BEO Bulletin des ttudes Orientales tween Tughril Beg and ChaghrT Beg," in Kouymjian, ed., pp. 289-2? BIE Bulletin de l'Institute d'Egypte (197*).' BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Cahen, Claude. "La frappe des monnaies en Egypte au Vle/XIle siecle JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society d'apres le Minhäj d'al-Makhzümi," in Kouymjian, ed., pp. 335-338 JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (197*). JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies Codrington, 0. A Manual of Musalman Numismatics. London: 190* [Re- JNSI Journal of the Numismatic Society of India printedi Chicago: Argonaut Press, 1970. MNZ Münstersche numismatische Zeitung [in Holger Dombrowski Curiel, Raoul. "Monnaies arabo-sasanides, M: Monnaie d'al-HaJJaj Münzenhandlung Lagerkatalog] b. Yüsuf a legende pehlevie," RN, pp. 61-69 (1966). NC Numismatic Chronicle Dentzer, Ü.M., Ph. Gauthier and T. Hackens, eds. Numismatique an- RN Revue Numismatique tique: pröbl'emes et methodes. Annales de l'Est, Publiees par l'Universite" de Nancy II. Mgmoire **. Etudes d'archeologie classiquej IV. Nancy-Louvain: £dns. Peeters, 1975. BIBLIOGRAPH/ DeShazo, A.S. and Michael L. Bates. "The Umayyad Governors of al- 'Iraq and the Changing Annulet Patterns on Their Dirhams," NC, Abü'1-Fadl 'AllämT. See Blochmann (1871). pp. 110-118 (197*). Ahmad, Qeyamuddin. "An Historical Account of the Banaras Mint in Dolley, Michael. "Some Thoughts on the Manner of Publication of the Later Mughal Period, 1732-1776," JNSI, 23:198-215 (1961). Coins Found in the Course of Archaeological Excavations," in Ahimad, Qeyamuddin. "An Unpublished Report on the Functioning and Coins and the Archaeologist, pp. 22*-233 [British Archaeological Scope of the Banaras Mint, 1801," JMSI, 2*:I15-129 (1962). Reports, Vol. *. London, 197*]. Dunlop, D.M. "Sources of Gold and Silver in Islam According to al- HamdänT (lOth Century A.D.)," Studia Islamica* 8:29-*9 (1957). , _••/• f-f ^^ Ehrenkreultz, A.S. "Extracts from the Technical ManuaWon the Ayyü- fin du Moyen-Äge," Annales islamologiques, 13:179' bid Mint in Cairo," BSOAS, 15.-423-447 (1953). 215 (1977). Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Contributions to the Knowledge of the Fiscal Hinz, Walther. Islamische Masse und Gewichte. Handbuch der Orien- Administration of Egypt in the Middle Ages," BSOAS, 16:502-51*» talist ik, Ergänzungsband l, Heft 1. 2nd ed. [with additions am .(1954). corrections] . Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970. Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "The Standard of Fineness of Gold Coins Circu- al-HusaynT, Muhammad Bäqir. "al-KunS wa'1-alqab 'all nuqud al-Küf< lating in Egypt at the Time of the Crusades," JAOS, 7*4:162-166 Sumer, 26:169-235 (1970). (1954). al-HusaynT, M.B. "Diräsa IhsS'iyya l i ' 1-shi 'arlt 'alä al-Nuqüd fi Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Studies in the Monetary History of the Near äl-'Asr al-lslämT," al-Maskükat, No. 6:102-141 (1975). East in the Middle Ages: The Standard of Fineness of Some Types Ibn Ba'rä. See Fahmy (1966); Ehrenkreutz (1953; JAOS, 1954); Leve^ of Dinars," JESHO, 2:128-161 (1959). (1967),.. Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Studies in the Monetary History of the Near East Ibn Mammäti. See Atiya (1943). in the Middle Ages, II: The Standard of Fineness of Western and Misch, Lutz. "Fehlprodukte islamischer Münzstätten," MNZ, 43:13- Eastern Dinars Before the Crusades," JESHO, 6:243-277 (1963). 14 (September 1971). Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Numismato-Stati stical Reflections on the Annual Misch, Lutz. "Hohlschläge islamischer Münzen," MNZ, 52:2-4 (April Gold Coinage Production of the Tülünid Mint in Egypt," JESHO, 1973). 20:1-14 (1977). ! Kouymj i an, Dickran K., ed. Near Eastern Numismatics, Iconography, Fahmy, Abdel Rahman, ed. Ibn Ba'ra al-DhahabT, Kitäb kashf al- Epigraphy and History: Studies in Honor of George C. Miles. asrZtr al-'ilmiyya bi-där al-darb al-misriyya. Cairo: Council for Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1974. Revival of the Islamic Heritage, 1966 [with a catalogue of the Launois, Aimee. "Influence des docteurs malekites sur 1e monnayage Ayyubid coins in the Dar al-Kutub], zlride de type sunnite et sur celui des Almoravides," Arabica, Goitein, S.D. A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of 11:127-150 (1964). the Aräb World As Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza. Launois, Aime'e. "Catalogue des monnaies fatimites entrges au Cabi- Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1967-. net des MedaMles depuis 1896," BEO, 24:19-53 (1971). Gordus, Adon A. "Non-Destructive Analysis of Parthian, Sasanian, Levey, Martin. "Medieval Arabic Minting of Gold and Silver Coins," and Umayyad Silver Coins,"in Kouymjian, ed., pp. 141-162 (1974). Chymia, 12:3-14 (1967). Grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art. New Haven: Yale Uni- Lowick, N.M. "An Early Tenth Century Hoard from Isfahan," NC, pp. versity Press, 1973. 110-154 (1975). Grierson, Philip. Numismatics. London: Oxford University Press, Madelung, Wilferd. "The Assumption of the Title Shahanshah by the 1975. Büyids and 'The Reign of the Daylam (Dawlat al-Daylam) , '" JNES , Grohmann, Adolf. Arabische Paläographie. Österreichische Akademie 28:84-108, 168-183 (1969). der Wissenschaften. Forschungen zur islamischen Philologie un al-MakhzümT. See Cahen (1974). Kulturgeschichte, I-II. Vienna: Hermann Böhlaus Nachf., 1967- Messier, Ronald A. "The Almoravids: West African Gold and the Gold 1971. Currency of the Mediterranean Basin," JESHO, 17:31-47 (1974). Hackens, Tony. "Les monnaies," Ch. XVI of Exploration Archeqlogique Meyers, Pieter et al. "Major and Trace Elements in Sasanian Sil- de Delos ...: L'Ilot de la maison des comediens. Paris: Editions ver," in Archaeological Chemistry. Advances in Chemistry Series de Boccard, 1970. 138. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1974, pp. Hackens, T. "Terminologie et techniques de fabrication," in Dent- 22-33. zer et al., pp. 3-15 (1975). Miles, George C. The Numismatic History of Hayy. New York: 1938. Hackens, T. "La circulation monetaire, questions de methode," in Miles, George C. "The Earliest Aräb Gold Coinage," ANSMN, 1 3:205- Dentzer etal., pp. 213-222 (1975). 229 (1967). al-HakTm. See Mu'nis (I960); and Brethes (1939). Miles, George C. "The Year 400 A.H./1009-1010 A.D. at the Mint of Hall, E.T. and D.M. Metcalf, eds. Methods of Chemical and Metal- Cordoba," Numisma, 17:9-27 (1967). lurgical Investigation of Ancient Coinage. Special Publication MMes, George C. "Numismatics," Ch. 10 in The Cambridge History of No. 8. of Royal Numismatic Society. London: 1972. Iran, IV: The Period from the Aräb Invasion to the Saljugs, ed. al-Hamdäni. See Toll (1968); and Dunlop (1957). R. N. Frye. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Hazärd, Harry W. The Numismatic History of Late Medieval North Af- Minorsky, V., ed. /t r. Takhklrat al-Mulük, A Manual of Safavid Ad- rica. New York: 1952. ministration. E.J.W. Gibb Memorial, New Ser. 16. London: 1943. Hennequin, Gilles P. "Problämes thSoriques et pratiques de la mon- Mitchiner, Michael B. Oriental Coins and Their Values: The World naie antique et me"d i eVa l e," Annales islamologiques, 10:1-51 o f Islam. London: B. A. Seaby, Ltd., 1977. (1972). Mochiri, Malek l radj . Etudes de numismatique iranienne sous les Hennequin, Gilles. "Mamlouks et metaux pre"cieux: Ä propos de la SassanideSj I. Teheran: [n. p.], 1972. balance des paiements de 1'etat syro-egyptien S la fin du moyen Mu'nis, Husayn, ed. 'All, b. Yüsuf al-Häklm, al-Dawha al-Mushtabika 3ge; questions de methode," Annales islamologiques, 12:37-44 fl dawabit dar al-Sikka. Madrid: I960. (1974). Mushegian, Kh. A. "Hayastanum taracvac vagh arabakar dramner," Hennequin, Gilles P. "Nouveaux apercus sur l'histoire monetaire de Lraber Hasarakakan Gi tu t 'yuneri , No. 12:32-47 (1973). 16 17 Mush«gian, Kh. A. "Abbasian dramner? toghark^fc Khalipht! 'Armen- ia1 nahangum VlM-X daterum," Isteriko-Filttogicheskii Zhurnal, Akademiia Nauk Armianskoi^SSR, No. *»(63):1*0-156 (1973). Naster, P. "La methode en me'trologie numismatique," in Dentzer et „ al.t pp. 65-7*» (1975). Olcer, Cüneyt. Ottoman Coinage Dwing the Reign of Sultan Abdül- meoid Han. Istanbul: The Author, 1978. Pakhomov, E.A. Monety Azerbaldzhana. 2 vols. Baku: Akademiia Nauk Azerbafdzhan SSR, 1959-1963. Plant, Richard. Arabio Coins and How to Read Them, London: B.A. Seaby, Ltd., 1973. Rabino di Borgomale, H.L. Coins, Medals, and Seals of the Shahs of Iran, 2500-1941. [n.p.]: 19*»5. Richter-Bernberg, Lutz. "Zur Titulatur der Hwarezm-Sahe aus der Dynastie AnüstegTns," Aroh. Mitt. Iran, pp. 179-205 (1976). Sauvaire, H. "MateYiaux pour servir l l'histoire de la numismatique et de la me'trologie musulmanes," Journal asiatique, 7th ser., l*»:*»55-533 (1879); 15:228-277, *»21-*»78 (1880); 18:*»99-5I6 (1881); 19:23-77, 97-163, 281-327 (1882). [published separately] Paris: 1882. Smith, John M. "The Silver Currency of Mongol Iran," JESHO, 12:16- *»1 (1969). Sourdel, Dominique. 'Un tr£sor de dinars §aznawides et salgüqides ^ jlScouvert en Afghanistan," BEO, 18:197-219 0963-1961»). StepkovS, Jarmila. "A Contribution to the Minting Techniques of the Umayyad Coinage," Annals of the Ndprstek Museum [Prague], 8:ll»7-156 (1975). Stern, S.M. "Some Unrecognized Dirhems of the Zaidis of the Yemen," NC, pp. 180-188 (19^9). Stern, S.M. "The Coins of Ämul," NC, pp. 205-278 (1967). Tarizzo, M.L. "Early Arab Coins of Tunisia: I, The Governors of Ifriqiyah, 85-18*1 A.H. (70*4-800 A.D.); II, The Aghlabids, 18*»- 296 A.H. (800-909 A.D.); III, The Fltimids of Ifriqiyah and Their Successors ..., 296-625 A.H. (909-1228 A.D.)," Oriental Nwnismatic Society Information Sheets, No. 13 (January 1976); No. 15 (November 1976); and No. 18 (July 1977). Temple, R.C. "The Coins of the Modern Native Chiefs of the Panjab," Indian Antiquary, 18:321-3*»! (1889). Toll, Christopher. Die beiden Edelmetalle Gold und Silber von al- yamdant. Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis, Studia Semitica Upsa- liensia, I. [edition and translation of the Kitäb al-Jawhara- tayn]. Uppsala: 1968. Toll, Christopher. "Minting Technique According to Arabic Literary Sources," Orientalia Sueoana, 19-20:125-139 (1970-1971). al-'Ush, Muhammad Abu'l-Faraj. "Traces du classicisme dans la numismatique arabe-islamique," Annales archeologiques aräbes syri- ennes, 21:303-327 (1970- Volov, Lisa. "Plaited KOfic on Slmänid Epigraphic Pottery," Ars Orientalis, 6:107-133 (1966). Welin, W.S. Linder. "Wasit, the Mfnt-Town," Bulletin de la Societe Royale des Lettres de Lund, k-, 127-169 (1955-1956).

18 <, ^ ISLAMIC NUMISMATICS Michael L. Baues The American Numismatic Society East Studies Association Bulletin, 4, Specialized Studies in Islamic Numismatics* 13, no. l (July 1979) j This last part of a survey of the state of research on- Islamic coins and money is intended äs a guide for the non-specialist histor- iian to catalogues and studies of the issues of individual dynasties, fregions and periods. Mithin broad chronological periods (ca. A.D. : 632-750, 750-946, 946-1250, 1250-1517, 1517-1900) the treatment is regional. The body of numismatic literature is vast and scattered; this survey attempts to cite only general references and the most recent work for each subject. It must be said, however, that few topics have äs yet been adequately treated in the secondary h'terature. Especially when important conclusions are to be drawn, it is essential to Zook also at the original sources — the coins themseZves. The Rashidün and L/mayyad Caliphates This formative era for Islamic coinage, which one may call "Umay- yad" for convenience despite numerous non-L/mayyad issues, has received more attention from modern scholars than any other. The evo- Zution of its coinage, however, is still not clearly understood. The basic references are the magisterial British Museum catalogues of Walker (1941,1956), covering everything but the Zote Eastern revoZu- tionary issues. The catalogues descn'be eocampZes from other coZZec- tions where the ß.M. cabinet \vas Zacking, making them in effect a corpus"* of ümayyad coinage. On the other hand, there is a complete Zack of historical pn'ncipZe in the arrangement of the material, which can be very misZeading; much has been discovered since rValker \vrote; and there are (inevitably) some typographical and other errors. In sum, one may stand in awe of Walker1 s achievement, but one ought not to use the books uncritically. A more recent general view of Ümayyad coinage is offered by Bates (forthcoming 1979?). No other general works have appeqred since VJ alker wrote. Impor- tant new museum cataZogues include those of Fahmy (1935) and the Artuks (1971). For monetary history, see Grierson (1965) and Ehrenkreutz (1959); the latter provides goZd fineness dato wZiich should be compared to those in the addendum to Balaguer' s article forthcoming in ANSMN (1979). An attempt to estimate the quantity of Ümayyad mint production by a Seminar at the University of Michigan (1966) is com- mendable in its intention, but of ZittZe practical value because it deals with all mints together rather than the combined output of individual mints. The main historical sources for the origins of Islamic coinage are al-ßalädhurf and aZ-Maqrfzf, recently re-edited by Eustache (1968, 1969). Extensive and detaiied indices of L/mayyad coins and bibliography are avaiZabZe for consuZtation at the ANS.

Parts lt 2 and 3 appeared in previous issues of MESA Bulletin, «t In numismatic parlance a "catalogue" describes the holdings of one collection; a "corpus" attempts to list and describe the issues of a series, with citation of all known specimens. • * ^mayyad Syria has special interest äs the meÄ^>olitan province, and silver coins als« Jtlated there, äs indicated by the eocistence and 'especially äs the venue of the invention of true Islamic coinage. of very precise glas. jhts for coins in all three metals. The study The basic reference is still Walker (1956), passim (some Damascus of these weights and the related heavy glass weights and glass stamps silver issues are in Vol. l, 1941), but his notions of the early evo- for measures of capacity is the most interesting field of Umayyad lution of Syrian coinage have been much revised by new evidence and Egyptian numismatics. The largest and most recent catalogue, with a new ideas. 7t is agreed that the progression in all metals was from füll bibliography, is that by Paul Balog (1976) of his own collection, imitations of Byzantine and Sasanian coinage, to attempt to create a now in the ANS (the gram weights of the ob/ects in that catalogue, Muslim pictorial iconography (including the "standing caliph" type), for a variety of reasons, are not reliable). A.H. Morton has begun a to the initiation of purely inscriptional Islamic coinage in 77/697. The new catalogue of the large British Museum collection, including a study disagreements have to do with the absolute chronology of this evolu- of die identities. tion and the motivations for it. For the gold dinar, the best account The papyri are another important body of evidence for early Egyp- is that of Miles (1967), where previous \vork is cited. On the transi- tian monetary history. Much Information is collected by Grohmann tion in silver Miles is also the authority (1952, and his review of (1954,pp.lSl-219), but much more could be learned by a scholar with Walker's catalogues, Ars Orientalis, 1959). The most radical revision expertise in both numismatics and papyrology. is that proposed for the so-called Arab-Byzantine Syrian copper coin- In the Maghrib, no Muslim coins were issued until the taking of age by Bates (1976), who argues that it began not in the period of Carthage, about the same time äs the introduction of the new Islami- the conquests, the 630s, but rather in the reign of ' Abd al-Malik, cized coinage in Syria. As a result, the earliest Maghribi coinage was and that Islamic Syria had no coinage of its own before that time. hybrid, with ßyzantine images and Latin inscriptions translating the The absolute and relative chronology of the many Syrian copper Arabic religious legends of the reformed coinage. These transitional issues, and (often) their attribution to specific mints, remain the trta- Maghribi issues, which persisted in North Africa and Spain until about j'or problem of Umayyad Syrian numismatics. Solutions are ZikeZy to 720, have been a field of study unto themselves. The African issues be found only by a unified study of the Byzantine and inscriptional are well catalogued by Walker (1956), but improvements in his classi- types, using such evidence äs die linkages, hoards and single finds, fication are possible. Balaguer (1976) summarizes recent Spanish re- metrology, and metal composition. VirtuaZZy nothing has yet been done search on African issues, with most of the bibliography; see Leuthold along these lines. The post-reform gold and silver coinage of Damas- (1967) for a suggested distinctive Maghribi weight Standard for tran- cus is monotonous in appearance, but nevertheless presents some sitional and reformed dinars. Tarizzo (1976) provides a useful brief topics for study: guide to all Umayyad African issues. the evolution of epigraphical style - metrology For the Arab-Latin coinage of Spain, Balaguer's model survey and trace element composition - metal fineness catalogue (1976) largely replaces Walker and suggests directions for production volume - mint organization further research, but see also Bates' review (forthcoming in NC). Careful die studies of dinars and dirhams would be a useful first Balaguer's catalogue of these coins in the ANS is to appear in ANSfrlN step. The lotest version of a study of "secret points" on Damascus (1979). The subsequent reformed issues of Spain were catalogued by gold and silver by Bates will appear in the Proceedings of the 1979 Miles (1950), with additions of detail by Walker. International Numismatic Congress. The Umayyad North seems a useful designation for a region,_com- Our picture of the monetary Situation in Arabia has changed fun- prising the provinces of al-Jazlra, al-Mawsil, A dharbay jän, Arminiyya damentally since Walker wrote, largely thanks to the growing interest and Arrän, which has not yet been sufficiently recognized either by in numismatics in Saudi Arabia. The ma/or mint there seems to have numismatists or historians äs an entity comparable to the Umayyad been al-Madfna, according to Shamma (forthcoming). A very good East, unified under a single governor (öfter ca. 75 H). The Umayyad Ph.D. thesis by Hakiem offers a füll treatment of the monetary Situ- issues of Armenia, Adharbayjän and Georgia are listed in the survey s ation in Arabia in the first Century, with implications for Umayyad of these provinces by (respectively) Mushegian (1973), Pakhomov coinage in general. His detailed listing of Arabien hoards and their (1959-63), and Lang (1955); and the copper issues of Mosul are de- Contents includes a coin attributed to Umayyad Mecca, and other sur- scribed by Rotter (1974). Additions could be made to all these list- ings, but more importantZy, Interpretation is tmpossible when each prises. province is considered in isolation. For example, qlthough there are Jf the ßyzantine issues of Syria are not so early äs the conquest, numerous mint names on the dirhams of this region, it appears that2 then Egypt appears to have the first Muslim coins; there is reason to there was only one mint for silver at any given time; it was moved believe that the Byzantine mint of Alexandria was kept in Operation from place to place with the governor. by the Arabs from the time of its capture in 641. Walker barely noted the ejcistence of the imitations strucfc there, for their Muslim origin For some 40 years öfter the conquest of the Sasanian empire, the was still uncertain. The known varieties are Zisted by Awad (1972), Muslim governors of the Umayyad East issued coins distinguishäble from their Sasanian prototype primarily by the addition of brief Ara- and the nature of this coinage is discussed by Miles (1958). The lat- bic marginaZ legends. Walker (1941) provides the only general descrip- ter article is also the Standard reference for the Egyptian Arabic tive catalogue of this complex and fascinating "Arab-Sasanian" coin- copper coinage that replaced the imitations (with additions by Bach- age. In the light of subsequent research and discovery, his work is arach and Awad, 1974). severely dated. This series has been recently surveyed by Gaube Although Umayyad Egypt issued only copper coins, imported gold (>1'973) in a handbook which, despite some weakn^tees, entirely re- sid caliphs in their period of temporal sovereignty, but NichoZas plaaes TValker's introductory discussion. The ArcUissu.es must be Lowick of the ßritis ;eum is hard at work to filZ the gap with a continuation in severui volumes of the cataZogue series begun by studied in connection with those of the Sasanians; Gobi's handbook Walker. Like the earlier volumes, Lowick's catalogue will inclüde (1968,1971) is the most recent survey. examples from other collections of issues not represented in the B.M. The ma/or interest of scholarship in this field so far is the In- The last attempt to list all known cAbbasid issues was the corpus of terpretation of the dates on these coins and the Identification of the Tiesenhausen (1873). This work is now hard to find; but if available, offen cryptic mint abbreviations. Given the many questions that re- it is stilZ a great help. It is weZZ-indexed and generaZZy reliable, al- main to be solved, it is not surprising that neither Walker nor Gaube though it is a good idea to check the sources cited whenever possi- attempted a general historical overview of the evolution of this coin- ble. Two brief surveys of cAbbasid coinage may be mentioned: age. Nevertheless, most of the ma/or mint abbreviations have been identified, and our knowledge of this series has reached a point - Ghanima (1953) is valid in general, but often misleading in de- where generaZization is not only possible but essential for further tail; substantial progress. Neither the beginning nor the ending of this - Album (1977) proposes a useful periodization. coinage has yet been clearly elucidated, nor have such broad prob- For research, until Lowick's catalogues are published, it is still ne- lems äs weight Standards, distribution of production, the reZation of cessary to build up one's own corpus from the cataZogues of the ma- governors' names on the coins to the region' s administrative struc- jor institutionaZ coZlections in London, Paris, Berlin, Istanbul, Lenin- ture, and the significance of the various reZigious Slogans been ta- grad, Cairo, and elsewhere Clisted in f-lESA Bulletin, May 1978, pp. ken up. A fairly substantial body of dato on metaZ composition has 8-12); and from the vast literature of articles and monographs. Zorn- been built up by Adon Gordus at the University of Michigan, but is baur* s Münzprägungen and the mint file at the ANS are nearly essen- largely unpublished; the most interesting aspect of these duta is the tial for this sort of endeavor. A special category of Abbäsid and use of trace elements to identify the Zocation of mints, äs described post-cAbbasid coins, the presentation pieces made for court dona- by him in 1974 (where his earlier pubZications are cited). tions rather than generaZ circulation, is the sub/ect of a general The Arabic dirhams of the East öfter 79/699 are catalogued by study by Lutz Ilisch, now in progress, which will incZude both those Walker (1956). Important subsequent works inclüde two Zarge hoards with and those without images. described by Artuk (1966) and al-°Ush (1972), and the catalogue of Most generaZ work on the cAbbäsid period has dealt with coins the Iraq Museum collection by al-N.aqshabandi and al-Bakri (1974) of one metal only. Afiles (1948) and Naqshabandi (1953) describe the with much useful ancillary matter. Many new mint 7iames and new gold dinars of the ANS and the Iraq Museum. There seem to be few dates for known mints have been discovered since 1956; a detailed gold hoards from the cAbbasid period, but later hoards with impor- file of published and unpublished examples is maintained at the ANS. tant representations of cAbbäsid dinars inclüde the Khidr Ilyäs (Bagh- The reformed dirhams have the advantage, äs compared to the Arab- dad) hoard, now in Istanbul (Naqshabandi, 1954), and the RamZa Sasanian, of bearing (usually) unambiguöus dates and mint names, hoard (MitchelZ and Levy, 1965). Ehrenkreutz (1959) pj-ovides dato but their anonymity and standardized inscn'ptions promise ZittZe his- on the gold content of ä large number of °Abbäsid and contemporary toricaZ evidence. NevertheZess, DeSharo (1974) has discovered one dinars, and offers the interesting speculation that dinars with no way that historical Information can be eoctracted from these taciturn mint harne might be assigned to Egypt or to Iraq on the basis of a issues, by coZZation of changes in their ornamentation. A-fetrology, 2% difference in fineness. On the other hand, Jungfleisch (1945-46) fineness, and volume and distribution of production are sub/ects aZ- attempted to assign them to mints according to the secret points that most untouched. occur under certain letters on some of them. The attribution problem TraditionaZZy the Umayyad East has been regarded äs a region of they attacked is a valid one, but will probabZy be soZved only by a silver coinage, but coppers actually are plentiful also. Raoul Curiel, generaZ die study of early cAbbäsid dinars; this remains to be begun. until recently curator of Islamic coins at the Bibliothe~que Nationale, Hoards of CAbbäsid "• era dirhams are common and add much mater- built up a substantial collection of Umayyad Iranian coppers there ial to that in museum catalogues. Among ma/or Near Eastem finds are and is preparing a corpus of these issues. The coppers with Arabic those of Susa (MiZes, 1960), Denizbaci (Artuk, 1966), Zakho (Naq- inscriptions only wiZZ not, however, be included; they are quite di- shabandi, 1949-52), and Isfahan (Lowick, 1975); the commentaries verse and of great interest for administrative and religious history. by MiZes and Lowick have generaZ value for the evoZution of cAbbäsid siZver coinage. The Viking era hoards of Europe are important for The issues of the various anti-Umayyad movements of the 5th their Islamic dirhams from. the Sth to the early llth centuries. For decade of the Sth Century were formerZy Zumped together äs "cAbbä- the bibliography, see Malmer et al. (1975 ff.) for Scandinavia, Kmie- sid revolutionary" and catalogued with the cAj>bäsids, aZthough_ they towicz (1960,1969) for Poland and Eastern Europe, and Afoonan (1978) incZude issues of such op_ponents of the cAbbasfds äs GAbd Allah b. for the Soviet Union. A series of articles in Swner (1962-67) and aTr Afucäwiya and the Khäri/is. .Now WurtzeZ (1978) has brought together Maskütät (1974 ff.) describe the cAbbäsid dirJiams in the Iraq Muse- this entire body of numismatic evidence and studied it carefully in um. A nearly compZete thesis by Nicol (1979) will deal primarily with its historical context. dirhams up to 218 H, tracing the issues of the provinces Iraq (eic- cept Baghdad), Armenia-Arran, Jibal and Khurasan. For publication The CAbbäsid CaZiphafe and ifs Contemporan'es, 750-845 he mtends to add Egypt, Syria, Kirman and Sijistan—in other words, There is no recent corpus or survey of the coinage of the cAbba- the bttlk of cAbbflsid issues in that period. Weight Standards of the °A-bbäsid dirhams have not yet been studied in detffc, but useful by Severova in Ntim-isKka-i epigrafika 2, 3 and 9 (up to 1965). A general dato are provided by AfiZes and Lowick in me hoard publica- general survey of the 9th Century SämTmid issues by Hattori, although tions just mentioned, äs weZZ äs by MiZes in ANSMN (1960). The siZver in Japanese, has a füll bibliography, tables and notes in Roman script fineness of a Zarge number of °Abbasid dirhams has been determined (1975). On the Banijürids (Abu Da'üdids), see Bacharach (1976). by a group of PoZish schoZars (most recentZy, see Stos-Fertner et aZ., 1977). The independent Sasanian-type coinage of the Ispahbads of Tdbar- istan, which continued into the Abbäsid period, was last studied in The very ZocaZized copper coinage of the °Abbäsid era \vould be füll by UnvaZa (1938). His catalogue remains valuable also for the si~ difficult to discuss in general terms, but on the sudden widespread miZar coins of the °Abbäsid governors öfter the conquest. These are disappearance of copper issues in the 9th Century, see Miles (1959, treated also in the Standard works on Umayyad Arab-Sasanian coin- pp.4-5) and Udovitch (EI , s.v. "fals"). age, but an important note by /lisch (1973) solves some of the per- Turning to more specialized studies, there is a useful survey of plexing chronoZogical probZems of that series. Then, for the rest of the mints of cAbbäsid Iraq by Kirkman (1945), but up to 218 H it is the °Abbäsid period and until 499 H, Stern's mini history of Ämul probabZy_outdated by two recent theses; by Daftar (1979) on the (1967) collects almost all the necessary Information, including de- mint Madfnat aZ-SgZam (Baghdad), and by NicoZ (1979) on the other tailed consideration of the issues of the. Zaydi imams. For Jibal pro- mints. Other Iraqi mints with speciaZ studies include Wasit CVêZin, vince, MiZes' mint history of Rayy (1938) is the starting point for 1955-56), Surra-fnan ra'a (Samarra; Miles, 1954), and Kufa (//usayni, any numismatic study, but it could now be much updated, äs shown 1970). The coinage of the Zan] rebellion is listed by Miles ("Susa," by his annotations in his own copy in the ANS. The coinage of Ad- p. 133), with some additions by \Velin ("\Vasit," pp. 136-37), but new harbayjän and Arrän in the cAbbäsid period is covered in general by varieties have since been discovered. Bikhazi (l974) discusses the Pafchomov (1959,1963); for some important later articles by hin, see effects on ßaghdad's coinage of the struggle for power in the immed- NL 89 (Nos. 43,368,369). On the minor dynasts of that region in the iate pre-BÜyid period. early lOth Century, one may add to the citations by Miles in his CHIr IV bibliography Bykov' s 1955 study of the coins of Daysam b. The coinage of cAbbasid and post-°Abbäsid Iran has recentZy been Ibrahim. For cAbbäsid Armenia, see Vasmer (1931), D/aparidze (1968), surveyed by MiZes, in Cambridge History of Iran (IV, Ch.10, 1975). and Mushegian (1973). He provides a good bibliography. In addition, a fe-.v of the authors of the historical chapters of the same volume savv fit to incZude the °Abbäsid Syria has been insufficiently studied. Nassar (1948) reZevant numismatic works in their bibZiographies. provides an incomplete listing ofjssues of Palestine;^ Shamma (1971) is more complete, but for the Tulünid period only. Mi les' excavation The diversity of Ironien coinage in the °Abbäsid period mandates reports on Tarsus (1956) and Äntioch (1948) are very important for provinciaZ and regional studies. Most of those done so far have been Syrian copper issues. Islamic coinage in Yemen does not begin until organized on dynastic lines, pr deaZ onZy \vith one speciaZ series to the early Abbäsid period. Bikhazi's article (1970) collects all known the earclusion of other issues of a place. For southern Iran, Lowic/c's issues, with extensive historical commentary. In most respects the important article (1974) shows the significance of new coin discover- °Abbäsid monetary System of Egypt continued that of the Umayyads, ies äs evidence for commercial reZations, up to the 15th Century. The and the references cited in that section for copper coins, glass first Saffärid dynasty in Fars, Kirmäh and Sijistanän is treated by weights, and the papyrological evidence are equally useful for the Vasmer (1930) and \Valker (1936); for some reason, many new Saffä- rest of the 8th Century. The introduction of minting of gold and sil- rid issues have appeared in the trade recentZy. ver coins (under al-Mahdi and al-Rashid) is discussed in a later Much worfc has been done on the diverse coinages of Khurasän paper by Miles, unpublishable in its present form, but available for and Mäwarä al-nahr especiaZZy in the Soviet Union, but there is reference at the ANS. Otherwise, °Abbasid Ejayptian dinars and dir- stiZZ no accesstble general guide. The "Bukhara-khuda" coinage of hams are mostZy unstudied äs such. The Tülunfd interval, pn the the first Abbäsid Century, in the Sasanian/Hephthalite tradition, is other hand, is well covered by Grabar* s 1957 corpus. Since then catalogued by WaZker (194Z) and deaZt with by Frye (1949 ff.); by Ehrenkreütz has begun the die study of TÜZünid dinars (1977). Smirnova (1963); and in two important articZes by Fedorov (1971, c Abbäsid Ifriqiyya is treated in the general survey s of the pro- 1973). Smirnova's boofc also treats in detaiZ the 8th-century Soghdian vince by Tarizzo and (presumably) °Abd aZ-Wahhab (1968); the lat- issues of Transoxiana, some transitionaZ issues, and the earZiest Js- ter is seemingly difficult to obtain, either in the form of the original Zamic coppers of the region, all of which are little known in Western Arabic monograph with a "catalogue" (of what?) appended, pr the coZZections. The Zatest worfc on these is the dissertation of Smtrnovaf_s French translation of the Zong /ntroduction that appeared in the Bul- Student Ernazarova, most accessible in a 1974 condensation. The Ta- letin Of the Central Bank of Tunisia (1968-70; see NL 87-311, 89-338). hirid issues of this region and elsewhere were last listed by Zambaur The dirham coinage of that province is unstudied äs such, faut it (1905,pp. 119-142). The coinage of the Samanids, in the 9th Century seems to have been eccported to the Muslim East in quantity and, äs w'eZZ äs Zater, is fairZy weil documented, but in a scattered Zitera- thus, to have entered the süver flow to Europe. Jt bulks Zarge in ture, with no generaZ compendium. The two ma/or sources of know- aZmöst aZZ 5th and 9th-century siZver hoards from both regions (see Zedge for the region1 s money from the 9th to the llth centurzes are, especiaZZy Naqshabandi, 1949-52). Coppers of that region are de- for dirhams, the Viking hoards—for the flow of siZver seems to have scribed by Eustache (1966). For the Aghlabids, Muhammad al- Ush Zeft the Jslamic world from these easternmost provinces-—qnd archeo- has prepared a corpus, still unpubZished. The London, Paris and ZogicaZ finds in Soviet CentraZ Asia, for which see the bibZiographies Berlin Museums have cataZogued their AghZabid materiaZ, and the important-Holdings of the Bardo Museum in Tunisia w^fccatalogued by quin's enviable studf but it is certain that study of medieval Farrugtä de Candia in Revue Tunisienne (1935,1936) Wo Cahiers de monetary history mus "t with a firm grasp of the theoretical con- Tunisie (1956). A new cataZogue of several public and private Tunis- siderations set forth by Hennequin in his various articles, äs weZZ ian collections is apparently in progress (see NL 80, p. 101). äs a more carefuZ and precise treatment of the evidence than has so The 8th and eqrZy 9th-century coinage of western North Africa far been seen. (al-Maghrib aZ-Aqsa) is handsomely presented in Eustache's corpus The question of scarcity of silver is likely to be settled only by of issues of the Idrisids and their contemporaries (1970-71), which comparative study of the relative market values of gold and silver in is a model in every respect, except that it omits the Holdings of sev- each Muslim country over the years. The basic data for such a study eral major public collections. The later monetary history of that re- are fairly abundant, in the form of dinar/dirham exchange rates gion to the llth Century is sketched by the same author (1970). mentioned in Ziterary sources and documents; but such references The Standard reference for Spain under the Umayyads of Cordoba are useZess unZess one knows the fineness and weight Standard of is Miles (1950), which includes all previousZy pubZished examples. both currencies. With the latter Information in hand, the exchange However, a new collection found in the Hispanic Society of America rates for actuaZ dinars and dirhams can be turned into comparable in 1957 has nearly doubled the combined HSA/ANS Holdings since indeoc rates for theoreticaZ Standard dinars and dirhams of pure met- Miles wrote; also, the weights, äs with other ANS cataZogues before aZ, and these into value ratios for equal weight units of the two 1960, are not reliable. Barcelo (1975) surveys the monetary history metals. This work has not yet been done, nor are there äs yet much of that period, arguing on the basis of metrological and fineness data reliable data for the fineness and weight Standards of lOth to 13th- that the absence of Spanish gold coinage from 745 to 930 reflects a century Islamic coins (or those of any other period). The presenta- shortage of gold bullion. tions of such data so far have been marred by a tendency to generalize results for an entire dynasty, ignoring variations in time and The RegionaZ Dynasties, 945-1250 place. Ehrenkreutz (JAOS, 1954,1956; JESHO, 1963) provides a mass of data for the fineness of dinars of the period, but more is needed. It is difficult to think of an appropriate general designation for As for siZver, pnZy a Zarge handfuZ of Fatimid and Ayyübid dir- this era, for in it the regions of the Muslim world began more and hams has been änalyzed by Balog (1961); the data he gives are not more to go their o\vn way in coinage, both in coin design and in mon- dated eoccept by reign, nor is any distinction made between Syrian, etary Standards. The major phenomenon of widespread importance is Egyptian and North Äfrican issues. Metrological data for Egyptian in the "silver famine," the debasement or cessation of silver coinage, dynasties onZy are presented by Ehrenkreutz for dinars (1956) and which seems to have affected almost all the Muslim lands in the llth BaZog for dirhams (1961), but this work must be done over, using and 12th centuries. A host of articles and monographs have attempt- weights determined on modern balances—the older catalogues are ed to explain this lack of fine silver coinage by a scarcity of silver never reliable—and more sophisticated statisticaZ techniques. The met- metol, brought about by massive flows of the metal to western Europe roZogicaZ evidence of coin weights, bronze and glass, may well be and Jndia, where silver was the primary coinage metal at that time. more informative than that of the coins, since coins were often struck Among the most recent discussions in this vein are those of Watson without carefuZ attention to Standards. (1968) and Ashtor (1971), but see also Hennequin (1972,1975). Turni/ig to more specificaZZy numismatic studies, pne may weZZ But was there, in fact, a shortagejof silver? Cahen, in a 1974 begin with the East, where the cZassicaZ tradition in'troduced byÂbd paper (still in press), has noted for Fatimid Egypt, at least, that aZ-AfaZik was perpe'tuated langest. For Iraq and_ western Iran a full- the literary and documentary sources often mention paymenis in sil- scale study and corpus of the coinage of the Buyids by Roy Motta- ver coins qs a routine feature of economic life. He suggests that the hedeh has been Zong in progress; its deZay is regrettabZe^ for there rarity of Fatimid Egyptian silver in museum catalogues may be ex- is no substitute general reference. A general sketch of Buyid coin- plained by tack of collecting interest in these unattractive issues, age, provided by Miles in the Cambridge History of Iran, Volume IV, not by scarcity of silver coinage at that time. His point is well taken. is generally useful for all Iran up to the mid-llth Century. The möst In fact, Fatimid silver coins are by no means so rare äs the cata- recent specialized studies result from two A_NS Summer Seminar pa- logues suggest, and are found in abundance at the site of medieval pers: Whitcomb's:study of a hoard from FäVs (1976) and CaroZ Fustat. Whether this holds true for other parts of the Muslim world Bier's discussion of the appearance of a die-cutter's name on coins remains to be seen. of BÜyid JibäV(/brthcoming, ANSMN, 24). Miles, with his bibliography, Jt must be said frankly that sloppy thinking has characterized is also the onZy general güide to the coinage of the various minor much of the discussion on this topic, including my own. J cannot re- dynasties associated with the Buyids. sist quoting Hennequin (1974, p. 6,n. 2), who, at the time he wrote, The coinage of the Great SeZ/üks, incZuding those of eastern Iran, was a secondary school economics teacher. He deplores "le temps is coZZected in a corpus by AZptekin (1971), which covers the older perdu et les efforts gaspillös par tant d'auteurs dont Za science des material weZZ, but omits much unpublished museum materiaZ. The coin Zangues mortes ou orientales impressionne, mais dont Za comp"etence descriptions are not aZways reZiabZe, according to someone who has öconomique—surtout en ce qui concerne Zes probZe/nes monelaires— re-earamined many of the coins. Among recent works not avaiZable to n'atteint pas Ze minimum exige0 de nos eleves de Premiere B [llth Aiptekin, the most general is Lowick (1970). There is a scattering of grade." One doubts that any of us will attain the ZeveZ of Henne- very limited studies, but for the most part, the dynasty, its branches, , anid j(s epigones have been neglected. Miles_has_ c^knled the coins esting class of cop ins (rare in this period) with figural types, of the Bawandids (1971) and the Nizäri Ismacüis ^Ruamüt (1972). ascribed to the Sei f Syria in the late llth Century, Kouym/ian's thesis (1969) is very good for the llth to 13th-century dynasts of Adharbay/än ajid the Caucasus. Arlette N6gre treated the These latter issues may have been one precursor of a remarka- gold coinage of the late Abbasids of Iraq in a recent paper (in the ble coinage struck by various dynasties in al-Jazira, Anatolia and press). the Caucasus in the 12th and 13th centuries: Zarge copper pieces, conspicuous for the images that frequently appear on them, are For northeastern Iran and Transoxiana, the recent Soviel lit- drawn from a variety of sources ancient and medievaZ. The first to erature is extensive and very important, but not easily accessible. strike such coins were the Danishmendids, whose issues are cata- The Sctmanids await a general thorough treatment, but two ma/or ar- Zogued and put in chronoZogicaZ order by Whelan (ANSMN, forthcoming). ticles by Davidovich (1966) and Fedorov (1972) may serve äs start- Other dynasties that issued similar pieces were the Artuqids (Lane- ing points. For the evidence from East European and Scandinavian Poole, 1875) L the Zengids (al-H.usaym, 1966), the Ayyübids, the dirham hoards, see Lewicki (1974). One extraordinary late Sämänid SeZ/uks of Rum, and a number of minor princes, äs vsell äs the Chris- and early Ghaznavid series, the oversized debased dirhams of Ba- tian kings of Armenia and Georgia. WheZan's thesis (1979) may well dakhshan and Tukharistan, have elicited a copious literature of late, be, for some time, the last word on these issues from the art his- thanks to the introductioh into the trade of a huge hoard, appar- torical viewpoint, but their monetary significance remains to be clar- entZy unearthed about 1960. The last word on them is ah important ified . note by Lowick (1977) on the chronology of this series, where the rest of the bibliography is cited. _These coppers were by no means the only coinage of Syria, al~ Jazird and Anatolia in the 12th to 13th centuries, but few general The exceedingly complicated numismatics of the Qarakhähids, or studies can be cited. Album's dynastic bibliographies (1977) list Ilek-Khäns, is discussed most recently by Fedorov (1974); Davido- some of the more important partial catalogues. A corpus of Rum Sel- vich (I960) is also important. An earlier general survey by Vasmer /ük coinage by Robert Gurnet was Zeft unfinished at his death Zast (1927) and Pritsak's historical study (2954) are still the basic ref- year; its £ate is unknown. Xouym/ian (1969) covers the Ildeghizids, erences. Further to the north, Islamic coins were imitated by the Shirvanshahs, nnd associated rulers. A fine discussion of Artuqid Khazars and VolgaBulghars . The Khazar imitations have been iden- silver coinage is provided by Ilisch (1973), whose thesis, in pro- tified by Bykov, who describes the two sorts (1971,1974). In his gress, deals with Zater (post-MongoZ) Artuqid issues. The coins of 1974 article he also treats certain Bulghar issues and recommends Christian Armenia and Georgia show much Islamic influence or, to lanina (1962) äs a general reference, but see also Mukhamadiev put it another way, pften are Islamic coins in all but the ruler's (1972) for the llth to 13th Centimes. name. The basic references for them are, respectively, Bedoufcian The coinage of the Saffärids of the lOth Century was last treated (1962) and Lang (1955). ßedoukian has more recently studied the by V/aZker (1936). The coinage of the Ghaznavids has been unjustly hybrid Armenian/RÜm SeZ/ük issues (1978). neglected. There is no general reference. Recent works with sub- The coinage of the Crusaders is part of Syrian monetary history. stantial assemblages of coin descriptions include Sourdel's catalogues A forthcoming general survey of all Crusader coinage, edited by of the Kabul Museum collection (1963) and of a dinar hoard (1963-64), Seltman, will include chapters by Metcalf and Bates on the Crusader and Gardin's Lashkari Bazar excavation report (1963). Hattori's imitations of Muslim coins in gold and silver. These same authors are study (1976) of. certain issues of Afahmü~d's:reign seems to be welZ- committed to write the chapter on imitations for the History of the documented, but is in Japanese aside from tables, notes and coin Crusades, Volume VI, edited by Setton. The study by Balog and descriptions. The evolution of one special coinage, the Ghaznavid Yvon (1958) remains the Standard descriptive reference. continuation of the Hindu bull-and-horseman series, has been clearly set forth by Bhatia (1977). One looks forward to her detailed cata- The coinage of Yemen to 569 H is catalogued by Bikhazi (1970). logue of the entire series. For the Ghürids, there is virtually noth- More recenth>, see Shamma (1971) on the lOth Century, Bates (1972) ing recent to cite; see Album's bibliography (1977) for the older Ut- on the IsmcrFzf issues of the llth tp 12th centuries, and Lowick erature. (1976), where Najähid coins of ZabFd are__recognized for the first time. The most recent pubZication of Ayyübid Yemeni coins is by Retuming westward, the Hamdänids of Syria and al-Jaz1ra have BaZog (1960), whiZe Stern (1949) treats the ZaydF issues of the same recently been treated by Welin (1961) and Bacharach (1974), the tot- period. ter dealing also with IkhshFdid issues of Syria and the cohfrontation there between the two dynasties. The difficuZty of reading coins of More evidence on monetary histoi-y is available for lOth to 13th- this region (e.g., Hamdantd coins of Wasft have more than once.been century Egypt than for any other part of the world before modern attributed to Filäsjihj; has Zed to some dub'ious historical conclusions. times. It includes: Ramzi Bikhazi is _preparing a Ph.D.. thesis dealing also with the coin- - Information in contemporary and later historical works; age of the Ikhshidfds and Hamdänids in Syria. For the Qarmätis, see - Zarge quantities of gZass and bronze coin weights; most recently Levy and Mitchell (1965-66; a Palestinian gold hoard of - a mass of everyday business documents on papyrus and paper, 368 H) and Scanion (1960). Syrian and Jaziran coinage in the llth either from the soil or from the Cairo Geniza; and and first half of the 12th centuries is only cursorily known. Uqay- - the coins themselves, which are abundant. Zid coins have scarcely been studied; the Mirdasids of AZeppo were last treated by Crawford (1953); and Miles (1948) discusses an inter- Much has been written by specialists in each of these bodies of evi- dertce, but there is unfortunately still no coherej^^description of tl NC NZ Numismatische Zeitschrift monetary System, and misconceptions abound. Fo^pkhshldid coins NE Numizmatika i J^grafika RN Revue numismatique Balog (1959) listed all the issues then known. Since then Bacharacl N L Numismatic Literature has been the most active Student, most recently with a study of thi earliest Ikhshidid dirhams (1975, with Shamma), and a general survey of the coin evidence (written 1976, in press). He is preparing BIBLIOGRAPH^ new corpus of that dynasty's issues, A very recent paper by Ehrer C " "• •«• ~> ^ kreutz, presumably to be published, discusses the production leveU Abd al-Wahhab, Hasan Husni. al-Nuqud äl-°aräbiyya fl Tums. Tunis fineness and metrology of Ikhshidid gold. (1968). Album, Stephen. Marsden's Numismata Orientalia Illustrata. New York: There is no general compilation of Fatimid coinage. Miles* cata- Attic Books (1977). logue of the ANS holdingrs (1951) is a handy reference, with a füll Aiptekin, Cosûn. "Selyuklu paralari," SelQuklu. Arastirmalori Dergisi, bibliography and a list of the mints and dates recorded at that time 3 (1971), pp. 435-591. For the silver, Balog (1961) lists known specimens, citing his earlie Artuk, Ibrahim. Denizbact definesi. Ankara (1966). descriptive articZes. Much Information on the mint and monetary sys Artuk, Ibrahim and Cevriye. Istanbul Arkeoloji Müzeleri Teghirdeki tem will be found in Rabie (1972) and Goitein's A Mediterranean Soci Zslamt sikkeler katalogu. 2 vols. Istanbul: Milli Egitim Basimevi ety (1967-), the importance of which cannot be overemphasized. Hei (1970-74) . nequin1 s ärticles, especially that of 1974, are also essential. A cor- Ashtor, Eliyahu. Des metaux precieux et la balance des payements du pus of the numerous and varied Fatimid glass coin weights has beer Proche-Orient a la basse epoque. Paris: S.E.V.p.E.N. (1971). published by Balog (1971-73), who calls them "jetons" and argues Awad, Henry Amin. "Seventh Century Arab Imitations of Alexandrian that they were used äs tokeh currency. An articZe by ßates (forthcoming) attempts to refute this idea and offers suggestions about th Dodecanummia," ANSMN, 18 (1972), pp. 113-117. actual nature of the Fatimid currency System. Balog has also identified Bacharach, Jere L. and Henry A. Awad. "The Early Islamic Bronze Coin- Fäfimid bronze coin weights (1970,1973). For the papyrological evi- age of Egypt: Additions and Corrections," in Kouymjian, ed. (1974), dence, see Grohmann (1954). Ehrenkreutz's studies on the metrolog; pp. 185-192. and fineness of Fatimid dinars are cited at the beginning of this sec Bacharach, Jere L. "Al-Ikhshid, the Hamdanids and the Caliphate: The tion. Numismatic Evidence," JAOS, 9 (1974), pp. 360-370. Bacharach, Jere L. and Samir Shamma. "Les premiers -dirhams ikhshidi- Balog's massive corpus of the Ayyubid coinage of Egypt and Syr des," RN (1975), pp. 139-144. ia is moving toward publication. For monetary history, the works of Bacharach, Jere L. "Andaräb and the Banijurids," Afghanistan Journal, Rabie, Goitein and Hennequin are equally useful for the Ayyubid per 3 (1976), pp. 147-150._ iod. From that era there survive three valuable descriptions of the Bacharach, Jere L. "Ikhshidid Coins äs a Source for Political, Eco- Egyptian mints, cited in Part 3 of this survey (MESA Bulletin, Dec. nomic and Monetary History," in Lowick, ed. [forthcomingj. 1978, p. 12). Ayyubid glass coin weights were catalogued by Balog al-Balädhuri. See Eustache (1968); Hitti (1916-1924). in_1966. He has also recently identified the copper coinage of al- Balaguer Prunes, Anna M. Las emisiones transicionales arabe-musulma- Kamil, previously unrecognized (1977). nas de Hispania. Barcelona; Asociacion Numismatica Espanola (1976). Balog, Paul. "Tables de references des monnaies ikhchidites," Revue The coinage of the Maghrib under the Fatimids is covered in the beige de numismatique, 103 (1957), pp. 107-134. general works on that dynasty and by Tarizzo (1977). A corpus by Balog, Paul and J. Yvon. "Monnaies a legendes arabes de l'Orient la- Hazard begins with the first post-Fätimid issues of the llth Century and catalogues all North African coins down to the Ottoman conquest tin," RN (1958), pp. 133-168. Balog, Paul. "Dinars of al-Mucazzam Shams al-Din Turanshah, and al- in the 16th Century. It also includes Spanish issues of North African dynasties. For the Spanish dynasties, there is Afiles' corpus of the cAziz Tughtegin, Ayyljbid Princes of the Yemen," ANSMN, 9 (1960), pp. 237-240. Umayyads (1950), and_ then his cataloo/ue of ANS holdings of the llth Balog, Paul. "History of the Dirhem in Egypt from the Fatimid Con- Century Mulük äl-Tawa'if (1954); but for the latter, Prieto (1926) is quest until the Collapse of the Mamlük Empire, 358-922 H/968-1517 the more complete'reference. For other Spanish issues, the old cat- A.D.," RN (1961), pp. 109-146. alogue of Vives (1843) is still the best available reference. Balog,'Paul. "The Ayyubid Glass Jetons and Their Use," JESHO, 9 (1966)f Islamic coins from A.D.. 1250 onward will be treated in the final pp. 242-256. installment of this survey. Balog, Paul. "Islamic Bronze Weights from Egypt," JESHO, 13 (1970), PP. 233-256. Balog, Paul. "The Fatimid Glass Jeton," Annali dell-Istituto Italiano Abbreviations di Numismatica, 18-19 (1971-72), pp.175-264; 20 (1973), pp.-121-212. Balog, Paul. "Pesi di bronzo islamici del XIII secolo [in English]," ANSMN American Numismatic Society Museum Notes Quademi ticinesi di numismatica e antichita classiche (1973), pp. ANSNN&M American Numismatic Society Numismatic Notes & Monographs 179-193. JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society Balog, P. Umayyad, °Abbäsid and fülünid Glass Weights and Vessel JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient Stomps. New York: ANS Numismatic Studies No. 13 (1976). Balog, P. "Ayyubid Divisional Currency Issued in Egypt by al-Kamil Muhammad I," Gazette numismatique suisse, >77), pp. 62-67. in the Middle ^dfe The Standard of Fineness of Some Types of Di- Bari'elo, Miguel. "El hiato en las acunaciones -o en al-Andalus, nars," JESHO, 2^.959), pp. 128-161. 127-316/744(5)-936(7): [Los datos fundamentales de un problema]," Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Studies in the Monetary History of the Near East Moneda y Credito, 132:33-71 (Marzo, 1975). in the Middle Ages, II: The Standard of Fineness of Western and Bates, Michael L. "Notes on Some Isma°Jli Coins from Yemen," ANSMN, Eastern Dinars Before the Crusades," JESHO, 6 (1963), pp. 243-277. 18 (1972), pp. 149-162. Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Numismato-Statistical Reflections on the Annual ßates, Michael L. "The Function of Fatimid and Ayyubid Glass Weights," Gold Coinage- Production of the fulünid Mint in Egypt," JESHO, 20 JESHO [forthcomingj. (1977) ,pp. '1-14. ßates, Michael L. "On the Need for an Historical and Geographical Ap- Ernazarova, Tamara S. "The Monetary Circulation of Samarqand in the proach to Umayyad Coinage," in Lowick, ed. [forthcoming]. Light of Numismatic Data (Up to the Beginning of the IXth Century ßatest Michael L. "The Secret Points on Umayyad Dinars and Dirhams." A.D.)," Afrasiab, 3 (1974), pp. 155-237. Proceedings of 9th International Numismatic Congress at Berne, Eustache, Daniel. "Monnaies musulmanes trouvees dans la Maison au Switzerland (1979), forthcoming]. Compas (Volubilis)," Bulletin d'Archäologie Morocaine, 6 (1966), Bedoukian, Paul z. Coinage of Cilician Armenia. ANSNN&M No. 147. pp. 349-364. New York: ANS (1962). Eustache, D. "Etudes de numismatique et de metrologie musulmanes, I," Bedoukian, P.Z. "A Hoard of Bilingual Trams of Hetoum I of Cilician Hesg&ris Tomuda, 9 (1968), pp. 74-107, [edition and translation of al- Armenia/' ANSMN, 23 (1978), pp. 149-160. Baladhuri, Amr al-Nuqüd]. Bhatia, Pratipal. "Bull/Horseman Coins of the Sultans of Ghazna, A.D. Eustache, D. "fitudes de numismatique et de metrologie musulmanes, H," 1030-1186," Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 38th Ses- Hesperis Tomida, 10 (1969), pp. 96-189, [ed. and trans. of al-Maqrizi, sion (Bhubareshwar, 1977), pp. 765-773. Shudhur]. Bikhazi, Ramzi J. "Coins of al-Yaman, 132-569 A.H.," al-Abhath, 23 Eustache, D. "Les ateliers monetaires du Maroc," Hesp&ris Tconudaf 11 (1970), pp. 3-127. (1970), pp. 95-102. Bikhazif R.J. "Hamdanid Coins of Madlnat al-Saläm, A.H. 330-331," in Eustache, D. Corpus des dirhoms idrlsites et contemporains. Banque du Kouymjian, ed. (1974), pp. 255-277. Maroc. Etudes sur la numismatique et l'histoire monetaire du Maroc, Bivar, A.D.H. "Fresh Evidence on the 'Sijistan Barbarous' Series of I. Rabat (1970-71). Arab-Sasanian Dirhams," Journal of the Numismatic Society of India^ Fahmy, Abdel R. Fajr al-Sikka al-°Arabiyya. Cairo: Dar al-Kutub Press 30 (1968), pp. 152-157. (1965). Bykov, Alexi A. "Daisam ihn Ibrahim al-Kurdi i ego monety [Daysam b. Federov, M.N. "O datirovke odnoi gruppy dirkhemov Bukharkhudatskogo Ibrahim al-Kurdi and his Coins]," Epigrafika Vostoka, 10. (1971), tipa (k denezhnoi reforme Arslan-Khana Mukhammeda) [On the Dating pp. 26-36. of One Group of Dirhams of the Bukharakhuda Type: The Monetary Re- Bykov, A.A. "O khazarskom chekane VIII-IX w.," Trudy Gosudorstven- form of Arslän-Khän Muhammad]," NE, 9 (1971), pp. 122-126. nogo Ermitazha 22, Numizmatika, 4 Fedorov, M.N. "O pokupatelnoi sposobnosti dirkhema i dinara v srednei Bykov, A.A. "Three Notes on Islamic Coins from Hoards in the Soviet IX-XIII w.," Sovetskaia arkheologiya, 2 (1972), pp. 73-80. Union," in Kouymjian, ed. (1974), pp. 203-210. Fedorov, M.N. "Iz istorii denezhnogo obrazheniia v srednei Azii Kont- Cahen, Claude. "La circulation monetaire en Egypte au temps des Croi- sa VIII - pervoi poloviny XII v; k probleme 'chernykh dirkhemov sades et la reforme d'al-Kamil," Princeton Conference on the Eco- [Concerning the History of Monetary Circulation in Central Asia nomic History of the Near East (1974), forthcomingj. from the 8th to the First Half of the 12th Century; The Problem Crawford, Robert W. "Reconstruction of a Struggle Mithin the Mird"äsid of Black Dirhams," Sovetskaia arkheologiia, 2 (1973), pp. 75-82. Dynasty in galab," JAOS, 73 (1953), pp. J9-95. French summary. Daftar, N.A.R. "The cAbbäsid Coinage at Madinat al-Saläm from 146/ Frye, R.N. Notes on the Early Coinage of Transoxiana. New York (1949). 743 to 218/833," Ph.D. thesis, University of London (1979). "Additional Notes ...," ANSW, 4 (1950), pp.105-114; 7 (1957), pp. 231-238. Davidovich, E.A. "Iz oblasti denezhnogo obrashcheniya v Srednei Azii Gardin, Jean-ciaude. Lashkari Bazars wie residence royale ghaznevide. XI-XII w.," NE, 2 (I960), pp. 92-117. II. Les trouvailles: Ceramiques et monnaies de Lashkari Bazar et Davidovich, E.A. "Denezhnoe obrashchenie v Maverannakhre pri Samani- de Bust. Paris (1963). dakh," NE, 6 (1966), pp. 103-134. Gaube, Heinz. Ardbosasonidische Numismatik. [Handbücher der mittel- DeShazo, A.S. and M.L. Bates. "The Umayyad Governors of al-ciräq and asiatischen Numismatik 2]. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt S Biermann the Changing Annulet Patterns on Their Dirhams," NC (1974), pp. (1973). 110-118. Ghanina, Yusuf. "al-Nuqüd al-cAbbasiyya," Sitmer, 9:98-131 (1953). Djaparidze, G. "Abaselt'a sakhalifos zarafkhanebi [Mints of the Gobi, Robert. Sasonidische Numismatik. [Handbücher der mittelasiat- cAbbäsid Caliphatej," in Makhbobeli agmosavlet'is socialur-ekono- ischen Numismatik 1]. Braunschweig: Klinkhardt 5 Biermann (1968); miuri istoriis narkvevebi. Tiflis (1968), pp. 71-118. Russian [rev. English trans., 1971]. summary. Goitein, S.D. A Mediterroneon Society. Berkeley: University of Cali- Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "The Standard of Fineness of Gold Coins Circulating fornia Press (1967 -)• in Egypt at the Time of the Crusades," JAOS, 74 (1954), pp. 162-166. Gordus, Adon A. "Non-Destructive Analysis of Parthian, Sasanian, and Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "The Crisis of Dinar in the Egypt of Saladin," Umayyad Silver Coins," in Kouymjian, ed. (1974), pp. 141-162. JAOS, 76 (1956), pp. 178-184. Grierson, Philip. "The Monetary Reforms of °Abd al-Malik: Their Met- Ehrenkreutz, A.S. "Studies in the Monetary History of the Near East rological Basis and Their Financial Repercussions," JESHO, 3 ,. (1960), pp. 241-263, from Ramiah ,'rael Numismatic Journal, 3 (1965-1966), pp. 7-66. Grohmann, A. Einfuhrung und Chrestomathie zi ibischen Papyrus- Lewicki, Tadeusz. "Le commerce des sämänides avec. l'Europe Orientale kunde. Vol. I. Prague (1954). et centrale a la lumiere des tresors de monnaies coufiques," in Haklern, °Abd al-Aziz Darwish Muhammad. "A Critical and Comparative Kouymjian, ed. (1974), pp. 219-233. Study of Early Arabian Coins on the Basis of Arabic Textual Evi- Lowick, N.M. "Seljug Coins," NC (1970), pp. 241-251. dence and Actual Finds." Ph.D. thesis, University of Leeds (1977). Lowick, N.M. "Trade Patterns on the Persian Gulf in the Light of Re- Hattori, Naoto. "saman cho kakei jyo no shomondai [Problems In the cent Coin Evidence," in Kouymjian, ed. (1974)/ pp. 319-333. Samanid Lineage] /' Bulletin of the Society for Ncar Eastcrri Stud- Lowick, .V.W. "An Early Tenth Centuiy Hoard from Isfahan," NC (1975), ies in Japan, 18 (1975), pp. 85-107; [English summary, pp. 165-1661. pp. 110-154. Hattori, N. "Mahmudid cho kenkyu shi ryo oboe-sho [Notes on Numis- Lowick, N.M. "Coins of the Najähids of Yemen: A preliminary Investi- matics and Source Books for the Mahmudids]," The Shirin, or the gation," Actes du Seme Congres International de Numismatique. Jourrial of Historyf Kyoto University, 59 (May 1976) , pp. 146-175. Paris-Basle (1976), pp. 543-551. Hazard, Harry h'. The Numismatic History of Lote Medieval North Africa. Lowick, N.M. "On the Dating of sämänid Outsize Dirhams," Spink's Nu- ANS Numismatic Studies No. 8. New York: ANS (1952). mismatic Circular, 85(5), (May 1977), pp. 204-207. Hennequin, Gilles P. "Problemes theorigues et pratiques de la monnaie Lowick. N.M., ed. Islamic Coins in the Service of Research [forth- antique et medievale," Annales islamologiques, 10 (1972), pp.1-51. coming]. Hennequin, G.P. "Points de vue sur l'histoire monetaire de l'Egypte Malmer, Brita et al. Corpus nwrmorum saeculorum IX-XI qui in Suecia musulmane au moyen age," Annales islamologiques, 12:1-36 (1974). reperti sunt. 2 Vols. Stockholm: Almqvist & wiksell (1975). Hennequin, G.P. "De la monnaie antique a la monnaie musulmane: Hom- al-MaqrizI. See Eustache (1969). mage a Maurice Lombard," Annales: Economies Societes Civilisations Miles, George C. The Numismatic History of Rayy. ANS Numismatic Stud- (1975)^ pp. 890-899^ ies No. 2. New York: ANS (1938). al-tfusaynl, Muhammad Baqir. al-GUmla al-Islctmiyya fi'l-cAhd al- Miles, G.C. "Islamic Coins," in Antioch-on-the Orontes, IV(1), Atäbiki. Baghdad (1966). Princeton (1948) , pp. .109-124. al-Husayni, M.B. "al-Kuna wa'1-Alqab cala Nuqud al-Kufa," Sumer, 26 Miles, G.C. "Some Early Arab Dinars," ANSMN, 3 (1948), pp. 93-114. '(1970) ,pp. 169-235. Miles, G.C. The Coinage of the Umayyads of Spain. Hispanic Numismatic lanina, S.A. "Novye dannye o monetnom chekane Volzhskoi Bolgarii X Series No. 1. New York (1950). v.," Materidly i issledovaniia po arkheologii SSSR, 111 (1962), Miles, G.C. Fapimid Coins in the Collections of the University Muse- pp. 179-204. um, Philadelphia, and the American Numismatic Society. ANSNN&M. Ilisch, Lutz. "Münzgeschichte Tabaristans im 8. Jahrhundert," tfün- New York: ANS (1951). stersche Numismatische Zeitung [in Holger Dombrowski M'ünzenhand- Miles, G.C. "Mihrab and cAnazah: A Study in Early Islamic Iconographj," lung Lager-Katalog 53], (June 1973), pp. 1-3. in Archaeologica Orientalia in Memoriam Ernst Herzfeld. Locust Ilisch, L. "Die Münzprägungen des letzten Artuqiden von Kayfa und Valley, N.Y. (1952), pp. 156-171. Amid," MNZf 55/56 (November-December 1973), pp. 9-14. Miles, G.C. "The s'ämarrä Mint," Ars Orientalis, l (1954), pp. 187-191. Jungfleisch, Marcel. "Les points secrets en numismatique: Une inno- Miles, G.C. Coins of the Spanish Mulük al-fawä'if. Hispanic Numis- vation due aux Arabes (?)," Bulletin de l1Institute d'figypte, 28 matic Series No. 3. New York (1954). (1945-1946) , pp. 101-115. Miles, G.C. "Islamic Coins from the Tarsus Excavations of 1935-37," Kirkman, James. "The Mints of Iraq During the Ommayad and Abbasid in The Aegean and the Near East: Studies Presented to Hetty Gold- Periods," Sumer, l (1945)f pp. 15-21, tables. man on the Occasion of her Seventy-Fifth Birthday. Locust Valley, Kmietowicz, Anna. "Supplements to L. Mayer's Bibliography of Moslem N.Y. (1956), pp. 297-312. Numismatics," Folio. Orientalia, 2 (I960), pp. 259-275. Miles, G.C. "The Early Islamic Bronze Coinage of Egypt," in Centen- Kmietowicz, A. and Wiadyslaw Kubiak. Wczesnosredniowieczny skarb nial Publication of the American Numismatic Society, ed. H. ing- srebrny z Zalesia powiat slupca. wroclaw: Polskiej Akademii Nauk holt (New York), pp. 471-502. (1969). Miles, G.C. Excavation Coins from the Persepolis Region. ANSNN&M No. Kouymjian, Dickran K. "A Numismatic History of Southeastern Caucasia 143. New York: ANS (1959). and Adharbayj"än Based on the Islamic Coinage of the 5th/llth to Miles, G.C. "Byzantine Miliaresion and Arab Dirhem: Some Notes on the 7th/13th Centuries." Ph.D. thesis, Columbia University (1969). Their Relationship," ANSMN, 9 (1960), pp. 189-218. Kouymjian, D.K., ed. Near Eastern Numismatics, Iconography, Epigraph/ Miles, G.C. "A Ninth Century Hoard of Dirhems Found at Susa," Mem- and History: Studies in Honor of George C. Miles. Beirut: American oires de la Mission Archeologique en Iran, 37 (I960), pp. 68-145. University (1974). Miles, G.C. "The Earliest Arab Gold Coinage," ANSMIt, 13 (1967), pp. Lane-Poole, Stanley. Coins of the Urtuki Turkumdns. London (1875); 205-229. [reprinted by Closter, N.J., ca. 1974]. Miles, G.C. "The Coinage of the Bawandids of fabaristan," in C.E. Lang, David M. Studies in the Numismatic History of Georgia in Trans- Bosworth, ed., Iran and Islam. Edinburgh (1971), pp. 443-460. caucasia. ANSNN&M NO. 130. New York: ANS (1955). Miles, G.C. "Coins of the Assassins of Alamüt," Orientalia Lovanien- Leuthold, Enrico, jr. "Due rare testimonianze della prima monetazi- sia Periodica, 3 (1972), pp. 155-162. one musulmane a Cartagrine," Rivista italiana di numismatica, 69: Milesf G.C. "Numismatics," Ch. 10 of The Cambridge History of Iran, 93-99 (1967). 4: The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljugs. Cambridge Levy, Shalom and Heien IV. Mitchell (Brown). "A Hoard of Gold Dinars (1975), pp. 364-377. nukhamädiev, A.G. "Dengir Denezhnaya terminologm^ ij denezhnii sehet the Results of -ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Chemical Bulgara v predmongolskii period," SovetskaiaT^W-iheologiya. 2 Composition of ms and Their Imitations from the 8th-10th c. (1972), pp. 63-72. A.D.," PACT, r, Strasbourg (1977), pp. 191-203. Mushegian, Kh.A. "Abbasian dramneri togharkuma Khaliphti 'Armenia' Tarizzo, M.L. "Early Arab Coins of Tunisia: I, The Governors of Ifri- nahangum VIII-X datervm," Istoriko-Filologicheskii Zhurnal. Aka- qiyah, 85-184 A.H. (704-800 A.D.); II, The Aghlabids, 184-296 A.H. demiia Nauk Armianskoi SSR No. 4r 63 (1973), pp. 143-156. (800-909 A.D.); III, The plätimids of Ifxigiyah and Their Succes- Mushegianf H.A. 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20 ast Association "" * no.2 (December 1979), 1-9'.

ISLAMIC NUMISMATZCS by Michael L. Bates The American Numismatic Society

Part A: Specialized Studies in Islamic Kumismatics (continued)

The Late Medieval Dynasties, ca. 1250-1517 AD

The Mongol conquest of the IRANIAN EAST put an end to the classical Islamic coinage introduced by °Abd al-Malik. At first, considerable local diversity_ existed inder the early Mongols and Ilkhanids, but Ghazan and Rashid al-Din imposed a uniform monetary system on the nany Ilkhanid mints, setting the pattern for eastern coinage for several hundred years. For this long period, it is easiest to treat separately Western Iran, Eastern Iran, the Steppes, and Anatolia, despite the many interrelationships of their coinages. Beginning with WESTERN IRAN, there i s no general_corpus or survey of the very complex coinage of the Mongols and Ilkham'ds, but Lane- Poole's sixth volume of the British Museum catalogue, with its introduction, makes a good starting point. Other important catalogues for this dynasty, listed in Part 1 of this survey, ine Lude those of the Hermitage (Markov) and Istanbul (Mubarak, Artuk)._The Ilkha^-id Hold- ings of the Iraq Museum are catalogued by al-Bakri in Siffner- (1966, 1967,1969,1970,1971) and in al-Maskukat (1972). Virtua].ly the only serious studies of Mongol and Ilkharn:: coinage before Ghazan's reform are two articles by Seifeddini:

- a 1971 study of the first general Mongol dirham issue o' 642-643 H, depicting a mounted bowman; and - his 1972 survey of the monetary system of the 13th ce^tjry. Ghaykatu's attempt to introduce paper money in Iran (äs used in Chi- na) is fully treated by Jahn (1938), with an additional note by Fisch- el WRAS 1939:601-603). _ Ghäzän's reform, and the evolution of the system he and Rashid al-Din set up, has been extensively studied in recent years, beginning with a 1968 survey by Seifeddini, which was the starting point for the important work of Smith and his colleagues. Smith's 1968 article (with Plunkett) discusses the role of gold coins, while in 1969 and (with Benin) in 1974, he outlined the dirham Sys- tem, with a summary table in the latter article. Feary, Luther and Smith in 1976 presented further metrological data on the dirham, äs well äs data on fineness and gold impurity levelst However, the need for important modifications of Smith's dirham system has been indicated by the woHc of two recent American Numismatic Society (ANS) Summer Seminar students. Philip Remler, in 1978, showed that a mitii- qat Standard of 4.25 grams, rather than Smith's 4.32 grams, yields a •ore consistent interpretation of the metrological data. Sheila Blair, in 1979, developed a somewhat different chronology for the successive weight reductions of Uljaytu and Abu SaCTd, and found that the dir-

The first installraent of Part 4 of this survey app'eared in the U5SA Bulletin XIII, No. 1 (July 1979). Parts 1, 2 a ad'3 appeared in previous issues of the MESA Bulletin. t T an arcrnves for Mamluk economic conditions, a bis 19?6 art^cce on exchärge rates in the Circassian period, esp ly in SYRIA. Hen- necuin. in a series of articles (most recently, 1977), has kept up a disorganizea aetai l, but ,,-norts Höre ru-ning :crw-,en,tary on all this work, finding much of it theoretically inadequate. For YEMEM, to the south, there has been little work on the Rasu- Lids (1229-1454 AD)* since the articles of Prideaux (1883) and Nutzel qanization. (1892). It i s not known if the succeeding dynasty, the Tahirids, is- „uch less has been «ritten on ^ jssues of the

sued co-;ns. of the Ottowns, which are populär wlth,"^t°rntur y ago, while Muslim coins began to be struck in EAST AFRICA, at Mogadi shu and mismatic research by the Turks began well over » een^ ^ ent gen- Kilwa, in the 12th or I3th Century. Since there is^little historical in Iran interest awakened only so« 30 years back ^ 8 ^ literature ~rom that region, the coins promise special value äs evi- eral works on the OTTOMANS, the best for r«{ên^1*o"eetion itself dence, but they are rather crudely struck, so that their attributions alogue of the Yapn ve Kredi Bankasi "ll^°"- ^ ^^ but the are often ccntroversial. The latest contribution to the debate is a is large and representative of nearly every 0"o?!n. JJâtedjp mak- review artitle by Freeman-Grenville (1978), who cites the previous literature. * Hazard's corpus (1952) is the Standard reference for all NORTH AFRICAN dynasties down to the Ottoman conquest; see ANSMN 12 (1966) for his additions and corrections. On the Nasrids of SPAIN, Vives (1893) ^s still the most complete catalogue. Rivero (1933) gives a bMef resur?. volume of Artuk' s Istanbul catalogue is Modern T;.~es ence, uith 783 Ottoman coins and extended discussions. A extens,ve Althc-gr a monetary survey of the Islamic Middle East, from the ous and history of Ottoman coinage in severa ^^^^d by Rcb- 16th cert-r/ to the introduction of mint machinery in the 19th, i s transcripts of official monetary documents, has been P P ^^ facilitated oy treating the two large empires, Ottoman Turkey and ert and Elizabeth Doran but, unfortunately, t he ejtent o . in Iran, äs if they were numismatic unities, it has to be acknowledged .akes its publicatiop problematic. For bnef su vey,, H. that the cc:".age of each is very complicated and diverse—a field of "Dar al-Darb" (£J2) is excellent; there is also ^s^ ht :o_ nunismatic scholarship in itself. All that can be done here is to interesting mint rescripts of the early sultans have beer, •indicate t^r rnain general references for the two empires and for the gether in translation by Beldiceanu (1960-1964). ccftempcrar. peripheral areas. Only some of the more ^P<>ânt recent specl.ljze d Uteratu re^can_ 3eg->---g again in the east, Lowick (1966) has_provided an excel- be cited here. Artuk has catalogued anj.^"f *d ;™ ottcln copie-s r lent su »e> and corpus of the coinage of the Shaybanids of 16th-cortury man Qänüni (1972). The enormously var^^ted ea- ly 0 .Va -Jarä 2l- zhr, but he was unable to use trte copious work of David- have been classified and in some case * a«ributed b> " J organiza- ovich, asice from one early article. Her most recent study (AT 1972) with a descript.on (in English and Turkish) o f t ^^.^ l de_ cites her earlier work; see also her hoard compilation (1979). Many tion of their minting. Raymond (1 3 1V^ !•• includ- of her articles are abstracted in NL 83, 87, 92 and_93. She has also tailed survey of the monetary h^story of 18th-ce.;tury t b , worked extensively on the sutceeding dynasty, the Janids of Bukhara ing relations with the central * authorities ^n Ist«.nbu^.n^ t ^ in the 17th and 18th centuries, with a 1964 corpus and monetary history, and King (1895). coinage remains to be studied and sorted out. See also Kräuse/Mishler, described below. Fön the coins of the Sharifs of MOROCCO fro. th. 17.J » tj. There are several general catalogues of the coins of the Shahs of IRAN, notably Poole (1887), Rabino (1945, 1950), and Farahbakhsh centuries, there are only *«»££/• a, "f °n u "i-d by the (1975). There i s äs yet no corpus or conspectus of issues, except for collections. The collection of Brethes IIY^VJ 'harn stanoard was reduced by two qirats each t t i s hoped that compendiura oJRoards (1979); for other publications of hoards, there both papers can be published soon. Finally, Sc, ,F«Jini_(ÄE 1968) are many abstracts in NL 83 and 87. treats Ilkhänid «int organization äs described bjr Rashid al-Din and CAbd Allah Ibi/ Kiya-Mazandaran. ^ In 1965 Oavidovich published a general analysis of the copper monetary systen in CENTRAL ASIA from the 9th to the 19th centuries, with For IRAN, between the Ilkhänids and Timurids, a paper by Album the turn of the 16th Century seen äs the high point of the evolution (ICSR 1976) i s of the greatest importance. He deraonstrates the divi- (Abstract, NL 87:327). sion of Iran into four «ajor »onetary regions, the boundaries of which rewained largely stable, despite changes in political suzer- Further out on the Steppes a corpus of the coins of the Gelder ainty, and tabulates for each region a series of dirham weight-stand- Horde khänates (also called Blue and White Hordes, JÜjids, Batü'ids) ard reductions. The-only other general work for |his period i s Rabi- has recently been compiled by Agat (1976). It includes the coins of no's 1950 article—^ »ass of disorganized detail^but useful. For the the older catalogues and several public and private collections in Jalä'irids, Harkov (1897) is the last general corpus; one »ay add the Turkey, but not the extensive recent Soviet literature. For the lat- the ßritish Museum and Istanbul catalogues and al-Bakri's Iraq Muse- ter, see the major articles by Fedorov-Davidow in NE 1, 4, 5 and 10 um catalogue CSifner 1973). On the monetary systen, Seifeddini (1974) and the 12 abstracts in HL 91. The brief general survey of the coin- is especially important for the Jala'irs, but also for other Adharbay- age by Ilisch (1973) is useful. The hybrid Arab-Latin coinage struck jänT dynasties into the 15th Century. For the Muzaffarids, Album by the Genoese at Kaffa in the CRIMEA in the 15th Century, with the (1974) is the only recent work of importance; it includes äs well a names of Golden Horde khäns, has been catalogued by Retowski (1906). list of known Inchu'id issues. Album's 1977 article on Nur Äward of Aside from descriptions of individual coins, there is little to Lur Buzurg (751-757 H) also includes remarks on these dynasties. cite for ANATOLIA in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, either Stephen Album is presently_at work on a general catalogue-mono- on the issues of the late Rum Seljük puppets of Ilkhanid governors or graph or the coins of the Timurids. Until this is completed, bis 1976 on the subsequent regulär ICkhanid coinage. The imitations of late ICSR paper and Seifeddini's work (1974) are important for the mone- Ilkhanid issues by the various beyliks that emerged äs Ilkhanid con- tary System of the iTmürids and their successors in WESTERN IRAN, es- trol weakened are'well treated by Album (1976), while Realer (forth- pecially Adharbayjän. Album (.NC 1976) and Seifeddini (1974), along coming in ANSMN 25) describes how three of the beyliks (the Eretnids, with Bur- (1938), comprise the bulk of the recent literature on the the Isfendiyarids, and the Ottomans) evolved their own coinage from Qara Qoy-Mu and Aq Qoyunlu. these imitations. A general survey of the westernmost beyliks, Saru- khanis, Ottomans and others, will appear in the forthcoming publica- For *5th-century GEORGIA, Dundua (1964) is apparently important tion of the coins from the Sardis excavations (KacKenzie and Bates). not only for the coinage of the Christiap kings, but also for the Important works on the beyliks, in preparation in Istanbul, include circulafSon of Timürid and other Islamic coins in that region. a catalogue of the Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi collection by Tunkay Aykut, In NCTTHEASTERN IRAN coins were struck by Muslims in the names of and a joint catalogue of several private collections by Gero Kurkman Jingiz K~än and his immediate successors, but have received scarcely and Omer Diler. The beginnings of Ottoman coinage are also dealt with any schc.arly attention; one minor exception is Hannon1s_1974 die in the general works on that dynasty, discussed below. study of 3 Jingiz Khan billon issue. Similarly, the Ilkhanid issues For EGYPT and SYRIA in this period, the Standard reference i s Ba- of KHURÄSÄN have not been separate ly studie'd, but the coinage of thei r log's (1964) massive corpus of Mamlük coins which, despite minor er- successors in Western Khuräsän, the Sarbadars, has been collected in rors, is a model large-scale descriptive work. Additions and correc- a corpus by Smith (1970). As i s so often the case, the existence of tions were compiled by Balog in 1970 (ANSMN 16). Important descrip- this catalogue has stimulated the discovery of_new examples, äs yet tive studies since then include Bates (1977) on the coinage of Bay- unpublished. A study of the issues of the Ilkhanid governors and suc- bars; Lachman (1972) on a hoard of Barsbay dirhaes; and Broome's 1978 cessors 3t HERAT, the Karts, was begun by Lawrence Potter in the ANS tabulation of the varieties of the gold ashrafi f'sequin'O from 810 to 1979 Sem'nar. 922 H. Allan (1970) has contest.ed the heraldic interpretation of the Davidovich's 1972 monograph provides a detailed numismatic and images on certain Mamlük coins,* whi le Balog (1977) continues to de- monetary history of Ma uorä al-nahr (Transoxania) from the Mongol fend it. ' conquest until the early 14th Century, covering Mongol and Chagatai The monetary history of Mamlük EGYPT has recently received much issues. For the remainder of the latter dynasty's coinage there is attention.xln addition to the general works of Ashtor, Goitein and nothing general to cite since Oliver (1891). In 1979, Davidovich's Rabie cited for the Fäjimids and Ayyübids in the previous install- important compendiura of hoards from TAJIKISTAN appeared, including ment of this survey, there have been a series of important articles not only several Chagatai hoards, but many others of earlier and_la- by Bacharach on money in the Circassian period (1382-1517 AO): on ter dynasties of Ha warä al-Nahr, particularly the Abbasid, Samanid gold (1973), silver (1971), and copper (1976). In 1968 Bacharach and and Qara' vey. and in 1976 Bacharach dealt with the question of foreign coins and There i s little in Western languages on the issues of the Timurids counterfeiting in Mamlük Egypt, including a useful study of the in the east, including all the issues of the dynasty's last Century, structure of the control of the mint. His 1975/örticle surveyed the but there is a substantial body of Soviet literature, mostly publica- Circassian historical sources for monetary hisiory. Ashtor's special tions of hoards. Those published by Davidovich are gathered in her contribution has been his mining of the wealth of data in the Vene- Banc de Maroc; Farrugia C1939) described the hoicnngs of the Bardo Ashtor, E. "£tuws sur le Systeme monStaire des Nanlouks ci rcassicr ^. Museum in Tunisia. Israel Oriental Studies 6 (1976) 264-287. Bacharach, Jere L. "Circassian Monetary Policy: Silver," HC (1971) The noderr^'machine-etruck colns of the Bus U m states off er llttle 267-281. of scholarly'interest, although something might be done with the in- . "The Dinar versus the Oucat," International Journal of Middle troduction of mint machinery äs an example of the adoption of Western East Studies 4 (1973) 77-96. technology by Muslims or, on a wider scale, with the spread of the . "Circassian Mamlük Historians and their Quantitative Economic 19th-century European «onetary System into Muslim countries. The in- Data," Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 12 (1975) troduction of Western techniques brought with it an ideological ques- 75-87. tion: whether to adopt äs well Western notions of appropriate coin . "Circassian «onetary Policy: Copper," JES80 19 (1976) 32-47. design (rulers1 portraits, etc.) or to maintain the aniconic Islamic . "Foreign Coins, Forgers and Forgeries in Fifteenth Century tradition. The different answers to this question by the various Mus- Egypt," Actes du 8&ne Congrts International de Bunismatique Yazd and Kirman," Le monde iranien Denezhnoe khoziaistvo Srednei Azii posle *tongol'skogo zavoeva- et l'Islam 2 (1974) 157-171. niia i reforma Mas'ud-Beka (XIII v.). Mos<;ow: Nauka, 1972. . "A Hoard of Silver Coins from the Time of Iskandar Qara-Qoyürr . Kladi drevnikh i srednevekovikh monet. Tadzhikistana. Moscow: lü," .VC (1976) 109-157. Nauka, 1979. . "Coins of Abu Sa'Md," HI Bulletin 10, No. 2 (Feb. 1976) 60- Dundua, 6.R Samoneto mimok'cevis sakit'khisat'vis XV saukinis Sak1- 64. art'veloshi. Tiflis: 1964. . "The Iranian Monetary System of the Fourteenth Century: A Pre- Farahbakhsh, H. Iranian Haomered Coinage "1500-1879 AD/900-1296 AB. liminary Discussion,"_ICSR (1976). Tehran-Berlin: Farahbakhsh, 1975 [English and Farsi texts]. . "The Coinage of NÜV-Äward, Atabeg of Lur Buzurg, 751-757 HJLD. Farrugia de Candia, J. "Monnaies husseinites: Monnaies frappe"es de 1350-1 356,"_AtfSMY 22 (1977) 213-239. l'annee 1117 S l'annee 1196 hSg. (1705 Ö 1782) ...," Revue tunisi- Altan, J.W. "Mamlük Sultanic Heraldry and the Numismatic Evidence: A enne (1935) 15-36. Reirterpretation," Journal of the Eoyal Asiatic Society (1970) 99- . . "Monnaies marocaines alaouites du MusSe du Bardo," Revue tuni- 112. sierme 38-40 (1939) 249-365. Artuk, Ibrahim. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Adina Baselern Sikkeler. Ankara peary, Margaret S., Kenneth A. Luther and John M. Smith, Jr. "Two II- 1972. last Studies Association 13, no.2 (December 1979), 1-9.

ISLAMIC NÜMISMATICS by Michael L. Bates The American tfumismat-tc Society

Part 4: Specialized Studies in Islamic Muaismatics ~~(continued5

The Late Medieval Dynasties, ca. 1250-1517 AD

The Mongol conquest of the IRANIAN EAST put an end to the classical Islamic coinage introduced by cAbd al-Walik. At first, cons.der able local diversity. existed under the early Mongols and Ilkhamds, but Ghäzin and Rashid al-Din imposed a uniform monetary system on the many Ilkhanid mints, setting the pattern for eastern coinage for several hundred years. For this long period, it is easiest to treat separately Western Iran, Eastern Iran, the Steppes, and Anatolia, despite the many interrelationships of their coinages. Seginning with HESTERN IRAN, there i s r.o general_corpus or survey of the very ccnnplex coinage of the Mongols and Ilkhamds, bu: Lane- Poole's sixth volume of the British Museum catalogue, with its introduction, makes a gcod starting po^.t. Other important catalogues for tfns dynasty, listea >n Pari 1 of this survey, ine lüde thcse of ehe Hermitage (Markov) and Istanbul (MuCarak, Artuk)._The Ilkharid noLa- ings of the Iraq Museum are catalogued by al~3akri in Surer (.966, 1967,1969,1970,1971) and in al-Mas^kot (1972). Virtually the only serious studies of Mongol and Ilkha-vc coinage before Ghäzan's reform are two articles by Seifeddini:

- a 1971 study of the first general Mongol dirham issue o; 642-^43 H, depicting a mounted bowman; and - his 1972 survey of the monetary system of the 13th ce<~-tJ'-y. Ghaykatu's attempt to introduce paper money in Iran (äs usec in Chi- na) is fully treated by Jahn (1938), with an additional note cy Fiscn- el (JRAS 1939:601-603). Ghazan's reform, and the evolunon of ehe system he and RashTd al-Din set up, has been extensively studied m recent years, beginning with a 1968 survey by Seifeddini, which was the starting point for the important work of Smith and his colleagces. Smith's 1968 article Cwith Plunkett) discusses the role of gold coins, while in 1969 and (with Benin) in 1974, he outlined the dirham Sys- tem, with a summary table in the latter article. Feary, Luther and Smith in 1976 presented further metrological data on the dirham, äs well äs data on fineness and gold impurity levelst However, the need for important modifications of Smith's dirham system has been indicated by the woHc of two recent American Numismatic Society (ANS; Summer Seminar students. Philip Remler, in 1978, showed that a m^Oi- qot Standard of 4.25 grams, rather than Smith's 4.32 grams, yields a •ore consistent Interpretation of the metrological data. Sheila Blair, in 1979, developed a somewhat different chronology for the successive weight reductions of UljäytG and Abu Sa id, and found that the dir-

*The first installment of Part 4 of this survey appeared in the HESA Bulletin XIII, No. 1 CJuly 1979). Parts 1, 2 aatf 3 appeared in previous issues of the MESA Bulletin. t 'i an &»rcrn ves for Mamluk economic conditions, äs jAf"s 1976 artete on exchärge rates in the Circassian period, espec^^ly in SYRIA. Hen- neauin. in a series of artictes (most recently, 1977), has kept up a ru^ning :cr--.eatary on all this work, finding much of it theoretically l inadequate. «ritten on Safavid «o For YEKEN, to the south, there has been little work on the Rasu- 91:310-312). (1971) has lids (1229-1454 AD)1 since the articles of Prideaux (1383) and Nutzet (1892). It is not known if the succeeding dynasty, the Tähirids, is- has been written on the issues of the Shahs thjjn on the« sued coins. of the Ottomans, which are populär with J0^«" ago, while Muslim csins began to be struck in EAST AFRICA, at Nogadishu and «ismatic research by the Turks began ^^^^" recent gen- Kilwa, in the 12th or 13th Century. Since there is^little historical in Iran interest awakened only some 30 years back literature -rora that region, the coins promise special value äs evi- eral works on the OTTOMANS, the best for r^ ^ itself dence, but they are rather crudely struck, so that their attributions alogue of the Yapi v. Kredi Ban äs-, co llect, j T ^ are often ccntroversial. The latest contribution to the debate is a i s large and representative of nearly every u« ulustrated, mak~ review artirle by Freeman-Grenvi lle (1978), who cites the previous literature. * Hazard's corpus (1952) is the Standard reference for all NORTH AFRICAN dynasties down to the Ottoman conquest; see ANSMN 12 (1966) . ' - for his additions and corrections. On the Nasrids of SPAIN, Vives (1893) ;s still the most complete catalogue. Rivero (1933) gives a i s unfortunately very unreUable (see LOWICK s br^ef resur?. does have a f aller bibliography than the two Mo zerr. T^' .olume of Artuk's Istanbul catalogue ,s ano ,,,06, with 78? Ottoman coins and extended ^scus^ns. A a Althc-c' a .^cnetary survey of the Islamic Middle East, from the pus and h.stcry of Ottoman co.nage in severa l wo t^«, -it ^ 16th cerr_,r. to the introduction of mint machinery in the 19th, i s transcr.pts of official monetary documen s, has been P ep facHitated sy treating the two large empires, Ottoman Turkey and Iran, äs •' f they were numismatic unities, it has to be acknowledged that the cc->.age of each is very complicated and diverse — a field of ': nurismanc scholarship in itself. All that can be done here is to £* indicats t"r "iair general references for the two empires and for the gether in translation by Beldiceanu (1960-1964). :c' tenpc^är . oeripheral areas. Only so.e of the .ore ^«»^»it recent specj.li 3eg-'-'-'g aga^n in the east, Lowick (1966) has_provided an excel- be cited here. Artuk has catalogued ^d studied ne . le In 1965 Davidovich published a general analysis of the copper monetary syste* in CENTRAL ASIA fröm the 9th to the 19th centuries, with For IRAN, between the Ilkhänids and Timürids, a paper by Albu» the turn of the 16th Century seen äs the high point of the evolution (ICSR 1976) i s of the greatest importance. He demonstrates the divi- (Abstract, JtL 87:327). sion of Iran into four «ajor »ortetary regioos, the boundarles of which reaained largely stable, despite changes in political suzer- Further out on the Steppes a corpus of the coins of the Golder ainty, and tabulates for each region a series of dirha« weight-stand- Horde khänates (also called Blue and White Kordes, Jujids, Batu'ids) ard reductions. The-only other,general work for ,$hi$ peripd i s Rabi- has recently been coapiled by Agat (1976). It includes the coins of , no's 1950 article—7« «ass of disorganized detail^bjut useful. For the the older catalogues and several public and private collections in Jalä'irids, Harkov'(1897) i s the last general corpus; one »ay add the Turkey, but not the extensive recent Soviet literature. For the lat- the öritish Nusey« and Istanbul catalogues and al-ßakri's Iraq Muse- ter, see the major articles by Fedorov-Davidow in ff? 1, 4, 5 and 10 um catalogue (Sifaei- 1973). On the monetary syste«, Seifeddini (1974) and the 12 abstracts in HL 91. The brief general survey of the coin- is especially important for the Jala'irs, but also for other Adharbay- age by Ilisch (1973) is useful. The hybrid Arab-Latin coinage struck jänT dynasties into the 15th Century. For the Huzaffarids, Album by the Genoese at Kaffa in the CRIMEA in the 15th Century, with the (1974) is the only recent work of importance; it includes äs well a names of Golden Horde khäns, has been catalogued by Retowski (1906). üst of 'cnown Inchu'id issues. Album's 1977 article on Nur Äward of Aside from descriptions of individual coins, there is little to Lur Buzurg (751-757 H) also includes remarks on these dynasties. cite for ANATOLIA in the late 13th_and early 14th centuries, either Stephen Album i s present.ly_at work on a general catalogue-mono- on the issues of the late Rum Seljuk puppets of Ilkhanid governors or graph or the coins of the Timurids. Until this is completed, his 1976 on the subsequent regulär Itkhänid coinage. The initations of late ICSR paper and Seifeddini's work (1974) are important for the mone- Ilkhänid issues by the various beyliks that emerged äs Ilkhanid con- tary System of the Timurids and their successors in WESTERN IRAN, es- trol weakened are1 well treated by Album (1976), while Realer (forth- pecially Adharbayjän. Album <.NC 1976) and Seifeddini (1974), along coming in AKSMN 25) describes how three of the beyliks (the Eretnidc, with Bur- (1938), comprise the bulk of the recent literature on the the Isfendiyärids, and the Ottomans) evolved their own coinage from Qara Qoy-Mu and Aq Qoyunlu. these imitations. A general survey of the westernmost beyliks, Saru- khänis, Ottomans and others, will appear in the forthcoraing publica- For I5th-century GEORGIA, Oundua (1964) i s apparently important tion of the coins from the Sardis excavations (HacKenzie and Bates). not only for the_coinage of the Christiap kings, but also for the Important works on the beyliks, in preparation in Istanbul, include circulat'on of Tinürid and other Islamic coins in that region. a catalogue of the Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi collection by Tunkay Aykut, In NC=.THEASTE3N IRAN coins were struck by Muslims in the names of and a joint catalogue of several private collections by Gero Kurkman Jingiz K'än and his immediate successors, but have received scarcely and Omer Oiler. The beginnings of Ottoman coinage are also dealt with any schc.arly attention; one minor exception is Hannon's 1974 die in the general works on that dynasty, discussed below. study of 3 Jingiz Khan billon issue. Similarly, the Ilkhanid issues For EGYPT and SYRIA in this period, the Standard reference i s Ba- of KHURÄSÄN have not been separately studied, but the coinage ofthei r Log's (1964) massive corpus of Mamlük coins which, despite minor er- successors in Western Khurasan, the Sarbadars, has been collected in rors, is a model large-scale descriptive work. Additions and correc- a corpus by Smith (1970). As i s so often the case, the existence of tions were compiled by Balog in 1970 (ANSMN 16). Important descrip- this catalogue has stimulated the discovery of_new examples, äs yet tive studies since then include Bates (1977) on the coinage °ft8ay- unpublished. A study of the issues of the Ilkhanid governors and suc- bars; Lachman (1972) on a hoard of Barsbäy dirhaas; and Broome s_1978 cessors at HERAT, the Karts, was begun by Lawrence Potter in the ANS tabulation of the varieties of the gold ashrafi f'sequin'O from 810 to 1979 Seninar. 922 H. Allan (1970) has contested the heraldic interpretation of the Davidovich's 1972 monograph provides a detailed nunisraatic and images on certain Marnük coins, whi le Balog (1977) continues to de- monetary history of Ma uarä al-nakr (Transoxania) from the Mongol fend it. ' conquest until the early 14th Century, covering Mongol and Chagatai The monetary history of Mamlük EGYPT has'recently received much issues. For the remainder of the latter dynasty's coinage there is attention./In addition to the general works of Ashtor, Goitein and nothing general to cite since Oliver (1891). In 1979* Davidovich's Rabie cited for the Fatimids and Ayyubids in the previous install- important compendiuB of hoards fron TAJIKISTAN appeared, including ment of this survey, there have been a series of important articles not only several Chagatai hoards, but nany others of earlier and_la- by Bacharach on money in the Circassian period (1382-1517 AD): on ter dynasties of Ma wara al-Nahr, particularly the Abbasid, Samanid gold (1973), silver (1971), and copper (1976). In 1968 Bacharach and and Qarakhänid periods covered in an earlier installment of this sur- Gordus provided copious data on the fineness of Hamluk silver coins> . vey. and in 1976 Bacharach dealt with the question of foreign coins and There i s little in Western languages on the issues of the Timurids counterfeiting in Mamlük Egypt, including a useful study of the in the east, including all the issues of the dynasty's last Century, structure of the control of the «int. His 1975 /article surveyed the but there is a substantial body of Soviet literature, mostly publica- Circassian historical sources for monetary history. Ashtor s special tions of hoards. Those published by Davidovich are gathered in her contribution has been his mining of the wealth of data in the Vene- •. Ashtor, e. - Banc de Maroc; Farrugia (1939) described the hol ,,, of the Bardo Museum in Tunisia. The xoder^machine-gtruck coins of the Muslim states offer little Dinar v.rsu, .h. D«.« In^r^^ lo^nal of of scholarty'interest, although something might be done with the in- East Studies 4 (1973) 77-96. - Q^tUative Economic troduction of mint machinery äs an example of the adoption of Western . »Circassian Mamluk Histonans and J11^*^1^ 12 (1975) technology by MusUms or, on a wider scale, uith the spread of the 5Tta," Journal of the American Research Center tn Egypt 19th-century European monetary syste« into Muslim countries. The in- 75-87. . P .. jvsBO 19 (1976) 32-47. troduction of Western techniques brought with it an ideological ques- Monetary Policyt Copper, ÄS» iv u tion: whether to adopt äs well Western notions of appropriate coin design Crulers1 portraits, etc.) or to aaintain the aniconic Islaaic tradition. The different answers to this question by th« various Mus- lim states are irfteresting, although perhaps merely reflective of on the «n«» of SHver Coins well-known wider'policies: for example, Turkey's coinage is very Eu- ropean in appearance, while Saudi Arabia's, not surprisingly, is very Islamic. In any case, if for /vithing eise than curiosity, the Stand- ard Catalcgue of World Coins, edited by Krause and Mishler, is a first- rate descriptive catalogue for all nations since about 1800. Many Mur- lira coinages are adequately described for the first time in it. Re- t- "The vised editions appear every two years. and Corrections," iSSMB conserves dans Paris/ Abbreviations

Numisma^ic Society Museum Notes. mr Coins in the Service of Research (Colloquium). Lon ICSR don W6. in the last install.ent the anticipated pubti- Inf°rma~ cat'on of the eolloquium proceedings was cited severaL . and Sc.e Hnes. Publication of this volume is now in doubt ,he pa- ary Rulers," NC (1938) 173-197. - .ekhnika chekanki m pers may be published separately in various Journals. Burnasheva, R. Z. "Organi zatS1ya proi zvodstva i .ekjn x al o* the Scanamio and Sooial History of tne Orient. net v bukharskom khanstve so vtoroi polovm^ XVIli JISHC ersehe Nurtsnatis-che Zeitung (in Holger Dombrowski Mun- v.," NE 6 (1966) 256-273. M.nnvakh (seredina XVIII- zenhandlung Lagerkatalog). . "Mcnetcney bukharskogu o khanstva pn "*nn * -Achate XX v.)/' Epigrafita vos toka 2 l , ^ jr Davidovich, Elena. I^rtj/a ^^^° : 1964. - (Zolotye i serebnanye monety . otnoshenü . ""00 vremenvremenii maximalnogmaximalnogo razvinyrazvinya ovu NQ_. Bibliography sTednei Azii (k postanovke proble-ny), Narody Az^^ T

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the Time of Iskandar Qara-Qoyun- Nauka, 1979. . • j. t T.I. •„>.*»««« JfV saukinis Sak'- Dundua, 6. R S^n^to «üwk'c«^ sakit'khisat ms XV saux B*U«» 10, NO. 2 CFeb. 1976) 6C- art'veloshi. Tiflis: 1964. ' icnn-1879 AD/900-1296 AB. Farahbakhsh, H. J«mian ^^fo^rl^ol sh^f?arsi texts]. i "The Iranian Monetary Syste. of the Fourteenth Century: A Pre- Tehran-Berlin: Farahbakhsh, 1975 [English and a s ^ de [Tminary Oiscussion," ICSR (1976). Farrugia de Candia, J. "The Coinage of Nu>-Award, Atabeg of Lur Buzurg, 751-757 HjfLD. l'annee 1117 3 l'annle "-I350-1356," ANSMN 22 (1977) 213-239. alaouites du Muse, du Bardo," ton- Allan, J.£ "Hailük Sultanic Heraldry **** .^^c*}*%£ '£ Reirrerpretation," Journal of the Royal Asiatu: Society (1970) 99- and W«. S.1th, ür. "T.o II !*Ibrahim. KanunZ Sultan Suleyman Adina Basilan SiKkeler. Ankara 1972. *«- " "r ^k gosudarstve (XVII Gruzinskoe istochnikovedenie 3 (1971) 256- khänid Boards?" Aotes du Serrte Congres International ddjjnismatique 262. 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Hannon, Brian. "Eine Münze des Tschinghiz Khan," MNZ 59 (June 1974)1. . Genuezsko-tatarskiya moneti. St. Petersburg: 1906. Hazard, Harry W. The Surtismatic Ristory of Late Medieval North Africa Rivero, Casto Maria de l. La moneda arabigo-espanola: CompsndC.- de nu- ANS Numisaatic Studies Nö. 8. New York: 1952. mismatica musulmana. Madrid: 1933. Hennegui n, Gilles P. "Nouveaux apere, us sur l»histoire wonftaire de Schaendlinger, Anton C. Osmanische Numismatik. Handbücher der mittel- l'Egypte ä" la fin du Uoyen-Äge," Annales islamologiques 13 (1977) asiatischen Numismatik, 3. Braunschweig, W. Germany: Klinkhardt & 179-215. Biermann, 1973. Holberton, William D. See "Je« Sultan" (pseudonym). S«ifeddini, M.A. Moneti ilkhanov XIV veka. Baku: 1968. Iliescu, Octavian. "Les »onnaies," Bulletin de l'Association Inter- . - "Organizatsiya monetnogo dela v gosudarstve Ilkhanov v XIII- nationale des titides du Sud-Est Europeen 12 (1974) 141-150. XIV w.," HE 7 (1968) 144-148. Ilisch, Lutz. "Die HunzprSgung der Goldenen Horde," MNZ 51 (Feb. 1973) . "Moneti s nadpisyu 'Ulug Mangil Ulus-Bek,1" NE 9 (1971) 115- 3-5. 121. Jahn, Karl. "Das iranische Papiergeld. Ein Beitrag zur Kultur- und .'X voprosu o denezhnoi sisteme na territorii irana i zakavkazya Wirtschaftsgeschichte Iran's in der Mongolenzeit/1 Archiv Orient- v XIII v.," NE 10 (1972) 160-166. alni 10 (1938) 308-340. . "Monetnaya sistema v Azerbaidzhane v XIV i pervoi polovine XV "Jem Sultan" (pseudonym of M.D. Holberton), Coins of the Ottoman Em- v.," NE 11 (1974) 196-208. pire and the Turkish Republic. 2 vols. Thousand Oaks, CA.: B & R Smith, John M., Jr. "The Silver Currency of Mongol Iran," JESE? 12 Publishers, 1977. (1969) 16-41. King, L. White. "History and Coinage of the Barakzai Dynasty of Af- . The Histcry of the Sarbadar Dynasty 1336-1381 A.D. oruf its ghanistan," JW7 (1895) 277-344. Sources. The Hague: Moutön, 1970. Krause, ehester L. and Clifford Mishler. Standard Catalog of World and Stephen Benin. "In a Persian Market with MongoL Money," in Coins. 1980 ed. lola, WI.: Krause Publications,_1979. Near Eastern Numismatics, Iconography-f Epigraphy and Eis-:r~j: Stud- Lachman, Samuel. "A Hoard of Silver Coins of Barsbäy," ANSMN 18 (1972) ies in Honor of George C. Miles, ed. O.K. Kouymjian. Beirut: Amer- 163-166. ican University Press, 1974, pp. 431-442. and Frances Plunkett. "GShah and the Durränl Dynasty. Oxford: 1934. 18 (1892) 81-156 [separately printed, Berlin: 1891]. öljer, Cüneyt. Naki§H Osmanli Mangirlan,. Istanbul: 1975. Oliver, E.E. "The Coins of the ChaghatSi Hughals," Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 60 (1891) 8-16. Pere, Nuri. Osmanlilarda Madent Paralar. Istanbul: Yapi ve Kredi Ban- kasi, 1968. Poole, Reginald S. Catalogue of the Coins of the Shahs of Persia in the British Museua. London: 1887. Prideaux, W.F. "Coins of the Benee Rasool Dynasty of South Arabia," Journal of the Bengal Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 16 (1883) 8-16. Quesne-Bird, N. du. "Turkish Numismatics—A Survey of the Recent Lit- erature," Nitnisimxtic Circular 83 (1975) 10, 59. Rabino di Borgoroale, H.L. Coins> Medala, and Seals of the Shahs of Iran, 1500-1941. [n.c^n.p.J: 1945._ __. "Coins of the Jalä'ir, Karä Koyünlu, Musha'sha1, and Äjj Koyün- lü Dynasties," 9C (1950) 94-139. . Albun of Coins, Medals and Seals of the Shahs of Iran (1500- 1948). Oxford : 1951 [regrinted, with Farsi translation and introduction by Huha««ad HushirT, Tehran: Iranian Numismatic Institute, 1974]. Rakhmani, A.A. "Iz istorii monetnogo obrashcheniya v sefevidskon