Timeline of Casting Technology With a history set in motion before the dawn of man, metalcasting was the very cornerstone of humankind’s emergence from the Dark Ages and its continued prosperity today.

Michael J. Lessiter, Editor/Publisher Ezra L. Kotzin, American Foundry Society (retired)

ince the discovery of the earth’s minerals, metalcasting has played which were in use well into the 1900s. S an important role in society. An integral part of every technologi- “There has been more casting progress since World War II than cal advance, castings have allowed us to build equipment to feed our in the previous 3000 years,” wrote Bruce L. Simpson in History of the people, fight for democracy, build infrastructure and manufacture cars, Metalcasting Industry. “Still, the demand goes on for foundries to sur- trains and airplanes. In general, castings have been—and will continue pass themselves in quantity and quality. Metalcasting remains a basi- to be—the key ingredient in the recipe for a better way of life. cally essential industry, as necessary to space vehicles as it was to Metalcasters have long been respected and eminent craftsmen in mankind’s very first machines. As science is applied more and more, so every community. In many cases, their heroics extended far beyond the skill, education and pay of foundrymen goes up and ever up, in- the utilization of molten metal in creating usable products. They creasing in turn the total wealth of the world.” have been soldiers, statesmen and inventors—and have reshaped There is no better example of the true creation of national wealth North America with a first-class, working labor force that produces than the work of the foundryman. He takes a raw material and through goods for the world. In fact, the conception of the U.S.—not to both art and science, creates a product that adds direct value to our mention the spread of democracy worldwide—was set into motion society’s ever-progressing way of life. by seven foundrymen who signed the Declaration of Independence Beyond the fact that castings are all around us (it is often said from Great Britain in 1776. one is never more than 10 ft from a casting), metalcasting was eco- During the wars of medieval times, foundrymen produced can- logically friendly long before it was in vogue. Known as the “original nons. In peace, they recast the metal back into bells. In the early recycler,” the foundry industry gives a new useful life to as many as Middle Ages, church bells were cast in churches by priests, abbots or 15 million tons of scrap metal each year that would otherwise be bishops who were also trained metal founders. As the metal was rendered useless. melted, the brethren stood around the furnace intoning psalms and From its contributions in providing jobs and employee skills to prayers. The molten metal was then blessed and divine protection delivering the dependable, high-quality and cost-effective compo- was asked for the bell, which usually bore the name of a saint. nents necessary to advance technology, metalcasting has impacted The 20th century the explosive refinement of processes virtually every improvement seen by each passing generation. Sim- and materials used in the ply put, our world could not have foundry for more than 400 advanced at its rapid rate without years. Vannoccio Biringuccio, Our world could not have advanced the strength, endurance and inge- the 16th century “father of the at its rapid rate without the nuity of the foundryman. foundry industry,” recom- strength, endurance and Following are some of the key mended using the dregs of beer technological events that have vats and human urine as bind- ingenuity of the foundryman. changed the face of the casting ers for molding sand, both of process and its end products.

B.C. A.C. 1480—Vannoccio Biringuccio (1480- 9000 B.C.—Earliest metal objects of 500—Cast crucible steel is produced 1539), the first true foundryman and wrought native copper are produced in in India. the “father of the foundry industry,” is the Near East. 1200s—Loam or sweep molding is used by born. The founder of the Vatican, his 3000-2500 B.C.—Small objects are cast European foundrymen to cast bells for De La Pirotechnia is the first written via lost wax (investment casting) pro- cathedrals. account of proper foundry practice. cess in the Near East. 1252—The colossal statute, the Great 1500s—Sand is introduced as a molding 3200 B.C.—The oldest casting in existence, Buddha at Kamakura, Japan, is cast material in France. a copper frog, is cast in in high-lead tin bronze. The Mesopotamia. project began in the 700s 1600s 3000 B.C.—Early foundrymen and its head alone 1612—Mined from under the sea, seacoal cast bronze tools and weighed 140 tons. is mentioned for the first time by Ger- weapons in permanent 1313—The first can- man foundryman and inventor, Simon stone molds. non is cast in bronze Sturtevant. 1500 B.C.—Wrought iron is by a monk in the city 1619—North America’s first iron furnace is discovered in the Near East. of Ghent. built at Falling Creek, VA, a branch of the 600 B.C.—The first cast iron 1400s—During the siege James River, 60 miles from Jamestown object, a 600-lb tripod, is of Constantinople, heavy colony. Three years later, Native Ameri- cast by the Chinese. guns are cast from bronze cans destroy it during a raid. Discovery of molten metal 233 B.C—Iron plowshares (copper beads in fire) “on the spot,” virtually 1645—Earliest recorded use of term are cast. under the walls of the be- “foundry” appears in the Oxford English 200 B.C.—Oldest iron sieged city… Movable, cast lead type for Dictionary in its variant “founderie.” castings still in existence are pro- printing presses revolutionizes the 1646—America’s first iron foundry (and sec- duced during the Han Dynasty. world’s methods of communication. ond industrial plant), Saugus Iron Works,

76 ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS SPRING 2002 near Boston, pours the first American cast- 1825—Aluminum, the most abundant Frishmuth, is mounted on the tip of ing, the Saugus pot. The Saugus River site metal in the earth’s crust, is isolated the Washington Monument. was selected by Richard Leader and was from aluminum chloride by 1886—Charles M. Hall, a 22-year-old student built to produce iron products for Massa- Denmark’s Hans Oerstad. at Oberlin College, discovers a process of chusetts and . 1830s—Seth Boyden, Newark, NJ, pro- aluminum reduction through electroly- 1661—First U.S. copper deposits are dis- duces U.S.’ first blackheart mal- sis. The invention replaced chemi- covered by Gov. Winthrop in leable iron. cal reduction and lowered the Middletown, CT. 1837—First reliable molding ma- metal’s cost (from $15/lb in chine on market is made and 1884 to $0.50/lb in 1890), spur- 1700s used by S. Jarvis Adams Co., ring a new industry of alumi- 1709—Two developments by Abraham Pittsburgh. num applications. Darby, Coalbrookdale, England, improve 1832—Nickel-bronze is produced 1887—Eli Millett invents a casting methods. He developed the first commercially in England. core oven for drying small true foundry flask to modernize mold- 1847—Cast steel guns are cores in individual drawers. ing practices (which had been carried made by Krupp Works in 1890—The first motor-driven out in pits on the floor by use of pat- Germany…Asa Whitney, mold conveyor is installed, in- tern boards tied together or in crude Philadelphia, obtains a tegrating molding, pouring and box frames). He would later initiate patent on a process for an- cooling operations. the use of coke as a furnace fuel for nealing chilled-iron car 1897—Iowa dentist B.F. iron production. wheels cast with chilled Philbrook adapts the lost-wax 1722—A.F. de Reamur, recognized as the tread and flange. investment casting process for world’s first metallurgical chemist, devel- 1847—John Deere commissions Early iron foundry producing dental inlays, the ops first malleable iron, known today as Jones and Quiggs Steel Works, process’ first non-art application European Whiteheart malleable. Pittsburgh, to cast and roll a of the modern metalcasting age. 1750—Benjamin Huntsman reinvents the steel plow, which it accomplishes at one- 1898—Poulson and Hargraves (U.K.) pro- cast crucible steel process in England, a half the product’s previous cost. duce the first sand molds bonded with process that disappeared after first being 1849—A manually operated diecasting ma- sodium silicate…Germany’s Imperial developed in India…The English chine is patented to supply rapidly cast Navy recommends copper-nickel alloys parliament prohibits the refining lead type for newspapers. containing 4-45% Ni for salt-water pip- of pig iron or the casting of iron 1850—The drop-bottom cupola is ing system. in the American colonies, con- developed. 1899—Electric arc furnace, developed by tributing to the American 1863—Metallography is developed France’s Paul Heroult, begins commer- Revolution. by Henry C. Sorby, Sheffield, En- cial production. 1756—Coalbrookdale’s Richard gland, enabling foundrymen to Reynolds oversees the inven- polish, etch and microscopically 1900s tion of cast iron tram-road examine metal surfaces for physi- 1900—Brinnell hardness test machines are rails, replacing wooden rails. cal analysis. introduced…Aluminum-bronze begins 1775—Revolutionary patriot Paul 1867—James Nasmythe, inven- regular production in the U.S. Revere, who operated a bell- tor of the steam , devel- Early 1900s—First patent for low-pressure and-fittings foundry in Bos- ops a gear-tilted safety ladle to permanent mold casting process is issued ton, rides from Boston to Lex- prevent pouring accidents. to England’s E.H. Lake. ington warning colonists of the 1870—Sandblasting is developed 1901—American Steel Foundries (St. British invasion. for large castings by R.E. Tilghman Louis) produces the first centrifugal 1776—Foundrymen Charles of Philadelphia. cast rail wheels. Cast copper frog, Carroll, James Smith, George 3200 B.C. 1874—The Colliau cupola, the 1903—The Wright Brothers’ first successful Taylor, James Wilson, George first commercially made cupola machine-powered aircraft contains a cast Ross, Philip Livingston and Stephen in America, is introduced. aluminum block and crankcase (together Hopkins sign the American Declara- 1876—The first authenticated aluminum cast- weighing 152 lb), produced either at Mi- tion of Independence. ings were produced by Colonel ami Brass Foundry or the Buckeye Iron 1779—First iron bridge ever erected (above William Frishmuth at his Philadel- and Brass Works. England’s Severn River) was cast and phia foundry. Assembled to pro- 1905—H.H. Doehler patents the constructed at Coalbrookdale Works. duce an engineer’s transit, these diecasting machine. 1794—Englishman John Wilkinson invents castings were made from 1906—The first electric arc furnace the first metal-clad cupola furnace, using $1/oz chemically produced is installed in U.S. at Halcomb Steel a steam engine to provide the air blast. aluminum…Manganese- Co., Syracuse, NY… First low-fre- 1797—First cast plow in U.S. is invented by bronze patent is granted to quency induction furnace is in- Charles Newbold, Sauk, NJ. Parsons in England. Tobin stalled at Henry Diston & Sons, Bronze develops manganese- Tacony, PA. 1800s bronze in U.S. 1907—Alfred Wilm discovers that 1809—Centrifugal casting is developed by 1880-87—W.W. Sly, Cleveland, the properties of cast aluminum A.G. Eckhardt of Soho, England. develops the first casting alloys can be enhanced through 1815—Cupola is introduced to the U.S. cleaning mill, greatly reduc- heat treating and artificial aging. (Baltimore). ing hand-chipping and Saugus pot, 1642 1908—Stockham Homogenous 1817—First iron water line in the U.S., 400 grinding to allow a custom- Sand Mixer Co., Piqua and New- ft long, is laid in Philadelphia. finished product. ark, OH, releases the sand cutter. 1818—First U.S. cast steel is produced by 1884—The first architectural application the crucible process at historic Valley of aluminum, a cast aluminum pyra- 1910s Foundry. mid produced by Col. William 1910—Matchplates are developed, fostering

SUMMER 2002 ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS 77 the viability of jolt-squeeze machines. a spectroscope and welder’s arc…The a limited degree, clay- 1911—Metallurgical microscope is austempered microstructure in bonded sands. obtainable…First electric arc furnace for cast iron is recognized. 1948—First non-labora- metalcasting is installed at Treadwell En- tory ductile iron casting is gineering, Co., Easton, PA. 1940s produced at Jamestown 1912—The first muller with individually 1940—Chvorinov develops Malleable Iron Co., mounted revolving mullers of varying the relationship between Jamestown, NY, as a weights is marketed by Peter L. solidification time and 66-in. test bar is Simpson…Sand slinger is invented by E.O. casting geometry. poured…Industry’s first Beardsley & W.F. Piper, Oregon Works. Early 1940s—Statistical ductile iron pipe is cast at 1915—Experimentation begins with bento- process control is first Lynchburg Foundry, nite, a colloidal clay of unusually high green employed as a quality Lynchburg, VA. and dry strength… Ajax Metal Co., Phila- control tool in U.S. 1949—Keel blocks, diesel delphia, installs first low-frequency induc- machine shops, principally engine parts, a pressure cyl- tion furnace for nonferrous melting. to control dimensional Foundry conveyor, inder, an 8-in. cube and two 1890 1916—Dr. Edwin Northrup, Princeton Univ., tolerances…Inoculation of cylinder liners become duc- invents the coreless induction furnace. gray iron becomes common, as high tile iron’s first commercial castings 1917—Alcoa completes a great deal of early quality cast irons replace scarce steel. at Cooper-Bessemer, Grove City, development work in aluminum as World 1941—U.S. Lt. Col. W.C. Bliss tells the PA…Development of magnesium-fer- War I generates great demand for high-in- AFS St. Louis Chapter that “the side rosilicon makes ductile iron treatment tegrity castings for aircraft engines. which maintains the larger production far easier…Buffalo Pipe & Foundry 1918—The first fully automated foundry in of war goods is going to win the war.” Co., Tonawanda, NY, is the first U.S. Rockford, IL, casts hand grenade The War Production Board reports operation to pour castings using hulks for the U.S. Army. later that each U.S. soldier requires Croning’s shell process. 4900 lb of steel compared to 90 1920s lb in World War I. 1950s 1921—Modification of the sili- 1942—The use of synthetic Early 1950s—Experimentation in high- con structure in aluminum sands increases as a replacement pressure molding begins, as foundrymen begins as Pacz discovers for many war materials. begin to increase the air pressure in air that adding metallic so- 1943—Keith Millis, a 28-year- squeeze molding machines to increase dium to molten aluminum old metallurgist working at mold hardness (density)…Fast-drying just prior to pouring greatly INCO searching for a replace- core oils are introduced…The pneumatic improves ductility… Cop- ment to chrome due to inter- scrubber is developed to reclaim clay- per-silicon alloys are pre- rupted supply, discovers that bonded sands. Several wet reclamation pared in Germany as a sub- magnesium alloy in molten systems are also in operation. stitute for tin bronzes. iron produces a spheroidal 1951—Ford Motor Co. converts 100% of its 1924—Henry Ford sets “pro- Signers of Declaration of graphite structure. In 1949, crankshaft production to ductile iron. duction record” of 1 mil- Independence, 1776 he, Albert Gagnebin and 1952—D Process is developed for making lion autos in 132 working Norman Pilling would receive shell molds with fine sand and fast dry days. Automotive manu- a U.S. patent on ductile iron oil by Harry Dietert…Sodium-silicate/

facturing will grow to consume one-third production via magnesium treatment. CO2 system is introduced. of casting demand in the U.S. 1944—The first heat-reactive, chemically- 1953—Hotbox system of making and cur- 1925—X-ray radiography is established as cured binder is developed by ing cores in one operation is devel- a tool for checking casting quality. By Germany’s Johannes Croning to rap- oped, eliminating the need for dielec- 1940, all military aircraft castings re- idly produce mortar and artillery shells tric drying ovens.

quire x-ray inspection prior to for Axis troops during World 1954—The CO2 process, a novel acceptance…American Brass, Water- War II. Two years after the mold and coremaking bury, CT, installs first medium-fre- war, his shell process is process, is introduced from quency induction furnace in the U.S. discovered among other Germany…Working closely 1928—Alcoa develops the first aluminum inventions in the Ger- with General Motors, B&P vehicle wheel, a sand-cast 355 alloy de- man patent office and develops a method for coat- signed for truck trailers. made public. Croning is ing individual sand particles recognized with an AFS with resin binder. It also in- 1930s Gold Medal in 1957 for troduces a coreblower ca- 1930—First high-frequency coreless electric his invention. pable of producing cores induction furnace is installed at 1946—Allied investigators with resin-coated shell Lebanon Steel Foundry, Lebanon, uncover German foundry sand—a modification to the PA…Spectrography is pioneered by research on high tem- Croning process. Univ. of MI professors for metal perature alloys…Having Lost Foam Pattern, 1950s 1955—People’s Gas of Chi- analysis…Davenport and Bain develop the ‘heard’ of the Croning dis- cago is the first to install austempering process for iron castings. covery (prior to the re- ductile iron gas mains. 1937—ARL founder Maurice Hasler pro- lease of the report), Ford’s Ed Ensign and Mid-1950s—Squeeze casting process origi- duces the first grating spectrograph for E.I. Valyi, Navy Bureau of Ships, at- nates in Russia. the Geological Survey of California. tempted to replicate the process and pro- 1956—First Betatron is installed in U.S. Spectrometers begin finding their way duced shell-molded castings at Midwest foundry at ESCO Corp., Portland, OR, for into foundries by the late 1940s, replac- Foundry, Coldwater, MI. radiography of heavy steel castings. ing the previous practice of metallurgists Late 1940s—Thermal sand reclama- 1957—The vertically-parted flaskless green estimating chemical compositions with tion is applied to core sands and, to sand molding machine is invented by

78 ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS SUMMER 2002 Vagn Aage Jeppesen, a 40-year-old pro- castings via computer…Cast metal ma- (SSM), a process in which a partially fro- fessor at the Technical University of Den- trix composites are first poured at Inter- zen metal (fluidity similar to machine oil) mark. He was granted a patent in 1959, national Nickel Co., Sterling Forest, NY. can be poured into a cavity. Follow- which was purchased by Dansk Industri 1968—The coldbox process is introduced by ing advancement in metal slurry consis- Syndikat in 1961. Larry Toriello and Janis Robins and in- tencies with Professor Mert Flemings, 1958—Harold F. Shroyer obtains a patent troduced to the foundry industry by Newton Diecasting Co., New Haven, CT, for the full mold process, a process de- Ashland Chemical Co. for high- produces the first semi-solid castings. veloped by artists in which simple pat- production coremaking. 1972—A 1-lb crankshaft for a terns and gating systems are carved Germany’s Daimler-Benz refrigerator compressor pro- from expanded polystyrene and placed foundry in Mannheim is duced at Wagner Castings into a green sand mold. The process, the first to run the pro- (designed and engineered known today as lost foam casting (us- cess for automotive by Tecumseh) becomes the ing loose, unbonded sand), is patented parts. John Deere Silvas first production-volume a short time later…Phenolic and fu- Foundry, Moline, IL, is austempered ductile iron ran acid-catalyzed nobake binder sys- the first to use the pro- (ADI) component. Wagner tems are introduced…Ductile iron cess for mass-produc- also produces first as-cast desulfurization via shaking ladles is de- tion in North America. ductile iron connecting veloped in Sweden. 1969—The Chevrolet Vega is Prototype Vertically rods for passenger cars… 1959—General Electric utilizes the Tran- introduced by General Parted Green Sand Mold CANMET uses real-time radi- sient Heat Transfer digital computer Motors, featuring the Machine, 1959 ography to study the flow of program and successfully applies the first all-aluminum block with no cast steel in molds… Hitchiner Manufactur- finite difference method to heavy steel iron cylinder liners. A total of 2.5 mil- ing, Milford, NH, patents counter-grav- casting production. lion blocks were produced during the ity (vacuum) casting process. vehicle’s life cycle. 1973—The first U.S. foundry argon oxygen 1960s Late-1960s—Scanning electron microscope decarburization (AOD) unit is installed 1960—Furan hotbox binders are developed (SEM) is invented in England…Thermal at ESCO Corp. for core production…Deep bed analysis begins to be used in iron found- 1974—Fiat introduces the in-mold process filters are used commercially ries for the rapid determination of for ductile iron treatment…The phe- for aluminum casting carbon equivalent and phospho- nolic urethane nobake binder system is at Alcoa and British rous contents, making it pos- introduced for mold production. Aluminum in the sible to study the transforma- Mid-1970s—Alcoa and Union Carbide com- U.K…Compactibility and tion of an alloy during mence rotary degassing for wrought alu- methylene blue clay tests cooling…Manganese Bronze minum. Reading Foundry Products would are developed for green & Brass Co. and J. Stone & Co. apply this technology to aluminum found- sand control. join to promote nickel-alumi- ries in the mid-1980s...Digital codes are 1961—Alcohol-borne shell num bronze propellers. developed to simulate solidification and coating process is intro- fluid flow analysis…Ultrasonic verification duced (warm-coated). 1970s of ductile iron nodularity is developed…Foundries examine new ben- 1962—New CO2 sand test- 1970—The sodium-silicate/ ing method is intro- Shell Core Machine, 1950s ester catalyzed nobake binder eficial reuse routes for spent foundry sand, duced for sands bonded system is introduced for leading to applications such as cement and with sodium silicate and cores/molds…Safety-critical paving products, bricks and flowable fill. 1976—Foote Mineral Co. and BCIRA cured with CO2…Beardsley & Piper’s Al ductile iron steering knuckles are intro- Hunter, Bob Lund and Angello Bisinello duced on Chevrolet’s Cadillac…A new (U.K.) develop compacted graphite develop the first automated green sand phenolic urethane nobake process is in- iron…Acid-slag cupola practices plus

molding machine. In their design, the troduced by Ashland Chemical, replacing external desulfurization with CaC2 cope and drag are side-blown simulta- oil sand dump box operations and sig- begin to replace basic slag cupolas. neously and then hydraulically squeezed. nificantly reducing energy requirements 1977—General Motors installs ADI rear dif- The birth of automated matchplate for core/ mold production throughout ferential sets in passenger cars…The alu- molding reportedly improved foundry the 1970s…Diran Apelian’s doctoral mina phosphate nobake binder system, productivity by levels as much as 60% in work at Massachusetts an inorganic nonsilicate binder, is in- a short amount of time…Phenolic hot- Institute of Tech- troduced for mold production.

box binders introduced. nology (MIT) leads 1978—Furan/SO2 binder sys- 1963—Shell flake resin is introduced, elimi- to the develop- tem is developed for cores/ nating the need for solvents. ment of foam fil- molds…Polyol urethane 1964—Dell & Christ’s paper on mold inocula- ters for metalcast- nobake binder system tion spurs the development of many of ing by Olin Met- is introduced for alumi- today’s forms of mold and late stream in- als. Commercial num applications. oculation… The first vertically parted green ceramic foam fil- sand machine (max. 240 molds/hr) is de- ters will be in use in 1980s livered to United Danish Iron Foundries in foundries by 1974. Early 1980s—Tundish Frederiksvaerk, Denmark. Early adopters re- 1971—The vacuum- ladle is embraced by Matchplate Molding port man-hour per ton improvements on or V-Process Machine, 1960s industry as favored practice the order of 50%. molding method of using of nodularizing ductile 1965—Oil urethane nobake binder systems unbonded sand with the use of a vacuum iron…Three-dimensional relational are used for cores/molds…General is developed in Japan…MIT doctoral parameters are developed for CAD Electric’s Jim Henzel and Jack Keverian candidate David Spencer performs ex- solid models. predict freezing patterns in large steel periments leading to semi-solid molding 1981—High-production lost foam casting

SUMMER 2002 ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS 79 begins at General Motors’ Massena, NY, duction...Metaullics Systems combines cars) two-cavity squeeze-cast aluminum plant for aluminum cylinder heads. flux injection/rotary degassing technolo- conversion of its kind. 1982—Warmbox binder system is introduced. gies for aluminum processing. Mid-1990s—Microstructure simulation is 1983—Air impulse molding process is 1989—IMI (Yorkshire, UK) begins experi- developed, contributing to better under-

developed…Free radical cure/SO2 menting with bismuth as a lead substi- standing of effects and the binder system is introduced. tute in copper alloys. prediction and control of mechanical 1984—Charles Hull applies properties in castings… Semi-solid cast- for a patent on stereo- 1990s ing makes commercial inroads and mar- lithography process. 1990—Equipment for semi-solid ket penetration. Other rapid prototyping casting is introduced by Alumax 1996—Cast metal matrix composites (brake techniques emerge Engineered Materials and Buhler, rotors) are used for the first time in a pro- shortly after…Phenolic Inc… Foseco patents a direct- duction model automobile, the Lotus ester nobake binder is pour system that permits casting Elise…Environmentally-friendly (fluo- introduced…Thermal production without conventional rine-free) fluxes are developed at the analysis makes break- gating/risering. Major automotive Worcester Polytechnic Institute and com- through in molten alumi- application would come in 1995 mercialized… General Motors Corp. in- num processing for determi- with CMI International’s upper in- troduces GMBond, a water-soluble SSM billet, 1971 nation of grain refinement take manifold…Precision sand cast- biopolymer-based core sand binder that and silicon modification. ing and casting quality for engine blocks is nontoxic and recyclable. 1985—Phenolic ester coldbox binder is are improved in mass production by major 1997—AFS Consortium research at developed…New automaker Saturn automotive companies with the Cosworth CANMET, Ottawa, Canada, results makes a strategic decision to select lost and Zeus processes for aluminum and in the development and foam process for its aluminum cylinder the Loramendi Key Core pro- commercialization of lead-free blocks and heads and ductile iron crank- cess for precision sand cast copper alloys using bismuth shafts and differential cases. iron applications. and selenium…Following Mid-1980s—Computer solidification soft- tests at the Germany’s 1991—“Dry ice” CO2 pro- ware is commercialized…Amine recy- cess is developed for Aachen Univ., American cling is introduced to enhance the envi- cleaning coreboxes and Cast Iron Pipe Co., Bir- ronmental benefits of the amine-cured foundry tooling…A mingham, AL, builds a coldbox process…Ube Machinery intro- noncontact for ac- continuously operated duces first squeeze casting equip- curate dimensional electric arc furnace for cast ment...Aikoh’s (Japan) flux injection analysis of lost foam pat- iron production. technology is initiated into U.S. alumi- terns and sand cores is Late 1990s—Stress and num foundry market. developed through the distortion simulation in- Late 1980s—3-D visualization techniques AFS Lost Foam Consor- GMBond-produced troduces the benefits of engine block, 1996 are developed…CaO/CaF2 desulfuriza- tium. Eight years later, the controlling casting dis- tion of cupola-melted ductile base consortium develops an instrument to tortion, reducing residual stresses,

iron begins to replace CaC2 measure the gas permeability of lost foam eliminating hot tears and cracking, method…Lanxide, Newark, DE, devel- pattern coatings (which controls flow of minimizing mold distortion and in- ops pressureless metal infiltration pro- metal and has a dominant effect on cast- creasing mold life. cess for particulate-reinforced metal ing quality.) bodies…Mg wire injection method for 1993—First foundry application of a 2000s ductile iron treatment is first plasma ladle refiner (melting and re- 2001—NASA and the Dept. of Energy/OIT re- tested…Casting solidification model- fining in one vessel) occurs at Maynard lease physics-based software tool to accu- ing software gains in acceptance, al- Steel Casting Co., Milwaukee. rately predict the filling of expanded poly- lowing foundries to optimize quality, 1994—Use of low-expansion synthetic mul- styrene patterns and sand cores as numer- production and cost prior to actually lite sand for lost foam is patented by ous variables are changed…Mercury Ma- pouring a casting. Brunswick Corp., Lake Forest, IL, to en- rine installs North America’s first pressur- 1988—Rapid prototyping and CAD/CAM able precision casting of large ized lost foam casting line at its new technologies combine in a breakthrough components…Delphi Chassis Systems and foundry in Fond du Lac, WI. to shorten tooling development Casting Technology Co. begin program on time…Ford adapts Cosworth process pre- squeeze-cast aluminum front knuckle, the Comments on the timeline should be directed to cision sand casting process for high pro- first high-volume production (1.5 million [email protected]

Sources of Metalcasting Historical Information C.F. Walton, T.J. Opar, Iron Castings Handbook, Iron Castings Society, Inc., (1981). • J. Gerin Sylvia, Cast Metals Technology, AFS, (1990). • E.L. Kotzin, Metalcasting & Molding Processes, AFS (1981). • J.P. LaRue, Basic Metalcasting, AFS (1989). • C.A. Sanders and D.C. Gould, History Cast in Metal, AFS, (1976). • Proceedings of 1992 Coreless Induction Melting Conference, AFS, (1992). • B.L. Simpson, History of the Metalcasting Industry, AFS (1948). • J.A. Gitzen, Progress in the Develop- ment and Utilization of Additives in the Foundry Industry, AFS (1957). • 1995 Lost Foam Technology and Applications Conference Proceedings, AFS (1995). • Aluminum: Design and Application (Vol. II), ASM, (1967). • High-Pressure Molding, 2nd Edition, AFS (1987). • Foundry Trade Journal (Sept. 11, 1986). • Metals Handbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 15 Casting, ASM International (1988). • 1991 AFS International Sand Reclamation Conference, AFS (1991) • AFS/CMI Conference on Green Sand Technology—Productivity for the ‘80s, AFS (1983). • ADI: The New Benchmark Material video, Applied Process, Inc. • “1997 Hoyt Memorial Lecture: Lost Wax to Lost Foam: Reflections on the Past, Present and Future,” E.L. Kotzin, July 1997 MODERN CASTING, p. 42-45. • 1999 Charles Edgar Hoyt Memorial Lecture: “From a Monument to the Vega: The Journey of the Aluminum Casting Industry,” J.R. Bodine, May 1999 MODERN CASTING, p. 60-63. • A Tribute to Keith Millis and the Unveiling of Ductile Iron 50 Years Ago,” October 1998 MODERN CASTING • MODERN CASTING’s A Look Back at the 20th Century Series (2000- 2001). • Special thanks to Bill Henning, Miller & Co. (retired); Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Paul Carey and Jim Archibald, Ashland Specialty Chemical Co.; Stubbs Davis, Durametal Corp.; Raymond Donahue, Mercury Marine Div.; Matt Granlund, Foundry Systems Control; Roy Lobenhofer, Lobenhofer Consulting, Inc.; Norris Luther, Luther & Assoc.; Mahi Sahoo, CANMET; Geary Smith, Manufacturers’ Brass & Aluminum; Bob Voigt, Penn State Univ.; David Neff, Metaullics Systems, LLC; and Norm Bliss, Ian Kay, Wayne Rasmussen, Steve Robison and Joe Santner, AFS/CMI.

80 ENGINEERED CASTING SOLUTIONS SUMMER 2002