Open Newsmall FULL DISS BUCKLEY

The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Arts and Architecture

CRAFTING THE IMAGE OF THE HUMAN BODY:

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERACTIVE ANATOMICAL MODELS

IN EARLY MODERN EUROPE

A Dissertation in Art History by Cali Buckley

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August!2017! ! ! ii!

The dissertation of Cali Buckley was reviewed and approved* by the following:

! ! Charlotte!Houghton! Dissertation!Advisor! Associate!Professor!of!Art!History! Chair!of!Committee! ! Brian!Curran!! Professor!of!Art!History! ! Anthony!Cutler!! Evan!Pugh!Professor!of!Art!History! ! Ronnie!Po

Abstract! ! !

! This!study!explores!the!development!of!interactive!anatomical!models!in!the! early!modern!era.!The!first!chapters!explore!flapped!prints!and!ivory!manikins!and! their!impact!on!later!models!including!and!full;figure!wax!models.!

The!first!chapter!provides!a!narrative!on!the!creation,!replication,!and! dissemination!of!printed!flap!anatomies!throughout!Europe.!These!were!some!of!the! earliest!anatomical!images!made!predominantly!for!a!lay!public.!Their!creator!was!a! man!originally!trained!as!a!physician!but!who!made!a!career!as!a!printer.!He! combined!his!skills!in!medicine!and!the!arts!to!create!singular!anatomical!prints! with!multiple!flaps—or!“flap!anatomies.”!Their!emergence!in!the!Reformation!era!is! not!a!coincidence—they!were!the!product!of!an!ideological!revolution!committed!to! making!knowledge!once!held!in!academic!hands!available!more!broadly!to!a!lay! public.!!

Chapter!three!relates!the!afterlives!of!each!of!these!models!through!changes! in!how!they!were!seen!in!both!the!public!and!academic!realms.!Each!flowed!and! ebbed!in!popularity,!changing!from!anatomical!tools!to!curiosities,!antiques,!and! spectacles.!This!chapter!follows!each!and!also!details!the!emergence!of!newer! dissectable!models—with!an!emphasis!on!Enlightenment!era!wax!models—from! the!eighteenth!and!twentieth!centuries.!

! Exploring!the!making!of!models!and!comparing!their!historical!contexts! reveals!that!anatomical!accuracy!could!be!delivered!selectively!to!adapt!to!specific! social!climates.!The!models!I!consider!here!were!not!simple!representations!of!the! body,!but!teaching!tools,!advertisements,!and!pieces!of!art!that!were!intentionally! crafted!to!incite!curiosity!and!enhance!the!memory.!Here,!we!can!begin!to! understand!how!artists!innovated!ways!to!connect!audiences!to!knowledge!through! objects.! Table&of&Contents& & & List&of&Figures…….………………………………………………………………………………………………vi& & & Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………………………………viii& & & Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………1& & & Chapter&1.&The&Rise&of&Flap&Anatomies&in&the&Reformation&Era……………………..………9& & & Chapter&2.&Ivory&Manikins&and&Women’s&Medicine……………………………………………..66& & & Chapter&3.&The&Afterlives&and&Reanimations&of&Interactive&Anatomical&Models……90& & & Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………134& & & Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………137& ! vi!

List of Figures

Chapter 1 1.1. Anonymous, Broadsheet of conjoined twins, two views, 1512……………………..42 1.2. Anonymous, Flapped print of a woman spinning, c. 1520………………………….42 1.3. Eight views of a trick woodcut, c. 1535……………………..……………………....43 1.4. Jost de Negker, Female Figure, three views, 1538…………………………...……..44 1.5. Heinrich Vogtherr the Elder, Male Figure, two views,1539………………………..45 1.6. Hans Guldenmund, after Heinrich Vogtherr, page from Auszlegung unnd beschreibung der Anathomi..., Strasbourg, 1539……………………..……………….....46 1.7. Cornelis Bos, Male Figure, c. 1539…………………………………..……………..47 1.8. Cornelis Bos, Female Figure, c. 1539………………………………..……………..47 1.9. Cornelis Bos, Male Figure, c. 1539…………………………………..……………..48 1.10. Andreas Vesalius, Fifth Muscle Figure, 1543, woodcut, from De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Basel, 1543…………………….……………………..………………………...48 1.11. Andreas Vesalius, Hand-Cut Flapped Anatomical Figure, c. 1543…………….…49 1.12. Johann Remmelin, visio prima of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1613…………50 1.13. Johann Remmelin, visio prima of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619………....51 1.14. Johann Remmelin, visio secunda of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619…….…52 1.15. Johann Remmelin, visio tertia of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619………….53 1.16. Johann Remmelin, visio secunda of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619, detail. ……………………….……………………..………………………...... …….54 1.17. Johann Remmelin, visio tertia of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619, detail..54 1.18. Johann Cristoph Storer and Bartholomäus Kilian, Thesis print entitled Die Weltmission der Gesellschaft Jesu, 17th century…………………….………….………..55 1.19. Johann Remmelin, visio prima of the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619, showing orthagonals…………………….……………………..……………………….……….....56 1.20. Michael Maier, from Atalanta Fugiens, Oppenheim, 1618…………………….….56 1.21. Robert Campin, Merode Triptych, 1428, detail…………………….……………...57 1.22. Johann Remmelin, Removable pieces from the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1619…………………….……………………..……………………………………….....58 1.23. Johann Remmelin, uncut sheets for the Catoptrum Microcosmicum, 1613……….59 1.24. Four Seasons of Human Life, anonymous, c.1630………………...... 60 1.25. Albrecht Dürer, Proportion Studies from Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion, 1532…………………….……………………..……………………………………….....61 1.26. Matthaüs Merian, from Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi Maioris, 1617…………...61 1.27. “Winter” from Four Seasons of Human Life, anonymous, c.1630………………...62 1.28. Albrecht Dürer, Proportion Studies from Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion, 1532…………………….……………………..……………………………………….....62 1.29. Heinrich Vogtherr’s portrait from the frontispiece of his Kunstbuchlein, 1537…...63 1.30. Male Flap Anatomy, Wittenberg, Bartholomew Schonbornio, c. 1550-1586……..64 1.31. Image of Leonhart Thurneisser zum Thurn in the frontispiece to the Confirmatio Concertationis, 1576, and the image of a male flap anatomy within……………………65 1.32. Portrait of Robert Fludd by by Matthäus Merian the Elder, early to mid 17th century…………………….……………………..……………………………………….65

! vii!

Chapter 2 2.1. Ivory manikins, attr. Stephan Zick, c. 1700…………………………………………84 2.2. Eye models, attr. Stephan Zick, c. mid-1600s………………………………………85 2.3. Ear model, attr. Stephan Zick, c. mid-1600s…………...……………………………85 2.4. Booklet of ear, eye, and full-figure models, n.d…………………………………….86 2.5. Turned ivories made by the Zick family from J. G. Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht bon den Nürnberger Mathematicis und Künstlern, 1730…………………….87 2.6. Title page showing turned ivories made by the Teuber family from Vollständiger Unterricht von der gemeinen und hohern Dreh-Kunst, 1740……………………………87 2.7. Illustration of the eye from Georg Bartisch, Ophthalmodouleia, 1583……………..88 2.8. Ivory manikin with a view to its underside, n.d……………………………………..88 2.9. Frontispiece, John Blunt, Man-Midwifery Dissected, 1793…………………………89

Chapter 3 3.1. External and internal views of a female flap anatomy, n.d………………….……..119 3.2. Internal view of a female flap anatomy showing restoration with the substitution of the penis and vasa spermatis attached to the vasa menstrualis…………………..…….119 3.3. Plate from George Spratt’s Obstetric Tables, 1847………………………………..120 3.4. Image and detail from Salomon Kleiner, Christophori de Pauli Pharmocopoei Camera Materialium, 1751……………………….……………………….……………121 3.5. Guiseppe Isnardi, Female Anatomical Model in Wax, c. 1786……………………122 3.6. Anonymous, Wax anatomical model of a woman, n.d. …………………………...122 3.7. Anonymous, Female anatomical figure in bronze, n.d. ……………………….…..123 3.8. Anonymous, Female anatomical figure in pearwood, n.d. ………………………..123 3.9. Ivory manikin and detail of the doll placed in its womb, n.d. …………………….124 3.10. Drawing of a wax-injected womb by Jan Swammerdam from Miraculum naturæ, sive, Uteri muliebris fabrica, 1672……………….……………….…………...….……125 3.11. Wax moulages in a private collection in New York……………...………………125 3.12. Truncated wax models and printed counterparts……………….………………...126 3.13. Clemente Susini, Wax model, c. 1790……………….……………….…………..127 3.14. Clemente Susini, Wax model, c. 1790……………….……………….…………..127 3.15. Clemente Susini, Wax model, detail, c. 1790……………….……………….…...128 3.16. Venus de Medici, 1st century……………….……………….……………………128 3.17. Ecole Lelli, Écorché showing the superficial muscles in wax, 1742-1747………129 3.18. Anna Morandi Manzolini, Self-portrait with brain in wax, 1750-1755………….129 3.19. Attributed to Claudio Valvani, Print of figure showing lymphatic system, c. 1780- 1786……………….……………….…………...….…………………….…..…………130 3.20. Advertisement for Antonio Sarti’s exhibition of an “anatomical Venus,” c. 1847- 1854……………….……………….…………...….……………………………………130 3.21. Obstetric phantom, 18th century…………...….…………………….……………131 3.22. Obstetric Machine, Madame Du Coudray, n.d. …………………….……………131 3.23. Joseph Towne, Wax model of the head and neck, c. 1851………….……………132 3.24. Louis Auzoux with a full-figure classic model on carte de visite, 1858…………132 3.25. Gunther von Hagens with a plastinated model, 2009……………………….……133 3.26. Illustration on the box lid for a “Visible Woman,” c. 1977………………………133 ! ! viii!

Acknowledgments! ! I!would!like!to!thank!the!New!York!Academy!of!Medicine,!the!Bodleian!Library,!the! Wellcome!Library,!the!Science!Museum!of!London,!the!Huntington!Library,!the! Museum!Boerhaave,!Schloss!Rheydt,!and!the!Rubenstein!Library!at!Duke!University,! among!others,!for!allowing!me!to!explore!their!holdings.!Funding!for!my!research! was!provided!by!the!Huntington!Library!Molina!Fellowship!in!the!History!of! Medicine!and!Allied!Sciences;!Pennsylvania!State!University!Department!of!Art! History!Research!Grant;!the!Art!History!Donors!Travel!Grant;!the!Francis!E.!Hyslop! Memorial!Felllowship;!the!Duke!University!David!M.!Rubenstein!Rare!Book!and! Manuscript!Library!History!of!Medicine!Collections!Travel!Grant;!the!Pennsylvania! State!University!Committee!for!Early!Modern!Studies!Paper!Award;!the!Louise!D.! Purcell!Memorial!Endowment;!the!Babcock!Galleries!Endowed!Fund;!the!Arts!and! Humanities!Graduate!Student!Summer!Residency!Program;!and!the!Fulbright! Program.!I!would!also!like!to!personally!and!professionally!thank!Marion!Maria! Ruisinger,!KarlPHeinz!Leven,!Rachel!Ingold,!Amara!Solari,!Joan!Landes,!Ronnie!Hsia,! Eleanor!H.!Goodman,!Bradford!Bouley,!and!Brian!Curran!for!their!ideas!and! academic!support.!I!express!the!utmost!appreciation!for!Anthony!Cutler,!who!has! been!integral!to!my!intellectual!development.!Charlotte!Houghton!has!both!goaded! and!questioned!my!ideas,!inspired!me!and!reigned!me!in,!and!deserves!more! gratitude!than!I!can!possibly!give!in!this!small!space.!Other!thanks!go!to!my!fellow! graduate!students!and!others!that!have!shared!their!intellectual!and!practical! insights—most!importantly!Brynne!McBryde!and!Felicity!Backenstose!Good.!Lastly,! I!must!acknowledge!Bill!Clarke!and!his!staff!and!patrons!at!the!Cheese!Shoppe!for! providing!me!with!coffee,!conversation,!and!a!place!to!read!and!pontificate.! ! ! ! !

! ! ! 1!

! Introduction! ! ! ! “Practically!all!of!our!knowledge!of!the!development!of!anatomy,!or!may!I! say,!our!understanding!of!the!penetration!of!the!knowledge!of!anatomic! details!in!the!life!of!the!people,!is!dependent!upon!the!survival!of!plastic! models!fully!as!much!as!upon!records!left!in!manuscript!or!drawing.”!! –LeRoy!Crummer,!19271! ! ! ! ! ! Today,!myriad!alternatives!for!anatomical!visualization!are!available!to!the! public.!To!the!student!or!the!lay!viewer,!a!first!sight!of!them!opens!up!new!channels! of!thought,!mirroring!the!internal!body!and!inspiring!questions!about!the!corporeal! self.!I!explore!models!from!a!time!when!they!were!just!beginning!to!breach!the! public!imagination.!Though!many!of!the!objects!explored!here!are!today!seen!as! odd,!amusing,!or!grotesque,!they!acted!as!the!face!of!anatomy!and!a!vehicle!for! curiosity!for!many!outside!of!the!medical!establishment.!In!exploring!some!of!the! earliest!interactive!anatomical!models,!I!show!how!artisans!took!the!knowledge!of! educated!physicians!and!used!their!skills!to!bridge!the!gaps!between!seeing!and! understanding!for!nonKacademics.!

! Laymen!in!sixteenthKcentury!Europe!had!no!visual!reference!for!the!interior! of!the!body.!Though!cadavers!were!being!dissected!since!the!1200s!and!anatomical! theaters!were!being!built!since!the!1400s,!much!of!this!knowledge!did!not!escape! the!ivory!tower!of!academia.!Early!in!the!sixteenth!century,!the!first!printed!books! on!anatomy!began!to!emerge!with!simple,!schematic!illustrations.!Anatomists!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Le!Roy!Crummer,!“Visceral!Manikins!in!Carved!Ivory.”!American)Journal)of) Obstetrics)and)Gynecology)13!(1927):!26.!

! ! ! 2! physicians!relied!on!lecturing!and!demonstrations!on!human!and!animal!cadavers! for!teaching.!Laymen,!however,!would!not!have!had!ready!access!to!such!resources.!

Even!barberKsurgeons!and!midwives!had!few!visual!references!at!their!disposal!and! learned!instead!from!apprenticeship!experiences.!!

! How!to!express!anatomical!knowledge!to!the!public!was!a!conundrum.!

Craftsmen!rose!to!the!challenge,!realizing!how!models!could!be!made!to!stimulate! interest!and!learning!not!only!visually!but!haptically.!The!first!manipulable!figures! were!made!in!paper!in!1538.!Later!variants!came!in!the!form!of!small!ivory! manikins!in!the!seventeenth!century,!lifeKsized!waxworks!in!the!eighteenth,!and! models!from!paper!pulp!and!plastic!into!the!nineteenth!and!twentieth.!While! anatomists!focused!on!accuracy,!craftsmen!innovated!the!ways!that!the!materials! were!translated!into!objects!which!would!inspire!public!interest!and!could!be! manipulated!for!anatomical!learning.!Each!iteration!of!this!type!of!model!reflected! the!prevailing!anatomical!teachings!and!artistic!technologies!of!their!time.!

! Artisans!were!not!only!trained!in!the!practical!skills!of!their!trade,!but!also!in! how!to!assess!the!needs!of!varied!viewers!and!patrons.!The!interactive!or!

“dissectable”!model!that!these!artisans!conceived!and!executed—showing!the!full! body!and!how!major!parts!fit!within!it—is!today!the!quintessential!template!for! anatomical!models.!It!compels!not!only!interaction,!but!reinforces!the!viewer’s! memory!haptically!through!the!activity!of!taking!it!apart!and!reassembling!it.!

! These!objects!spawned!from!a!northern!European!tradition!of!objects!that! could!both!hide!and!reveal,!from!altarpieces!and!carved!rosary!beads!to!Vierges)

! ! ! 3! ouvrantes.2!Artisans!were!attuned!to!the!revelatory!object!that!required!the!agency! of!the!viewer!to!reveal!its!secrets.!In!contrast!to!these!other!objects,!interactive! anatomical!models!were!a!revelation!of!bodily!knowledge!rather!than!religiosity.!

Integrating!visual,!tactile,!and!psychological!elements!only!underscored!the! newness!of!anatomical!information!for!public!consumption—the!unveiling!of!the! body!metaphorically!echoing!the!disclosure!of!science!to!the!masses.!Unlike!the! cadaver!of!the!anatomical!theater,!these!models!could!be!put!back!together—to! seem!alive!and!intact!after!its!insides!were!explored.!These!objects!were!devised!to! eschew!disgust!in!viewers!and!to!transform!their!learning!experiences!into!personal! epiphanies.!!

This!study!explores!the!development!of!the!first!anatomical!models—flapped! prints!and!ivory!manikins—and!the!legacy!of!their!interactive!form.!Each!type!of! model!was!made!for!different!types!of!encounters!with!audiences—individual!or! small!group!viewing,!intimate!educational!settings,!and/or!public!group!exhibition.!

These!case!studies!consider!the!intentions!and!prerogative!of!artists,!the!influence! of!physicians!and!medicine!in!society,!and!the!expectations!of!audience!interaction! and!interest.!Showing!the!aftereffects!of!each!models’!fame!and!how!they!were! redefined!in!different!contexts!allows!for!a!window!into!the!changing!perception!of! scientific!objects.!!

My!first!chapter!provides!a!narrative!on!the!creation,!replication,!and! dissemination!of!printed!flap!anatomies!throughout!Europe.!These!were!some!of!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 2!On!the!Vierge!ouvrante!see!Elina!Gertsman,!Worlds)Within:)Opening)the)Medieval) Shrina)Madonna.!University!Park:!Penn!State!University!Press,!2008.!

! ! ! 4! earliest!anatomical!images!made!predominantly!for!a!lay!public.3!Their!creator!was! a!man!originally!trained!as!a!physician!but!who!made!a!career!as!a!printer.!He! combined!his!skills!in!medicine!and!the!arts!to!create!singular!anatomical!prints! with!multiple!flaps—or!“flap!anatomies.”4!Their!emergence!in!the!Reformation!era! is!not!a!coincidence—they!were!the!product!of!an!ideological!revolution!committed! to!making!knowledge!once!held!in!academic!hands!available!more!broadly!to!a!lay! public.!!

Chapter!two!tells!the!story!of!ivory!manikins.!The!earliest!of!these!were! produced!by!an!ivory!turner!who!translated!his!expertise!in!minute!carved!ivories! with!fitted!parts!into!anatomical!models.!He!created!a!niche!market!that!fulfilled!the! needs!of!new!kinds!of!doctors.!Educated!male!physicians!were!making!inroads!in! women’s!medicine!and!subsequently!played!a!controversial!role!in!a!highly! gendered!field.!They!found!they!could!increase!their!authority!by!demonstrating! with!objects!crafted!ad!hoc.!These!small!models!could!be!used!to!illustrate!lectures,! but!could!not!convey!the!intricacies!of!anatomy—accentuating!the!importance!of! the!lectors’!words.!!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!The!only!example!of!which!I!am!aware!is!that!of!Hans!Wechtlin!from!1517!entitled! “Anatomia!corporis!humani.”!For!this,!see!Andrea!Carlino,!Paper)Bodies:)A)Catalogue) of)Anatomical)Fugitive)Sheets)1538G1687,!trans.!Noga!Arikha,!Medical)History,! Supplement!No.!19.!(London:!Wellcome!Institute!for!the!History!of!Medicine,!1999),! 57,!88K91.! 4!I!base!the!term!“flap!anatomy”!on!its!usage!in!K.!B.!Roberts!and!J.!D.!W.!Tomlinson’s! The)Fabric)of)the)Body:)European)Traditions)of)Anatomical)Illustration.!(Oxford,! 1992),!52–3.!I!prefer!this!term!over!“anatomical!fugitive!sheet”!because!the!latter! phrase!is!based!on!the!German!phrase!fliegende)Blätter)used!in!the!original!edition! of!L.!Choulant’s!Geschichte)und)Bibliographie)der)anatomischen)Abbildung)nach)ihrer) Beziehung)auf)anatomische)Wissenschaft)und)bildende)Kunst,!translated!by!M.!Frank! as!History)and)Bibliography)of)Anatomic)Illustration!(New!York,!1962).!Given!that! this!phrase!can!be!translated!as!‘broadsheet’,!it!does!not!recognize!the!difference! between!compound!or!multilayer!prints!and!more!common!singleKlayer!exempla.!

! ! ! 5!

Chapter!three!relates!the!afterlives!of!each!of!these!models!through!changes! in!how!they!were!seen!in!both!the!public!and!academic!realms.!Each!flowed!and! ebbed!in!popularity,!changing!from!anatomical!tools!to!curiosities,!antiques,!and! spectacles.!This!chapter!also!details!the!emergence!of!newer!dissectable!models— with!an!emphasis!on!EnlightenmentKera!wax!models—from!the!eighteenth!and! twentieth!centuries.!

! This!study!is!an!exploration!of!styles!of!representation!through!the!lens!of! social!history.!It!is!not!concerned!with!modern!aesthetic!or!scientific!standards,!but! investigate!those!which!affected!the!models’!construction!and!perception!in!their! given!period.!In!the!history!of!science,!questions!of!epistemics—or!the!“truthKvalue”! of!works—have!been!predominant!in!the!study!of!scientific!illustration.5!Here,!these! questions!are!secondary!to!showing!how!artists!adapted!anatomical!models!to!their! audiences!and!shaped!the!public’s!visual!conception!of!anatomy!on!a!basic!level.!

Nonetheless,!it!should!be!understood!that!each!type!of!model!was!intended!to!be!as!

“truthful”!as!necessary!for!a!given!audience.!Similarly,!the!question!of!“usefulness”!is! not!answered!by!measuring!a!degree!of!accuracy,!but!by!exploring!how!such!models! reflected,!responded!to,!and!modified!the!demands!of!medical!professionals!as!well! as!laymen!in!their!time.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 5!For!discussions!of!this,!see!Lorraine!Daston!and!Peter!Galison,!Objectivity,! Cambridge:!MIT!Press,!2007;!Lorraine!Daston,!“Epistemic!images,”!in!A.!Payne,!ed.,! Vision)and)its)Instruments:)Art,)Science,)and)Technology)in)Early)Modern)Europe.! (University!Park,!Pennsylvania:!Penn!State!University!Press,!2015):!13K35;!and! Horst!Bredekamp,!Vera!Dünkel,!and!Birgit!Schneider.!The)Technical)Image:)A)History) of)Styles)in)Scientific)Imagery.!Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!2015.! ! !

! ! ! 6!

This!text!is!an!exploration!of!the!artistic,!social,!and!cultural!contexts!that! shaped!anatomical!models,!and!which!they!in!turn!shaped.!The!public’s!relation!to! anatomical!models!and!the!ways!in!which!audience!response!was!integral!to!model! making!has!not!been!fully!explored!in!current!scholarship.!I!hope!to!supplement!this! line!of!inquiry,!to!some!degree,!by!focusing!on!the!artist’s!contributions!in! reimagining!models!for!public!view.!

! Whatever!insights!I!can!offer!here!depend!in!part!on!the!research!that!this! class!of!objects!has!already!attracted.!The!first!scholar!to!resurrect!interest!in!flap! anatomies!was!Andrea!Carlino!with!his!1999!book!Paper)Bodies.!Suzanne!Karr!

Schmidt!updated!and!amended!Carlino’s!work!in!her!2006!Harvard!dissertation!and! her!contributions!to!the!2011!exhibition!catalogues!Altered)and)Adorned:)Using)

Renaissance)Prints)in)Daily)Life)and!Prints)and)the)Pursuit)of)Knowledge)in)Early)

Modern)Europe.!Ivory!manikins!have!generated!far!less!scholarly!interest!than!their! paper!predecessors.!Little!research!has!addressed!their!history!and!most!that!does! exist!is!in!the!form!of!short!catalogue!entries!to!accompany!exhibitions.!They!are! still!generally!seen!as!novelties.!Later!wax!anatomical!models!have!attracted!the! most!recent!attention.!The!scholars!Anna!Maerker!and!Rebecca!Messbarger!have! each!published!extensively!on!the!subject,!while!more!sensational!volumes!include! the!Encylopaedia)Anatomica)by!Monika!von!Düring!and!Marta!Poggesi!in!2014)and!

The)Anatomical)Venus:)Wax,)God,)Death,)and)the)Ecstatic!by!Joanna!Ebenstein! published!by!the!Morbid!Anatomy!Museum!in!2015.!

! My!own!primary!research!has!consisted!of!extensive!pursuit!and! examination!of!the!objects!themselves!and!archival!research!on!their!makers,!

! ! ! 7! market,!and!display.!I!have!inspected!over!two!dozen!flap!anatomies!in!England,!

Germany,!and!the!United!States.!A!number!more!were!on!exhibition!in!these! countries!as!well!as!in!Belgium!and!Sweden.!I!have!personally!identified!180!extant! manikins.6!I!was!able!to!see!112!and!handle!92!from!collections!in!the!United!States,!

Canada,!England,!Germany,!Switzerland,!the!Czech!Republic,!Belgium,!and!the!

Netherlands.!I!observed!wax!manikins!in!situ!at!La!Specola!in!Florence!and!the!

Josephinium!in!Vienna!and!have!seen!other!wax!models!throughout!Germany,!

England,!and!Austria.!

! My!archival!research,!mainly!in!Nuremberg,!London,!and!Durham,!North!

Carolina,!has!offered!more!insight!into!craft!workshops,!into!the!buying!and!selling! of!models,!and!into!interest!in!them!according!to!time!and!place.!It!also!allowed!me! to!bring!together!correspondence!that!illuminated!how!buyers!perceived!these! objects!in!the!twentieth!century.!

! !

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!In!pursuing!this!research!I!have!put!together!a!catalogue!raisonné!of!manikins! which!I!hope!to!publish!separately.!!

! 9! !

! Chapter!1! ! ! The$Rise$of$Flap$Anatomies$in$the$Reformation$Era$ ! ! ! Heinrich!Vogtherr!was!born!in!1490!near!Augsburg!to!a!family!of!physicians.1!

He!and!his!brother!practiced!surgery!as!they!got!older,!but!Heinrich!then!entered! the!world!of!the!arts.2!He!painted!and!published!in!his!hometown!until!he!moved!to!

Strasbourg!in!1526.3!There,!he!opened!a!press!that!would!embody!his!political!views! and!his!interests—as!well!as!provide!income.!Auspiciously,!his!career!was!budding! just!as!Reformation!ideologies!were!rising!in!Germany.!Citizens!wanted!not!only! freedom!to!read!the!Bible!themselves,!but!access!to!other!forms!of!knowledge!as! well.!This!created!a!demand!for!new!information,!resulting!in!a!ready!supply!of! content!for!printers.!!

! As a printer,!Vogtherr!vied!for!a!spot!in!the!larger!market.!New!designs! appeared!constantly,!even!as!recently!printed!images!were!snatched!and!recopied! by!competitors.!Many!of!Vogtherr’s!productions!were!copies!of!prevailing!imagery,! including!anatomical!sketches!as!well!as!birthing!and!medical!scenes,!but!he!also! created!original!designs.4!Vogtherr!relied!on!a!few!basic!criteria!for!creating!salable!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Frank!Muller,!“Heinrich!Vogtherr,!alias!Heinricus!Satrapitanus,!alias!the!‘Master! H.S.!with!the!Cross’,”!Print$Quarterly!4.3!(September!1987):!274.!Later!in!life! Vogtherr!also!returned!to!the!medical!profession!as!the!oculist!to!Ferdinand!I!of! Vienna.!! 2!Kenneth!F.!Thibodeau,!“Science!and!the!Reformation:!The!Case!of!Strasbourg,"$ Sixteenth$Century$Journal!7.1!(Apr.,!1976):!45.! 3!Thibodeau,!45.! 4!Frank!Muller,!Heinrich$Vogtherr$l'ancien:$Un$artiste$entre$Renaissance$et$Réforme.! Wolfenbütteler$Forschungen!72.!Wiesbaden:!Harrassowitz!Verlag,!1997.!For!

! 10! ! images.!First,!he!realized!the!importance!of!using!vernacular!German.!A!new!middle_ class!of!merchants!had!emerged!as!a!potential!art_!and!text_buying!public!due!to! socioeconomic!shifts!in!the!area.!Pamphlets!and!single_sheet!prints!with!simple!text! and!images!proved!an!affordable!means!of!owning!art!and!informative!materials.!

Second,!he!used!his!background!in!medicine!and!his!knowledge!of!reformation! ideology!to!invent!new!content!appealing!to!the!same!audience.!At!the!beginning!of! his!career,!medical!manuscripts!were!often!hand_written!and!in!Latin—a!language! unfamiliar!to!most!of!the!population.!Third,!he!had!become!a!strong!draftsman!able! to!create!new!imagery!that,!with!his!dark_lined!woodcuts,!fit!into!the!general! aesthetic!of!German!printmaking.!

! Vogtherr!provided!these!services!and!used!his!knowledge!of!medicine!to! create!original!works!on!how!to!understand!anatomy!and!health!practices!for! laymen.!In!the!early!1530s!Vogtherr!illustrated!and!printed!two!booklets!on! medicine!authored!by!his!brother,!the!eye!surgeon!Bartholomeus!Vogtherr.5!Later! in!the!1530s!he!plunged!into!the!task!of!writing!and!publishing!his!own!books!on! medicine,!releasing!a!number!of!pamphlets!in!German!on!subjects!as!varied!as! ringworm,!urinoscopy,!eye!maladies,!hernia!remedies,!and!the!basic!anatomy!of!the! human!body.!!

! Vogtherr’s!most!ingenious!invention!was!a!set!of!broadsheets!featuring!the! female!and!male!body!with!layered!flaps!showing!their!interior!anatomical!systems.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! anatomical!sketches!see!cat.!18,!p.!99!and!cat.!20!bis,!p.!102;!for!birthing!scenes,!see! cats.!144_145,!p.!212_213;!and!for!other!medical!scenes!see!cats.!146_148,!p.!214_ 215.! 5!Muller,!275.!

! 11! !

This!was!the!first!time!that!most!German!citizens!were!able!to!see!and!explore!the! interior!of!the!human!body.!These!prints!were!not!completely!accurate,!but!they! were!immensely!useful!for—and!of!interest!to—a!public!that!had!seen!no!prior! visual!renderings!of!the!internal!body.!Vogtherr’s!prints!offered!a!combination!of! desired!information,!accessible!language,!a!novel!form!of!interaction,!and! captivating!imagery.!With!the!flapped!anatomical!prints,!we!see!Vogtherr!innovating! a!new!kind!of!object!for!anatomy—one!that!creates!a!form!with!which!viewers!can! interact.!Moveable!prints!were!not!uncommon,!but!his!were!particularly!intricate,! with!each!system!carefully!cut!and!glued!with!openings!within!which!the!next!set!of! organs!is!visible.!Many!of!them!were!also!hand_colored.!!

! Imagine!walking!through!a!market!full!of!the!printed!products!of!Germany!in! the!year!1539.!There!would!have!been!books,!large!and!small,!some!in!Latin!and! others!newly!released!in!German.!There!also!would!have!been!broadsheets! reporting!on!curiosities—images!and!text!of!conjoined!twins,!deformed!livestock,! and!comets.!Another!item!for!sale!would!have!been!immediately!visible—prints! showing!two!nudes!on!separate!sheets,!draped!with!cloths!that!only!barely!cover! them.!Each!was!a!broadsheet,!about!11!x!24!inches.!Their!titles!read!Anathomia$oder$ abconterfectung$eines:!“Anatomy!or!a!realistic!depiction.”!Viewers’!curiosity!would! have!been!piqued!once!they!realized!that!the!bodies!could!be!opened!in!layers.!

Below!the!torso,!and!even!below!the!buttocks,!was!a!tiny!flap.!This!was!used!to!lift! the!first!layer!upward,!allowing!new!levels!of!the!body!appear.!Multiple!strata!were! revealed,!showing!first!the!lungs,!diaphragm,!and!stomach,!then!the!liver,!bladder,! kidneys,!and,!(in!the!case!of!the!woman)!a!uterus!bearing!a!fetus.!Finally,!the!

! 12! ! intestines!lifted!to!reveal!the!skeleton.!To!the!side!of!the!figures,!miniature!images! hovered!above!short!descriptions!of!the!main!organs.!!

! The!idea!of!the!flapped!or!manipulable!print!had!been!used!before,!but! largely!for!entertainment.!One!example!made!in!1512!shows!conjoined!twins!and! uses!the!flap!to!show!views!from!both!the!front!and!back.!(Fig.!1.1)!Another!made! around!the!1520s!shows!a!woman!spinning!thread.!Here,!the!flap!forms!her!skirt,! and!it!can!be!lifted!to!show!a!snake!slithering!up!and!emerging!from!between!her! legs.6!(Fig.!1.2)!A!1526!pamphlet!contained!multiple!figures!that!the!viewer!could! manipulate!so!they!appear!to!expose!their!legs.7!(Fig.!1.3)!!

! Vogtherr’s!prints!were!different.!They!were!not!only!some!of!the!first! anatomical!images!available!to!the!non_medical!community!in!Germany,!but!they! also!incorporated!cutting_edge!book!arts!in!the!service!of!a!public!teaching!as!well! as!profit.!The!prints!were!not!adaptations!of!academic!books!or!prints,!but!new! creations!spawned!from!a!simple!corner!press.!!These!prints!were!the!first!of!a! number!of!scientific!teaching!models!originated!by!early!modern!craftsmen!to! promote!anatomical!education.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6 Suzanne!Karr!Schmidt,!Art—A$User’s$Guide:$Interactive$and$Sculptural$Printmaking$ in$the$Renaissance.!Ph.D.!diss.!(Yale!University,!May!2006):!337, 464, and Appendix A, page 19, cat. no. 123. 7 The image of conjoined twins is in Schmidt, Art, Appendix A, pages 17-18, cat. no. 59; Karen!Rosoff!Encarnación,!“The!Proper!Uses!of!Desire:!Sex!and!Procreation!in! Reformation!Anatomical!Fugitive!Sheets,”!in!The$Material$Culture$of$Sex,$Procreation,$ and$Marriage$in$Premodern$Europe,!ed.!Anne!L.!McClanan!and!Karen!Rosoff! Encarnación!(New!York:!Palgrave,!2002):!226-228; and Christiane Andersson, “Polemical Prints in Reformation Nuremberg,” in New Perspectives on the Art of Renaissance Nuremberg: Five Essays, ed. Jeffrey Chipps Smith (Austin: The Archer M. Huntingdon Art Gallery, The University of Texas at Austin: 1985): 43-44. The pamphlet from 1526 is mentioned in Schmidt, Art, Appendix A, page 11, cat. no. 49; Encarnación, “Proper Uses,” 226-228; and Andersson, 52, 54-57. !

! 13! !

What!was!sold!by!Vogtherr!in!1539!was!in!fact!the!final!product!of!a!year!of! revision.!The!original!flapped!print!was!made!in!1538.!It!featured!only!the!woman,! flanked!by!a!series!of!descriptive!text!blocks!surrounding!the!body!and!reading!in! two!different!directions.!(Fig.!1.4)!The!new!female!was!created!in!1539!using!the! image!from!the!original!print.!(Fig.!1.5)!The!man!was!simply!the!female!limbs!and! head!with!a!new!masculine!head!pasted!over!the!woman’s!and!a!torso!and!sexual! organs!added.8!The!outer!text!was!fixed!on!both!so!that!each!section!read!from!top! to!bottom.!Small!images!of!each!organ!were!placed!above!each!auxiliary!text.!!

! A!separate!anatomical!booklet!by!Vogtherr,!Auszlegung$und$beschreibung$der$

Anathomi...,!(Strasbourg,!1539)!was!meant!as!guide!to!the!specific!organs,!and! reuses!text!and!images!from!the!flap!anatomies.9!(Fig.!1.6)!In!the!opening!Vogtherr! writes:!

! “First!of!all,!if!there!was!somebody!who,!for!the!sake!of!insight!and! knowledge,!wanted!to!dedicate!himself!to!such!manual!labor!as!the!anatomy! or![wanted!to]!be!present!when!a!human!body!is!opened,!he![the!person]! should!beforehand!think!about!what!his!primary!object!will!be,!so!that!his! handling!will!be!the!most!serviceable!and!necessary!for!those! observations.”10! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!See!Muller,!“Heinrich!Vogtherr,”!305_306.!The!1539!print!of!a!male!figure!in!Basel! University!Library,!illustrated!on!page!306!of!Muller,!shows!the!torso!printed! slightly!over!the!left!shoulder.!This!mistake!not!made!on!other!copies!from!the!same! year,!such!as!that!from!Duke!University!Medical!Library!pictured!on!page!135!of! Carlino,!Paper$Bodies.!This!shows!(as!does!my!personal!research)!that!the!man’s! head!and!torso!were!pasted!directly!on!the!female’s,!i.e.!the!female!print!showing! her!limbs!and!head!was!used!as!a!base!for!the!male!image.! 9!Andrea!Carlino,!“Know!Thyself:!Anatomical!Figures!in!Early!Modern!Europe.”!RES:$ Anthropology$and$Aesthetics!27!(Spring,!1995):!61;!Muller,!Heinrich$Vogtherr$ l'ancien,!371.! 10!Schmidt’s!translation!is!slightly!different:!“First!of!all!where!anyone!would! because!of!lack!of!true!knowledge!and!experience!want!to!give!himself!to!such! handwork!of!Anatomy,!or!want!to!be!present,!that!a!human!body!would!be!opened,! he!should!first!consider!what!his!goal!is,!so!for!him!his!handling!should!be!for!

! 14! !

! Next,!he!describes!each!body!part!as!well!as!how!a!dissection!is!performed.11!This! was!a!way!for!the!public!to!experience!the!anatomical!theater!in!its!imagination—to! follow!a!dissection!and!act!it!out!mentally!in!the!easiest!way!possible.!Vogtherr’s! message!makes!it!clear!that!the!user!should!treat!the!ersatz!body!with!respect!as!a! tool!of!knowledge—perhaps!anticipating!that!users!may!conjure!up!less!innocent! thoughts!while!reaching!for!the!figure’s!genitals!to!reveal!their!surprises.!!

! It!is!easy!to!see!how!this!print’s!appeal!to!potential!consumers!may!have! strayed!beyond!the!intellectual.!Vogtherr’s!woman!sports!only!a!narrow!drape!of! cloth!that,!fig_leaf_like,!draws!attention!to!the!area!it!hides.!!Her!legs!open!in!a!brash! manner!and!the!underside!of!her!buttocks!is!visible.!!The!viewer,!moreover,!must! pull!at!a!tab!located!precisely!at!her!crotch!in!order!to!divulge!her!mysterious! insides.!Despite!the!potentially!less_than_pious!expectations!of!the!viewer,!the! publisher!was!demure!in!what!he!actually!revealed.!When!the!first!set!of!organs!was! lifted,!the!viewer!was!confronted!with!a!startled!homunculus,!hands!clapped!on!his! head.!The!fetus!acted!as!a!spectacle,!diverting!attention!from!the!genitals,!though! they!appeared!only!as!a!small!vertical!line!at!the!bottom!of!the!birth!canal.!

! Other!printers!were!keen!to!recreate!flapped!bodies!in!various!different! ways,!some!playing!with!the!idea!of!salaciousness.!!Hans!Guldenmund,!a!printer!in!

Nuremberg,!provides!a!particularly!interesting!case.!He!used!Vogtherr’s!idea,!but! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! serviceable!and!essential!observations.”!Schmidt,!Art,$101.!The!original!text!reads,! “Erstlichen!wo!yemandts!were/der!sich!von!wegen!warer!erkantnuß!und! erfarenheyt/zu!sollicher!hand!arbeyt!der!Anathomi!begeben!wolt!oder!derbey! were/das!ein!meschlicher!corper!geoffnet!würde/der!gedencke!zuuor/wassein!fur! nemlichste!stück!sein!werden/so!ihm!zu!seiner!hantierung!am!dienstlichsten!und! notwendigsten!zubesichtigen!seyen…”! 11!Schmidt,!Art,$102.!

! 15! ! transformed!the!figures!into!Adam!and!Eve.!(Fig.!1.7_1.8)!In!doing!so,!he!was!playing! with!the!notion!of!shame!as!it!existed!in!Reformation!Germany.!First,!Guldenmund! also!had!numerous!run_ins!with!the!Nuremberg!city!council!for!producing!or! disseminating!“shameful”!prints!according!to!their!religious!and!obscene!content.12!

Second,!many!artworks!of!the!time!displayed!Adam!and!Eve!in!lascivious!situations,! focusing!on!how!the!fall!of!man!initiated!both!sexual!feelings!and!the!shame!that! would!come!with!them.!13!The!print!was!made!more!risqué!than!Vogtherr’s,!with!the! woman’s!pudenda!printed!in!more!detail!and!the!man’s!penis!shown!as!half_erect.!

(Fig.!1.9)!Nonetheless,!fig!leaves!were!properly!placed!to!keep!these!secrets!hidden.!

Only!in!1560_1565!do!we!see!a!poetic!description!of!Guldenmund’s!idea.!A!text!that! accompanied!images!based!on!Guldenmund’s!explains!the!importance!of!the!fall!of! man!in!terms!of!how!men!and!women!experience!pain!and!shame.14!Given!his!time! and!circumstances,!it!is!likely!that!Guldenmund!knowingly!attempted!to!bridge!the! gap!between!the!acceptable!and!public!demand!for!both!knowledge!and!titillation— two!main!selling!points!in!the!early!modern!print!market.!

! Other!copies!and!new!renderings!of!Vogtherr’s!1539!print!came!quickly.!Jost! de!Negker!of!Augsburg!created!his!own!within!the!year.15!A!minimum!of!fourteen!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 12!Theodor!Hampe,!Nürnberger$Rätsverlasse$über$Kunst$und$Künstler$im$Zeitalter$der$ Spätgotik$und$Renaissance$1474Z1618.!3!vols.!(Vienna:!K.!Graeser,!1904),!295,! entries!2111_2113.!See!also!David!Landau!and!Peter!Parshall,!The$Renaissance$Print$ 1470Z1550!(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,!1994),!225.! 13!See!Joseph!Leo!Koerner,!The$Moment$of$SelfZPortraiture$in$German$Renaissance$Art! (Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1993),!passim!on!various!permutations!of! Adam!and!Eve!in!this!manner.! 14!See!Carlino,!Paper$Bodies,!335.!! 15!Andrea!Carlino!wrote!that!the!same!woodblocks!were!used,!but!Theresa!Smith! pointed!out!that!one!set!was!actually!a!copy!based!on!a!blemish!in!Vogtherr’s!print! that!does!not!show!up!on!de!Negker’s!versions.!Theresa!Smith,!“Moveable!

! 16! ! editions!followed!within!two!years!after!Vogtherr’s!first!printing,!and!the!tide!of! copycat!prints!did!not!diminish!until!the!late!seventeenth!century.16!Many!of!the! printers!such!as!de!Negker!in!Augsburg!and!Jacob!Frölich,!later!in!Strasbourg,! copied!Vogtherr’s!prints!almost!directly.!Gianantonio!de!Nicolini!da!Sabbio!in!

Venice,!Guldenmund!in!Nuremberg,!and!Sylvester!van!Parijs!in!Antwerp!quickly! devised!their!own!disparate!versions!between!1538!and!1540.17!Each!of!these! editions!in!turn!engendered!its!own!copycats,!some!combining!details!from!more! than!one!design.!!

! The!sheer!number!of!similar!prints!arising!from!various!printers!all!over!

Europe!indicates!that!the!audience!for!such!works!went!far!beyond!the!medical! establishment.!The!use!of!vernacular!text!and!the!ephemeral!quality!of!flap! anatomies!distinguish!them!as!items!fit!for!widespread!consumption.18!The!prints! also!employ!a!more!schematic!rather!than!naturalistic!vision!of!anatomy,!imparting!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Anatomies!and!Print!Shop!Practice!in!Sixteenth_Century!Strasbourg,”!in!The$ Renaissance$Workshop:$The$Materials$and$Techniques$of$Renaissance$Art,!ed.!David! Saunders,!Marika!Spring,!and!Andrew!Meek!(London:!Archetype!Publications,! 2013):!passim.!Kenneth!Russell!provides!examples!of!early!chroniclers!of!printing! who!claim!to!Gianantonio!dei!Nicolini!da!Sabbio’s!role!as!the!first!printer!of!this!type! of!anatomical!artifact,!but!contends!that!the!German!printers!may!still!have!been!his! predecessors.!See!Kenneth!F.!Russell,!A$Bibliography$of$Johann$Remmelin$the$ Anatomist!(East!St.!Kilda,!Australia:!J.!F.!Russell,!1991),!16_18.!Andrea!Carlino!traces! all!multilayer!fugitive!sheets!back!to!Vogtherr,!whose!reputation!and!similar!works! testify!to!the!invention!of!such!a!product,!and!Carlino!has!thus!far!provided!the!most! compelling!argument!for!the!timeline!of!flap!anatomies.!He!builds!from!the!assertion! by!Vogtherr’s!biographer!Frank!Muller!that!Vogtherr!had!created!the!original!print,! as!evidenced!by!the!male!figure’s!face,!which!is!markedly!similar!to!that!in! Vogtherr’s!self_portrait!in!his!Kunstbüchlein.!Carlino!also!researched!de!Negker’s! output!to!find!that!he!often!copied!popular!imagery!from!Vogtherr,!including!other! prints!of!the!Dance!of!Death!and!female!anatomy.!See!Carlino,!Paper$Bodies,!93_94.!! 16!Carlino,!“Know!Thyself”:!54.!! 17!Carlino,!Paper$Bodies,!94_95!and!catalogue.!! 18!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,$16.!

! 17! ! only!a!general!idea!of!its!biological!structures.19!These!artifacts!may!have!been!used,! to!some!degree,!by!students!as!memory!aids!or!as!decorative!additions!to!the! businesses!of!barber_surgeons.20!They!could!easily!be!displayed!as!well!as!kept! privately.!They!were!just!as!likely!to!have!been!bought!by!curious!collectors!or! laymen.!The!quality!of!line!and!the!careful!trimming!of!each!layer!declined!in!time!as! the!prints!were!copied!and!modified!by!more!and!more!printers,!making!it!clear!that! accuracy!was!less!important!than!the!object’s!novel!form.!

! In!contrast!to!these!prints!for!the!public,!we!can!look!to!Andreas!Vesalius!

(1514_1564)!as!the!time’s!purveyor!of!academic!medical!imagery.!Vesalius!was!a! young!upstart!in!the!medical!community!who!questioned!some!of!the!basic! anatomical!principles!from!the!Greek!doctor_philosopher!Galen—held!as!anatomical! truths!at!the!time—and!espoused!first_hand!dissection!for!all!medical!professionals.!

Today!he!is!a!canonical!figure!in!the!history!of!anatomy.!He!is!best!known!for!his!

1543!book!De$Humani$Corporis$Fabrica,!which!is!largely!considered!the!basis!for! modern!anatomical!imagery.!De$Fabrica$was!a!large!and!expensive!book!intended! for!doctors!in!academia.!Its!illustrations!were!numerous,!elegant,!and!much!more! accurate!than!those!which!came!before.!(Fig.!1.10)!In!Vesalius’s!time,!the!work!was! extreme!in!its!turn!from!the!teachings!of!Galen.!Galen!codified!the!concept!that!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,$16;!Suzanne!Karr!Schmidt!contends!that!1,000!copies!of! a!single!woodcut!may!have!been!printed!for!every!extant!copy,!and!that!more!may! have!existed!of!interactive!prints!given!their!fragile!nature.!She!also!estimates!that!a! single!woodblock!could!sustain!from!3,000!to!4,000!printings.!Schmidt,!Art,$3.!Keith! Moxey!asserts!that!scholars!specializing!in!broadsheet!printing!agree!that!they!were! likely!printed!1,000!at!a!time.!Keith!Moxey,!Peasants,$Warriors,$and$Wives:$Popular$ Imagery$in$the$Reformation!(Chicago!:!University!of!Chicago!Press,!1989),!22.!! 20!Julie!V.!Hansen!and!Suzanne!Porter.!The$Physician’s$Art:$Representations$of$Art$and$ Medicine$(Durham,!N.C.:!Duke!University!Museum!of!Art,!1999),!40.!

! 18! ! humors!controlled!the!body!and!provided!a!clear!idea!of!how!the!body’s!anatomy! worked!in!terms!of!these!substances.!Vesalius!attempted!to!revise!and!reconsider!

Galenic!medicine!by!advocating!a!hands_on!approach!to!the!body.!The!book!itself! was!as!much!a!luxury!item!as!a!practical!tool.!!

! Because!it!was!too!expensive!for!students,!Vesalius!made!smaller,!more! affordable!“cheat!sheet”!for!the!Fabrica.$This,!which!he!called!the!Epitome,!was!a! sequel!to!an!earlier!set!of!prints!called!the!Tabulae$Sex.!These!were!made!in!1538— the!same!year!Vogtherr!published!his!flapped!woman—and!consisted!of!six!sheets! showing!the!layers!of!the!human!body!on!individual!pages.!After!their!publication,!

Vesalius!kept!an!eye!on!reproductions!by!smaller!printers,!having!complained!a! great!deal!about!the!lack!of!quality!and!integrity!of!plagiarized!copies!by!small! presses.!He!must!have!noticed!flapped!fugitive!sheets!as!well,!as!he!appropriated!the! very!idea!for!himself,!adding!instructions!in!the!Epitome!on!how!to!make!a!flapped! model!from!his!figures.!(Fig.!1.11)!

! It!is!noteworthy!that!a!highly!regarded!figure!such!as!Vesalius!found!the! flapped!model!to!be!a!didactically!useful!tool.!Even!more!telling!is!the!fact!that!he! borrowed!the!model!from!craftsmen!but!was!himself!unable!to!provide!basic! instruction!on!how!to!construct!one!from!his!illustrations.!His!directions!were! unclear,!and!likely!confusing!for!students.21!Other!than!indicating!that!the!parts! should!be!reinforced!with!parchment,!Vesalius!offers!insufficient!advice!on!how!to! structure!the!actual!manikin,!such!as!what!to!use!to!paste!the!pieces!together.!He!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21!For!a!translation!of!Vesalius’s!instructions!see!J.!B.!deC.!M.!Saunders!and!C.!D.! O’Malley,!The$Illustrations$from$the$Works$of$Andreas$Vesalius$of$Brussels!(New!York:! Dover!Publications,!1950),!220_226.!

! 19! ! mentions!specific!parts!and!letters!between!which!certain!parts!should!be!affixed,! but!he!at!no!point!asks!the!reader!to!attach!the!internal!parts!to!their!external!body.!

Any!model!made!from!the!instructions!would!simply!be!screens!of!arteries!and! veins!with!organs!often!barely!attached,!and!with!uncertain!junctures.!!

! The!way!in!which!Vesalius!produced!the!manikin!for!his!Epitome!shows!that! academic!knowledge!itself!cannot!provide!the!tools!for!teaching!anatomy.!Vesalius! showed!a!great!deal!of!concern!for!his!images!and!the!way!both!image!and!text!were! presented!in!the!final!book,!but!he!was!unable!to!fully!explore!the!potential!of! interactive!models.!He!was!quite!obviously!interested!in!them!as!memory!aids,!but! he!was!also!quite!skeptical!of!corner_press!printers!due!to!his!revulsion!toward! plagiarized!forms!of!his!works.!In!this!way,!Vesalius’s!Epitome,!in!contrast!to!later! models!such!as!waxes,!could!have!had!a!greater!impact!on!the!future!of!anatomical! modeling!if!it!was!made!by!closer!collaboration!with!craftsmen.22!

! Though!flap!anatomies!were!based!on!Galenic!theories,!their!imagery!was! still!relevant!for!their!audience—one!that!was!far!removed!from!new!directions!in! academic!anatomy.!Vogtherr’s!figures!show!the!stomach,!liver,!lungs,!diaphragm,! spleen,!intestine,!urinary!tract!(with!kidneys,!ducts,!and!bladder)!and!a!very!stylized! image!of!the!vena!cava!and!major!vessels.!The!spurious!“lacmamil,”!a!duct!thought! to!change!blood!to!milk,!is!also!mentioned,!highlighting!the!prints’!antiquated!sense! of!anatomy.!!Each!caption!explains!how!every!organ!affects!the!humors.!In!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 22!It!is!also!unknown!how!closely!he!collaborated!with!the!artist!for!De$Humani,!but! it!is!telling!that!we!cannot!fully!discern!the!scope!and!even!attribution!to!the!only! known!artist!for!the!book,!Jan!van!Kalkar.!

! 20! !

Ausslegung,!Vogtherr!provided!further!information!on!simple!and!compound! medicines!to!aid!in!balancing!the!humors.!!!

! By!the!early!seventeenth!century,!the!flap!anatomy!reached!its!climax!of! complexity!with!the!Catoptrum$Microcosmicum.!It!was!created!by!Johann!Remmelin,! a!scholar!and!physician!born!to!a!merchant!family!in!Ulm.23!The!Catoptrum!bridged! the!divide!between!academic!and!“popular”!anatomy,!adopting!and!adapting!the! broadsheets!to!create!a!more!nuanced!model!of!the!human!body!with!upwards!of! one!hundred!printed!and!carefully!arranged!components.24!Remmelin!was!able!to! improve!the!accuracy!and!intricacy!of!the!flap!anatomy!models,!creating!what!would! become!an!influential!work!for!students!and!scholars!long!after!he!refined!his! prototype.!Originally,!Remmelin’s!designs!relied!exclusively!on!the!visual,! accompanied!only!by!literary!or!biblical!text.!Furthermore,!he!chose!Latin,!the! preferred!tongue!of!medicine,!for!the!1619!version,!thus!breaking!from!the!tradition! of!earlier!flap!prints.!Remmelin’s!later!editions!were!released!in!Dutch,!English,!

French,!German,!and!Italian.25!Much!later,!his!plates!were!even!reimagined!in!a!

Japanese!edition.26!The!Catoptrum!now!serves!as!a!case!study!of!the!way!in!which! the!esoteric!knowledge!of!the!universities!could!be!transformed!into!products!for! public!consumption!while!retaining!academic!appeal.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 23!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,!5.! 24!Suzanne!Karr!Schmidt,!Altered$and$Adorned:$Using$Renaissance$Prints$in$Daily$Life! (Chicago,!2011),!82;!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,!12.!Russell’s!estimate!is!150!pieces!of! printed!matter.!! 25!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,!7.! 26!See!J.!Remmelin!and!H.!Sanshin,!Nihon$de$hajimete$hon'yakushita$kaibo$sho! (Fukuoka_shi,!1995).!

! 21! !

All!known!copies!of!the!Catoptrum!stem!from!two!editions—one!from!1613! and!another!from!1619.!According!to!Remmelin,!he!created!the!original!1613!design! for!his!own!use!while!a!student.27!(Fig.!1.12)!Stephan!Michelspacher,!the!original! publisher,!and!Lucas!Kilian,!the!engraver,!are!often!named!as!the!primary!artisans! because!the!1613!plates!were!distributed!without!Remmelin’s!consent.!Remmelin! wrote!in!the!1619!edition:!

! “I!never!contemplated!publication!of!the!work,!but!fashioned!it!only!for!my! own!use,!…!but!it!happened!that!the!general!talk!of!it!among!my!friends! caused!this!Catoptron!to!be!wrested!away!from!me!for!inspection!and! circulation,!until,!through!their!persuasion!and!at!their!expense,!it!began!to! be!published,!without!my!knowledge,!and!to!be!enjoyed!like!an!unripe! fruit.”28! ! The!set!of!prints!inspired!textual!components!published!in!1614!by!

Michelspacher!under!the!title$Elucidarius!and!in!1615!as!the!Pinax$

Microcosmographicus.29!In!1615!Michelspacher!wrote!in!his!dedication!to!Cabala:$ speculum$artis$et$naturae$in$alchymia!that!Remmelin!did!not!want!his!name!attached! to!the!Catoptrum!due!to!his!“peculiar!modesty,”!but!Remmelin!himself!was! nonetheless!acknowledged!in!even!the!first!printings!as!“I.R.!Inventor”!and!his! portrait!and!emblem!were!illustrated!in!the!first!print!of!the!series.30!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27!Russell,!1,!5.!Remmelin!himself!claimed!to!have!come!up!with!the!original!model! “fourteen!years!ago”!in!his!apology!featured!in!1619!preface!of!the!Catoptrum.!This! would!be!around!the!time!that!he!received!his!master’s!in!philosophy!from! Tübingen—August!22,!1604,!Russell,!3.!! 28!Russell,!3.! 29!Russell,!3;!Karr!Schmidt!suggests!that!these!pamphlets!are!usually!bound! together,!indicating!they!were!each!published!in!1615!in!Augsburg.!Karr!Schmidt,! “Printed!Bodies,”!!(no!page),!fn.!5.! 30!K.!Schadelbauer!describes!it!as!“sonderbare!modestia.”!Schadelbauer,!“Zu! Johannes!Rümelin!und!Stephan!Michelspacher,”!Sudhoffs$Archiv$für$Geschichte$der$

! 22! !

The!full!narrative!of!how!the!prints!were!made!without!Remmelin’s!blessing! is!a!mystery,!but!it!is!clear!that!he!reintegrated!himself!into!the!project,!made!minor! changes!to!the!plates,!and!had!the!book!published!in!full!with!text,!images,!and! indices!as!the!Catoptrum$Microcosmicum$in$1619.!(Fig.!1.13)!In!this!authorized! edition,!Remmelin!revealed!that!he!had!devised!the!schematics!for!his!own!use!and! that!his!designs!were!previously!released!without!his!knowledge.!It!is!possible!that!

Remmelin!was!aware!that!they!would!be!printed!at!some!point,!but!was!not!alerted! to!their!actual!publication.31!If!he!had!created!the!original!drawings!nine!years! earlier,!it!would!have!taken!three!years!for!them!to!be!published,!so!he!may!have! lost!hope!and!interest!in!the!project,!only!to!be!surprised!by!its!distribution!and! rapid!success.!This!is!not!to!say!that!Remmelin’s!changes!were!incorporated!in!all! copies!after!1619—many!rogue!editions!reused!or!recut!plates!from!the!1613! edition.!One!notable!example!is!the!1670!English!copy!printed!by!Joseph!Moxon!now! in!the!Bodleian!Library!that!was!rendered!with!slightly!different!organs!in!the! interstices!of!the!bodies,!less!refined!lines,!and!fewer!layers.32!

An!exploration!of!the!original!1613!and!1619!versions!show!how!Remmelin! not!only!conveyed!the!body’s!structures!but!established!a!visual!and!intellectual! framework!through!which!the!student!should!understand!anatomy.!Drawing!on!the!

Bible,!classical!literature,!extant!scientific!prints,!and!a!plethora!of!esoteric!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Medizin,!24!(1931):!125.!I.!R.!stands!for!the!Latinate!version!of!Remmelin’s!name,! Ioannis!Remmelinus.! 31!W.!B.!McDaniel,!“The!Affair!of!the!‘1613’!Printing!of!Johannes!Rümelin’s! Catoptron,”!Transations$and$Studies$of$the$College$of$Physicians$of$Philadelphia,!4th! series,!6!(June,!1938):!passim;!Russell,!2.! 32!See!Wonderful$Things$from$400$Years$of$Collecting:$The$Bodleian$Library,$1602– 2002$(Oxford,!2002),!22–23.!

! 23! ! iconography,!Remmelin!created!a!visual!and!verbal!labyrinth!to!be!dissected!not! only!anatomically!but!conceptually.!The!title!Catoptrum$Microcosmicum—“Mirror!of! the!Microcosm”—elucidates!its!goal:!to!show!man!as!a!reflection!of!the!larger! universe!through!visual!parallels!and!symbolic!imagery.33!!Remmelin’s!message!is! not!straightforward,!but!emerges!through!the!placement!of!myriad!visual!elements! in!relation!to!the!surrounding!texts!that!ground!them!in!physiological!description,! identification,!and!moral!context.!In!order!to!understand!the!Catoptrum,!one!must! work!as!an!anatomist—peeling!back!literal!layers!of!images!to!examine,!and!then! delve!deeper!into!the!figurative!layers!of!connections!and!associations!that!inform! the!print.!

The!three!plates!that!make!up!the!Catoptrum!are!labelled!visio$prima,!visio$ secunda,!and!visio$tertia.!To!use!the!visio$prima!as!the!overarching!image!that!unifies! the!three!prints,!its!components—from!the!figures!to!the!baroque!details!swirling! around!them—must!themselves!be!anatomized!(Fig.!1.13_1.15).!This!image! combines!the!male,!female,!and!child!in!a!symmetrical!nexus!of!illustration,!yet! connected!in!various!ways.!The!page!is!divided!on!a!vertical!axis!leading!from!the! sky!to!the!ground!and!straight!through!a!truncated!yet!pregnant!torso—an! anatomical!allegory!for!human!generation.!This!trajectory!leads!down!to!an! apotropaic!Gorgoneion—described!in!the!preface!of!the!Pinax$Microcosmographicus$ as!a!“devil”!and!on!the!plate!by!the!word!“diabole”—peering!out!from!behind!a!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 33!The!phrase!chosen!for!Remmelin’s!title!is!not!rendered!in!Classical!Latin,!but!in!a! Renaissance!Latinate!form!from!Greek.!For!more!on!the!concepts!of!the!microcosm! and!macrocosm,!see!G.!P.!Conger,!Theories$of$Macrocosms$and$Microcosms$in$the$ History$of$Philosophy!(New!York,!1922).!

! 24! ! curtain,!ready!to!defend!the!entrance!to!the!gravid!womb.34!The!woman’s!vulva!is! nonetheless!wrought!in!great!detail!underneath.35!Below!her!distended!stomach!are! a!series!of!flaps!showing!the!outer!womb!with!its!various!ducts,!a!homunculus! enveloped!within!blankets!of!amniotic!fluid,!and!finally!the!back!wall!of!the!womb.!

From!right!to!left,!the!page!is!divided!between!a!male!and!female!figure,!limbs! missing!like!antique!statues!with!swaths!of!drapery!wafting!over!their!groins.!A! scroll!levitates!around!each!of!their!heads,!offering!biblical!verses!to!situate!the! corporeal!man!and!woman!within!a!Christian!context.!!

The!central!scene!high!above,!pointed!to!by!tiny!hands!on!either!side,!is!one! of!angels!bringing!forth!a!cloud,!supported!by!the!faces!of!cherubs!and!cushioning!a! celestial!sphere!in!its!center.!In!1613!copies!the!central!globe!appears!instead!as!a! tetragrammaton,!the!sacred!Hebrew!shorthand!for!Yahweh.36!Below!the!first! circular!flap!a!series!of!images!follow.!The!next!flap!shows!the!smiling!image!of! another!cherub.!Upon!lifting!this!flap,!the!cherub!transforms!into!a!devil,!and!with! another!flap!lifted!a!physician—or!possibly!the!hermetic!philosopher!Hermes!

Trismegistus.!Lastly!there!appears!the!phrase!“a!Deo!est!omnis!Medela.”!These! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 34!M.!Cazort,!!M.!Kornell!and!K.!B.!Roberts,!The$Ingenious$Machine$of$Nature:$Four$ Centuries$of$Art$and$Anatomy!(Ottawa,!1996),!172;!S.!Michelspacher,!Pinax$ Microcosmographicus!(1615),!3.! 35!D.!Hillman!and!C.!Mazzio!use!this!detail!as!an!impetus!for!a!discussion!of! psychoanalytic!iconography,!linking!the!image!of!Medusa!with!castration.!Because! such!notions!had!seeds!in!Renaissance!art!and!literature!I!suggest!that! contemporary!source!material!is!more!pertinent!than!modern!psychoanalytics!to! discourse!on!Remmelin!and!early!modern!anatomy.!Hillman!and!Mazzio,!The$Body$in$ Parts:$Fantasies$of$Corporeality$in$Early$Modern$Europe!(New!York!and!London,! 1997),!xv–xvi.! 36!Russell,!8–11;!S.!Karr!Schmidt,!‘Printed!Bodies!and!the!Materiality!of!Early! Modern!Prints,’!Art$in$Print,$1.1:! http://artinprint.org/index.php/articles/article/printed_bodies_and_the_materialit y_of_early_modern_prints#fn_ref_12_5!

! 25! ! words!invoke!the!Greek!Hippocratic!verse!around!the!sphere!which!equates!the! wise!physician!with!a!god.37!Directly!below!details!of!the!mouth!and!heart!float! between!the!torsos.!Various!remnants!of!the!body!are!fit!into!every!space.!The!visio$ prima!emphasizes!the!senses,!creating!a!hierarchy!in!which!sight!and!sound!occupy! the!highest!level,!taste!and!smell!lie!at!midpoint,!and!touch!resides!at!the!lowest! level.!From!the!first!image,!the!work!is!imbued!with!Christian!iconography!and!the! then_ubiquitous!notion!that!science!(and!anatomy!in!particular)!advanced!an! understanding!of!God’s!works.!It!also!draws!on!Rosicrucian!iconography,!thereby! linking!Remmelin!to!the!intellectual!movement!that!combined!Christian!beliefs!with!

Kaballah,!alchemy,!and!the!theory!of!the!microcosm.38!

The!next!two!plates!portray!the!male!and!female!figures!in!full,!mirrored!as! though!they!were!pendants.!Even!the!skull!on!which!each!figure!balances!is! reflected,!with!the!visio$secunda!showing!the!frontal!aspect!and!the!visio$tertia$ displaying!its!reverse,!replete!with!an!entwined!snake.!Each!figure!extends!one!hand! upward!toward!a!plaque!topped!by!vanitas!scenes.!The!woman!gesticulates!toward! a!skeleton!and!sundial,!the!man!to!an!infant!and!bubbles,!each!expressing!the! ephemerality!of!life!underscored!by!their!respective!inscriptions.!Adam’s!and!Eve’s! lowered!arms!signal!toward!the!attendant!details!of!their!anatomized!sexual!organs.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 37!The!phrase!is!a!shortened!version!of!a!statement!by!Hippocrates:!“For!a!physician! who!is!a!lover!of!wisdom!is!the!equal!of!a!god.”!Hippocrates,!W.!H.!S.!Jones,!trans.! (Cambridge,!Mass.!and!London,!1923),!286–287.!The!narrative!of!the!roundel! evokes!Hendrik!Goltzius’s!1587!series!of!prints!referred!to!as!“Allegories!of! Medicine”!which!depict!the!physician!as!angel,!man,!devil,!and!God.!Remmelin’s! prints!and!Goltzius’s!were!actually!acquired!simultaneously!for!the!anatomical! collection!at!the!University!of!Leiden.!T.!Huisman,!The$Finger$of$God:$Anatomical$ Practice$in$SeventeenthZCentury$Leiden!(Leiden,!2009),!50.! 38!See!F.!A.!Yates,!The$Rosicrucian$Enlightenment!(London!and!Boston,!1972).!See! also!note!13!above.!

! 26! !

The!skull!on!which!they!rest!their!feet!is!not!only!a!sign!of!death,!but!also!an!allusion! to!Adam’s!skull!at!Golgotha.!On!the!visio$secunda!the!snake!slithering!through!the! cranium!steadies!a!small!crucifix;!in!the!visio$tertia!it!grasps!a!fertile!apple!branch! and!lifts!it!next!to!Eve.!On!each,!in!the!1619!editions!and!those!copied!from!it,!

Hebraic!Bible!verses!appear!on!banderoles!floating!around!the!cross!and!serpent.!

The!skull!itself!even!opens!up!to!reveal!the!internal!structures!of!the!brain.!Few! surfaces!are!without!surprises.!!

In!these!two!prints,!the!first!gatekeepers!to!the!penetration!of!the!body!are! wisps!of!drapery!floating!over!the!figures’!breasts!and!groins.!In!the!visio$secunda,! the!leafy!vegetation—a!colchicum!plant—conceals!the!man’s!flaccid!penis!and! testicles!as!the!plant’s!lower!features!mimic!and!stand!in!for!these!hidden!shapes.!

On!the!underside!of!the!fanned!leaves!is!the!phrase!“Colchicum!withers!to!flourish:! so!grass!like!a!man,!crumbles.”!39!(Fig.!1.16)!!The!woman’s!detailed!pudendum!in!the! visio$tertia!is!similarly!obscured,!but!with!a!conveniently!placed!plume!of!smoke! which!lifts!to!reveal!her!nudity!in!full.!(Fig.!1.17)!The!viewer!is!on!the!verso!of!this! flap!confronted!with!another!Biblical!verse,!“For!my!days!vanish!like!smoke,!and!my! bones!are!burned!as!a!hearth.”40!With!these!unexpected!sentiments,!the!figures!are! transformed!into!images!of!vanitas,!and!their!nudity,!in!context,!is!only!ephemerally! titillating.!Holy!text!is!pressed!against!their!genitalia!to!be!divulged!only!when!the! flap!is!opened.!The!viewer!is!forced!to!turn!the!book!around!to!open!the!flaps!and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 39!“Ut!colchicum!florescit!marcidum:!sic!e!Homo!graminis!instar,!putris.”!The! modern!version!is!“All!flesh!is!grass!and!all!the!glory!of!man!is!as!a!flower!of!the! field.”!Ephesians!240:!6,!KJV.! 40!“Quia!defecerunt!sicut!fumus!dies!mei!et!ossa!mea!sicut!gremium!aruerunt.”!The! modern!version!is:!For!my!days!are!consumed!like!smoke,!and!my!bones!are!burned! as!a!hearth.!Psalm!102:!3,!KJV,!cited!by!Remmelin!as!verse!4.!

! 27! ! read!the!passages,!wrenching!his!or!her!gaze!from!the!groin!below!and!tempering!

(but!also!legitimizing)!potentially!scandalous!imagery!with!moral!reflection.41!Pious! text!extends!down!into!the!foot!of!the!visio$secunda!where!Remmelin!conflates!the! identities!of!Christ!and!Adam!and!alludes!to!the!phoenix!on!the!next!plate!as!coming! from!ashes,!as!Christ!had!risen!for!the!salvation!of!humanity.42!!

Remmelin’s!portrait!in!the!1613!plates!is!perched!humbly!at!the!level!of!the! devil!in!the!visio$prima,!on!the!plinth!supporting!Adam,!across!from!his!family!crest! on!the!opposite!plinth.43!The!text!at!bottom,!akin!to!that!of!Northern!European! emblem!books,!proffers!biblically_infused!verses!of!Latinate!poetry!that! melodramatically!describe!the!downfall!of!humanity!as!embodied!in!the!discovery! of!sexuality!by!Adam!and!Eve.44!The!rest!of!the!textual!frame,!typographically! different!from!the!internal!text!of!the!plates,!contains!a!series!of!biblical!verses!that! provide!yet!more!moral!justification!for!Remmelin’s!models.!!

Remmelin!patterned!many!of!his!details!on!Vesalian!illustrations!as!well!as! on!other!flap!anatomy!models.!The!vaginal!tract!in!the!visio$tertia,!for!instance,$is! derived!from!an!engraving!in!Vesalius’s!De$Fabrica,!but!Remmelin!also!refers!to!

Georg!Bartisch’s!flapped!eye!diagram!from!Opthalmodouleia$(1583)!with!his!own! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 41!See!Freedberg,!325:!“by!disrupting!the!object!of!the!fetishizing!gaze,!we!may! subvert!desire.”! 42!“Propria!avis!Phoenix!nascitur!e!cinere;!Sic!homo!morte!mea!vives!feliciter,!atque! floridus!aeternum!conspiciendus!eris.”! 43!McDaniel,!69.!Though!Remmelin!claimed!to!have!changed!the!images!in!1619,! these!were!among!the!few!details!that!were!obviously!amended,!having!been! replaced!by!medallions!of!allegorical!scenes!and!phrases!on!virtue.!The!new! medallions!read!“labor!virtu!tem!parit”!!and!“gloria!virtu!tem!nutrit.”! 44!For!a!translation!of!this!text,!see!Lyle!Massey,!“The!Alchemical!Womb:!Johann! Remmelin’s!Catoptrum$Microcosmicum,”!in!Visual$Cultures$of$Secrecy$In$Early$Modern$ Europe,!ed.!Timothy!McCall,!Sean!Roberts,!and!Giancarlo!Fiorenza!(Kirksville,! Missouri:!Truman!State!University!Press,!2013),!219.!

! 28! ! miniature!version!suspended!in!the!upper!left!of!the!visio$prima.!(Fig.!2.8)!The!male! figure!in!the!visio$secunda!seems!to!be!a!composite!informed!by!both!Vesalius!and! the!1539!fugitive!sheets!of!Hans!Guldenmund.45!The!left!arm!of!the!man!is!splayed! to!reveal!popping!veins!like!those!of!the!man!in!Vesalius’s!Epitome.$Guldenmund’s! male!anatomical!figure,!fully!enhanced!with!upward_lifting!flaps,!acts!as!a!pendant! to!the!female!and!creates!a!gendered!symmetry!between!the!prints!that!show,!side_ by_side,!one!figure!turned!toward!the!other,!with!Adam!holding!the!fruit!from!the! tree!of!knowledge.!The!right!hand!of!Remmelin’s!man!mimics!Guldenmund’s,!but!is! pictured!without!fruit.46!Looking!at!Vesalius’s!instructions!for!assembling!the!

Epitome$model,!as!well!as!the!similarity!in!figural!and!internal!representations,!it!is! likely!that!Remmelin!attempted!to!create!one!of!Vesalius’s!flapped!models!from!the!

Epitome!and!decided!to!improve!upon!it!by!incorporating!other!models.47!

The!1619!addition!of!decorative!and!evocative!inscriptions!in!Greek!and!

Hebrew!convincingly!advertised!the!book!as!a!humanist!puzzle,!linking!even!the! most!minute!parts!of!the!body!to!ancient!philosophy!using!archaic!language,! symbolic!imagery,!and!baroque!design!to!create!an!intellectual!puzzle.!This!choice! would!have!appealed!to!an!educated!audience!who!could!tease!out!the!meaning!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45!Cali!Buckley,!“Dissecting!Vesalian!Humanism!in!Johann!Remmelin’s!Catoptrum! Microcosmicum,”!Towards$the$Authority$of$Vesalius:$Representations$of$the$Human$ Body$in$Antiquity,$the$Middle$Ages$and$the$Renaissance,!The!Institute!for!Ireland!in! Europe,!Leuven,!Belgium!(Dec.!4,!2014). 46!The!hand!also!sports!a!set!of!fused!fingers!that!appeared!often!in!the!iconography! of!northern!European!art!via!Hendrick!Goltzius!and!the!artists!of!his!workshop!See! in!particular!H.!Leefland!and!G.!Luijten,!Hendrick$Goltzius$(1558–1617):$Drawings,$ Prints$and$Paintings!(Amsterdam,!New!York,!and!Toledo,!2003),!244–248.! 47!For!a!translation!of!Vesalius’s!instructions!see!Saunders,!J.!B.!deC.!M.!and!C.!D.! O’Malley,!The$Illustrations$from$the$Works$of$Andreas$Vesalius$of$Brussels.!New!York:! Dover!Publications,!1950.!

! 29! ! the!phrases’!nuanced!juxtapositions!with!engraved!images,!and!this!was!most! certainly!a!product!of!Rosicrucian!influence.!The!Rosicrucian!brotherhood!was!a! secret!sect!that!emerged!in!Germany!in!the!early!1600s!and!espoused!alchemy,! esoteric!knowledge,!and!spirituality!as!means!to!reveal!universal!truths.!Remmelin’s! evocation!of!Yahweh!in!its!Hebrew!form!is!similar!to!its!appropriation!in!the!fourth! plate!of!Michelspacher’s!Cabala,!which,!in!addition!to!an!array!of!other!hermetic! writings!from!that!era,!demonstrates!their!shared!interest!in!the!esoteric.!Remmelin! was!intimately!aware!of!the!Rosicrucian!movement.!In!1615!he!attempted!to!help! the!mathematician!Johannes!Faulhaber,!his!mentor,!contact!the!secretive! brotherhood!by!publishing!a!letter!to!them.48!Remmelin!also!translated!Faulhaber's!

1612!pseudo_Rosicrucian!text!on!numerical!divination!and!released!it!that!very! year.49!Afterwards!“the!printer!of!both!treatises!in!Ulm![Johann!Meder]!was!urged!to! print!no!more!work!by!Faulhaber!or!Remmelin!without!permission!of!the!council.”50!

Such!esoteric!works!were!radical!at!best!and!heretical!at!their!worst,!making!city! councils!wary!of!allowing!their!dissemination.!

In!fact,!Remmelin’s!Rosicrucian!leanings!were!likely!grown!in!tandem!with!a! rebellious!religious!streak.!In!1630!he!was!jailed!and!exiled!from!Augsburg!for! publishing!anti_catholic!pamphlets!with!his!son!Johann,!a!bookseller.51!This!was!a! particularly!fraught!time!in!both!publishing!and!religious!life.!German!territories! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!The!letter!was!published!anonymously,!but!Remmelin!later!revealed!that!he!had! written!it.!This!public!correspondence!was!called!the!Mysterium$Arithmeticum.!I.! Schneider,!“Between!Rosicrucians!and!Kabbala:!the!Mathematics!of!the!Biblical! Numbers!of!Johannes!Faulhaber,”!in!Mathematics$And$The$Divine:$A$Historical$Study,! ed.!T.!Koetsier!and!L.!Bergmans!(Amsterdam!and!Boston,!2005),!323.! 49!Ibid.! 50!Ibid.,!316.! 51!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,$39.!

! 30! ! were!at!the!precipice!of!major!infighting!now!known!as!the!Thirty!Years!War.!It!was! precisely!due!to!the!Holy!Roman!Emperor!Frederick!II’s!visit!to!Augsburg!that! stricter!laws!had!been!made!to!quash!protestant!resistance.52!Rosicrucianism! opened!up!inquiry!as!to!the!deeper!ideologies!of!religion,!highlighting!universal! truths!rather!than!the!protestant!versus!catholic!rows!visible!in!society.!

The!visio$prima$in!particular!integrates!the!philosophical!side!of!Remmelin’s! project!visually.!The!complicated!scene!is!unlike!other!illustrated!anatomies,!but!is! similar!to!thesis!prints!that!were!being!created!in!Germany!and!elsewhere!at!the! time!that!Remmelin!earned!his!master’s!degree!in!philosophy!from!Tübingen.53!

Thesis!prints!were!designed!by!European!students!of!philosophy,!law,!theology,!and! medicine!for!the!presentation!of!their!thesis.54!(Fig.!1.18)!They!were!made!as! summaries!of!a!specific!argument!that!almagamated!mnemonic!devices!and!visual! emblems!to!enhance!viewers’!understanding!of!the!proposed!line!of!reasoning!as! well!as!reinforce!it!in!their!minds.55!They!were!often!created!as!broadsheets,!a!little! smaller!than!a!poster.!Sometimes!they!were!purely!textual!summaries!or!Ramean!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 52!Russell,!Johann$Remmelin,$41.! 53!On!thesis!prints,!see!Susanna!Berger,!The$Art$of$Philosophy:$EarlyZModern$ Illustrated$Thesis$Prints,$Broadsides,$and$Student$Notebooks.!Ph.D.!diss.,!Cambridge! University,!2014;!Susanna!Berger,!The$Art$of$Philosophy:$Visual$Thinking$in$Europe$ from$the$Late$Renaissance$to$the$Early$Enlightenment!(Princeton:!Princeton! University!Press,!2017);!and!Sibylle!Appuhn_Radtke,!Das$Thesenblatt$im$ Hockbarock:$Studien$zu$einer$graphischen$Gattung$am$Beispiel$der$Werke$ Bartholomäus$Kilians.$Weißenhorn:!Anton!H.!Konrad!Verlag,!1988.!On!Remmelin’s! studies!see!Russell,!5.!Furthermore,!Remmelin’s!engraver!was!Lucas!Kilian,!who!was! the!uncle!of!Bartholomäus!Kilian!(1630_1696)!who!himself!engraved!of!dozens!of! thesis!prints,!Appuhn_Radtke,!9.! 54!Berger,!21.! 55!Berger,!8_12.!

! 31! ! branches,!but!by!the!mid_sixteenth!century!they!were!often!lavishly!illustrated.56!

Just!as!flap!anatomies!were!often!pasted!into!the!backs!of!anatomical!treatises,! students!often!pasted!thesis!prints!into!their!notebooks.57!They!were!also!displayed! in!venues!such!as!the!Leiden!anatomical!theater,!where!Remmelin’s!Catoptrum$also! hung.58!Both!the!Catoptrum$and!thesis!prints!in!general!are!reflective!of!the!didactic! philosophy!of!the!anatomical!theater!itself—they!provide!a!focal!point!for! considering!dissection!and!anatomy!while!also!contextualizing!it!with!visual! reminders!of!mortality!and!vitality!and!texts!explaining!attendant!concepts!in! theology!and!philosophy.!And!these!things!must!be!experienced!as!movement! through!a!series!of!images!and!experiences.59!

Whether!this!was!used!as!a!thesis!print!or!not,!it!borrows!the!form!in!order! to!create!an!argument!based!in!visual!more!than!textual!rhetoric.!The!body!is!set!up! as!a!an!anatomical!interpretation!of!Plato’s!tripartite!soul—the!very!way!in!which!

Andreas!Vesalius!described!how!to!dissect!a!body.60!The!logical!head!is!in!the! heavens!of!knowledge,!which!bears!down!on!the!spirited!breast!and!looms!over!the! appetitive!parts!that!yield!only!to!sensuousness.61!This!order!of!design!also!aligns!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 56!Berger,!40_49.! 57!Berger,!29_30.! 58!Berger,!37;!Huisman,!50.! 59!The!Catoptrum!was!also!purchased!for!display!in!an!anatomical!theater,!as!I! mention!later!in!this!text.!For!more!information!on!this,!see!Huisman,!41–42.! 60!Charles!O’Malley,!Andreas$Vesalius$1514Z1564,!344:!“divide!the!cadaver!itself!into! the!head,!trunk!of!the!body,!and!the!arms!and!legs;!or!establish!its!regions!or! capacities!which,!according!to!the!precept!of!Plato,!are!said!to!be!individually!for!the! separate!souls;!later!add!to!these!regions!the!organs!of!generation!and!the!arms!and! legs.”! 61!Vesalius!wrote!that!the!division!of!a!corpse!should!be!done!according!to!how!the! body!aligns!with!the!three!parts!of!the!soul!according!to!Plato.!Charles!O’Malley,! Andreas$Vesalius$1514Z1564,!344.!

! 32! ! with!the!Renaissance!hierarchy!of!the!senses.!At!the!top!are!sight!and!sound! represented!by!the!ears!and!eyes,!below!comes!taste!and!smell,!and!further!down!lie! the!carnal!sense!of!touch!indicated!by!details!of!the!hand!and!foot.!Under!the! pregnant!belly’s!flowing!drapery,!a!devil!rears!his!head.!The!sinful!parts!below!are! situated!as!the!diametric!opposite!of!the!spiritual!ideal!in!the!heavens!above.!

Within!a!sophisticated!print,!there!is!one!particularly!strange!“error”!in!the! image:!the!misalignment!between!the!orthogonals!forming!the!inside!top!and! bottom!of!the!plinths.!(Fig.!1.19)!They!actually!create!an!underlying!schema:!if!you! follow!the!trajectory!of!the!lines,!they!meet!each!other!at!the!genitals!of!the!man!and! woman,!thereby!highlighting!the!womb.!The!top!outside!orthogonals!stretch! through!the!heart!and!straight!to!the!middle!of!the!breast!of!each!figure.!In!essence,! the!womb!and!genitals!are!connected,!perhaps!a!reference!to!the!elements!and! product!of!the!philosopher’s!stone.62!Such!a!formation!brings!to!mind!an!image!from!

Michael!Maier’s!1617!Atalanta$Fugiens.!(Fig.!1.20)!It!shows!man!and!woman! enclosed!by!various!geometrical!shapes.!Their!union!is!the!generation!the! philosopher’s!stone,!with!the!womb!standing!in!as!a!sort!of!alchemical!flask.63!Such!a! phenomenon!is!not!unheard!of!in!northern!Renaissance!art.!In!the!Mérode!

Altarpiece,!the!fetal!embodiment!of!the!holy!spirit!slides!down!from!the!window!in!a! trajectory!toward!Mary’s!womb,!effectively!impregnating!her.!(Fig.!1.21)! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 62!Massey,!“Alchemical!Womb,”!223.! 63!Maier!describes!it!as!such:!“Female!and!male!are!made!one!circle!by!you,!from! which!arises!a!quadrangular!form!having!equal!sides.!You!extend!this!into!a!triangle,! which!in!turn!transforms!its!parts!back!into!a!round!sphere.!Then!the!philosophers’! stone!will!be!generated.!If!a!thing!so!obvious!does!not!come!readily!to!your!mind,! grasp!the!principles!of!geometry,!and!you!will!know!everything”!S.!K.!Heninger!Jr.,! The$Cosmographical$Glass:$Renaissance$Diagrams$of$the$Universe$(San!Marino,! California:!The!Huntington!Library!Press,!2004),!189.!

! 33! !

The$Catoptrum’s!widespread!popularity!is!curious!given!both!its!esoteric! nature!and!the!difficulty!of!its!manufacture.!While!many!of!its!single_sheet!and! hand_cut!predecessors!devolved!into!streamlined!and!inexact!imitations!in!the! hands!of!later!printers,!Remmelin’s!book!was!an!artistic!feat!from!start!to!finish.!The! plates!had!not!only!a!multiplicity!of!layers,!but!also!a!number!of!individual!and!some! multidimensional!organs!that!were!not!affixed!to!the!sheet!(Fig.!1.22).!While!the! larger!scenes!were!engravings!with!sinuous!and!tapering!lines,!the!smaller!pieces! were!often!etched—a!technique!better!suited!to!creating!the!finest!of!lines.64!The!

Art!Institute!of!Chicago!owns!two!full!sheets!of!printed,!uncut!organs!meant!to!be! integrated!into!the!various!strata!of!the!Catoptrum!(Fig.!1.23).!Each!sheet!features!a! plethora!of!body!parts!arranged!to!fit!as!many!as!possible!on!one!sheet!but!with!tiny!

“doodles”!appearing!in!the!interstices!between!usable!parts.65!These!minutiae! include!flora,!fauna,!and!other!additions!comparable!to!images!from!the!engraver!

Kilian’s!other!works.66!Such!flourishes!were!likely!insertions!by!the!engraver!to! display!his!prowess!and!add!humor!to!his!work.!Due!to!the!proximity!of!organs!in! the!master!sheets,!the!corners!of!one!piece!often!abut!the!border!of!the!next.!Cutting! and!integrating!them!into!a!complex!arrangement!required!a!steady!hand.!Small! portions!of!paper!protruded!to!be!fit!into!tiny!slits!in!other!parts.!The!1613!editions! use!flaps!showing!small!celestial!spheres!with!wings!to!hold!the!visio$prima!figures’! legs!in!place.67!For!each!copy,!the!cutter!had!to!keep!an!eye!on!these!details.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 64!Karr!Schmidt,!Altered$and$Adorned,!102.! 65!Russell,!12;!Karr!Schmidt,!Altered$and$Adorned,!90.!See!Karr!Schmidt’s!figures!on! 89!and!90.!! 66!Karr!Schmidt,!Altered$and$Adorned,!90.! 67!Ibid.,!102–103.!

! 34! !

Part!of!the!reason!for!these!intensely!complicated!procedures!was!because!

Remmelin’s!focus!was!primarily!visual!and!tactile.!A!majority!of!the!book’s!text!is! simply!an!index!to!the!plates.!Most!of!the!diminutive!letters!that!refer!to!the!text!are! next!to!body!parts,!but!others!appear!beside!peripheral!scenes!and!even!vegetation! as!with!the!colchicum!plant!in!the!visio$secunda.!Other!pages!are!dedicated!to!more! prosaic!text!on!the!body.!The!book!itself!is!brief—a!mere!thirty_four!pages!in!most! editions—but!it!is!packed!with!identifications!crammed!into!narrow!columns.!The! strategy!of!the!Catoptrum!is!to!have!viewers!follow!the!layers!of!the!body!as!though! it!were!being!dissected.!Flap!prints!of!the!sixteenth!century!used!simplified!and! outdated!schemata!for!their!imagery!and!upward_lifting!thoracic!flaps.!In!contrast,!

Remmelin’s!frontally!posed!bodies!open!outward!from!a!vertical!slice!down!the! torso!as!in!real!dissections,!even!though!attendant!leaves!open!in!various!directions.!

Decorative!coverings!must!be!moved!to!the!side,!the!chest!flaps!swing!open!to!the! right!and!left,!and!the!sternum!lifts!up!to!cover!the!face.!It!is!virtually!impossible!to! excavate!the!printed!bodies!with!one!hand!while!preserving!the!print’s!structural! integrity.!For!more!extensive!looking,!the!innermost!cavity!contains!parts!that!can! be!removed!and!scrutinized!individually.!The!lungs!are!printed!on!all!sides,!with!the! lobes!opening!into!a!triptych!that!shows!the!innermost!respiratory!structures.!Other! major!organs—the!heart,!intestines,!stomach,!and!liver—can!be!taken!out!for! examination!and!comparison!with!the!textual!information!provided!on!adjacent! pages.68!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 68!Karr!Schmidt,!Altered$and$Adorned,!fig.!73!and!87.!

! 35! !

While!the!Catoptrum!was!intended!as!a!guide!of!sorts,!it!was!treated!as!an! object!of!academic!interest!as!well!as!curious!speculation.!The!Bodleian!collection’s!

English!edition!of!1695!has!annotations!by!Clopton!Havers,!an!English!physician! who!was!also!a!fellow!of!the!Royal!Society.!This!shows!that!serious!medical! practitioners!took!a!professional!interest!in!the!volume.69!Remmelin’s!figures!were! also!copied!by!Christoph!von!Hellwig,!a!known!physician!and!professor!of!medicine! from!Erfurt,!as!late!as!1716!in!his!Nosce$te$ipsum.70!The!authorities!at!the!anatomical! theatre!in!Leiden!showed!a!similar!regard,!having!acquired!as!early!as!1618!one!set! of!Remmelin’s!1613!prints!and!a!copy!of!the!Pinax$Microcosmographicus.71!An! edition!at!the!Art!Institute!of!Chicago!additionally!shows!signs!of!use!that!are! indicative!of!personal!research.72!!

Many!of!the!plates!in!various!editions!of!the!Catoptrum!have!been!damaged! or!physically!altered.!The!1639!copy!in!the!Bodleian!library,!one!of!22!known!of!that! edition,!is!of!interest!due!to!its!peculiarities.73!This!copy!has!paper!fragments!pasted! on!the!title!page!with!the!bookseller!Johann!Görlin’s!name.74!A!1639!edition!at!the!

National!Library!of!Medicine!in!Bethesda,!Maryland,!contains!similar!alterations.!

Conservators!at!Bethesda!removed!glued_on!fragments!to!reveal!that!the!original!! imprint!was!actually!that!of!a!1632!version!from!Germany!—!a!new!set!of! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 69!Russell!writes!that!this!is!“[o]f!all!the!editions!of!the!Catoptrum…the!most! significant!from!the!anatomical!point!of!view,”!Russell,!9.! 70!Anatomy$as$Art:$The$Dean$Edell$Collection!(New!York,!5!October!2007),!cat.!82.! 71!Huisman,!50.! 72!Karr!Schmidt,!“Printed!Bodies.”!She!writes,!“The!wear!and!tear!on!the![Art! Institute!of!Chicago]!impressions!of!the!Kilian!prints!suggests!the!set!was,!in!fact,! used!for!study.”! 73!Russell,!45.! 74!!In!the!text!he!is!described!as!“Iohannis!Görlini.”!Russell!mentions!that!this!seems! to!be!the!case!with!some!other!Latin!editions.!Russell,!10.!

! 36! ! inscriptions!was!simply!pasted!over!the!old.75!The!original!pressings,!at!least!those! of!the!title!page!and!colophon,!were!from!the!Augsburg!printer!Ulrich!Schönigk,!but! they!had!been!passed!on!to!Görlin.76!While!it!is!known!that!printers!often!exchanged! plates!to!diversify!their!oeuvre,!this!example!shows!how!books,!even!highly! illustrated!ones,!could!be!appropriated!and!sold!ad$hoc.77!This!is!likely!one!of!the! reasons!that!the!Catoptrum$was!able!to!be!rereleased!so!many!times!that!it! penetrated!the!popular!consciousness.!!

Although!the!Catoptrum!was!itself!intended!for!an!educated!audience,!it! emerged!from!a!legacy!of!printing!that!advocated!novelty!over!didacticism.!By! correcting!faults!and!creating!a!new!design!for!such!imagery,!Remmelin!integrated! the!lay!audience!for!previous!broadsheets!while!ensuring!sufficient!accuracy!for! educated!viewers.!Remmelin!went!to!extremes!to!contextualize!his!images!in! literary!and!scientific!terms.!He!framed!his!anatomical!illustrations!with!Latin!bible! verses,!Hebrew!text!and!vanitas!imagery,!while!he!created!visual!and!mental! obstacles!to!deter!the!viewer!from!considering!more!provocative!associations.!

Though!the!male!and!female!pudenda!are!explicitly!illustrated,!they!are!distanced! from!the!viewer!by!both!moral!and!physical!impediments.!Various!pieces!of!drapery! must!be!pulled!aside!to!reveal!the!pudenda,!and!the!text_augmented!intermediary! flaps,!on!their!underside,!act!as!conceptual!obstacles!of!their!own.!The!juxtaposition! of!Biblical!moralizing!and!anatomy!was!not!uncommon.!The!anatomical!theater!in!

Leiden,!which!exhibited!Remmelin’s!work,!was!rife!with!skeletons,!prints,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!Russell,!45.! 76!Russell,!45.! 77!See!Crummer,!137–138,!on!this!phenomenon!with!copperplates.!

! 37! ! quotes!that!tempered!the!voyeuristic!act!of!watching!dissections!with!the!promise!of! spiritual!benefit!and!an!atmosphere!of!religious!curiosity.78!It!is!the!very!manner!in! which!Remmelin!inserted!religious,!literary,!and!esoteric!knowledge!into!his! prints—in!addition!to!their!scientific!accuracy—that!enabled!his!prints!to!transcend! the!boundaries!between!professional!and!public!audiences.!!

As!it!stands!historically,!the!Catoptrum!is!the!last!of!the!original!printed!flap! anatomies,!beginning!with!Vogtherr’s!female!prototype!of!1538!and!effectively! ending!with!the!last!copy!of!Remmelin’s!work!in!1754.79!What!was!once!conceived! as!a!set!of!prints!for!personal!use!was!published!and!copied!extensively!until!the! mid_eighteenth!century!when!more!voluptuously!three_dimensional!models!in!wax! became!fashionable.80!Beyond!their!immediate!function—to!provide!a!study!guide! for!the!body—!Remmelin’s!images!give!us!a!multivalent!window!into!the!intellectual! landscape!of!the!seventeenth!century.!The!images!and!text!work!in!such!a!way!as!to! weave!not!a!linear!narrative,!but!a!web!of!thought!for!the!scientifically_minded! humanist!of!post_Renaissance,!proto_Enlightenment!Europe.!!

The!Catoptrum!also!influenced!another!set!of!intricate!prints!now!known!as!

The$Four$Seasons,!printed!between!1680!and!1710.81!(Fig.!1.24)!Only!one!set!of! these!prints!exist,!now!housed!in!Duke!University’s!Rubenstein!Library.!These!four! oversize!etchings!show!a!number!of!similarities!with!Remmelin’s!Catoptrum,!but!are! much!more!complicated,!with!moving!“volvelles”!or!round!fragments!of!paper!which! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 78!Huisman,!41–42.! 79!Russell,!89.! 80!See!Russell,!appendix!4.! 81!H.!F.!J.!Horstmanshoff,!et!al.!The$Four$Seasons$of$Human$Life:$Four$Anonymous$ Engravings$from$the$Trent$Collection!(Rotterdam!and!Durham,!NC:!Erasmus! Publishing!and!the!Trent!Collection,!Duke!University,!2002),!15–17.!

! 38! ! spin!from!a!central!point.!These!represent!a!number!of!calendars,!readily! identifiable!materia$medica!for!each!season,!and!a!plethora!of!mysterious! iconographies.!The!fact!that!no!other!extant!examples!are!known!shows!a!clear! break!from!the!success!of!the!Catoptrum!and!may!indicate!that!anatomical!printing! for!the!masses!was!waning.!Nonetheless,!a!study!of!the!prints!indicates!that!these! were!later!impressions,!meaning!that!the!copperplate!was!worn!from!prior! printings.82!The!pasteboard!on!which!they!are!affixed!also!shows!signs!of!prior! use—writing!that!is!assumed!to!date!from!seventeenth_century!England.83!The! prints!could!have!been!proofs,!which!would!explain!why!only!a!single!copy!exists.!

The!paper!on!which!they!are!printed!hails!from!both!France!and!Amsterdam,!but! they!may!have!been!sent!to!England!and!remained!there!until!their!purchase!by!the!

English!physician!Sir!D’Arcy!Power!much!later!in!time.84!

! The!Four$Seasons!is!a!set!of!four!prints,!each!depicting!a!discrete!season!and! its!corresponding!stage!of!life.!It!begins!in!the!spring,!with!a!boy!shown!at!various! junctures!on!the!path!toward!adulthood,!his!age!etched!above!his!head.!In!summer,! the!man!is!shown!with!his!female!counterpart.!She!follows!him!into!autumn,!where! she!is!depicted!with!a!full,!pregnant!belly!and!he!with!a!large!erection!to!show!his! virility.!In!the!last!print,!depicting!winter,!the!man!is!surveying!the!landscape!and! the!woman!seems!to!be!descending!into!the!earth.!All!of!the!plates!show!figures!with! flapped!bodies!in!a!landscape!full!of!recognizable!flora!and!fauna.!In!the!corners!are! flaps!and!volvelles!depicting!the!terrestrial!and!astronomical!globe,!calendars,!and!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 82!Horstmanshoff,!et!al.,!17.! 83!Horstmanshoff,!et!al.,!14.! 84!Horstmanshoff,!et!al.,!13_17.!

! 39! ! representations!of!the!sun!and!moon,!as!well!as!one!chart!on!urinoscopy.!As!in!

Remmelin’s!production,!text!is!found!in!various!banderoles!as!well!as!in!various! directions!throughout!the!prints.!Some!objects!are!marked!with!letters,!but!there!is! no!known!key!to!decipher!these!labels.!

! The!Four$Seasons!suite!is!easily!more!complex!than!Remmelin’s!work—more! text,!more!detail,!more!intricate!elements,!and!larger!in!size.!The!prints!speak!to!the! trajectory!of!flap!anatomies!from!accessible!prints!to!esoteric!novelties!of!a!different! flavor.!As!Remmelin’s,!they!also!focus!on!the!creation!of!life.!Both!prints!show!highly! visible!genitalia!and!sexual!organs.!They!give!the!context!of!the!body!through!life! and!death!and!highlighted!the!ultimate!anatomical!mystery—the!secret!of!how! women!gave!birth.!This!is!made!obvious!in!the!Fall!print!with!the!woman’s!bulging! breasts!and!belly!and!the!man’s!erect!penis.!Like!the!Catoptrum,!the!prints!explore! how!the!body!as!macrocosm!fits!within!the!macrocosm!of!the!known!universe,!but!it! shows!a!much!broader!scope!of!inquiry.!Only!educated!readers!and!viewers!would! have!been!able!to!decipher!the!various!philosophical!and!scientific!entanglements! presented!in!the!prints.!Nonetheless,!there!is!no!way!to!tell!if!other!versions!were! published!or!dispersed!in!any!way.!

! The!series!was!most!recently!attributed!to!the!Rosicrucian!theorist!Robert!

Fludd.!85!Fludd!was!originally!trained!as!a!doctor!but!had!interest!in!the!alchemical! theories!of!Paracelsus!from!early!on.!His!career!was!largely!geared!toward!the! publishing!and!exploration!of!esoteric!knowledge.!Fludd!published!a!number!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 85!Mimi!Cazort!et!al.,!The$Ingenious$Machine$of$Nature:$Four$Centuries$of$Art$and$ Anatomy!(Ottawa:!National!Gallery!of!Canada,!1996),!173–178.!Horstmanhoff!et!al.! could!not!agree!on!a!definitive!attribution.!

! 40! ! illustrated!books!in!collaboration!with!the!printer!Mattäus!Merian!(1593_1650).!86!

These!prints!are!similar!in!style!to!those!in!Fludd’s!Utriusque!cosmi$historia!(1617_

1621),!which!was!engraved!by!Merian.!Merian!also!knew!the!printer!Kilian,!whose! nephew,!Bartholomäus,!he!taught!in!Frankfurt.87!It!is!possible!that!Merian!learned!of!

Remmelin’s!prints!through!Kilian.!Merian!was!known!to!appropriate!poses!from!

Albrecht!Dürer’s!books!on!proportion.!Here!we!see!one!used!in!Fludd’s!Utriusque! cosmi$historia.!(Fig.!1.25_1.28)!The!same!tendency!is!found!in!the!Four$Seasons,! including!the!pose!of!a!woman!walking!to!her!grave.!!

! The!best!evidence!we!have!to!tie!these!prints!to!Fludd!is!the!common! practice!in!flap!anatomies!for!the!creator!to!use!his!own!face!for!the!anatomized! man.!This!phenomenon!originated!with!Vogtherr,!whose!anatomical!male! corresponds!with!the!opening!portrait!of!his!Kunstbüchlein!(1537).88!(Fig.!1.29)!

Remmelin’s!so_called!Adam!looks!very!similar!to!author’s!portrait!on!the! frontispiece!of!the!work’s!later!editions!and!in!the!roundel!on!the!bottom!left!of!the! visio$prima!in!pre_1619!plates.!Another!flap!anatomy!from!Wittenberg!uses!

Vesalius’s!face!instead!—!a!doppelgänger!of!his!depiction!in!the!frontispiece!of!De$

Fabrica,!but!with!with!Bartisch’s!Ophthalmodouleia!eye!diagram!replacing!a! dissected!arm.89!(Fig.!1.30)!The!doctor,!goldsmith,!and!esoteric!scholar!Leonhart!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 86!Cazort!et!al.,!!Ingenious$Machine,!177.! 87!See!also!fn.!53,!where!I!mention!Bartholomäus!as!a!maker!of!thesis!prints.! 88!F.!Muller,!Heinrich$Vogtherr$l'ancien:$Un$artiste$entre$Renaissance$et$Réforme.! Wolfenbütteler$Forschungen!72!(Wiesbaden,!1997),!305.!See!Remmelin’s!visage!on! the!title!page!of!the!Catoptrum!or!its!reproduction!in!Russell,!plate!I.!For!Vogtherr’s! male!fugitive!sheet!see!Carlino,!cat.!nos.!3!and!4. 89!An!example!exists!in!the!Wellcome!Collection!in!London.!For!other!copies,!see! Carlino,!cat.!no.!30:2!and!later;!for!one!1576!version!in!color,!see!Huisman,!40.!For! more!information!see!Jameson!Kismet!Bell,!“Faithful!Bodies:!Anatomy!and!

! 41! !

Thurneisser!zum!Thurn!pictured!a!staid!man!in!his!Confirmatio$Concertationis!who! once!again!echoes!the!author’s!profile!portrait,!borrowing!from!his!creator!a!forked! beard,!prominent!nose,!mustache!and!similarly!groomed!hair.90!(Fig.!1.31)!In!the!

Four$Seasons,!the!virile!man!depicted!in!the!autumn!print!may!indeed!be!Robert!

Fludd.!(Fig.!1.32)!!

! Regardless!of!authorship,!these!prints!have!more!to!say.!In!one!volvelle!in!the! season!of!Autumn,!we!see!the!five!senses.!They!converge!onto!a!central!point,!but! their!terminus!is!overshadowed!by!the!smaller!circle!surrounding!it!where!the! senses!converge.!In!lifting!the!flap,!we!see!a!spiral!of!arches!inscribed!with!the!word!

“memoria”!in!the!first!spaces!of!the!arcade!on!the!left.!This!is!the!metavisual!link! from!the!print!to!its!purpose:!it!is!meant!to!inscribe!on!the!memory.!The!student! studies!anatomy,!but!must!also!wander!through!various!ideas!left!like!bread!crumbs! within.!The!more!the!student!studies!and!interacts,!the!clearer!the!understanding!of! how!the!body!is!the!microcosm!of!all!things.!

! The!appeal!of!flap!anatomies!lessened!in!the!1600s!and!1700s,!with!the!

Catoptrum!and!the!Four$Seasons!the!last!of!their!time.!The!concept!of!the!interactive! model!survived!in!other!forms!as!both!artisans!and!anatomists!saw!promise!in!the! form!for!teaching,!learning,!and!promoting!curiosity.!!

! ! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Emblematic!Fugitive!Sheets!in!Late!Sixteenth_Century!Wittenberg,”!Focus$on$German$ Studies!17!(2010):!3_22.! 90!See!the!frontispiece!of!Confirmatio$Concertationis.!The!only!existing!copies!I!know! of!this!volume!are!at!the!Yale!and!Duke!University!libraries.!I!have!only!examined! the!latter!copy.!!

! 42!

Figure 1.1. Anonymous, Broadsheet of conjoined twins, two views, 1512, The British Museum.

Figure 1.2. Anonymous, Flapped print of a woman spinning, c. 1520, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin.

! 43!

Figure 1.3. Eight views of a trick woodcut, c. 1535, Germanisches Museum.

! 44!

Figure 1.4. Jost de Negker, Female Figure, three views, 1538, woodcut after Heinrich Vogtherr the Elder.

! 45!

Figure 1.5. Heinrich Vogtherr the Elder, Male Figure, two views,1539, woodcut with hand-coloring.

! 46!

Figure 1.6. Hans Guldenmund, after Heinrich Vogtherr, page from Auszlegung)unnd) beschreibung)der)Anathomi...,)Strasbourg,!1539,!Wellcome!Library,!London.

! 47!

Figure 1.7. Cornelis Bos, Male Figure, c. 1539, engraving after Hans Guldenmundt.

Figure 1.8. Cornelis Bos, Female Figure, c. 1539, engraving after Hans Guldenmundt.

! 48!

Figure 1.9. Cornelis Bos, Male Figure, c. 1539, engraving after Hans Guldenmundt, print cropped by owner and flap over genitals missing.

Figure 1.10. Andreas Vesalius, Fifth Muscle Figure, 1543, woodcut, from De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Basel, 1543.

! 49!

Figure 1.11. Andreas Vesalius, Hand-Cut Flapped Anatomical Figure, c. 1543, woodcut, using images from The Epitome of De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Basel, 1543. Burndy Collection, The Huntington Library, San Marino, California.

! 50!

Figure 1.12. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)prima!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1613,! Art!Institute!of!Chicago

! 51!

Figure 1.13. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)prima!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! Duke!University!Libraries.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley

! 52!

Figure 1.14. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)secunda!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! Duke!University!Libraries.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley

! 53!

Figure 1.15. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)tertia!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! Duke!University!Libraries.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley

! 54!

Figure 1.16. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)secunda!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! detail,!Bodleian!Library,!Oxford!University.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley!

Figure 1.17. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)tertia!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! detail,!Bodleian!Library,!Oxford!University.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley!

! 55!

! Figure!1.18.!Johann!Cristoph!Storer!and!Bartholomäus!Kilian,!Thesis)print)entitled) Die)Weltmission)der)Gesellschaft)Jesu,!17th!century.!

! 56!

Figure 1.19. Johann!Remmelin,!visio)prima!of!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1619,! showing!orthagonals.

Figure 1.20. Michael Maier, from Atalanta Fugiens, Oppenheim, 1618.

! 57!

Figure 1.21. Robert Campin, Merode Triptych, 1428, detail, Metropolitan Museum of Art

! 58!

Figure 1.22. Johann!Remmelin,!Removable!pieces!from!the!Catoptrum) Microcosmicum,!1619,!Duke!University!Libraries.!Photo:!Cali!Buckley!

! 59!

! Figure 1.23. Johann!Remmelin,!uncut!sheets!for!the!Catoptrum)Microcosmicum,!1613,! Art!Institute!of!Chicago! !

! 60!

Figure 1.24. Four Seasons of Human Life, anonymous, c.1630, Trent Collection, Duke University Libraries.

! 61!

Figure 1.25. Albrecht Dürer, Proportion Studies from Vier)Bücher)von)menschlicher) Proportion,!1532.

Figure 1.26. Matthaüs Merian, from Robert Fludd, Utriusque cosmi Maioris, 1617.

! 62!

Figure 1.27. “Winter” from Four Seasons of Human Life, anonymous, c.1630, Trent Collection, Duke University Libraries.

Figure 1.28. Albrecht Dürer, Proportion Studies from Vier)Bücher)von)menschlicher) Proportion,!1532.

! 63!

Figure 1.29. Heinrich Vogtherr’s portrait from the frontispiece of his Kunstbuchlein,! 1537.!!

! 64!

! Figure!1.30.!Male!Flap!Anatomy,!Wittenberg,!Bartholomew!Schonbornio,!c.!1550W 1586,!Trent!Collection,!Duke!University!Libraries!

! 65!

Figure 1.31. Image of Leonhart Thurneisser!zum!Thurn!in!the!frontispiece!to!the! Confirmatio)Concertationis,)1576,!and!the!image!of!a!male!flap!anatomy!within.! !

Figure 1.32. Portrait of Robert Fludd by by Matthäus Merian the Elder, early to mid 17th century, National Portrait Gallery, London.

! ! 66!

! Chapter!2! !

Ivory&Manikins&and&Women’s&Medicine&

& ! In!the!late!seventeenth!century,!interactive!anatomical!models!moved!into! the!third!dimension!with!ivory!manikins.!Their!form!is!similar!to!that!of!flap! anatomies!in!paper,!but!they!were!created!by!a!sculptor!rather!than!a!printer,!and! with!a!more!specific!and!more!affluent!audience!in!mind.!Man?midwives!were! educated!male!physicians!just!beginning!to!perforate!the!field!of!women’s!medicine.!

They!comprised!a!group!of!medical!men!who!needed!new!ways!to!advertise!their! skills.!These!ivory!or!bone!“manikins”—dubbed!for!their!their!minuscule!size— were!ideal!for!such!consumers.!(Fig.!2.1)!The!first!ivory!manikins!are!attributed!an! ivory!carver!with!a!keen!interest!in!medicine.1!

! Stephan!Zick!(1639?1715),!like!Heinrich!Vogtherr,!was!a!craftsman!by!trade.2!

The!Zick!family!of!sculptors!worked!not!only!in!ivory,!but!also!in!horn,!wood,!metal,! and!bone.!Stephan’s!grandfather!Peter!I!(1571?1629)!worked!for!Rudolf!II!in!his! court!in!Prague.!His!father!Lorenz!(1594?1666),!among!other!illustrious! assignments,!taught!turning!to!Kaiser!Ferdinand!III!in!Vienna.3!They!established!a! huge!and!well?renowned!workshop!in!Nuremberg!that!later!included!dozens!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!Ivory!expert!Eugen!Philippovich!attributed!the!manikins’!innovation!to!Stephan! Zick!due!to!the!hairstyle!on!some!of!the!manikins—a!wig!fashionable!in!the!second! half!of!the!seventeenth!century.!Eugen!von!Philippovich,!Elfenbein!(Munich:! Klinkhardt!und!Biermann,!1981),!331.! 2!NKL! 3!NKL! ! 67! family!members.4!Stephan!worked!closely!with!his!father!who!made!intricate!works! such!as!8,!10,!12!or!16?piece!puzzles!with!interlocking!parts.5!The!family!also!made! lathe?turned!pokals—decorative!goblet?type!sculptures—with!internal!parts!that! moved!with!the!help!of!a!string.!It!is!likely!these!pieces!that!influenced!Stephan’s! later!work,!such!as!eye!and!ear!models.!(Fig.!2.2?2.3)!It!is!a!logical!step!toward!a!full? figure!model!from!these!models!and!those!pictured!in!the!flap!anatomies,!especially! since!Zick!had!already!mastered!the!hand?carving,!fitting,!and!string!attachments! necessary!to!make!them.!!

! The!minuscule!manikins!mimicked!the!form!of!printed!flap!anatomies!meant! for!a!mass!audience!and!adapted!their!design—especially!through!the!change!in! medium—to!make!models!fit!for!a!doctor.!In!moving!from!paper!to!ivory,! anatomical!models!became!less!accessible!to!curious!laypeople!and!acted!more!as! formal!instruments!possessed!by!doctors.!While!the!cheap!fugitive!sheets!were! reprinted!widely!throughout!Europe!and!changed!hands!as!ephemeral!objects,! ivories!were!never!meant!to!fulfill!the!needs!of!a!mass!audience.!As!luxury!items! hand?carved!from!an!expensive!and!difficult!medium,!manikins!catered!to!wealthy! buyers.!They!were!likely!commissioned!by!doctors,!given!their!numbers!and! prevalence!among!men!in!the!profession.!As!such,!they!would!not!have!been! handled!by!many!outsiders.!Even!if!a!doctor!invited!patients!to!examine!them,!they! remained!under!the!control!of!the!elite!and!were!not!accessible!on!the!level!of!flap!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 4!Maria!Marion!Ruisinger!cites!48!members!with!the!last!name!“Zick”!spanning!the! sixteenth?nineteenth!centuries!in!the!Nürnberger!Kunstlerlexicon:!Ruisinger,!Mit& Sinn&und&Verstand:&Eine&Ausstellung&für&Christa&Habrich!(Ingolstadt:!Deutschen! Medizinhistorischen!Museum,!2010),!95.! 5!NKL! ! 68! anatomies.!These!were!largely!for!the!eyes!of!male!students!and!perhaps!midwives! rather!than!the!general!public.!!

! Ivory!manikins!most!often!depict!a!pregnant!woman,!15?24!cm!long,!with! eyes!closed,!lying!supine!on!a!base.!She!is!fitted!with!articulated!arms!and! removable!organs.&One!of!her!arms!sits!next!to!her!body!or!is!situated!on!the!curve! of!her!abdomen.!The!other!arm!sits!on!the!distended!stomach!and!may!be!lifted,! wrist?to?forehead,!as!if!she!is!ready!to!swoon.!This!frees!the!breastplate!for!removal.!

Inside,!each!individual!piece!fits!into!the!contours!of!the!next,!nested!in!mounds! within!the!trunk’s!cavity.!The!lungs!hug!the!heart!and!sit!on!a!diaphragm!(of!ivory,! parchment,!or!cloth)!that!holds!them!in!place.!Next,!the!intestines!come!into!view,! and!underneath!these!lie!a!bladder,!kidneys,!stomach,!liver,!and!pancreas.!Finally!a! womb!appears!with!its!own!separable!lid!sheltering!a!tiny!fetus,!tethered!to!his! mother!by!a!red!umbilical!thread.!Of!the!manikins!that!survive!today,!a!large! majority!exhibit!similar!characteristics;!over!four?fifths!are!of!pregnant!women,! most!are!in!ivory!(though!examples!exist!in!bone,!wood,!wax,!and!bronze),!and! almost!all!have!moving!arms.!!

Nonetheless,!there!is!a!diversity!of!style!across!the!population!of!manikins,!so! the!ivory!expert!Eugen!Philippovich!provided!specific!details!which!he!believed! certified!certain!manikins!as!Zick’s:!a!splayed!little!finger,!dimpled!knuckles,!and!a! bifurcated!kneecap.6!These!models!also!have!two!lines!incised!on!the!inside!crook!of! the!elbow.7!Some!details!also!have!parallels!to!other!works!by!Zick:!The!ivory!pegs! which!hold!the!breast!are!similar!to!those!used!in!his!ear!models!and!the!string!used! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 6!Philippovich,!Elfenbein,!331.! 7!Based!on!personal!research.! ! 69! as!the!umbilical!cord!and!connecting!tissues!are!like!those!in!his!ear!models!and!the! workshop’s!pokals.8!There!is!one!set!of!folios!in!the!Olbricht!Collection!in!Berlin!that! combines!keys!to!all!three!models.9!(Fig.!2.4)!The!eye!folio!is!probably!taken!from! his!published!book!on!the!eye!models,!created!in!consultation!with!local!doctors!in!

1700.10!Zick’s!sons!David!and!Christian!were!known!to!have!sold!his!work!as!well.11!

They!may!have!produced!models!with!similar!characteristics—a!theory!that!could! explain!those!manikins!that!feature!some!of!the!detailed!modeling!described,!but! that!differ!in!overall!style.!!

Other!makers!of!full?figure!manikins!have!been!identified!as!Johann!Michael!

Hahn!of!Schweinfurt!(1714?1793)!and!his!sons!Adam!and!Conrad,12!as!well!as!

Johann!Wilhelm!Kirchner!of!Kassel!(active!1777?1794),13!but!the!history!and! whereabouts!of!their!models!remains!murky.14!It!is!well!known!that!the!ivory!turner!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 8!Based!on!personal!research.! 9!Westermann?Angerhausen,!cat.!87,!144?147,!143;!Friese,!81.!An!image!is!provided! online!at:!http://www.me?berlin.com/wp?content/uploads/2014/07/Stephan?Zick? Anatomisches?Lehrmodell?einer?schwangeren?Frau?mit?Original?Begleitbuch? Anatomical?teaching?model?of?a?pregnant?women.jpg.!Unfortunately,!the!collector! has!not!allowed!access!to!or!pictures!of!all!of!the!pages!of!the!booklet.!It!is!possible! that!this!object!can!give!a!better!idea!of!how!these!models!were!connected!as!well!as! their!function!and!use!at!the!time!of!its!creation!(which!is!also!unknown).!! 10!See!Daniel!Bscherer,!Johann!Georg!Volkamer,!and!Stephan!Zick,!Kurtze&und& Mechanische&Beschreibung&Dieses&KunstFAuges&:&So&nach&den&Gebäu&Eines&Natürlichen& MenschenFAuges&Wie&dasselbe&bey&der&Zergliederung&eines&durch&den&Strang& erwürgten&MenschenFCörpers&Von...!(Froberg:!Nürnberg,!1700/Electronic!ed.:!HAB! Wolfenbüttel,!2010):!http://diglib.hab.de/drucke/mx?270?9s/start.htm! 11!TB.!Also!a!doctor,!Ritter!Taylor,!went!to!his!son!David!to!see!if!he!could!improve! upon!the!directionality!of!the!optic!nerve.!TB,!NKL.!! 12!“Hahn,!Johann!Michael”!in!Ulrich!Thieme!und!Dr.!Felix!Becker,!Allgemeines& Lexikon&der&bildenden&Künstler&von&der&Antike&bis&zur&Gegenwart:&unter&Mitwirkung& von&300&Fachgelehrten&des&InF&und&Auslandes&(Leipzig:!W.!Engelmann,!1907?1950).!! 13“Kirchner,!Johann!Wilhelm”!in!Thieme!and!Becker.! 14!Kenneth!Fitzpatrick!Russell,!“Ivory!Anatomical!Manikins.”!Medical&History&16.2! (April!1972):!133;!Philippovich,!Elfenbein,!336.!Hahn’s!sons,!Adam!and!Conrad,!and! ! 70!

Johann!Martin!Teuber!(1727?1740)!of!nearby!Regensburg!copied!the!eye!and!ear! models!from!Zick!as!well!as!other!designs!for!which!his!family!was!known.!(Fig.!2.5?

2.6)!He!was!the!teacher!of!the!elder!Hahn,!so!it!is!very!likely!that!such!designs!were! passed!on.15!

Some!museums!today!list!such!manikins!as!from!Italian!or!French!descent,! but!most!likely!originated!in!Germany.!Of!the!nearly!180!pieces!now!known,!a! majority!are!still!held!in!German!collections,!with!the!exception!of!those! purposefully!compiled!elsewhere!by!twentieth?century!medical!historians.16!Given! the!diversity!of!style!and!craftsmanship,!there!were!likely!a!few!entrepreneurs— carvers!of!various!substances!and!subjects—who!saw!Zick’s!examples!and!copied! their!basic!form.17!!

Ivory!manikins!and!printed!flap!anatomies!relate!to!one!another!in!various! ways.18!First,!they!are!created!as!tactile!objects!that!reveal!the!body!at!will.!They! both!open!from!the!torso!and!have!individual!parts!that!are!movable!or!removable.!

It!is!difficult!to!equate!individual!pieces!given!that!those!in!ivory!were!small!and!less! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! his!teacher,!Johann!Martin!Teuber!(Regensburg)!were!also!ivory!carvers!and! turners,!so!they!may!have!carved!anatomical!manikins!as!well.!Russell!writes!that!a! pair!of!figures!by!Kirchner!was!purchased!in!1777!by!the!Hesse!State!Museum!in! Kassel!but,!while!they!were!described!in!catalogues,!they!were!lost!in!1945.!See!also! Philippovich,!Elfenbein,!336. 15!Katalog&der&im&germanischen&Museum&befindlichen&Kunstdrechslerarbeiten&des&16.& –&18.&Jahrhunderts&aus&Elfenbein&und&Holz!(Nuremberg:!Verlag!des!Germanisches! Museums,!1891),!Taf.!II.!! 16!These!estimates!are!based!on!information!in!my!personal!database.!! 17!Russell!grouped!the!manikins!into!eight!categories!based!on!examples!in!the! Wellcome!Collection.!I!have!expanded!this!to!12!categories,!with!some!outliers,! based!on!carving!style.!Zick!and!his!sons,!based!on!stylistic!and!technical! assessment,!cannot!likely!account!for!more!than!three!of!these!categories.!!! 18!Crummer!said!that!these!were!“undoubtedly”!based!on!flap!anatomies!but!also! contended!that!they!were!strikingly!similar!to!images!on!the!1604!frontispiece!of! Vesalius’s!De&Fabrica.!I!disagree!with!the!latter!statement.!Crummer,!29.! ! 71! detailed!due!to!their!hand?worked!nature.!The!fetus!in!both!types!is!depicted! distinctively,!curled!up!with!its!hands!cradling!its!head.!The!ivories!also!included! more!modern!anatomical!structures!and!eliminated!such!parts!that!were!proven! inaccurate!such!as!the!menstrual!and!lactic!ducts!of!particularly!early!prints!such!as!

Vogtherr’s.19!!!

! Second,!it!was!common!for!ivory!workers!as!well!as!other!carvers!to!copy! from!printed!sources.!Many!ivories!of!the!time!took!scenes!from!print!sources!in! order!to!create!decorative!works!such!as!mugs!and!plaques!as!well!as!free?standing! sculpture.!It!is!possible!that!Zick!obtained!his!idea!for!the!eye!models!from!Georg!

Bartisch’s!Ophthalmodouleia!of!1583!or!copies!thereafter.!(Fig.!2.7)!Similarly,!

Remmelin’s!depiction!of!inner!ear!in!the!Catoptrum!may!have!inspired!his!ear! model.!(Fig.!1.12)!Given!nature!of!sculptors!to!look!to!prints!for!inspiration,!it!is! difficult!to!believe!that!Zick!would!not!have!been!aware!of!full?figure!flap!anatomies! in!advance!of!beginning!his!own!project.!

! While!some!information!is!available!on!early!modern!German!craft! workshops,!there!is!limited!evidence!to!place!these!particular!objects!in!their! broader!social!and!historical!context.!In!1975!medical!historian!Kenneth!Russell!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!The!“lacmamil”!was!thought!to!convert!blood!to!breast!milk.!Schmidt,!Art,!98.! ! 72! wrote!the!lone!attempt!at!wholesale!categorization!of!these!ivories.20!He!grouped! the!manikins!stylistically!and!commented!only!briefly!on!their!function.!21!!

! Russell!contended!that!manikins!were!used!to!teach!women!about!their!own! bodies.!This!assertion,!however,!was!based!on!an!anecdote!published!by!the!earlier! medical!historian!Le!Roy!Crummer!in!1927.22!A!bit!earlier!in!1755!a!man!advertised! a!similar!type!of!model,!but!at!a!much!larger!14.5!inches.!He!wrote!that!it!could!be! used!by!subscription!to!“all!Men?Midwifes,!Midwifes,!Students!in!Midwifery,!and!the!

Curious.”23!Though!the!size!indicates!it!is!most!certainly!not!one!of!the!ivory!models,! it!gives!some!idea!of!which!audiences!were!be!interested!in!small!interactive! anatomical!models.!

! Russell!also!attempted!to!connect!the!manikins!to!Chinese!“doctors’!ladies,”! the!purpose!of!which!was!for!female!patients!to!indicate!the!location!of!bodily!aches! to!their!doctor!while!(ostensibly)!preserving!their!decency.24!The!mechanical!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 20!Russell,!“Ivory!Anatomical!Manikins,”!131–142.!Of!the!museums!that!now!own! manikins,!nearly!all!identify!them!according!to!his!guidelines.!Russell!cobbled! together!the!meager!conclusions!of!a!handful!of!prior!scholars.!He!investigated!only! a!few!manikins!housed!at!the!Wellcome!Collection.!He!was!primarily!concerned!with! connoisseurship!and!applied!it!with!a!heavy!hand.! 21!See!Eugen!von!Philippovich,!“Anatomische!Modelle!in!Elfenbein!und!anderen! Materialien.”!Archiv&für&geschichte&der&medizin!XLIV!(1960):!159–178!and!C.!J.!S.! Thompson,!“Anatomical!Manikins,”!Journal&of&Anatomy!59.4!(July,!1925):!442–447.!! 22!Le!Roy!Crummer,!“Visceral!Manikins!in!Carved!Ivory,”!American&Journal&of& Obstetrics&and&Gynecology&13!(1927):!29.!The!actual!story!was!told!to!Crummer! earlier!in!his!career!by!a!patient!who!said!these!models!were!used!in!lectures!for! new!brides,!of!which!she!was!one,!in!1865.!Russell!then!hypothesized!that!manikins! were!intended!for!female!patients,!but!it!remains!hearsay!and!speaks!only!to!their! possible!use!in!the!nineteenth!century.! 23!H.!Wessels,!The&Public&Advertiser,&May!8,!1755.!Originally!found!discussed!in!Pam! Lieske,!“‘Made!in!Imitation!of!Real!Women!and!Children’:!Obstetrical!Machines!in! Eighteenth?Century!Britain.”!In!The&Female&Body&in&Medicine&and&Literature.!Andrew! Mangham!and!Greta!Depledge,!ed.!(Liverpool:!Liverpool!University!Press),!71.! 24!Russell,!“Ivory!Anatomical!Manikins,”!131,!134.! ! 73! dissimilarities!between!these!diagnostic!dolls!and!surgical!anatomical!manikins! weaken!this!argument.!In!addition,!the!intricate!carving!of!the!latter!is!wholly! unnecessary!for!patients!who!could!only!indicate!the!region!of!their!discomfort!and! knew!nothing!of!their!internal!anatomy.!In!effect,!early!conjectures!about!manikins’! use!is!based!on!anecdote!and!false!homology.!Ultimately,!Russell!conceded!that!his! essay!was!a!“preliminary!exercise”!and!concluded!that!he!hoped!others!could!find! more!evidence!to!situate!these!manikins!in!their!proper!context.!Nonetheless,!

Russell’s!essay!remained,!until!now,!the!only!basis!on!which!to!surmise!a!manikin’s! origin!or!function.25!!

! New!research!which!I!conducted!in!archives!in!a!number!of!medical!libraries! and!museums!cast!new!light!on!the!function!of!these!objects.!Though!their!purpose! was!not!known!before,!research!into!archival!documents!offers!new!evidence!of! their!specific!uses.!No!fewer!than!a!dozen!manikins!were!owned!by!doctors!before! being!acquired!by!museums!or!libraries,!so!they!were!possibly!kept!in!doctors’! collections!and!gifted!to!other!family!members!or!mentees!in!the!profession.!An! ivory!manikin!recently!sold!by!Sotheby’s!auction!house!bore!an!inscription!on!its! back,!transcribed!by!the!auction!house!as!“Bon&den&ßufallen&ß&krantheiten&der&

Sibivangern&ßeiber&ud&kindbetterinnen.”26!A!possible!rendering!of!it!into!modern!

German!might!be!“von&den&zufallen&der&krankheitien&der&schwangeren&Weiber&und&

Kindbetterinnen”!or!“for!the!diseases!befalling!pregnant!women!and!those!who!have! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 25!Russell,!134.! 26!“An!Ivory!Anatomical!Figure!of!a!Woman,”!Sotheby’s!website,!Lot!62,!London,! December!5,!2007:! http://www.sothebys.com/en/catalogues/ecatalogue.html/2007/european? sculpture?and?works?of?art? l07233#/r=/en/ecat.fhtml.L07233.html+r.m=/en/ecat.lot.L07233.html/62/! ! 74! just!given!birth.”27!(Fig.!2.8)!This!piece,!once!owned!by!a!well?known!obstetrician,!

Francois!Mauriceau!(1637?1709),!appears!to!confirm!that!manikins!were!owned!by! educated!doctors!in!order!to!illustrate!their!knowledge!of!women’s!health.28!His! famous!volume,!Traité&des&Maladies&des&Femmes&Grosses&et&Accouchées,!was!written,! according!to!him,!for!students,!surgeons,!and!midwives,!but!he!constantly!addresses! his!audience!as!“gentlemen.”29!The!year!1680!was!also!written!on!the!back,!which! lies!within!the!range!of!Stephan!Zick’s!oeuvre.30!!

The!performative!aspect!of!the!manikins!is!reinforced!by!a!poem!found!with! another!manikin!in!wax!based!on!an!ivory!manikin.!A!transcription!of!the!French! text!can!be!found!in!an!article!by!Giuseppe!Carbonelli!from!1909.!He!identifies!the! author!as!Dr.!Guiseppe!Isnardi!of!Fossano,!the!chief!surgeon!of!the!army!of!

Piedmont!from!1793!to!179731:!!

! A!la!fleur!de!mon!age,!au!terme!de!ma!grossesse! Le!danger!de!mes!pareilles!m’occupe!et!m’interesse! Accourez!jeunes!eleves,!j’oublie!ma!pudeur! Que!mon!corps!vous!instruise!dans!l’art!des!accoucheurs! Et!d’un!oeil!curieux,!de!dehor!et!dedans,! Penetrant!jusqu’aux!os!que!le!mere!et!l’enfant!vous!apprenent!a!varier!vos! maneuvers!savants! De!facon!qu’à!l’avenir!les!femmes!souffrants! Ne!sojent!plus!tormentées!par!des!barbares!efforts!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 27!This!was!sold!to!an!anonymous!bidder,!so!the!text!is!not!readily!available!for!me! to!see!in!person.! 28!Ibid.! 29!Mauriceau,!François.!The&diseases&of&women&with&child,&and&in&childFbed:&as&also,&the& best&means&of&helping&them&in&natural&and&unnatural&labours.!Trans.!Hugh! Chamberlen.!London,!1718.! 30!Johann!Doppelmayr,!Historische&Nachricht&bon&den&Nürnberger&Mathematicis&und& Künstlern&(Nuremberg:!1730),!310?311.!Zick!lived!from!lived!from!1639?1715.! 31!Carbonelli,!181.!! ! 75!

Mais!sojent!avec!leur!fils!delivrées!de!la!mort32! ! ! The!poem!can!be!translated!as!such:! ! ! In!the!flower!of!my!age!and!at!the!end!of!my!term,! The!danger!to!my!peers!occupies!and!concerns!me! Hasten!young!students,!I!set!aside!my!modesty! That!my!body!may!teach!you!the!art!of!accoucheurs! And!with!a!curious!eye,!from!without!and!within,! Penetrating!down!to!the!bone!of!the!mother!and!child!! You!learn!to!vary!your!scholarly!maneuvers! In!a!manner!that!in!the!future!suffering!women! Will!no!longer!be!tormented!by!barbarous!efforts! But!be!delivered!with!their!sons!from!death.33! ! ! Fuardi!has!appended!the!following,!in!his!own!voice:! ! ! Fait!par!Joseph!Isnardi!de!Fossan! Professeur!à!Verceil!pendant!les!vacances!! Du!1786!qui!avait!étè!frappé! De!l’ignorance!extreme!des!personae!! Addonees!aux!accouchements!et!de!! ses!effets!malheureux!qui!en!avaient?! Souvent!la!suite………il!avait?!En! Honte!que!ses!écoliers!en!chirurgie! N’en!fussent!pas!mieu!x!instruits,!et!il! Composa!cette!statue!a!l’effet!annoneé! Dans!le!prologue!susdit…34! ! ! I!translate!this!as:! ! ! Created!by!Joseph!Isnardi!of!Fossano,!professor!at!Vercelli,!during!the! vacations!of!1786,!who!was!struck!by!the!extreme!ignorance!of!people! dedicated!to!birth!and!of!the!unfortunate!effects!it!had.!Often!the!outcome….it! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 32!Giuseppe!Carbonelli,!“Un!‘Fantoccio’!Ostetrico!del!XVIII!Secolo,”!Società&Italiana&di& Storia&Critica&delle&Scienze&Mediche&e&Naturali,&Atti&delle&Riunione&di&Perugia&(1907)&e& Faenza&(1908).&Faenza:!E.!dal!Pozzo,!1909,!181?185.! 33!Personal!translation.!! 34!Carbonelli,!185.! ! 76!

had.!He!was!ashamed!that!his!students!in!surgery!were!not!better!educated,! and!created!this!statue!for!the!purpose!announced!in!the!preceding!prologue.! ! ! ! Isnardi’s!poetic!preamble!clearly!refers!to!“the!art!of!accoucheurs”!or,! specifically,!man?midwives.35!!It!also!indicates!that!models!were!primarily!made!for! use!by!medical!students,!all!the!while!advertising!and!vindicating!the!trained! physician’s!role!in!the!birthing!process.!By!extension!it!may!also!apply!to!the!ivory! manikin!from!which!it!was!taken.!Isnardi!himself!would!not!have!been!skilled!in!the! difficult!task!of!carving!ivory,!but!anatomists!were!beginning!to!use!wax!at!this!time.!

The!text!itself!shows!little!change!from!the!sentiments!put!forth!by!other,!earlier! doctors!writing!on!midwifery.!We!can!extrapolate!from!this!text!how!the!female! manikins!were!understood!by!their!owners.!The!parturient!woman!addresses!her!

“pupils”!and!says!that!for!them!she!is!not!ashamed!to!bare!her!body!because!it!is!for! the!good!of!fellow!“sufferers.”!She!asks!the!students!to!“penetrate![her!body]”!with! their!eyes!using!empiricism!to!understand!the!body!and!devise!new!techniques!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 35!The!only!previous!attempt!to!interpret!these!texts!was!by!C.!J!S.!Thompson,!the! director!the!Wellcome!Collection!in!London!from!1913?1925.!He!delved!into!the! origins!of!the!manikins!as!well,!writing!an!article!of!his!own!and!printing!his! personal!English!translation!of!the!text!in!an!article!in!1925.!Thompson,!“Anatomical! Manikins,”!Journal&of&Anatomy!59.4!(July,!1925):!445.!His!English!version!of!the!text! has!become!the!cornerstone!of!information!regarding!the!manikins!and!has!been! recopied!numerous!times.!Unfortunately,!Thompson!cites!the!author!as!Dr.!Juseph! Fuardi!(rather!than!Guiseppe!or!Joseph)!Isnardi!and!his!origin!as!Fossau!(instead!of! Fossano).!Thompson!also!implies!that!the!text!was!found!with!an!ivory!manikin,!but! it!was!in!fact!found!on!the!box!containing!the!Isnardi’s!wax!manikin.!This!distinction! was!made!clear!in!an!article!by!Pietro!Capparoni!in!1912!as!well!as!in!personal! correspondence!between!Capparoni!and!Thompson!in!1923.!The!article!mentioned! is:!Pietro!Capparoni,!Un&“Fantoccio”&Ostetrico&in&Avorio&del&Secolo&XVII.!Grottaferrata:! Tipografia!Italo?Orientale!“S.!Nilo,”!1912.!The!correspondence!was!found!in!the! archives!of!the!Wellcome!Library.!Isnardi’s!wax!model!was!believed!by!Capparoni!to! have!been!based!on!an!ivory,!who!also!wrote!that!may!have!been!copied!from!an! even!earlier!manikin!due!to!the!fact!that!the!text!was!written!in!an!antiquated!form! of!French!rather!than!a!more!modern!Italian!or!Latin.!Carbonelli,!185.! ! 77! improve!the!care!of!women.!She!accepts!the!fictive!piercing!of!the!scalpel!as!well!as! the!invasion!of!the!students’!gazes,!martyring!herself!to!medical!knowledge!while! also!providing!a!strangely!erotic!tinge!to!her!monologue.!The!post?script!refers!to!

“the!bad!effects!which!often!ensued!from![the!ignorance!of!uneducated! practitioners]”—a!criticism!aimed!at!traditional!female!midwives!that!echoed!three! centuries!of!male?authored!treatises!prior!to!Isnardi’s!time.!

With!the!advent!of!the!man?midwife,!men!asserted!the!ability!to!perform!the! same!duties!as!midwives.36!Eucharius!Rösslin!wrote!on!the!subject!in!1540,!and!his! treatise!was!widely!disseminated,!translated,!and!copied!into!other!works.37!At!the! time,!he!was!a!city!physician!in!Worms!and!in!charge!of!examinations!and!licensing! of!midwives.38!The!Rose&Garden’s&emergence!coincided!with!the!increasing! regulation!of!midwives!by!the!state!based!on!the!expertise!of!doctors!and!was! ostensibly!meant!to!provide!a!standard!set!of!information!for!midwives.39!He! defines!his!book!as!one!for!women!and!midwives,!and!since!it!was!likely!used!in! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!The!first!professorship!of!midwifery!was!not!established!in!England!until!1726— around!the!same!time!that!men!were!first!documented!as!practicing!midwifery!in! Germany.!Roberta!McGrath,!Seeing&Her&Sex:&Medical&Archives&and&the&Female&Body! (Manchester:!Manchester!University!Press,!2002),!32;!Weisner,!83.!In!Germany,! midwives!continued!to!deliver!babies!through!the!eighteenth!and!nineteenth! centuries,!but!they!were!regulated!under!the!auspices!of!“honorable!women,”!who! were!the!wives!of!upper?class!citizens,!and!educated!and!certified!by!university? trained!male!doctors.!Obstetrics!and!gynecology!did!not!emerge!as!distinct!entities! from!man?midwifery!until!the!nineteenth!century,!though!the!idea!of!specialization! and!the!establishment!of!men!within!these!sciences!came!much!earlier.!Helen!King,! Midwifery,&Obstetrics&and&the&Rise&of&Gynaecology:&The&Uses&of&a&SixteenthFCentury& Compendium!(Surrey:!Ashgate,!2007):!165?169.! 37!His!was!the!essential!guide!to!midwifery!for!200!years!and!was!translated!into! Latin,!Dutch,!French,!Spanish,!Danish,!Czech,!and!English.!Eucharius!Rösselin,!Der& Schwanngeren&frawen&und&hebammen&Rosengarte,&Strasbourg,!1513;!Rösselin!trans.! Arons.!,!1?2.! 38!Rösselin,!2.! 39!Rösselin,!5,!7.!! ! 78! their!examinations,!it!better!served!as!a!conduit!to!further!the!general!argument! that!academic!knowledge—the!sphere!of!male!physicians—was!necessary!to! improve!the!delivery!of!infants!and!the!care!of!mothers.40!His!highly!polemical! rhetoric!can!even!be!considered!an!impetus!in!the!increasing!role!of!male!authority! and!decreasing!role!of!female!midwives!later!in!time.41!It!was!itself!inspired!by!and! the!need!for!man?midwives!exacerbated!by!popular!tales!of!midwives’!deception!of! male!doctors.!

! In!sixteenth?century!Germany,!a!woman!from!Esslingen!was!pregnant!with! snakes.42!Another!birthed!monstrosities!that!were,!in!reality,!parts!of!puppies!sewn! into!hapless!forms.43!!These!events!would!bring!financial!gain!and!celebrity!to!the! mother!and!midwife!due!to!the!influx!of!visitors!who!would!bring!gifts!in!order!to! see!the!product!of!the!women’s!birth.!Much!later!in!1726,!a!young!woman!from!rural!

England!was!about!to!give!birth.!Due!to!the!preternatural!circumstances!of!her! labor,!a!physician!was!called!in!to!aid!the!midwife.!John!Howard!had!been!practicing! as!a!man?midwife!for!thirty!years!prior,!but!this!did!not!prepare!him!for! phenomenon!he!encountered:!rabbits!exiting!from!Mary!Toft’s!womb.44!He!could! not!explain!what!he!saw,!so!he!asked!that!others!come!and!see!it!for!themselves.!

Two!men—the!physician!Mr.!St.!André!and!secretary!to!the!Prince!of!Wales,!Mr.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!Rösselin,!7.! 41!Rösselin,!17.! 42!Rowlands,!Alison.!"Monstrous!Deception:!Midwifery,!Fraud,!and!Gender!in!Early! Modern!Rothenburg!ob!der!Tauber."!In!Gender&in&Early&Modern&History,!Ulinka! Rublack,!ed.!(Cambridge:!Cambridge!University!Press,!2002):!73.! 43!Rowlands,!78.! 44!S.!A.!Seligman,!“Mary!Toft—The!Rabbit!Breeder,”!Medical&History!1961!Oct;!5(4):! 349.! ! 79!

Molyneux—came!to!investigate.45!!The!rabbits!extracted!from!Mrs.!Toft!were! dissected!and!mulled!over!by!Howard!and!his!colleagues.!All!the!while,!the!woman! continued!to!produce!bloody!effusions!full!of!rabbit!parts!and!more!could!be!felt!

“leaping”!in!her!abdomen.!A!number!of!experts!came!to!see!the!spectacle!in!the! following!days!to!proffer!their!own!conclusions.46!Each!was!convinced!that!the! rabbits!were!not!a!hoax!until!the!discovery!of!a!piece!of!hog’s!bladder!thrust!them! into!doubt.47!The!women!and!their!midwives!were!indicted!for!fraud,!but!such! stories!infused!the!public!imagination!with!a!sense!of!anxiety!toward!the!workings! of!the!female!body.!!

! Nonetheless,!men’s!work!within!the!field!did!not!reach!an!authoritative! stance!until!much!later.!This!is!in!part!due!to!the!fact!that!this!new!role!ignited! professional!and!personal!conflicts—not!only!amid!accoucheurs!or!man?midwives! and!physicians,!but!also!between!these!men!and!traditional!midwives.48!Man? midwives!were!often!surgeons!and!therefore!familiar!with!the!tactile!body,!but!they! attempted!to!use!their!medical!education!to!act!as!mediating!forces!between!the! intellectual!physician!and!the!midwife!who!was!encouraged!only!to!attend!to! normal!births!and!call!in!a!surgeon!when!the!labor!was!difficult!or!compromised!by!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 45!Ibid.,!350.! 46!Ibid.,!350?353.! 47!Ibid.,!353.!The!full!story!is!detailed!in!one!book!that!is!an!compendium!of! pamphlets!in!which!personal!testimonies!as!well!as!satirical!cartoons!shed!light!on! different!aspects!of!the!story.!John!Howard,!A&Short&Narrative&of&an&Extraordinary& Delivery&of&Rabbits,!London,!1727.!This!edition!seen!at!the!Huntington!Library,! California.! 48!McGrath,!65?66.! ! 80! unforeseen!circumstances.49!Between!Rösslin’s!time!and!the!nineteenth!century,! man?midwives!were!in!a!liminal!space!between!academia!and!practice!in!women’s! medicine.!This!space!was!also!a!battlefield!of!sorts!between!arguments!for!and! against!the!roles!of!the!different!genders!and!how!their!roles!affected!their!ability!to! work!with!women.!With!Rösslin!and!the!later!writers!he!inspired,!the!argument!for! educated!men!presiding!over!women’s!health!matters!was!made!clear.!Later,! women!such!as!the!midwife!Elizabeth!Nihell!(1723?1776)!and!others!argued!that! men—who!by!this!time!were!also!creating!and!refining!new!devices!such!as! forceps—were!too!obsessed!with!the!mechanics!of!their!craft!to!understand!women! and!their!bodies.50!The!broadsheet?sized!frontispiece!of!John!Blunt’s!ManFMidwifery&

Dissected!of!1793!reflected!the!suspicions!of!man?midwifery:!a!doctor!and!his! modern!instruments!on!the!left!is!combined,!harlequin?like,!with!a!long?gowned! midwife!on!the!right.!(Fig.!2.9)!The!attendant!text!is!patently!satirical:!“Sir,!boys! must!be!more!expert!and!safe!than!women!who!have!delivered!hundreds,!and! perhaps!thousands!safely,!because!they!are!only!women!after!all.”51!But!the!text! becomes!more!pointed,!declaring!that!“surgeons…[are]!too!familiar!with! instruments!and!insensible!to!human!pain.”52!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 49!Eve!Keller,!“The!Subject!of!Touch:!Medical!Authority!in!Early!Modern!Midwifery.”! In!Sensible&Flesh:&On&Touch&in&Early&Modern&Culture.!Elizabeth!D.!Harvey,!ed.! (Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2003),!69?70.!! 50!Elizabeth!Nihell,!A&Treatise&on&the&Art&of&Midwifery!(Birmingham:!The!Classics!of! Obstetrics!and!Gynecology!Library,!1994).! 51!John!Blunt,!ManFMidwifery&Dissected!(1793),!87,!cited!in!McGrath,!33.! 52!Blunt,!167,!cited!in!McGrath,!33.!Though!Smellie!does!mention!his!concerns!with! physical!injury!to!the!parturient!woman!in!his!writings,!he!is!admittedly!more! engaged!with!the!mechanics!of!his!task.!Adrian!Wilson,!The&Making&of&ManF Midwifery:&Childbirth&in&England,&1660F1770!(Cambridge:!Harvard!University!Press),! 1995.! ! 81!

! At!the!heart!of!the!dialectic!between!midwives!and!physicians!was!tactility.!

While!men!were!occasionally!able!to!dissect!female!corpses,!only!midwives!were! keenly!familiar!with!the!generative!workings!of!the!living!female!body.!Their! experience!was!visceral,!gained!through!examining!women!and!relating!their!own! corporeal!experiences!to!those!of!their!peers!and!the!female!public.!This!disparity!in! knowledge!was,!at!least!conceptually,!bridged!by!physicians!through!tactile,!three? dimensional!anatomical!models.!In!contrast!to!earlier!interactive!models!such!as! anatomical!fugitive!sheets—on!which!manikins!were!likely!based—ivories!had!no! labels!or!captions!for!clarification.53!Manikins!required!doctors!to!verbally!explain! their!body’s!parts!and!processes!while!manipulating!them!for!desired!effect.!The! manikins!were!perhaps!designed!with!this!in!mind,!allowing!the!lecturer!to!project! upon!his!ivory!the!specific!knowledge!only!he!possessed.!Full?figure!manikins! communicated!a!tactile!essence!as!well.!Lecturers!had!to!be!dexterous,!removing! pieces!the!size!of!their!fingernails!and!letting!them!sit!on!the!contour!of!their! fingertips.!In!such!details!of!handling,!doctors!could!show!the!nimbleness!of!their! hands,!conceptually!equating!themselves!with!female!midwives!who!learned!by! apprenticeship,!touching!and!seeing!the!female!body!and!further!advertising!their! surgical!dexterity.!

In!using!these!art!objects!for!demonstration,!the!physician!created!a!climate! of!controlled!looking!and!touching.!He,!as!owner,!could!proffer!(or!likewise!conceal)! the!object!as!he!saw!fit.!While!midwives!were!once!the!keepers!of!haptic!knowledge,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 53!This!is!largely!true,!with!the!exception!of!a!book!in!the!Olbricht!Collection!in! Berlin,!previously!mentioned,!that!charts!the!location!of!the!model’s!body!parts,!but! this!was!likely!used!by!the!owner,!not!his!students.! ! 82! physicians!harnessed!that!power!by!physically!possessing!a!symbolic!everywoman.!

In!this!way,!they!visually!illustrated!their!authority.!By!using!manikins,!they! appropriated!the!ability!to!touch,!conceptually!transcending!the!previous! boundaries!of!male!knowledge!regarding!the!female!body.!This!created!a!discourse! with!men!about!the!tactile!body!that,!if!only!theoretically,!paralleled!the!knowledge! already!held!by!women.!

The!selection!of!ivory!as!the!medium!for!these!manikins!was!hardly! arbitrary.!Ivory!had!for!some!time!been!the!material!of!choice!for!medical! paraphernalia!from!the!handles!of!scalpels!and!other!tools!to!dentures!and!models! of!skeletons!and!skulls.!Ivory!was!not!just!a!substance!for!artisanal!working,!but!a! sign!of!status.&Manikins!therefore!acted!as!accessories!to!the!doctor’s!cabinet!to!be! displayed!as!well!as!used.!The!luxury!status!of!ivory!would!bolster!the!doctors’! authority,!imparting!a!sense!of!his!class!standing!in!contrast!to!that!of!his!pupils.54!

The!choice!of!ivory!was!nonetheless!geared!toward!the!content!it!displayed.!

Speaking!of!the!baroque!era!in!ivory,!Alfred!Maskell!wrote!that!“ivory!carvers! follow[ed]!the!taste!of!time.!The!nude,!formerly!entirely!absent,![was]!eagerly!seized! upon,!and!naturally!so,!for!there!could!be!no!more!charming!material!with!special!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54!According!to!an!1803!catalogue,!ivory!manikins!were!13!gulden,!ivory!eye!models! were!seven!and!ivory!ear!models!were!six.!Georg!Hieronimus!Bestelmeier,!Magazin& von&verschiedenen&KunstF&und&anderen&nützlichen&Sachen,&zur&lehrreichen&und& angenehmen&Unterhaltung&der&Jugend,&als&auch&für&Liebhaber&der&Künste&und& Wissenschaften,&welche&Stücke&meistens&vorräthig&zu&finden&bei&G.&H.&Bestelmeier&in& Nürnberg!(Zurich:!Edition!Olms,!1979),!9?10;!also!mentioned!in!Marion!Maria! Ruisinger,!Mit&Sinn&und&Verstand:&Eine&Ausstellung&für&Christa&Habrich.!Ingolstadt:! Deutschen!Medizinhistorischen!Museum,!2010,!95.! ! 83! qualities!of!its!own!wherewith!to!express!it.”55!Ivory!was!historically!the! quintessential!comparanda!for!ideal!female!skin.!

! The!ivory!models!clearly!align!with!a!specific!time!and!place!in!women’s! medicine.!Whether!being!performed!upon!for!the!eyes!of!curious!students!or!lying! silently!in!vitrines,!ivory!anatomical!manikins!actively!conveyed!the!authority!and! affluence!of!educated!men!through!demonstration!and!ownership.!They!were!likely! created!throughout!the!eighteenth!century,!but!they!remain!only!one!anatomical! model!whose!production!echoes!the!needs!of!a!medical!field!branching!out!into!new! specializations—and!echoing!the!new!political!concerns!of!how!models!should!be! used!and!by!whom.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 55!Alfred!Maskell,!Ivories!(London:!Methuen!and!Co.,!1905),!272.! 84! !

! !

! Figure!2.1.!Ivory!manikins,!attr.!Stephan!Zick,!c.!1700,!Harvey!Cushing/John!Hay! Whitney!Medical!Library,!Yale!University.! ! 85! !

! Figure!2.2.!Eye!models,!attr.!Stephan!Zick,!c.!midM1600s.!Left:!Germanisches! Nationalmuseum,!Right:!Schlossmuseum,!Schloss!Friedenstein!Gotha! ! !

! Figure!2.3.!Ear!model,!attr.!Stephan!Zick,!c.!midM1600s,!Museum!Waldenburg.! ! ! 86! !

! Figure!2.4.!Booklet!of!ear,!eye,!and!fullMfigure!models,!n.d.,!Olbricht!Collection,! Berlin.! ! 87! !

! Figure!2.5.!Turned!ivories!made!by!the!Zick!family!from!J.!G.!Doppelmayr,! Historische*Nachricht*bon*den*Nürnberger*Mathematicis*und*Künstlern,!1730.! !

! Figure!2.6.!Title!page!showing!turned!ivories!made!by!the!Teuber!family!from! Vollständiger*Unterricht*von*der*gemeinen*und*hohern*Dreh

! Figure!2.7.!Illustration!of!the!eye!from!Georg!Bartisch,!Ophthalmodouleia,!1583,! Trent!Collection,!Duke!University!Libraries.! ! ! !

! Figure!2.8.!Ivory!manikin!with!a!view!to!its!underside,!n.d.,!provided!by!Sotheby’s! for!their!auction!of!December!15,!2007,!L07233.! 89! !

! Figure!2.9.!Frontispiece,!John!Blunt,!Man

! Chapter!3! ! ! The$Afterlives$and$Reanimations$of$Interactive$Anatomical$Models$ $ $ ! ! As!each!newer!type!of!model!was!produced,!perhaps!designed!to!be!more! accurate!or!more!awe

Each!of!these!models!was!made!for!too!specific!a!time,!or!had!been!recontextualized! within!different!kinds!of!collections,!museums,!and!markets.!They!no!longer!filled! the!roles!of!teaching!models!for!the!public,!but!rather!antiquated!images!of!what! anatomy!once!was.!!

! The!earliest!examples,!the!flap!anatomies,!became!hidden!within!bookstores! and!libraries.!Though!they!were!thought!to!have!originally!been!pasted!on!walls— perhaps!in!the!business!places!of!barber

Granger!promoted!his!1769!Biographical$History$of$England!by!encouraging!readers! to!add!their!own!images!on!blank!pages.2!“Grangerized”!flap!anatomies!became!part!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 1!On!pasting!these!on!the!wall,!see!Carlino,!109.!I!have!personally!seen!copies!with! residue!on!each!corner!on!their!reverse!side!that!looks!like!the!kind!of!red!wax!used! for!hanging!objects!on!the!wall.!! 2!"Grangerize,!v.".!OED!Online.!December!2016.!Oxford!University!Press.! http://www.oed.com.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/view/Entry/80726?redirectedFro m=grangerize&!(accessed!February!09,!2017).!

! ! ! 91! and!parcel!of!the!books!within!which!they!lived!as!they!moved!from!collection!to! collection.3!!

! A!number!of!flap!anatomies!were!altered!physically!due!to!usage!as!well!as! either!professional!or!personal!conservation!attempts.!One!example!had!clearly!lost! all!of!its!flaps.4!A!number!of!these!were!redrawn!in!brown!ink,!likely!in!the! eighteenth!or!nineteenth!century.!(Fig.!3.1)!The!restored!parts!only!vaguely! resemble!the!originals.!Such!additions!must!have!been!meant!simply!to!complete! the!object,!for!it!would!no!longer!have!been!useful!for!instruction.!Another!flap! anatomy!!of!a!female!retains!most!of!its!parts,!but!pieces!from!a!male!flap!anatomy! were!appended!to!make!it!more!complete;!in!the!process,!the!woman!was!given!a! penis.5!(Fig.!3.2)!Other!examples!show!that!parts!not!originally!attached!could!easily! be!confused.!One!such!set!has!the!hearts!of!the!man!and!woman!interchanged.6!In! these!cases,!the!completeness!of!the!prints!was!clearly!more!important!than!their! accuracy.!By!the!eighteenth!century,!the!earliest!flap!anatomies!would!have!been! quite!obviously!obsolete!compared!to!the!collections!and!compendia!then!available.!!!

! In!the!mid<1800s,!authors!once!again!realized!the!utility!of!flapped!prints!for! anatomy.!The!physicians!Gustave!Joseph!Witkowski!(1844<1923),!Frederick!Hollick!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3!Specimens!of!early!flap!anatomies!can!be!found!within!the!back!covers!of!larger! anatomy!books!at!the!Wellcome!Collection,!the!Huntington!Library,!the!Columbia! University!Health!Sciences!Library,!and!likely!in!a!number!of!other!medical!libraries! and!collections.!! 4!This!print!from!the!sixteenth!century!is!now!housed!at!Columbia!University,! 5!This!is!currently!in!the!Wellcome!Collection.! 6!These!prints!are!at!the!Art!Institute!of!Chicago.!Suzanne!Karr!Schmidt,!!“Printed! Bodies!and!the!Materiality!of!Early!Modern!Prints.”!Art$in$Print!1.1!(accessed! 11/5/12:! artinprint.org/index.php/articles/article/printed_bodies_and_the_materiality_of_ea rly_modern_prints!

! ! ! 92!

(1818<1900),!and!George!Spratt!(c.1784<1840)!each!published!flapped!anatomical! atlases.!Such!paper!models!were!featured!within!textbooks!or!as!freestanding! models!through!the!twentieth!century.7!(Fig.!3.3)!These!showed!the!parts!and! sometimes!functions!necessary!that!the!students!were!required!to!remember.!In!the! words!of!George!Spratt:!

! “The!superiority!of!the!present!work!over!any!other!series!of!Obstetrical! illustrations,!is!universally!admitted.!It!is!a!happy!combination!of!the!Picture! and!the!Model;!combining!the!convenience!of!one,!with!the!completeness!of! the!other.!To!the!busy!practitioner,!who!wants!something!to!refresh!his! memory,!it!obviates!the!necessity!for!continual!post$mortem!examination,!by! supplying!every!point!of!reference!he!could!possibly!require.!To!the!student! it!is!equivalent!to!a!whole!series!of!practical!demonstrations,!with!the! advantage!that!it!can!be!carried!about!with!him!and!studied!wherever!he! may!desire…these!dissected!plates!are!almost!equal!to!the![model]!itself.”8!! ! ! “Modern”!medical!men!understood!the!utility!of!the!flap!anatomy!especially!as!a! reference!tool—just!as!Remmelin!had!in!the!early!1600s.!!

! Ivories!had!a!shorter!tenure!in!the!medical!world.!They!were!often!sold!by! booksellers!just!as!flap!anatomies.!By!the!eighteenth!century,!they!were!relegated!to! the!collections!of!private!owners!and!a!few!historical!institutions.!Surgeons!and! scholars!preferred!to!teach!using!fresh!cadavers,!wet!specimens,!preserved!body! parts,!or!highly!realistic!wax!moulages!for!teaching.!As!a!result,!manikins!moved! from!the!medical!workspace!to!the!wunderkammer,!or!cabinet!of!curiosities.!These!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 7!For!more!on!these,!see!Duke!University!Library’s!Animated$Anatomies!exhibition! information:! http://exhibits.library.duke.edu/exhibits/show/anatomy/anatomy/intro!! 8!Italics!are!as!they!appear!in!the!original!American!version.!George!Spratt,!Obstetric$ Tables:$Comprising$Graphic$Illustrations,$with$Descriptions$and$Practical$Remarks:$ Exhibiting$on$Dissected$Plates$Many$Important$Subjects$in$Midwifery.!Philadelphia:! Thomas,!Cowperthwait,!and!Company,!1848.!

! ! ! 93! collections!often!combined!theoretical!scientifica,!organic!naturalia,!and!man

(naturalia)!then!used!to!create!an!artwork!(artificialia)!which!displayed!the!internal! pregnant!body!(scientifica)!was!the!ideal!object.!

Ivory!models!were!documented!in!the!collections!of!Duke!Carl!I!of!

Brunswick

Christopher!de!Pauli!in!Vienna!in!1751.10!Other!examples!remain!within!palatial! collections!across!Germany!such!as!the!Scloss!Rheydt!and!the!Schloss!Huennefeld.11!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 9!On!the!organization!of!kunstJ$and!wunderkammern,!see!Thomas!DaCosta!Kaufman,! The$Mastery$of$Nature:$Aspects$of$Art,$Science,$and$Humanism$in$the$Renaissance! (Princeton:!Princeton!University!Press,!1993)!and!Horst!Bredekamp,!The$Lure$of$ Antiquity$and$the$Cult$of$the$Machine:$The$Kunstkammer$and$the$Evolution$of$Nature,$ Art,$and$Technology,!trans.!Allison!Brown!(Princeton:!Markus!Wiener!Publishers,! 2005).!See!also!Samuel!Quiccheberg,!The$First$Treatise$on$Museums$:$Samuel$ Quiccheberg's$Inscriptiones,$1565,!ed.!Mark!A!Meadow!and!Bruce!Robertson,!Los! Angeles!:!Getty!Research!Institute,!2013.! 10!The!first!manikin!is!now!housed!at!the!Herzog!Anton!Ulrich

! ! ! 94!

An!image!of!how!the!figures!might!fit!into!such!an!arrangement!can!be!seen!in!

Salomon!Kleiner’s!Christophori$de$Pauli$Pharmocopoei$Camera$Materialium$of!

1751.12!(Fig.!3.4)!There!they!sat!among!vanitas$such!as!ivory!skulls!as!well!as!bronze! metals,!coral!branches,!and!a!salmagundi!of!other!objects—including!ivory!eye!and! ear!models!such!as!Stefan!Zick’s.!As!with!other!curious!objects,!the!manikins! remained!open!to!the!interpretations!of!wealthy!viewers.!The!intended!function!of! the!manikin!was!lost!and!indeed!irrelevant!as!they!were!connected!to!the! wunderkammer!and!therefore!characterized!as!novelty!objects!after!the!era!of!

Enlightenment.!

! Nonetheless,!the!manufacture!of!the!interactive!manikin!form!persisted!in! assorted!ways.!A!number!of!singular!copies!were!made!in!various!substances,! indicating!that!they!may!have!been!homemade!versions!for!personal!or!teaching! purposes.!A!wax!model!by!Giuseppe!Isnardi!is!one.!(Fig.!3.5)!!Another!wax!version! can!be!found!in!the!National!Medical!Library!Museum!in!the!Czech!Republic.!(Fig.!

3.6)!A!bronze!now!in!the!Ludwig!Roselius!Haus!in!Bremen!was!likely!originally!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Gisela!Völger,!Sie$und$Er,$Frauenmacht$und$Männerherrschaft$im$Kulturvergleich! (Cologne:!Rautenstrauch

! ! ! 95! made!in!wax!for!casting.13!(Fig.!3.7)!One!unique!model!in!pearwood!with!an!ivory! fetus!is!now!at!the!Waldenburg!Museum!and!three!other!wooden!models!are!held!in! the!Wellcome!Collection.14!(Fig.!3.8)!The!phenomenon!of!singular,!personal!hand< made!examples!likely!lasted!into!the!time!that!large

! Ivory!manikins!in!particular!earned!renewed!interest!only!in!the!early!1900s! with!a!surge!in!collectors!of!medical!books!and!paraphernalia.!Of!the!nearly!180! manikins!now!known,!only!fifteen!are!still!held!in!German!museums—some!palace! kunstkammern,!some!historic!museums,!and!some!museums!of!the!history!of! science.!Most!of!the!remaining!manikins!ended!up!in!the!market!by!the!early! twentieth!century.!Their!buyers!were!physicians!amassing!libraries!and!collections! dedicated!to!the!history!of!medicine.!The!collections!of!these!men!now!contain!the! largest!assemblages!of!manikins!in!the!world.!Sir!Henry!Wellcome!(1853<1936)!was! the!founder!of!a!successful!pharmaceutical!company!and!used!his!fortune!to!acquire! a!wide!array!of!objects!relating!to!medicine,!ethnography,!and!the!history!of! sexuality!for!his!collection!in!London.!He!acquired!at!least!fifty

Josiah!Trent!(1914<1948)!collected!at!least!eighteen,!which!are!now!in!the!Trent!

Collection!of!the!Rubenstein!Rare!Book!Library!at!Duke!University.!Five!of!these! manikins!were!bought!from!the!collection!of!the!medical!historian!and!doctor!Le! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 13!Phillipovich,!"Anatomische",!174,!Abb.!4;!Sammlung$des$Verstorbenen$Baron$ Maximilian$von$Schoenebeck:$Auktion$in$Freiburg$im$Bresgau$Am$18.,$19.,$und$20.$ Oktober$1927,!cat.!698,!32,!33! 14!See!Anatomie:$Gotha$geht$unter$die$Haut!(Munich:!Deutscher!Kunstverlag!2010):! cat.!79,!102!for!the!model!in!the!Waldenburg!Museum.!! 15!Information!from!personal!inspection!of!the!Wellcome!Collection!archives.!

! ! ! 96!

Roy!Crummer!(1872<1934)!who!had!purchased!them!in!antiquarian!shops! throughout!Europe.16!Arno!B.!Luckhardt!(1885<1957),!a!physiologist!and!collector,! amassed!ten!manikins,!supposedly!all!from!the!same!bookseller!in!Amsterdam.17!He! left!these!manikins!to!the!Alabama!Museum!of!the!Health!Sciences.!Nine!of!them! now!reside!in!the!Reynolds!Library!at!the!University!of!Alabama.!Jerome!P.!Webster!

(1888<1974)!also!collected!seven!manikins!in!the!1950s!which!were!later!given!to! the!New!York!Academy!of!Medicine.!

! It!was!a!grievous!coincidence!that!growth!in!this!particular!market!coincided! with!the!rise!of!the!National!Socialist!(NAZI)!party!in!Germany!considering!that!the! men!who!sold!the!manikins!to!these!collectors!were!largely!Jewish!medical! antiquarians!in!Germany.18!Some!booksellers!relocated!and!moved!their!businesses! with!them.!One,!Emil!Schwarzchild,!moved!from!Frankfurt!to!Amsterdam,!but! eventually!lost!his!life!in!a!concentration!camp!in!1942.!!

! American!medical!historians!eagerly!took!possession!of!objects!from!such!

European!collections.!Joseph!L.!Miller,!M.!D.,!wrote!to!the!bookseller!Henry!Schuman! in!New!York!City!on!December!18,!1941:!

! “It!makes!me!happy!to!know!that!great!collections!and!libraries!in![the! United!States]!have!gathered!here!many!of!the!richest!treasures!of!Medical! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 16!See!Crummer,!“Visceral!Manikins!in!Carved!Ivory.”! 17!“Anatomical!Manikins:!Rare!Figurines!in!the!Collection!of!Dr.!Arno!B.!Luckhardt.”! Whats$New!61.177!(Summer!1953):!2<3.! 18!Collections!of!existing!objects!in!the!United!States!and!England!were!bought!in!the! 1930s!from!booksellers!attempting!to!sell!off!their!inventory.!Archives!at!the! Wellcome!Collection!and!the!Rubenstein!Library!at!Duke!University!contain! correspondence!on!these!objects!between!medical!collectors!and!booksellers!in! Germany!including!Emil!Schwarzchild,!Ernst!Weil,!and!Max!Ziegert.!Schwarzchild! was!killed!in!Auschwitz!in!1942.!Weil!fled!from!Munich!to!London!and!continued!his! business!there.!Zeigert!survived!and!told!the!story!of!other!German!booksellers.!

! ! ! 97!

History!to!protect!and!save!them!from!the!destructive!forces!of!Hitler’s! barbarian!gangsters.”19! ! The!accumulation!of!these!objects!by!Americans!was!a!way!of!preserving!their! history,!at!the!same!time!opportunistically!adding!to!American!collections,!in!the! midst!of!World!War!II.!

! Few!scholars!beyond!the!manikins’!collectors!showed!interest!in!them,! though!they!were!often!on!display!in!various!museums,!libraries,!and!collections.!

Many!were!given!to!family!members!over!time,!often!aspiring!doctors.!Some!of!these! show!personal!reconstructions!as!well,!such!as!one!in!which!a!miniature!twentieth< century!doll!replaces!the!original!fetus.!(Fig.!3.9)!No!doubt!more!will!emerge!in!the! market,!having!been!stored!in!private!homes!or!preserved!in!the!dusty!corners!of!

European!bookshops.!

! The!most!important!reiteration!of!the!interactive!anatomical!model!came!in! the!form!of!full

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 19!From!correspondence!in!the!archives!of!the!Trent!Collection,!Rubenstein!Library,! Duke!University.! 20!Thomas!N.!Haviland!and!Lawrence!Charles!Parish,!“A!Brief!Account!of!the!Use!of! Wax!Models!in!the!Study!of!Medicine,”!Journal$of$the$History$of$Medicine$and$Allied$ Sciences!25.1!(1970):!52.!Wax!was!used!to!cast!body!parts!for!votive!offerings!in! medieval!and!early!modern!Europe,!inspiring!artists!to!use!wax!toward!artistic!as! well!as!anatomical!means.!

! ! ! 98!

Bologna.21!The!Italian!physician!Marcello!Malpighi!(1628<1694)!and!the!Dutch! biologist!Jan!Swammerdam!(1637<1680)!reinvigorated!the!method!in!later! attempts,!applying!their!own!concoctions!of!alcohol!and!various!metals!combined! with!wax!to!create!similar!works.22!Swammerdam’s!student!Frederick!Ruysch!

(1638<1731)!became!famous!with!a!secret!wax

! Wax!anatomical!models!proved!much!more!diverse!than!their!ivory!and! paper!counterparts,!as!the!medium!can!be!adapted!for!various!shapes!and!sizes.!

Many!of!the!anatomical!waxworks!that!followed!focused!on!the!female!body!as! women’s!health!became!cemented!in!academic!medicine.25!Illustrations!sponsored! by!famous!man

The$Anatomy$of$the$Human$Gravid$Uterus$(1774)!were!chosen!as!the!authoritative! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 21!Ibid.! 22!Christine!Quigley,!Dissection$on$Display:$Cadavers,$Anatomists$and$Public$Spectacle! (Jefferson,!NC!and!London:!McFarland!and!Company,!Inc.,!2012):!125.! 23!Ibid.;!Haviland!and!Parish,!55.! 24!Later!practitioners!of!wax!injection!include!French!anatomist!Honoré!Fragonard! (1732<1799)!and!Austrian!anatomist!Joseph!Hyrtle!(1810<1894).!They!encountered! similar!problems!with!the!preservation!and!disfiguration!of!injected!models.!! 25!Lyle!Massey,!“On!Waxes!and!Wombs:!Eighteenth

! ! ! 99! sources!on!the!female!anatomy!and!became!the!basis!for!some!of!the!waxworks!of!

La!Specola!in!Florence,!which!had!become!a!center!of!their!production.!Some!were! mirror!images!of!the!books’!illustrations.26!(Fig.!3.12)!By!the!late!eighteenth!century,! man

! Anatomical!waxes!echoed!and!augmented!new!ideas!of!how!anatomy!should! be!studied!and!displayed.!Representations!of!the!body!had!become!more! fragmentary!to!focus!on!specifics!as!well!as!separated!into!normal!and!abnormal! anatomies.!The!abnormal!body!was!generally!depicted!in!moulages—partial!waxes! showing!details!of!diseased!tissue.!(Fig.!3.11)!The!healthy,!ideal!body!was!still!used! for!anatomical!instruction!in!the!form!of!both!full

Hunter’s!illustrations,!were!cropped!to!focus!solely!on!the!female!reproductive! system!with!the!head,!arms,!and!legs!amputated!in!gruesome!detail.!(Fig.!3.12)!On! the!other!hand,!full

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 26!Massey,!88–91;!96–103.! 27!Massey,!97.! 28!McGrath,!34.!

! ! ! 100!

! Florentine!full

! From!their!inception,!these!models!were!made!to!be!both!accurate!and! spectacular,!and!for!scholars!as!well!as!the!public—intentions!more!comprehensive! than!those!of!the!flap!anatomies!and!manikins.!Nonetheless,!they!were!like!their! interactive!predecessors!in!that!they!were!innovations!in!craft!married!to!science,! fulfilling!the!aesthetic,!pragmatic,!and!educational!demands!of!their!time.!!

! The!earliest!full

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 29!Elizabeth!Stephens,!Anatomy$as$Spectacle:$Public$Exhibitions$of$the$Body$from$1700$ to$the$Present$(Liverpool:!Liverpool!University!Press,!2011):!39.! 30!Stephens,!32<33.!

! ! ! 101! noticed!that!wax!itself!could!not!preserve!the!tissue.31!His!solution!was!to!create! models!from!wax!alone.!Desnoues!had!worked!with!the!artist!Gaetano!Zumbo!

(1656<1701)!in!the!1690s!to!create!models!in!Bologna,!but!they!did!not!see!eye!to! eye!and,!besides,!Zumbo!died!in!1701.32!Desnoues!then!worked!with!the!anatomist!

Abraham!Chovet!(1704<1790)!and!the!ivory!carver!C.!Lacroix!(n.d.).33!Though!their! models!were!originally!created!for!use!by!students,!the!collaborators!increased!their! revenue!by!exhibiting!them!to!the!public.!First!they!did!this!in!the!Académie!Royale! des!Sciences!in!Paris!in!1711.!They!later!moved!the!display!to!London!in!1719!and! toured!it!around!England!and!France.34!By!the!mid<1700s!the!model

Rackstrow’s!display:!

! “The!anatomy!of!a!woman!to!the![waist]!where!all!the!parts!of!the!brain!may! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 31!Haviland!and!Parish,!56;!Luigi!Belloni,!“Anatomica!Plastica.”!Ciba$Symposium!7! (1959):!233.! 32!Belloni,!232<233;!Quigley,!134.! 33!Chovet!also!proposed!the!creation!of!anatomical!waxes!to!the!Royal!Society!in! 1732.!Quigley,!70.!Belloni!and!Quigley!refer!to!the!carver!only!as!“Lacroix,”!but!the! details!given—that!he!is!an!ivory!carver!from!Burgundy!working!in!Genoa,!leads!me! to!believe!he!is!the!same!C.!Lacroix!who!carved!a!French

! ! ! 102!

be!seen,!and!taken!out!of!their!place,!and!set!back!again....!two!handsome! heads![to!show],!by!a!new!method,!the!structure!of!the!brain!and!the!first!rise! of!the!nerves!from!it.!The!anatomy!of!a!newly!born,!of!which!the!breast!and! belly!are!opened![to!show]!the!inward!parts!and!every!one!of!Natural! Biggness!and!colour.!This!whole!performance!has!been!thirty!years!amaking,! .!.!.!These!figures!have!as!fine!a!prospect!by!candle!as!by!daylight.”36! ! This!exposure!to!the!public!eye!in!turn!inspired!more!interest!in!them!as!teaching! models.!Anatomists!and!surgeons!started!renting!the!models!in!order!to!enhance! their!lectures!and!make!them!more!profitable.37!In!1753!the!models!were!again!set! up!specifically!for!students!!when!they!were!bought!by!the!University!of!Dublin.38!

! Contemporaneously,!by!the!artist!Ercole!Lelli!(1702<1766)!was!making! waxes!in!Bologna.!(Fig.!3.17)!His!career!began!with!a!commission!to!create!wooden!

écorchés!(figures!of!the!musculature!under!the!skin)!for!the!anatomical!theater!at! the!University!of!Bologna,!which!by!this!time!owned!only!aged!and!dessicated! specimens!donated!a!generation!earlier!by!Antonio!Maria!Valsalva!(1666–1723).39!

Lelli’s!work!on!anatomical!models!in!various!substances!including!wood!and!wax< based!composites,!with!which!he!busied!himself!after!making!his!écorchés,!made!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 36!Haviland!and!Parish,!57.!For!the!phenomenon!of!viewing!sculpture!by!candlelight! and!its!ability!to!make!the!figures!seem!alive,!see!Alex!Potts,!Flesh$and$the$Ideal:$ Winckelmann$and$the$Origins$of$Art$History$(New!Haven:!Yale!University!Press,! 2000),!passim.!It!should!be!noted!that!Rackstrow’s!collection!was!seen!as!too! sensational.!On!this,!see!M.!Craske,!“'Unwholesome'!and!'Pornographic':!A! Reassessment!of!the!Place!of!Rackstrow's!Museum!in!the!Story!of!Eighteenth< Century!Anatomical!Collection!and!Exhibition,”!Journal$of$the$History$of$Collections! 23.1!(2011):!75<99. 37!Haviland!and!Parish,!57.!! 38!Hallam,!122.! 39!Haviland!and!Parish,!58;!N.!M.!Maraldi,!G.!Mazzotti,!L.!Cocco,!and!F.!A.!Manzoli.! “Anatomical!Waxwork!Modeling:!The!History!of!the!Bologna!Anatomy!Museum.”! The$Anatomical$Record!261!(February!2000):! http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097< 0185(20000215)261:1%3C5::AID

! ! ! 103! him!an!ideal!candidate!to!create!new!objects!for!anatomical!teaching.40!His! waxworks!were!noticed!by!the!local!cardinal!Prospero!Lambertini,!who!founded!a! museum!dedicated!to!them!when!he!became!Pope!Benedict!XIV!in!1740.41!Lelli! worked!with!an!anatomist!known!only!as!Boari!as!well!as!with!the!sculptor!Giovanni!

Manzolini!(1700<1755).42!Manzolini!later!split!from!Lelli!and!made!waxes! independently!along!with!his!wife,!collaborator,!and!artistic!peer!Anna!Morandi!

Manzolini!(1716<1774).43!After!the!death!of!her!husband,!Manzolini!went!on!to! produce!waxworks!of!her!own!to!great!renown.!(Fig.!3.18)!These!early!models!were! well!crafted!and!widely!celebrated,!but!they!could!not!be!taken!apart.44!

! The!full

After!taking!up!her!craft!at!the!age!of!sixteen,!she!became!known!for!the!accuracy! and!material!strength!of!her!models.46!Her!career!faltered!because,!as!a!woman,!she! was!not!allowed!to!lecture!with!her!own!models!and!did!not!have!a!patron!for!them.!

Instead,!she!was!forced!to!earn!income!only!from!their!display.47!She!moved!from!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 40!To!create!models!for!his!wooden!ecorchés!in!Bologna,!he!used!He!used!a! combination!of!wax,!hemp,!wheat!pollard,!and!turpentine!and!built!from!real!human! skeletons.!“Anatomica!Plastica.”!Ciba$Symposium!8!(1960):!84.! 41!Haviland!and!Parish,!58<59.! 42!Belloni,!84.! 43!Belloni,!86.!For!more!on!her,!see!Rebecca!Messbarger,!The$Lady$Anatomist:$The$ Life$and$Work$of$Anna$Morandi$Manzolini!(Chicago:!University!of!Chicago!Press,! 2010).! 44!Desnoues!did!make!some!partial!models!with!removable!parts.!Haviland!and! Parish,!61.! 45!Haviland!and!Parish,!60.!Her!name!may!have!also!been!Marie!Marguerite!Bihéron.! G.!Boulinier,!“A!Female!Anatomist!of!the!Enlightenment:!Marie!Marguerite!Biheron! (1719<1795),”!Histoire$des$Sciences$Médicales!35.4!(Oct.

! ! ! 104!

Paris!to!London!in!hopes!of!increased!opportunities,!but!with!little!effect.48!Though! she!sold!her!collection!to!the!ambassador!to!Catherine!II,!received!accolades!from!a! number!of!experts!including!the!anatomists!John!and!William!Hunter,!and!presented! her!work!to!the!Académie!Royale!des!Sciences,!she!failed!to!attain!the! commissions—and!therefore!the!legacy—of!other!wax!modelers.49!Unfortunately,! none!of!her!models!are!thought!to!have!survived.!

! The!wax!anatomical!workshop!in!the!Museum!of!Natural!History!in!Florence,! also!called!La!Specola,!became!famous!for!its!full

Leopold!had!just!earned!the!honor!of!Grand!Duke!in!1765!and,!along!with!it,! inherited!the!Medici!wunderkammer.52!The!collection!was!a!combination!of!various! objects!used!to!promote!curiosity!and!self

Medici!princes—treated!their!collection!as!semi

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 48!Haviland!and!Parish,!61.! 49!Haviland!and!Parish,!60<62;!"Biheron,!Marie

! ! ! 105! chosen!visitors!or!acquaintances.54!Peter!Leopold!was!of!a!generation!and!political! persuasion!that!eschewed!such!elite!viewing.!He!preferred!that!the!Medici!objects! provide!a!service!to!the!public.!To!accomplish!this!he!needed!to!modify!the!nature!of! the!collection,!to!re

! To!achieve!his!didactic!ends,!Peter!Leopold!assembled!a!team!with!diverse! skills.57!He!appointed!the!physicist!Felice!Fontana!(1730<1805)!director!of!the! museum.58!Galletti,!as!the!ideological!instigator,!was!the!first!person!hired!!under!

Fontana.!Production!of!the!models!began!in!the!early!1770s,!but!employees!were!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 54!See!Silvio!A.!Bedini,!“The!Fate!of!the!Medici

! ! ! 106! still!being!enlisted!until!the!museum’s!opening!in!1775.59!Others!in!the!workshop! included!the!dissector!Antonio!Matteuci!(n.d.),!the!sculptors!Giuseppe!Ferrini!(n.d.)! and!Clemente!Susini!(1754<1814),!the!painter!and!draftsman!Claudio!Valvani!(n.d.),! and!other!specialized!workers.!60!

! The!wax!artisans!and!anatomists!alike!went!to!great!lengths!to!attain!both!an! accuracy!and!a!naturalism!formerly!unrealized.!First,!cadavers!were!dissected!and! posed!by!anatomists.61!Parts!from!a!number!of!bodies!were!used!in!the!process,!not! only!to!create!ideal!composites!of!body!parts,!but!also!to!replace!parts!over!time!due! to!decay.62!Some!models,!such!as!those!in!Bologna,!used!human!bones!as! foundations.63!For!the!organs,!plaster!casts!were!then!made!from!either!the!original! organs!or!clay!reproductions,!especially!in!the!Florentine!workshop.64!These!were! fine!tuned!by!the!sculptors!under!the!direction!of!the!anatomist.65!An!understanding! of!the!various!types!of!wax!was!also!necessary—it!came!from!various!plants!and! animals,!including!bees!and!sperm!whales.66!Wax!from!different!areas!further!had!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 59!Maerker,!86.! 60!Maerker,!86;!Lanza!et!al.,!51.!Others!who!aided!in!the!process!were!the!anatomist! Paolo!Mascagni!(1752<1815)!and!Tommasco!Bonicoli!(1746<1802).!Haviland!and! Parish,!66.! 61!Maerker,!86<88.! 62!Fontana!claimed!to!have!used!hundreds!of!cadavers!for!a!single!model,!but!that! was!probably!a!great!overestimation.!Maerker,!88.! 63!Massey,!86,!96;!Elizabeth!D.!Harvey,!“The!Touching!Organ:!Allegory,!Anatomy,!and! the!Renaissance!Skin!Envelope,”!in!Sensible$Flesh:$On$Touch$in$Early$Modern$Culture,! ed.!Elizabeth!Harvey!(Philadelphia:!University!of!Pennsylvania!Press,!2002),!98.!For! an!example!of!this!in!Bologna,!see!Lanza!et!al.,!The$Anatomical$Waxes$of$La$Specola,! 48.! 64!Maerker,!88;!Lanza!et!al.,!The$Anatomical$Waxes$of$La$Specola,!55;!Quigley,!128.! 65!Lanza,!Benedetto,!Maria!Luisa!Azzaroli!Puccetti,!Marta!Poggesi,!and!Antonio! Martelli,!Le$Cere$Anatomiche$della$Specola!(Florence:!Arnaud!Editore,!1979);!! 66!Quigley,!129.!

! ! ! 107! varying!hues!and!melting!points.67!To!color!the!wax,!dye!mixed!with!turpentine!was! incorporated!into!it.68!It!was!heated!and!set!in!layers!inside!the!molds!to!ensure!a! level!of!realistic!translucence.69!Specific!hues!were!gradually!achieved!with!the! addition!of!small!amounts!of!white!wax!and!pigments!or!painted!with!pigments!in! layers.70!The!most!minute!parts!were!constructed!in!metal!or!thread!and!enhanced! with!finely!painted!or!incised!lines.71!In!the!end,!the!entire!work!was!blanketed!in! varnish!to!preserve!the!color,!texture,!and!details,!as!well!as!to!add!a!subdued! sheen.72!!

! The!workshop!further!put!a!great!deal!of!effort!into!creating!visual!guides!for! viewers!to!identify!the!models’!parts.73!(Fig.!3.19)!These!were!elaborate!drawings! made!with!pencil,!watercolor,!and!tempera,!then!mounted!in!rosewood!frames!to! match!the!waxes’!vitrines!and!hung!with!green!tasseled!cords.74!Each!guide!depicts! the!associated!model!in!its!center!with!an!oval!surrounding!the!body!like!a! mandorla,!lines!connecting!each!body!part!to!a!corresponding!number!at!the!edge.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 67!Maraldi!et!al.:!http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/(SICI)1097< 0185(20000215)261:1%3C5::AID

! ! ! 108!

This!number!could!be!used!to!look!up!an!organ!or!tissue’s!name!in!identification! tables!housed!in!the!drawers!of!small!cabinets!around!the!gallery.75!!

! In!order!to!better!render!the!details!of!the!human!body,!La!Specola!featured! the!truncated!torsos!and!individual!parts!at!the!periphery!of!the!galleries.!In!1794,! the!collection!housed!twenty

! Peter!Leopold!was!aware!of!Chovet!and!Desnoues’s!earlier!public!exhibitions,! as!well!as!of!other,!less!scrupulous!impresarios!who!used!pseudoscience!and!shock! in!order!to!gain!revenue.!He!wanted!to!shape!his!new!exhibit!for!the!public!in!order! to!promote!the!“public!good.”79!He!provided!a!spectacle!of!his!own—certainly!meant! to!entertain—but!even!more!to!serve!public!education.!He!bolstered!the!authority! his!models!by!using!the!best!anatomists!and!artists.80!The!models!eclipsed!their!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 75!Thomas!Schnalke,!“Dissected!Limbs!and!the!Integral!Body:!On!Anatomical!Wax! Models!and!Medical!Moulages.”!Interdisciplinary$Science$Reviews!29.3!(Sept.!2004),! 314.!! 76!Haviland!and!Parish,!65<66.! 77!Maerker,!86.! 78!Schnalke,!318.! 79!Messbarger,!“Re

! ! ! 109! neighboring!objects,!highlighting!their!importance.!In!Peter!Leopold’s!newly! accessible!wunderkammer!space,!these!full

This!arrangement!within!the!museum,!with!the!rest!of!the!collection!and!wax!details! of!bodies!lining!the!walls!of!the!room,!also!suggested!the!human!body!as!a! microcosm!of!the!universe.81!In!addition,!public!“dissections”!took!place!daily!with! lectors!explaining!the!process!while!the!models!were!taken!apart!piece!by!piece.82!

! It!is!precisely!the!way!in!which!the!wax!anatomies!were!designed!as! spectacles!as!well!as!pragmatic!tools!that!made!them!successful.!Interest!in!them— as!with!the!flap!anatomies!and!ivories—led!to!widespread!demand.!Some!copies!of! the!Florentine!waxworks!were!produced!by!the!workshop!at!La!Specola.!Fontana! and!Susini!made!a!number!of!examples,!including!full

Leopold’s!brother,!Joseph!II,!to!display!in!his!Josephinium!in!Vienna.83!Other!figures! of!various!sizes!and!parts!of!the!body!were!sent!to!Turin,!Pavia,!Genoa,!Pisa,!Siena,! and!Perugia!as!well!as!outside!Italy.84!Susini!also!completed!a!large!set!of!models! including!full

History!in!Cagliari.85!Institutions!in!Spain,!Austria,!and!Hungary!also!requested!

Copies!of!the!“Venuses”.86!The!German!author!Johann!Wolfgang!von!Goethe!visited! the!collection!in!Florence!in!1786!and!hoped!to!create!a!similar!one!in!Berlin,!but! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 81!Maerker,!84.!On!the!body!as!a!microcosm,!see!discussions!of!Johann!Remmelin! and!the!Four!Seasons!prints!in!chapter!2.! 82!Messbarger,!“Re

! ! ! 110! without!success.87!The!French!artist!and!portraitist!to!Marie!Antoinette,!Elisabeth!

Louise!Vigée!Le!Brun!(1755–1842),!said!of!the!“Venuses”:!

“That!sight!made!such!an!impression!upon!me!that!I!nearly!fainted.!For! several!days!I!could!think!of!nothing!else,!to!such!an!extent!that!I!failed!to! look!at!anyone!without!mentally!stripping!them!of!clothes!and!skin.”88! ! As!the!waxes!gained!traction!in!public!exhibitions!most!prominent!in!Paris!and!

London,!the!artist!Antonio!Serantoni!(1780<1837)!trained!himself!to!work!in!wax! specifically!to!make!copies!of!the!Florentine!versions!and!tour!them!through!Europe! with!Antonio!Sarti!(d.!1851),!who!also!made!models.89!He!then!created!the!first! museum!dedicated!to!anatomy!in!London.90!Nonetheless,!Sarti!and!Serantoni!fit!the!

Venuses!amid!other!anatomical!curiosities.!(Fig.!3.20)!In!the!mid<1800s,!the!French! showman!and!model

! Wax!figures!were!not!the!only!anatomical!models!in!this!period.!While!waxes! were!meant!for!public!display,!another!set!of!devices!were!made!to!educate! practitioners!through!mechanics!and!the!sense!of!touch.!Obstetric!“phantoms”!or!

“birth!machines”!were!intended!for!practical!use!to!recreate!the!tactile!experience!of! delivering!a!baby.!Externally,!however,!they!present!a!much!less!artistic!veneer.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 87!Schnalke,!313.! 88!Quoted!in!Francesco!Paolo!de!Ceglia,!“The!Rotten,!the!Disembowelled!Woman,!the! Skinned!Man,”!Journal$of$Science$Communication!4.3!(2005),!4.! 89!Serantoni!also!created!a!full

! ! ! 111!

They!appeared!similar!to!the!truncated!waxes!as!they!only!have!stumps!for!legs!and! no!arms,!but!their!exterior!was!usually!of!a!rough!cloth.!The!torso!usually!had!a! large!opening!within!which!other!cloth!organs,!a!womb,!and!a!small!fetal!doll!would! reside.!(Fig.!3.21)!These!obstetric!phantoms!were!constructed!from!various! materials!such!as!wood,!textile,!wicker,!and!even!bone,!with!superficial!parts!in! leather,!wax,!fabric,!and!other!materials,!but,!unlike!the!waxes,!they!had!little! ornament!to!make!them!visually!appealing.92!Such!mechanisms!could!provide! practice!delivering!infants!situated!in!various!positions!within!the!womb.!The!fetus! was!often!visible!to!the!user,!who!could!then!discern!how!his!or!her!hands!and! feeling!for!the!womb!coordinated!with!the!anatomical!structures!of!both!child!and! mother.93!!

! The!phantoms!were!made!famous!by!Madame!Angélique!Marguerite!Le!

Boursier!du!Coudray!(1712<1790).!Having!served!as!the!head!midwife!in!Paris’s!

Hôtel!Dieu,!she!was!commissioned!by!King!Louis!XV!in!1759!to!instruct!midwives! across!rural!France.94!She!zigzagged!across!the!country!giving!demonstrations.!(Fig.!

3.22)!Mme.!Coudray’s!obstetric!machines!were!finely!tuned!to!include!simulations! of!the!liquids!and!bodily!resistance!that!might!be!encountered!during!a!live!birth.95!

Over!time,!she!created!even!more!complex!versions,!with!one!model!containing! fifty

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 92!Margaret!Carlyle,!Cultures$of$Anatomy$in$Enlightenment$France$(c.$1700J1795)$ (Ph.D. diss., McGill University, August 2012),!371.! 93!One!version!by!Galli!has!a!glass!uterus:!Gerhard!Ritter,!“Das!geburtshilfliche! Phantom!im!18.!Jahrhundert.”!Medizinhistorisches$Journal!1.2/3!(1966):!134.! 94!Carlyle,!370-371. Others were created before—see Maerker, 66, 77 fn. 78.! 95!Carlyle,!375<377.! 96!Carlyle,!377.!

! ! ! 112! in!the!physiology!of!the!pregnant!female!body.!Her!basic!model!was!comprised!of!a! torso!with!a!uterus,!birth!canal,!and!a!piece!acting!as!both!the!bladder!and!rectum.97!

She!manipulated!cords!in!order!to!replicate!the!contraction!and!dilation!of!the!birth! canal!and!abdominal!muscles.98!Balls!of!fabric!were!used!to!create!shifting!masses! during!labor.99!Coudray!was!a!successful!advertiser!for!herself!and!her!creations! through!her!highly!entertaining!lectures.100!Although!never!married,!she!assumed! the!title!“Madame”!to!increase!her!authoritative!status!and!to!deemphasize!her!lack! of!first

! Man

William!Smellie.103!The!midwife!Elizabeth!Nihell!was!likely!describing!his!when!she! wrote:104!

! !“This!was!a!wooden!statue,!representing!a!woman!with!child,!whose! belly!was!of!leather,!in!which!a!bladder!full,!perhaps,!of!small![i.e.! weak]!beer,!represented!the!uterus.!This!bladder!was!stopped!with!a! cork,!to!which!was!fastened!a!string!of!packthread!to!tap!it,! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 97!Carlyle,!375.! 98!Carlyle,!375.! 99!Carlyle,!375.! 100!Carlyle,!375.! 101!Nina!Rattner!Gelbart,!The$King's$Midwife:$A$History$and$Mystery$of$Madame$Du$ Coudray!(Berkeley:!University!of!California!Press,!1998),!95<96.! 102!Gelbart,!77,!99<100.!! 103!On!Smellie’s!doll,!see!a!brief!mention!by!William!Smellie!in!A$Treatise$on$the$ Theory$and$Practice$of$Midwifery!(Birmingham:!The!Classics!of!Obstetrics!and! Gynecology!Library,!1990),!on!the!first!page!of!his!preface.!See!also!McGrath,!71<72.! 104!John!L.!Thornton,!Jan$van$Rymsdyk:$Medical$Artist$of$the$Eighteenth$Century! (Cambridge,!New!York:!Oleander!Press,!1982),!11;!Elizabeth!Nihell,!A$Treatise$on$the$ Art$of$Midwifery!(Birmingham:!The!Classics!of!Obstetrics!and!Gynecology!Library,! 1994),!originally!published!in!London!by!!A.!Morley,!1760,!50;!52.!!

! ! ! 113!

occasionally,!and!demonstrate!in!a!palpable!manner!the!flowing!of!the! red

His!lectures!were!likely!quite!theatrical.!Obstetric!machines!or!“phantoms”!were! used!into!the!nineteenth!century,!often!as!advertisements!of!a!man

! Obstetric!dummies!generally!provided!the!tactility!for!hands

! Wax!models!and!obstetric!dummies!served!their!audiences,!but!their! creators!continually!tried!to!increase!the!accuracy!and!utility!of!their!models.!

Madame!du!Coudray!refined!her!model!continuously!to!achieve!a!better!idea!of!the! feel!of!various!muscles!in!the!mother’s!body.!Fontana,!on!the!other!hand,!tried!to! make!models!better!suited!to!repeated!use!for!teaching!students!basic!anatomy.!!

Each!object,!through!different!approaches!to!teaching,!impressed!new!ways!of!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 105!Nihell,!50.! 106!Lieske,!72.!Richard!Manningham!also!used!glass!in!his!machine,!but!details!of!it! have!not!been!recorded!in!known!texts.!Lieske,!73.! 107!Gerhard!Ritter,!“Zur!Entwicklung!des!geburtshilflichen!Phantoms!im!19.!und!20.! Jahrhundert.”!Medizinhistorisches$Journal,!1.4!(1966):!224<234;!Lieske,!73<77.!

! ! ! 114! experiencing!the!body!into!medical!education.!The!various!makers!and!users!had! also!developed!a!range!of!opinions!of!how!useful!entertainment!is!in!education.!!

! Wax!models!did!not!fade!away,!though!most!full

! Other!models!continued!to!tour!Europe!into!the!twentieth!century.108!The! anatomized!woman!fit!into!nineteenth

These!“sleeping!women”!could!be!living!women!or!waxworks,!often!displayed!under! glass!vitrines!much!like!the!earlier!anatomical!waxes.110!One!featured!a!woman!as!

Snow!White!whom!onlookers!would!kiss!to!see!if!their!affections!revived!her.111!

In!1767,!Philippe!Curtius!made!a!wax!model!of!a!woman!that!appeared!to! breathe.112!!Others!appeared!at!Madame!Tussaud’s!museum!in!1851,!and!in!the!

1870s!in!Pierre!Spitzer’s!Grand!Musée!Anatomique!et!Ethnologique,!which!also! contained!anatomical!models.113!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 108!Francesco!Paolo!de!Ceglia,!“The!Importance!of!Being!Florentine:!A!Journey! Around!the!World!for!Wax!Anatomical!Venuses,”!Nuncius!26.1!(2011):!83<108.! 109!On!“sleeping!beauties”!at!fairgrounds,!see!Joanna!Ebenstein,!The$Anatomical$ Venus:$Wax,$God,$Death,$and$the$Ecstatic!(New!York:!Distributed!Art!Publishers,!Inc.,! 2016):!156<157.!The!breathing!Tussaud!model!is!mentioned!in!Richard!D.!Altick,! The$Shows$of$London!(Cambridge,!M.!A.:!Harvard!University!Press,!1978):!335.! 110!Ebenstein,!156.! 111!Ebenstein,!156.! 112!Ebenstein,!175.! 113!Kathryn!A.!Hoffmann,!“Sleeping!Beauties!in!the!Fairground,”!Early$Popular$Visual$ Culture,!4.2!(2006):!141<143.!

! ! ! 115!

! The!oldest!wax!models!are!still!on!display!in!or!near!their!original!sites!in!

Florence,!Vienna,!Budapest,!and!Cagliari.!Others,!often!made!for!traveling! exhibitions,!found!their!way!into!the!market!and!are!today!spread!across!a!variety!of! scientific!and!personal!collections.!Nonetheless,!the!strides!made!by!model

! Despite!La!Specola’s!success,!it’s!director!Felice!Fontana!still!mulled!over!the! ways!in!which!a!visual!model!could!express!the!entirety!of!the!human!body:!

! “The!waxworks!are!many!parts!or!members!dislocated!from!the!human!body,! which!do!not!form!a!whole,!nor!can!they,!and!which!do!not!convey!the!idea!of! the!entirety,!nor!do!they!illustrate!the!relationships,!the!sites!and!points!of! attachment!between![the!parts]!and!with!the!body!as!a!whole.!The!wax! models!are,!therefore,!the!wheels!and!mechanisms!of!a!watch!dismantled,! partitioned,!divided,!displaced,!that!will!never!convey!the!perfect!idea!of!a! whole!watch,!its!uses,!its!relative!continuity,!how!one!piece!impacts!another,! and!therefore!of!the!mechanism!itself!.!.!.”114! ! Nonetheless,!Fontana!still!believed!that!the!pseudo

Fontana!created!a!wooden!model!that!he!believed!would!hold!up!better!under! repeated!use.116!He!wrote:!

! “To!take!apart!all!of!man,!piece!by!piece,!and!to!put!him!back! together!as!he!was!before,!is!the!easiest!kind!of!study!and! surely!the!most!useful!for!understanding!that!most!composite! machine!of!the!human!body.!And!all!this!can!be!done!in!hours! with!the!wooden!anatomy,!and!could!never!be!done!with!the! anatomy!in!wax.!Much!less!would!this!be!possible!with!a! cadaver!in!which,!when!one!wants!to!examine!whatever!part! or!organ,!we!are!compelled!to!separate!and!extract!all!those! parts!that!cover!it,!or!are!connected!or!near!to!it,!and!for!which! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 114!Messbarger,!“The!Re

! ! ! 116!

we!lose!a!sense!of!the!relationships![of!the!parts!of!the!body].”117!! ! ! !Fontana!hired!the!carvers!Luigi!Gelati!(n.d.)!and!Filippo!Chiari!(n.d.)!to!aid!in! wood!modeling,!but!only!a!few!examples!came!to!fruition.118!Giovanni!Fabbroni,! once!Fontana’s!assistant,!insisted!that!even!with!new!models,!lectures!were!needed! to!explain!them!to!the!public.119!His!wooden!manikins!with!over!2,000!parts!could! be!useful!only!for!academics.120!!

! Wax!models!were!beautiful!and!accurate,!but!expensive!and! somewhat!fragile—a!concern!that!led!to!Fontana’s!experiments!in!wood.121!

In!the!end,!their!effect!on!audiences!and!model

Spectacle!alone!could!not!sustain!them!as!models.!As!public!and!even!private! interest!waned,!the!prints,!ivories,!and!waxes—one!by!one—slipped!into! obscurity.!

! Nonetheless,!the!interactive!anatomical!model!lived!on!in!other!materials.!

One!of!the!most!prolific!and!successful!later!model!makers!was!Louis!Thomas!

Jérôme!Auzoux!(1797–1880).!Auzoux!made!dozens!of!what!he!deemed!“clastic! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 117!Maerker,!134,!147!fn.!106.!The!footnote!provides!the!original!text!in!Italian:!“Il! decompor!tutto!l’uomo!di!pezzo!in!pezzo,!e!il!ricomporlo!di!poi,!come!era!di!prima,!è! lo!studio!piu!facile,!e!il!piu!utile!sicuramente!per!intender!la!macchina! compostissima!del!corpo!umano,!e!tutto!questo!si!potrà!fare!in!ore!coll’anatomia!di! legno.”!I!have!used!the!translation!of!Rebecca!Messbarger:!Messbarger,!“The!Re< Birth!of!Venus,”!18,!21!fn.!82.!The!text!was!taken!from!the!Florence!State!Archive.!! 118!Marta!Poggesi,!“La!collezione!delle!cere!anatomiche/The!Anatomical!Wax! Collection,”!99.! 119!Maerker,!136.!The!wax!models!were!only!able!to!be!manipulated!by!experts:!the! public!was!meant!to!learn!largely!through!seeing.!Maerker,!135.! 120!Messbarger,!“The!Re

! ! ! 117! models,”!having!borrowed!the!basic!idea!of!the!dismantleable!anatomy.122!(Fig.!

3.24)!For!these,!Auzoux!created!a!shapeable!yet!pliant!medium!from!paper!paste! and!powdered!cork.123!His!works!were!constructed!in!a!factory,!with!great!detail,! making!them!some!of!the!first!mass

Auzoux!marketed!successfully!to!academic!establishments!around!the!world!as! well.124!Auzoux!influenced!many!others!to!make!similar!forms!in!plastic!once!it!was! available!in!the!twentieth!century.!!

! The!sensationalization!of!models!for!public!edification!and!entertainment— perhaps!with!a!focus!on!the!latter—is!still!a!part!of!contemporary!anatomical! projects.!The!plastination!of!bodies!became!popular!in!the!late!twentieth!century,! most!prominently!with!Gunther!von!Hagens’!touring!exhibition!called!“Body!

Worlds.”!(Fig.!3.25)!Hagens!had!created!the!process!of!plastination!in!the!1970s,! replacing!the!fat!and!water!in!body!tissues!with!polymers,!creating!the!most! accurate!bodily!models!available!by!making!the!human!body!itself!a!durable!model.!

These!are!not!demountable,!but!allow!for!a!range!of!non

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 122!This!term!is!from!the!Greek!word!for!“to!break!or!separate.”!Anna!Maerker,! “User

! ! ! 118! better!preserve!minute!and!fragile!structures!so!they!were!not!greatly!altered!and! became!impervious!to!decay.!

! The!popularity!of!his!exhibitions!as!well!as!copycat!ones!in!major!cities! across!the!world!point!toward!a!continuing!fascination!not!only!with!the!body,!but! with!ways!in!which!it!can!be!explored!visually!by!public!audiences.!It!also!caused! controversy,!inciting!questions!as!to!the!ethics!of!using!human!bodies!for!public! display.!Plastinated!models!were!also!used!in!the!academic!realm!alongside! anatomical!illustrations!in!textbooks!and!interactive!digital!forms.!Nonetheless,! tactile!models!were!and!are!still!required!in!medical!education.!Most!university! anatomy!labs!contain!plastic!torsos!with!removeable!organs!as!well!as!a!plethora!of! other!interactive!models!in!plastic.!To!learn!dissection!and!surgery,!students! sometimes!practice!on!highly!lifelike!models!with!the!bodily!components!meant!to! simulate!the!feel!of!real!tissues.!Such!cutting

! The!interactive!anatomical!form!is!one!that!captures!the!haptic!imagination! while!it!imposes!images!of!each!part!on!the!memory.!This!is!why!simplified! interactive!anatomical!models!not!only!survived,!but!have!become!ubiquitous!in! modern!society.!They!are!sold!as!educational!toys,!doctors’!office!decorations,!and! classroom!props.!(Fig.!3.26)!There!are!comics!with!organs!as!characters,!at!least!one!

Brooklyn!bar!with!anatomical!models!on!display,!and!Etsy!shops!dedicated!to! anatomical!jewelry!for!the!morbid!and/or!medically

! ! ! 119!

! Figure!3.1.!External!and!internal!views!of!a!female!flap!anatomy,!n.d.,!Columbia! University!Library!of!Health!Sciences.! !

! Figure!3.2.!Internal!view!of!a!female!flap!anatomy!showing!restoration!with!the! substitution!of!the!penis!and!vasa$spermatis!attached!to!the!vasa$menstrualis,! Wellcome!Collection,!London.! !

! ! ! 120!

! Figure!3.3.!Plate!from!George!Spratt’s!Obstetric$Tables,!1847.!Rubenstein!Library,! Duke!University.! ! ! !

! ! ! 121!

! !

! Figure!3.4.!Image!and!detail!from!Salomon!Kleiner,!Christophori$de$Pauli$ Pharmocopoei$Camera$Materialium,$1751.!Getty!Images.! ! ! !

! ! ! 122!

! Figure!3.5.!Guiseppe!Isnardi,!Female!Anatomical!Model!in!Wax,!c.!1786,!from! Giuseppe!Carbonelli,!“Un!‘Fantoccio’!Ostetrico!del!XVIII!Secolo.”!Società$Italiana$di$ Storia$Critica$delle$Scienze$Mediche$e$Naturali,$Atti$delle$Riunione$di$Perugia$(1907)$e$ Faenza$(1908)$(Faenza:!E.!dal!Pozzo,!1909):!181`185.! !

! Figure!3.6.!Anonymous,!Wax!anatomical!model!of!a!woman,!n.d.,!National!Medical! Library!Medical!Museum,!Prague.! !

! ! ! 123!

! Figure!3.7.!Anonymous,!Female!anatomical!figure!in!bronze,!n.d.,!Ludwig!Roselius! Haus,!Bremen.! !

! Figure!3.8.!Anonymous,!Female!anatomical!figure!in!pearwood,!n.d.,!Museum! Waldenburg.! !

! ! ! 124!

!!! ! Figure!3.9.!Ivory!manikin!and!detail!of!the!doll!placed!in!its!womb,!n.d.,!Rotterdam! Museum.!Photo!credit:!Arie!Kruseman.! !

! ! ! 125!

! Figure!3.10.!Drawing!of!a!wax`injected!womb!by!Jan!Swammerdam!from!Miraculum$ naturæ,$sive,$Uteri$muliebris$fabrica,!1672.!Historical!Collection,!King’s!College,! London.! !

! Figure!3.11.!Wax!moulages!in!a!private!collection!in!New!York!(once!from!Castan’s! Panopticum!in!Berlin,!1869`1922).!Photography!by!Daniel!Schwarcz.! !

! ! ! 126!

! Figure!3.12.!Truncated!wax!models!and!printed!counterparts.!Clockwise:!Workshop! of!Clemente!Susini!and!Guiseppe!Ferrini,!Wax!model!of!the!gravid!uterus,!1770` 1775;!Felice!Fontana,!Wax!model!of!the!gravid!uterus,!1770`1775;!Jan!van!Rymsdyk,! engraving,!in!William!Smellie,!A$Sett$of$Anatomical$Tables…,!1754;!Jan!van!Rymsdyk,! engraving,!in!William!Hunter,!Anatomi$uteri$humani$gravidi…,!1774.! !

! ! ! 127!

! Figure!3.13.!Clemente!Susini,!Wax!model,!c.!1790,!La!Specola! !

! Figure!3.14.!Clemente!Susini,!Wax!model,!c.!1790,!La!Specola! !

! ! ! 128!

! Figure!3.15.!Clemente!Susini,!Wax!model,!detail,!c.!1790,!La!Specola! !

! Figure!3.16.!Venus!de!Medici,!1st!century,!Galleria!degli!Uffizi,!Florence!

! ! ! 129!

! Figure!3.17.!Ecole!Lelli,!Écorché!showing!the!superficial!muscles!in!wax,!1742`1747,! University!of!Bologna.! !

! Figure!3.18.!Anna!Morandi!Manzolini,!Self`portrait!with!brain!in!wax,!1750`1755.! !

! ! ! 130!

! Figure!3.19.!Attributed!to!Claudio!Valvani,!Print!of!figure!showing!lymphatic!system,! c.!1780`1786,!La!Specola! !

! Figure!3.20.!Advertisement!for!Antonio!Sarti’s!exhibition!of!an!“anatomical!Venus,”! c.!1847`1854,!Wellcome!Collection,!London.!

! ! ! 131!

!! Figure!3.21.!Obstetric!phantom,!18th!century,!Science!Museum,!London!(Wellcome! Images)! !

! Figure!3.22.!Obstetric!Machine,!Madame!Du!Coudray,!n.d.,!Musée!Flaubert!et! d'histoire!de!la!médecine!

! ! ! 132!

! Figure!3.23.!Joseph!Towne,!Wax!model!of!the!head!and!neck,!c.!1851.! !

! Figure!3.24.!Louis!Auzoux!with!a!full`figure!classic!model!on!carte!de!visite,!1858.!

! ! ! 133!

! Figure!3.25.!Gunther!von!Hagens!with!a!plastinated!model,!2009.! !

! Figure!3.26.!Illustration!on!the!box!lid!for!a!“Visible!Woman,”!c.!1977.!

! ! ! 134! ! Conclusion! ! ! ! ! Flap!anatomies,!ivory!manikins,!and!wax!“Venuses”!have!long!been!seen!as!

“curiosities.”!Here,!I!hope!to!show!them!instead!as!indelible!examples!of!how!artists! visualized!anatomy!for!the!public!throughout!time.!Though!anatomists!made!new! discoveries!of!the!body,!it!was!craftsmen!who!made!the!body!comprehensible!to! nonGmedical!audiences.!These!three!forms!in!comparison!demonstrate!how!artists! adapted!their!models!to!different!mediums,!aesthetics,!and!settings.!!!

! The!flap!anatomy!innovator!Heinrich!Vogtherr!began!his!trade!in!the!early! sixteenth!century.!No!anatomical!images!for!lay!audiences!existed,!so!a!schematic! form!was!ideal!for!easy!comprehension.!The!creator!of!ivory!manikins,!Stephan!Zick,! reconciled!his!skill!set!with!the!needs!of!a!specific!audience.!He!was!trained!in! making!small,!puzzleGlike!ivories,!and!chose!not!to!show!the!intricacies!of!the!body,! but!rather!to!impart!a!general!notion!of!where!the!organs!reside.!This!was!ideal!for! newlyGminted!manGmidwives!who!hoped!to!promote!their!own!prowess!by!using! the!models!as!illustrations!for!their!lessons!which!would!not!divert!attention!from! their!teachings.!The!workshop!that!create!the!greatest!number!of!wax!models—that! at!La!Specola!in!Florence—!had!a!number!of!anatomists!and!artisans!working! together!to!combine!their!knowledge!of!the!body!with!notions!of!how!it!should!be! displayed.!Waxes!were!visually!as!truthful!as!possible,!showing!the!body!in!full!color! and!dimensionality!for!a!museum!setting—along!with!some!purely!aesthetic! additions.!On!the!other!hand,!other!anatomical!models!such!as!the!phantoms! discussed!in!chapter!three!were!haptically!truthful.!Both!waxes!and!phantoms!were! accurate,!but!carefully!crafted!for!very!different!needs—the!latter!by!a!female!

! ! ! 135! ! midwife!more!concerned!with!imitating!direct!experiences!with!the!human!body!for! other!midwives.!!

! These!models!straddled!art!and!anatomy!in!ways!that!were!particularly! meaningful!in!their!time!and!place.!This!is!the!reason!for!their!popularity!as!well!as! their!slow!decline.!They!catered!willingly!to!contemporary!audiences,!but!were! caught!in!the!undertow!of!scientific!progress!as!newer!ideas!and!technologies! crested.!Each!type!of!model!was!as!accurate!and!informative!as!necessary!for!their! intended!goals—and!these!goals!became!obsolete.!Once!the!scientific!usefulness!of! certain!models!waned,!so!did!their!economic!value.!They!hibernated!as!antique! objects,!but!had!already!influenced!new!generations!of!modelGmakers.!Many!of!the! models!found!in!classrooms!today!can!be!traced!back!to!these!earlier!forms.!The! eighteenth!century!papierGmâché!models!by!Louis!Thomas!Jérôme!Auzoux!shows!an! indebtedness!to!the!waxes!in!particular,!and!shows!a!definite!influence!on!the! proliferation!of!plastic!objects!which!followed!in!the!twentieth!century.!!

! !Though!lacking!in!accuracy!according!to!modern!standards,!each!of!these! models!made!anatomical!information!available!to!audiences!in!ways!that!promoted! public!education.!Study!of!the!interactive!anatomical!form!and!their!transformation! through!three!centuries!highlights!the!role!of!the!craftsman!as!innovator!and! educator.!With!a!proper!historical!narrative!framing!them,!these!objects!offer! insights!into!how!interdisciplinary!cooperation!can!forge!new!ways!of!teaching!and! learning.!The!reevaluation!of!historical!and!artistic!models!helps!contemporary! viewers!better!understand!the!artistic!and!subjective!choices!that!shape!even! scientific!illustration.!Here,!we!are!able!to!see!three!microhistories!of!anatomical!

! ! ! 136! ! representations!in!retrospect,!allowing!us!to!link!them!to!the!various!social!and! medical!tropes!of!their!time.!This!inspection!provides!the!methodological!tools!for! us!to!explore!other!models!from!before!our!time!and!within!it,!as!well!as!to! acknowledge!the!role!of!the!arts!in!innovating!new!ways!of!seeing!for!all!audiences.!

! ! ! 137!

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CALI BUCKLEY [email protected]

Education Ph.D.: Pennsylvania State University, Art History, 2017 Friedrich-Alexander Universität, Nuremberg-Erlangen, 2015-2016 M.A.: Pennsylvania State University, Art History, 2010 B.A.: Pennsylvania State University, Journalism; English minor 2005 Manchester University, England, 2004

Academic Honors and Awards Penn State University Art History Dissertation Fellowship, Aug.–Dec. 2014, Aug.–Dec. 2016 Fulbright U.S. Student Award, Germany, 2015–16 German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) Fellowship, 2015–16 (Declined) Penn State University Institute for Arts and Humanities Summer Residency, 2015 Penn State University Office of Global Programs Graduate Travel Grant, 2014–15 Penn State University Department of Art History Travel Grant: 2009–10, 2011–12, 2014–15 Duke University, David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library History of Medicine Collections Travel Grant, June 2014 Huntington Library, California, Molina Fellowship in the History of Medicine, Aug. 2013 Penn State University College of Arts and Architecture Creative Achievement Award, 2013 Penn State University Committee for Early Modern Studies Paper Award, 2010–11

Teaching Experience Teaching Assistant, The Art of Rembrandt, Penn State University (Jan.–May 2015) Teaching Assistant, Introduction to Art History, Penn State University (Jan.–May 2015) Course Instructor, Introduction to Art History, Penn State University (July–Aug. 2014) Section Instructor, Renaissance to Modern Art, Penn State University (Jan.–May 2014) Teaching Assistant, History of Architecture, Penn State University (Jan.–May 2014) Teaching Assistant, Introduction to Art History, Penn State University (Aug.–Dec. 2013) Section Instructor, Ancient to Medieval Art, Penn State University (Aug.–Dec. 2012) Teaching Assistant, The History of Apocalyptic Thought, Penn State University (Aug.–Dec. 2012) Teaching Assistant, Introduction to Art History, Penn State University (Aug.–Dec. 2008)

Articles “Johann Remmelin’s Catoptrum Microcosmicum and the End of an Era,” The Bodleian Library Record (August 2013): 18–33.

Affiliations | College Art Association, Renaissance Society of America, History of Science Society, Fulbright Alumni Association

Languages | English and German. Basic French.