Salafism in Malaysia: Historical Account on Its Emergence and Motivations

Home , Abdul Hadi Awang, Islah, Maszlee Malik, Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, Muhammad Abduh, Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat

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Maszlee Malik International Islamic University, Malaysia [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract

The term Salafism refers to an interpretation of Islam that seeks to restore Islamic faith and practice to the way they existed at the time of Prophet Muhammad and the early generations of his followers. Since this early period represented the golden age of Islam in its pure form, Salafis believe it should be the example followed by all Mus- lims today. Salafism as a trend and theological movement has been a point of interest to many researchers due to the current global political escalation. It has been a focal point of issues related to global terrorism, radicalism, post-Arab Spring politics, religious trends as well as theological debates. Salafism, more often known as Wahabism, has come to Malaysia at different times and with different motivations. The early brand of Salafism in pre-Malaysia Tanah Melayu, or Malaya, was the emergence of the early 20th century reformist Salafi movement, known as Kaum Muda, inspired by the Middle Eastern Abduh-Afghani Pan Islamism. Despite the differences between that and the current global Salafism they share the same roots. Additionally, according to numerous historical accounts, the current Salafi trend in Malaysia is closely related to the global Islamic revivalism of the 1970s and 1980s, and was also affected by the return of Malaysian students studying abroad during the 1990s and early 2000s. Evidence has shown that the emergence of Salafism in Malaysia has contributed directly and indirectly to the mainstream discourse of Islamic theology and Islamic worldview amongst Malaysian Muslims in general, and Islamic organizations in particular. This paper em- ploys a historical approach in explaining the emergence of Salafism in Malaysia and offers a critical examination of certain historical events that led to the existence of the different trends and groupings of Salafism in Malaysia and its implications for Islamic discourse in the country.

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Keywords

Salafism – Sunnah – Kaum Muda – Malaysia – abim – Saudi Arabia

Introduction

Salafism, as a trend and theological movement, has become a point of interest for many researchers due to the current global political escalation, in particular regarding issues related to global terrorism, radicalism, post-Arab Spring politics, religious trends, as well as theological debates. Similarly, although Salafism is strongly associated with its geographical cradle, due to the recent post 9/11 interest in global terrorism, research on Salafism as an alleged motivations of global terrorism has skyrocketed. Researchers have started looking at the influence of Salafism in the Southeast Asian region, due to its sizeable Muslim population and certain events that occurred which are related to Salaf- ism as an ideology. The myriad studies that have been conducted on the Salafi phenomenon of Southeast Asia have mainly dealt with issues of Salafism in Indonesia, with very few on the cases of Salafism in Malaysia.1 In its religious-technical usage, salaf is an Arabic noun, which translates to “predecessor”, or “forefather”. This meaning can be general or, in its technical context, it can refer to the first three generations of Islam after the Prophet Muḥammad: the Companions, their Followers, and the Followers of the Fol- lowers, the so-called ‘Pious Predecessors’ who were guaranteed by the Prophet

1 See Greg Fealy, “Islamic Radicalism in Indonesia: The Faltering Revival?” Southeast Asian Affairs, (2004): 104–121; Saliha Hassan, “Islamic non-governmental organisations.” Social Movements in Malaysia (2004): 105–107; Norhaidi Hasan, Laskar Jihad: Islam, militancy, and the quest for identity in post-New Order Indonesia. Ithaca, (ny: Southeast Asia Program Pub- lications, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 2006); Asip M. Iqbal, Salafism and the Internet in Contemporary Indonesia (Doctoral dissertation, Flinders University, 2008); Ken Miichi, Salafism Traits Among Militant Islamists in Indonesia (Asia Europe Institute, University of Malaya, 2008); Jajang Jahroni, “The Political Economy of Knowledge: Shariah and Saudi Scholarship in Indonesia”, Journal Of Indonesian Islam 7, no. 1 (2013): pp. 165–186; Abdul Gaffar Karim, “A Fertile Soil? Indonesia and Islamic Fundamentalism”, Journal of In- donesian Islam 1, no. 1, (2007): pp. 223–228; Amanda Kovacs, Saudi Arabia Exporting Salafi Education and Radicalizing Indonesia’s Muslims. Hamburg: German Institute of Global and Area Studies (giga), (2014); Din Wahid, “The Challenge of Democracy in Indonesia: The Case of Salafi Movement”, Islamika Indonesiana, 1, no. 1 (2014): 51–64; Mark Woodward, M. Sani Umar, Inayah Rohmaniyah, & Mariani Yahya, “Salafi violence and Sufi tolerance? Rethinking conventional wisdom”, Perspectives on Terrorism 7, no. 6 (2013).

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Salafism in Malaysia 305 of the authenticity of their Islamic practices and teaching.2 The term salaf is often placed in opposition to the term khalaf, which linguistically is defined as what is behind and, in religious terms, refers to any later generation of Mus- lims, most particularly those who come after the first three. Despite its technical usage, the term Salafi in the modern and contemporary convention can be defined as fundamentalist Sunni Islamic thought looking back to the first three generations of Muslims for inspiration and guidance.3 However, despite the usage of the term, there is no specific definition or presence of the term Salafi found in the original sources of Islam (al-Quran and the traditions of Prophet Muhammad).4 In terms of its political utility, the label ‘Salafi’ or Salafism has always been associated and used interchangeably with Wahhabi or Wahhabism.5 Both theologians and politicians use Salafi and Wahhabi interchangeably to describe a group of people who strongly adhere to the undisputed principle that Al-Quran and As-Sunnah (as understood by the first three generations of Mus- lims) should be the only references for Muslims when discussing Islam, with very limited reference afforded to reasoning and rationality.6 It condemned the rigid adherence to specific schools of Islamic law, the elaborate religious science of scholastic theology, and both the popular religious practices of Sufism and the strict hierarchies of Sufi orders. Salafis considered theirs to be “the only true method of understanding and practising Islam which follows

2 See Muhammad ibn ‘Umar Bazmul, The Salafi Methodology, its definition, distinct characteristics & its call towards rectifications. (Michiggan: Sunnah Publisher, 2010). 3 Other similar terms that have been used by those who proclaimed themselves to be Salafi- yyun or Salafists are: Ahlus Sunnah, Ahl al-Hadith, Ansar al-Sunnah, Ahlul Athar and al- Jama’ah. (See Ahmad Farid, “al-Salafiyyah: Qawa’id wa Usul” (Alexandria: Dar al-Khulafa al-Rashidun, 2011), pp. 6–9). 4 Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al Maghrāwī, Al-Masadir al-‘lmiyya fi al-Difa’ ‘an al-‘Aqida al- Salafiyya. (Riyad: Dar al-Raya, 1996). 5 ‘Wahhabism’ as another facet of Salafism refers to a movement established by a reformist from the Arabian Peninsula in the 18th century, Muhammad bin Abdul Wahab, that sought to purify the Islamic religion of any innovations or practices that deviate from the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. It is currently a dominant ideology in Saudi Arabia and it is at present spreading to various parts of the world including Malaysia. (Richard Gauvain, Salafi ritual purity: in the presence of God. (London: Routledge, 2012) pp. 7–10). Wahhabism is also known for its strong emphasis on the concept of sola scrip- tura: back to the scripture only, in which, the followers of Wahabbism are also considered as literalists (Febe Armanios, The Islamic traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya. (crs Report for Congress, 2003): p. 1). 6 Muhammad ibn ‘Umar Bazmul, The Salafi Methodology, its definition, distinct characteristics & its call towards rectifications.

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306 Malik the Qur’an and Sunnah” as claimed by the late prominent Saudi scholar, Ibn Uthaymin.7 This definition implies that only those who follow the teaching of Muhammad Abdul Wahab8 and his like are to be considered true Salafis. While in a similar tone, Nasir al Din al-Albani asserts that the only path leading to the truth is the method of the Salaf, which is the only group of Muslims that should be followed.9 The term ‘Salafism’ used in this article mainly refers to a global contemporary trend or movement to reassert the ideals of the pious generations of the first three generations following the death of the Prophet Muhammad, wheth- er they are individuals, groups, or thoughts. Salafism in this sense is adhered to by those who mainly follow the Wahabism form of aqidah teaching, which is mostly based on the Hanabilah (Hanbali school of thought) approach. The writings used to explain their creed are predominantly those of: Ahmad bin Hanbal (Usul al-Sunnah), Ibn Taimiyyah (al-Aqidah al-Wasitiyah) and Muham- mad Abdul Wahab (Risalat al-Tauhid, Syarh al-Usul al-Thalathah, etc.) and other contemporary Salafi scholars such as former Saudi mufti, Abdullah Bin Baz (1910–1999), the prominent Saudi scholar, Abdullah bin Uthaymin (1925–2001), and the modern Jordanian based Albanian scholar, Nasiruldin al-Albani (1914– 1999).10 Their influence has been felt greatly among Muslims in the Middle

7 “Ibn al-Uthaymin – ‘The Salafi Sect’ vs. The Way of the Salaf,” YouTube video, 2:58, from a private Lecture, posted by “SFAvfx.” 10 Dec 2009, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2v _qeMxc_vY. (Retrieved on 12 October 2014). 8 Muḥammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) was born into the Najd region of what is today central Saudi Arabia. He obtained his education through traditional means and eventually led a campaign across the Arabian Peninsula to rid the Muslims by force of what he referred to as shirk. His seminal set of works, which consists of a set of short letters gathered together by his followers known as the Rasail al Tawḥid, describes what further explanatory texts would call the pure version of Islam expressed usually in no more than a few short Qur’ānic verses and Prophetic Traditions (Muḥammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, Kitāb al Tawhid. (Riyadh: Dar Atlas al Khudra. 2012). ‘Abd al-Wahhāb’s mission began to gather momentum after a pact was created with the Al Saud clan. In the early 20th Century, the alliance between the Saud and ‘Abd al-Wahhab families would regain prominence and, along with significant British and American help, form the backbone of the Saudi monarchy which stands to this day. 9 Selīm Amr ‘Abd al-Mun’im (ed.), Al-Masā’il al-‘Ilmiyya wa al-Fatāwa al-Shara’iyya. (Tanta: Dār al-Diā’, 2006). p. 30. 10 For a more detailed list of contemporary Salafi scholars and their backgrounds see the contents page in Gibril Fouad Haddad, Albani and his Friends: A Concise Guide to the Salafi Movement. (Birmingham, 2004) & Adis Duderija, “Islamic Groups and Their World-views and Identities: Neo-Traditional Salafis and Progressive Muslims” Arab Law Quarterly 21, November (2007): pp. 339–60.

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Salafism in Malaysia 307

East, North Africa, and the Indo-Pakistani subcontinent, as well as major Mus- lim communities living in the United States, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom.11 Of the few researchers who have dealt with Salafism in Malaysia, most ex- amined the issue of terrorism, focusing on groups such as Salafiyah Jihadiyah or Jamaah Islamiyah (ji).12 Correspondingly, research on contemporary Salafism/ Wahabism as a trend in Malaysia has often concentrated on the Salafism of the early 20th century reformists, Kaum Muda, or the Sunnah movement in the state of Perlis,13 without identifying the differences between the two, and without looking into the disparities between the two periods. Likewise, discussions on the Kaum Muda and the Sunnah of Perlis centre on the 20th century phenomenon of global Salafism as a trend in Malaysia. The discussions nor- mally attribute the rise of Salafism in Malaysia to the legacy of graduates of Saudi Arabian universities and the active involvement in Malaysia of certain agencies and institutions related directly or indirectly to the Saudi Arabian government.14 It is also worth noting that, most research to date has ignored

11 Olivier Roy, Globalized Islam: The Search for New Ummah (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004) pp. 234–254. 12 Desker, Barry. “The Jemaah Islamiyah (ji) Phenomenon in Singapore.” Contemporary Southeast Asia (2003): pp. 489–507; Barry Desker, “Islam in Southeast Asia: the challenge of radical interpretations.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 16, no. 3 (2003): 415– 428; Hamid, Ahmad Fauzi Abdul, and Ahmad Fauzi. The New Challenges of Political Islam in Malaysia. (Murdoch University. Asia Research Centre, 2009); Staunton, Dirk. “The clash of identities: an analysis of the causes of Salafi Jihadi terrorism with reference to Jemaah Islamiyah.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 8, no. 1 (2008): pp. 142–164; Z. Abuza, (2007). “The State of Jemaah Islamiyah: Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia Five Years After Bali.” The Jebsen Center Research Briefing Series (2), 1, pp. 1–7; Zulkarnain Haron & Nordin Hussin. “A Study of the Salafi Jihadist Doctrine and the Interpretation of Jihad by Al Jama’ah Al Islamiyah.” KEMANUSIAAN: The Asian Journal of Humanities 20, no. 2 (2013); Magouirk, J., & Atran, S. (2008). Jemaah Islamiyah’s radical madrassah networks. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 1(1), pp. 25–41. 13 Mohd Rizal Yaakop & Asmady Idris, Wahabi Doctrine in Malaysia-Saudi Relations (2010). Available at ssrn 1695742; Saadan Man & Abdul Karim Ali, “Ikhtilaf Fiqhi di Kalangan Ali- ran Syafi’iyyah dan Salafiyyah di Malaysia: Analisis Retrospektif Terhadap Faktor Pencetus”, Jurnal Fiqh, No. 2 (2005): p. 75; Nornajwa Ghazali & Mustafa Abdullah, Tafsiran fiqh Syeikh Abu Bakar al-Ashaari: satu anjakan paradigma. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering 16, No. 1 (1970): pp. 47–61. 14 See Zakaria @ Mahmod Daud. “Muhammad Ibn Abd. Al-Wahab dan Pengaruhnya Terhadap Ajaran Ahli Sunnah wal- Jama‟ah di Perlis”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. (Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Malaya, 1997); Nor Hafizi Yusof, Salafi Wahabi (Doctoral dissertation, Fakulti Pengurusan Ekonomi, Kuala Terenganu: Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 2008);

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308 Malik the Islamic revivalism spanning the 1970s and 1980s that contributed greatly to the cultivation of a fertile soil for the Salafi trend to emerge later on. According to Maszlee Malik, the emergence of Salafi theology in Malaysia has gone through three major phases: the early 20th century reformist era; the Islamic revivalism period; and the internet and globalization period.15 This research will look into the co-relation between these three periods that may have contributed towards the rise of the current Salafi trend in Malaysia as part of the global Salafi trend of the 21st century. Furthermore, unlike many who would assume that the major contributors to the emergence of Salafism as a trend in Malaysia were graduates of Saudi Arabian universities, or graduates, from other Middle Eastern universities, this research will examine the contribution made by the uk and other Western countries’ graduates to the spread of Salafism in Malaysia. This paper discusses the events that paved the way for the emergence of Salafi thoughts as part of the current global Islamic trend in Malaysia. All the landmarks that contributed towards the emergence of Salafism will be explained descriptively with special emphasis placed on the co-relations between one event and another, and the factors leading towards the causes will be critically explained. Qualitative evidence employed in this research is mainly derived from the primary sources through interviews and focus group discussions with actors who are related directly and indirectly to the Salafi trend in Malaysia. In order to avoid any unnecessary generalization or non-accurate labelling of certain groups as Salafis as some researchers have done, clarifica- tions from the actors are often cited as disclaimers.

Salafism in Malaysia: A Brief Historical Account

The earliest arrival of the ‘Salafiyyah’ doctrine in its reform-oriented spirit within Muslim communities can be traced back to the emergence of the Pan- Islamism reformists who were mainly Egyptian al-Azhar University graduates during the late 19th century and early 20th century, widely known as Kaum

Muhamad Faisal Ashaari, “Aliran Pemikiran Salafi Di Malaysia: Sorotan Terhadap Peranan Internet Dalam Dunia Siber”. Al-Hikmah 2 (2010): pp. 35–49; Mohd Rizal Yaakop & Asmady Idris, Wahabi Doctrine in Malaysia-Saudi Relations; Nor Sharifatul Jannah Haraman & Far- ahwahida Mohd Yusof, Kedudukan Ajaran Wahabi Dalam Kalangan Umat Islam Di Malay- sia, Bachelor dissertation, (Johor Baharu: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2010). 15 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”, hikma: Journal of Islamic Theology and Religious Education 6, April (2013): pp. 52–56.

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Salafism in Malaysia 309

Muda (Young People) in Malaya, Indonesia, Singapore and Southern Thailand.16 The earlier version of Salafiyyah reformist ideology of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and his disciple, Muhammad Abduh, heavily influenced these al-Azhar graduates.17 This earlier version of Salafiyah thoughts, propagated, among others, the ideal of al-Afghani’s Pan-Islamism, as well as other Afghani-Abduh’s reform doctrines that emphasized the importance of reviving the Muslim ummah globally through their progressive idea of re-opening the gate of ijtihad, relinquishing innovation (bid’a) and reconciling some elements of modernity with the Islamic culture of the people.18 In addition to their progressive ideas, the reformists, the Kaum Muda, were also outspoken in voicing their resentment towards some of the cultural practices of the Malay community, which according to them, were shirk and bid’a.19 The large number of ideals propagated by Kaum Muda created an atmosphere of hostility towards the establishment, and caused considerable backlash from

16 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: pp. 55–56; Ahmad Nabil Amir, Abdi Omar Shuriye, & Jamal Daoud, “Muhammad Abduh’s Influence in Southeast Asia”, Middle East Journal of Scientific Research (mejsr), 13 (2013): pp. 124–138. 17 Afghani’s doctrine along with his disciple, Muhammad Abduh mainly emphasizes the purity of monism (Tawhid) as the creed of Muslims by returning to the creed of the Salafus- soleh, apart from his call on the needs to revive the Muslim ummah globally through their progressive idea of re-opening the gate of ijtihad, relinquishing the innovation (bid’a) and reconciling some elements of modernity with the Islamic culture of the people, i.e. education, learning modern positivistic sciences, learning modern language and the eman- cipation of women, etc. (see Nikki Keddie, An Islamic response to imperialism (Califoria: University of California Press, 1968)). Their method sought to reconcile the desire to follow the example of Prophet Muhammad and his companions with the use of reason in applying Islamic principles to modern life. In this sense it is rather difficult to associate Jamaluddin Al-Afghani, Sheikh Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida, directly or practise the teaching of Sheikh Muhammad Ibn Abdel Wahhab in their religious calls for all Mus- lims throughout the world; although in Malaysia, the general tendency of the opponent of Afghani-Abduh’s ideas favoured linking them with the Wahhabi Doctrine. The only similarity between these two movements lies essentially in their calling for ‘Islamic refor- mations’ through the practice of ‘ijtihad’ in fiqh, and to improve Muslim ‘creed’ by elimi- nating any elements of shirk in their daily lives (see: Kedourie, Elie, Afghani and Abduh: An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. (London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd., 1997): p. 12); Haddad, Yvonne (1994). “Muhammad Abduh: Pioneer of Islamic Reform”, in Ali Rahnema (ed.), Pioneers of Islamic Revival (London: Zed Books Ltd., 1994) pp. 43–46. 18 Hafiz Zakariya, “From Cairo to the Straits Settlements: Modern Salafiyyah Reformist Ideas in Malay Peninsula”, Intellectual Discourse 15, No. 2 (2008): pp. 125–46. 19 Personal communication with Ustaz Abdul Razak Abdul Rahman, former official preacher (Mubaligh) of Majlis Agama Islam Perlis and Sunnah activist of Perlis, 17 August 2012.

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310 Malik the country’s religious authorities. Many debates and clashes are recorded as having occurred between the Kaum Muda and the establishment and most resulted in endless polemics.20 Due to their controversial nature, the Kaum Muda was also labelled ‘Wahabi’. The Kaum Muda propagated their reform agenda to mainly straits states (negeri-negeri Selat) of Malaya such as Melaka, Singapore and Penang, but failed to spread to those states under the rule of the Sultans, apart from Perlis.21 Despite the continuous domination of the state-version of Islam in many states in Malaysia, shaped by traditionalists, the reform effort in the northern part of Malaya, found political patronage from the ruler of Perlis, which is now located in the northern part of Malaysia. This state steadfastly declared its inclination towards the reform ideas, and proudly established its own approach towards understanding Islam, known as the ‘Sunnah’ way of Islam or in some cases ‘Islah’.22 They were known for their call for ijtihad by referring directly to the Qur’an and Sunnah, i.e. without attachment to any specific madhhab (legalistic school of thought). Consequently, the state’s religious enactments and rulings are not bound to any madhhab, unlike other states in Malaysia.23 It was widely discussed that the dominating influence of ‘Sunnah’ in Perlis was due to multiple factors, amongst them: the state authority’s patronage to the reform agenda through Majlis Agama Perlis (religious authority) which is directly under the ruler’s influence; state administration represented by the ruling government which is pre-dominantly occupied by ‘Sunnah’ followers and activists; and relentless efforts by ‘Sunnah’ preachers throughout mosques, schools and publications.24 This legacy of the reform agenda of ‘Kaum Muda’s version of Salafism’ is still known today as the ‘Sunnah Perlis’. They sometimes refer to themselves as ‘golongan sunnah’ (Sunnah Group) standing as an anti- thesis of the mainstream ‘golongan madhhabi’ (madhhabic group).25 Interest- ingly, even the Sunnah Perlis scholars and activists vehemently rejected being

20 Gordan Means, Political Islam in Southeast Asia (Petaling Jaya: sird, 2009) p. 23. 21 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: pp. 52–56. 22 See Shukor Mat, As-Sunnah Di Perlis (Kangar: Media One Publication, 2000). 23 Personal communication with Ustaz Abdul Razak Abdul Rahman, former official preacher (Mubaligh) of Majlis Agama Islam Perlis and Sunnah activist of Perlis, 17 August 2012. 24 Abdul Rahman Abdullah, Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia, Sejarah dan Aliran (Jakarta: Gema Insani Press, 1997) pp. 217–18; Shukor Mat, As-Sunnah Di Perlis; Saadan Man, ‘Kedudu- kan Mazhab Syafii Dalam Perkembangan Ahlussunah di Perlis’, Jurnal Fiqh, No. 4 (2007): pp. 141–56. 25 Personal communication with Md Sadik Md Ismail, former Pengarah Majlis Agama Islam Perlis (1992–94) and former Islah activist, 25 August 2014.

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Salafism in Malaysia 311 labelled Wahabi, or any association with the Wahabi movement in Saudi Arabia. They have always preferred to be known as ‘Ahli Sunnah wal jamaah’ or ‘Sunnah’ or ‘Islah’ rather than Wahabi.26 Nevertheless, in understanding the historical roots of the current Salafi trend in Malaysia, Sunnah Perlis should not be ignored, since it has its own significance in the spread of the Salafi doctrine in the 1990s, which will be discussed separately in this paper, showing Saudi Arabia as a major factor in the spread of Salafism in Malaysia. Dr Juanda Jaya, former Mufti of Perlis asserted that at the state level at least, Perlis should be recognized as a ‘Salafi’ state due to its constitution, policies promulgated and implemented by the religious authority and the predominant Salafism-inspired customs practised by the people of Perlis.27 In spite of this, the Salafi version of the state of Perlis is not necessarily the same as that adhered to by other current global Salafi groups, due to its historical roots. Another legacy of the Kaum Muda struggle is the Ittiba’ Sunnah group based in Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan. The reform movement in Kuala Pilah was started by Maulana Muhammad Maadah bin Layang who was taught in In- dia. Upon his return to Kuala Pilah, he establish Madrasah Aliyah Islamiyah (the High Islamic School) in Kampung Pelangai, Kuala Pilah. It was from that school that Maadah managed to recruit his followers who would later establish a reform movement called ‘Ittiba’us Sunnah’.28 His struggle was to be resumed by one of his disciples, Hashim Ghani, who was known as a controversial writ- er representing Kaum Muda’s thoughts in the public media. It was Hashim who led Ittiba’us Sunnah and the reform agenda in Negeri Sembilan amid rejection and opposition from the state’s religious authority.29 Akin to Kaum Muda and Perlis Sunnah, Ittiba’us Sunnah too was labelled Wahhabi due to its reformist nature. Hashim established a new madrasah called ‘Madrasah Ittiba’us Sunnah’ in 1956, which became a recruitment college to spread Kaum Muda’s reform thoughts to the community in Negeri Sembilan. However, in the 1980s, due

26 Mohd Radzi Othman & Rahmat, O.K. Gerakan Pembaharuan Islam: Satu Kajian di Neg- eri Perlis dan Hubung kaitnya dengan Malaysia (Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, 1996) p. 101. However, Hafiz Zakariya insisted on using the term ‘Ahlus Sunnah of Perlis’ for them (See Hafiz Zakariya, “From Cairo to the Straits Settlements: Modern Salafiyyah Reformist Ideas in Malay Peninsula”, pp. 125–46). 27 Personal communication with the Mufti of Perlis, Dr Juanda Jaya, 29 July 2014. 28 Abdul Rahman Abdullah, Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia, Sejarah dan Aliran, pp. 217–18. 29 See Hashim A. Ghani, Gayung Bersambut Kedua: As-Sunnah Membela Diri (Kuala Pilah: ktf Institut, 1985).

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312 Malik to connections established between Hashim Ghani and early Salafi preachers from the Saudi Embassy Islamic Council, he slowly began to embrace the Saudi version of Salafism, turning the Madrasah Ittiba’us Sunnah into a recruitment ground for adherents of Salafism from all over the country. Most of those who subscribed to the Salafi doctrine would send their children to be taught and educated under the supervision of Ghani in his school, and through those graduates from his school Ghani’s dakwah effort managed to be spread to other places. Consequently, some of his students started to establish their own schools similar to the ‘Madrasah Ittiba’us Sunnah’, amongst them Ma- drasah Lukmanul Hakim in Ulu Tiram, Johore and its branch in Tanah Merah, Kelantan30 which was allegedly associated with terrorism activities that led to its closure after the 9/11 tragedy.31 A similar legacy of Kaum Muda was also seen in Kelantan. Despite it being known as a staunch fortress for the anti-Wahabi traditionalists, Kelantan had its own role in the emergence of the current Salafi trend in Malaysia. The term Kaum Muda in Kelantan was used against a reformist scholar, Haji Nik Abdullah Haji Wan Musa, who was a keen adherent of the prominent Indian reformist, Shah Waliyullah. Unfortunately, Nik Abdullah’s influence did not last long.32 The seeds of Salafism as a trend in fact started with the prolific religious author and owner of the biggest personal library in Kota Bharu, Ustaz Abdullah al-Qari.33 He was the first person known in Malaysia to translate al-Albani’s famous book, Sifat Solat al-Nabi into Bahasa Melayu, published by Pustaka Asa. His translated books were widely used by the earlier Salafi adherents throughout Malaysia, along with his other writings during the 80s

30 There are another two schools associated with terrorism, mainly the Salafiyah Jihadiyah that was closed in 2011, Sekolah al-Quran Waddin in Bandar Baru uda, Johore Baharu and ‘Raudhatul Muwahidun’ in Kelantan. (See: “3 Sekolah Agama Sebar Salafiah Jihadiah Ditutup”, Utusan Malaysia, 22 June 2011). 31 Muhammad Haniff Bin Hassan, “Key considerations in counter-ideological work against terrorist ideology.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29, no. 6 (2006): 531–558.; Rabasa, Angel. “Islamic Education in Southeast Asia.” Current Trends in Islamist Ideology 2 (2005): pp. 97–108. 32 Abdul Rahman Abdullah, Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia, Sejarah dan Aliran, p. 118. 33 Born as Abdullah al-Qari Haji Salleh and hailed from a religious and scholastic family at Pondok (religious seminary) Kenali, Kelantan in 1937. Graduated from University Malaya and continued his career as a religious teacher at his own school, and was famously known for his books. He has written more than 300 books mainly in Islamic studies (see Abdullah al-Qari, “Potret Pecinta Buku, Penulis, Penterjemah dan Pener- bit”, Paperwork presented at ‘Seminar Pecinta Buku 2010’, 21 September 2010, (Kuala Lumpur: Institut Terjemahan Negara Malaysia (itnm), 2010).

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Salafism in Malaysia 313 and 90s.34 The scarcity of Salafi literature in the market at that period made his writings a major reference for those who were inclined towards Salafism. It is apparent after further scrutiny of the discourse of Kaum Muda that its ideology differs from that of the current trend of global Salafism. They share some similarities, including: the issue of the need for ijtihad; opposition to a strict and fanatic adherence to any madhhab; a number of issues related to the preservation and establishment of a true and pristine Tawhidic teaching; and assertion of the need to preserve the authenticity of all matters relating to worship. However, as we look closely, we see that Kaum Muda’s approach to theology is much more inclusive since they also embrace the traditionalists’ methods in dealing with some theological issues.35 Apparently, it was its reformist nature and its opposition to taqlid (blind following) along with its method of returning to the premier sources (al-Quran and Sunnah) in dealing with fiqhi (legalistic) issues that paved the way for the later adherents of Kaum Muda movements in Perlis and Negeri Sembilan to be attracted to the current global Salafi trend after it reached Malaysia through the return of graduates from Saudi Arabian universities. Additionally, the relentless effort demonstrat- ed by the Saudi Arabian government in the 1990s also played a pivotal role in allowing the global Salafi trend across Malaysia to flourish. This particular point will be explained further in the following paragraphs.

The Islamic Revivalism: The Ikhwani and the Saudi Factor

The second attempt to introduce Salafism (not Wahabism) into mainstream religion successfully took place during the period of Islamic revivalism stretch- ing from the 70s until the 90s.36 Revivalism thought did not contribute directly to the spread of the Salafism-Wahabism doctrine as a whole, but it did indirectly introduce the Salafi theology that was considered a pathway to the current

34 Personal communication with Wan Subki Wan Saleh, son in law of Abdullah al-Qari, 27 July 2015. 35 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: pp. 52–56. 36 ‘Islamic revival’ in Malaysia transpired in the 1970s and 1980s. The term appropriately refers to the embryonic stages within movements whose ultimate aim almost always in- volves establishing an Islamic state and calling for the implementation of Shari’ah rulings (see: Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “The formative years of the Dakwah movement: origins, causes and manifestations of Islamic resurgence in Malaysia.” ikim Journal 10, no. 2 (2002): pp. 87–124).

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Salafi trend.37 The Salafi theology brought by the actors of the 70s-90s Islamic Revivalism introduced at this time, in reality cultivated a fertile soil for the current Salafi-Wahabism to sprout. The emergence of da’wah groups, mainly the Muslim Youth Movement or Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (abim)38 and others such as the Islamic Representative Group (irc)39 in the uk was heavily influenced by al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun of Egypt who brought the doctrine of Salafi theology into the Malaysian society.40 In the same manner, within the context of the Middle Eastern oil boom of the 1970s and the ensuing rise of the political clout of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (opec), Saudi petrodollars started pouring into many Muslim countries worldwide, through Saudi embassies, for the propagation of Islam and the spreading of the Saudi-Salafi indoctrination process. It should be noted too that, certain federal governments’ Islamic institutions also gave a warm diplomatic reception to Saudi-Salafi influence as the Saudi Arabian petrodollar trickled in.41 It is a historically undeniable fact that

37 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: pp. 52–56. 38 abim or Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia is an offshoot of the National Muslim Students Association (pkpim) of the late 1960s. It was founded in 1971, and is strongly associated with its second and most prominent president, Anwar Ibrahim (Muzaffar, Chandra. “Islamic resurgence in Malaysia.” (2014). pp. 42–54); Saliha Hassan, “Islamic Non-governmental Organisations.” 105–107; Abdul Malek, “From Cairo to Kuala Lumpur: the influence of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood on the Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia (abim).” (2011). 39 Islamic Representative Council Society (irc) was a Malaysian Muslim Students society founded in the uk in 1975. The founding members were inspired by the doctrines of the Muslim Brotherhood (al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun). Upon their return to Malaysia, irc members were known for their exclusive nature of propagating Islam. However, in 1990, members of the society decided to establish Pertubuhan Jamaah Islah Malaysia (jim) as their legal entity to work as an ngo to spread their Islamic ideology based on the approach of the Muslim Brotherhood. (See Sophie Lemiere, “Genesis and Development of A ‘Nonpar- tisan’ Political Actor: The Formation of the Jama’ah Islah Malaysia (jim) and its Roots in Western Europe.” Al-Jami’ah: Journal of Islamic Studies 47, no. 1 (2009): pp. 49–90; Maszlee Malik, “Religion, Civil Society and Good Governance: Pertubuhan Jamaah Islah Malaysia (jim)’s experience.” International Journal of Islamic Thought 8 (2012): pp. 5–19; Maszlee Malik and Hamidah Mat. “Pious Approach to Development: Social Capital and Pertubu- han Jamaah Islah Malaysia (jim).” World 4, no. 3 (2014): pp. 107–118). 40 Personal communication with Zaid Kamarudin, jim President (2004–12), on the 26th December 2012. 41 Barry Desker, “Islam in Southeast Asia: the challenge of radical interpretations.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 16, no. 3 (2003): p. 420.

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Salafism in Malaysia 315

Malaysia became a major recipient of oil-related aid distributed under the aegis of the Jeddah-based Islamic Development Bank (idb).42 Among the primary financial beneficiaries have been government-sanctioned bodies responsible for the process of propagating Islam such as the Islamic Welfare Association of Malaysia (perkim: Pertubuhan Kebajikan Islam SeMalaysia)43 and the Malaysian-initiated Regional Islamic Dakwah Council for Southeast Asia and Pacific (riseap).44 Likewise, in many countries where Saudi embassies were established, an Islamic Cultural Council (al-Mustashar al-thaqafi) was also established, designed specifically for the purpose of Islamic propagation. In addition, they also employed local graduates from Saudi universities to become their official preachers in spreading the teaching of Islam. Amongst the well-known preachers attached or employed by the Saudi Arabia Embassy Cultural Council in Malaysia at that time were, Abdullah Yassin, Zainal Abi- din, Hussin Yee and Sulaiman Nordin. Apart from preaching, through these preachers the Cultural Council subsequently acquired recommendations for new recruits amongst local students to be sent to Saudi Arabian universities for their higher education.45 Accordingly, a few Saudi-based and Saudi government-supported da’wah (propagation) organizations also actively engaged with the Islamic organizations in Malaysia.46 The World Association of Muslim Youths (wamy), Rabitah al-‘Alam al-Islami (also known as Rabitah) and others were amongst active bodies running Islamic propagation according to Saudi-Salafism doctrine either through the Islamic Council or by direct communication with Islamic organizations, especially abim in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Islamic Council, wamy and Rabitah were also actively involved in distribut- ing free translated and non-translated copies of al-Quran to mosques, organiz- ing free Hajj and Umrah trips for selected Islamic organizations’ and students’

42 See Mohd Rizal Yaakop & Asmady Idris, Wahabi Doctrine in Malaysia-Saudi Relations. 43 The Muslim Welfare Organisation Malaysia (perkim) is an ngo, which specifically fo- cuses on spreading Islamic da’wah among Muslim as well as non-Muslim communities in Malaysia and other countries. The former first Prime Minister of Malaysia, ytm Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra al-Hajj, founded it in 1960 in Kuala Lumpur with his close friends. perkim activities focus on three main areas; welfare, missionary and education particularly to new Muslim converts (See perkim Leaflet, 1: The Brochure of Muslim Welfare Or- ganisation Malaysia (perkim) (Kuala Lumpur: Affluent Master Sdn. Bhd. 2003) p. 3). 44 Nair, Shanti. Islam in Malaysian Foreign Policy. Vol. 10. (Routledge, 2013) p. 105. 45 Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin, 17 March 2014. 46 Asmady Idris, “Key Determining Factors Influencing Small States’ Relationships: a Case Study of Malaysia’s Relations with Saudi Arabia.” (2006): pp. 236–258.

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316 Malik leaders, disseminating literature related to the teaching of Saudi-Salafism as well as sponsoring Islamic and da’wah events across the country.47 The Islamic Council also acted as a reference point for any local students to pursue their studies in higher learning institutions in Saudi Arabia such as the Medina Islamic University, Ummul Qura University in Mecca and others.48 Due to this active role played by the Islamic Council, wamy and Rabitah, Ma- laysian revivalists who were open to the Salafi theology as mentioned earlier, especially, abim and other Islamic organizations, established a strong relation with them that led to the creation of many jointly organized events, publications and da’wah efforts between them.49 It should be noted too that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, still today continues to disburse enormous financial donations to a number of religious institutions, recruiting preachers as well as teachers and offering scholarships and places in Saudi Arabian universities to Malaysian students which has indirectly contributed towards the spread of Salafism da’wah in Malaysia.50 Similarly, the state of Perlis’ religious authority started to initiate its official relations with the Saudi Arabian embassy and its cultural office in Kuala Lumpur between 1992 and 1994 through its Pengarah (ceo) Majlis Agama Islam Perlis, Md Sadik Md Ismail. Accordingly, official communication was established between the state and the embassy, which enabled the state to secure scholarships for its students to study in Saudi Arabian universities, mainly in the Islamic University of Medina. In tandem, many Saudi preachers were given the opportunity to deliver lessons and talks in Perlis through this official con- nection.51 Other local preachers, such as Dr Abdullah Yassin and Ustaz Sofwan Badri, who work with the Islamic Council of Saudi Arabia in Kuala Lumpur also frequently give lessons and talks in Perlis.52 Consequently, this relation has led to the assimilation of Salafi da’wah into the Sunnah Perlis practice to

47 Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. 48 Personal communication with Dr Abdul Basit Abdul Rahman, former president of Malay- sian Students in the Islamic University of Madina, 17 March 2014. 49 Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin, 17 March 2014. 50 See Mohd Rizal Yaakop & Asmady Idris, Wahabi Doctrine in Malaysia-Saudi Relations. 51 However, according to Md Sadik, his personal relation with the embassy started in 1986–7 through the Islamic Councilor of the Saudi Arabia Cultural Office in Jalan U-Thant, Dr Abdul Rahman Ghannam, who was invited on a monthly basis to Perlis to deliver talks organized by al-Islah (personal communication with Md Sadik Md Ismail, 25 August 2014). 52 Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin and Safwan Badri, 17 March 2014.

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Salafism in Malaysia 317 some extent. However, despite this assimilation, the conversion of the whole Sunnah Perlis trend to Salafism has not yet been successful.53 The Salafiyah discourse emerged intensely amongst the Ikhwani-influenced activists especially in abim through the reading of Syed Qutb’s famous exege- sis, Fi Dhilal al-Quran (Under the Shade of al-Quran) and Fathi Yakan’s most popular book ‘Madha Ya’ni Intimai lil Islam’ (What’s the Meaning of my Af- filiation to Islam).54 Both books have been used widely in the organization’s internal discussions or study circles known as usrah (family). The Salafiyah of abim, however, refers to the purified version of Tawhid in their worldview, and is akin to the Salafiyah version of Afghani-Abduh, or the Ikhwani-Jamaati’s.55 In abim circles, Salafiyah theological approach towards the understanding of unification of Allah and His attributes through the three dimensional spectrum of Tawhid (Uluhiyyah, Rububiyyah and Asma wa Sifat) was widely taught.56 In addition, the close relation between abim and the Saudi’s World Assem- bly of Muslim Youths (wamy) in the 70’s has had its own significant impact on the influx of Salafiyyah-oriented literatures to Malaysia. Furthermore, through Anwar Ibrahim, the Indonesian wamy student activist in Saudi Arabia from Indonesia, Abdullah Yassin was employed by Yayasan Anda to help abim in educating its cadres and activists.57 He was later appointed by the Saudi Em- bassy in Kuala Lumpur as its preacher and was recognized by many as a person responsible for spreading the Salafiyah method to a mainly Kuala Lumpur middle class audience who attended his lectures and classes. Anwar Ibrahim, abim’s then president, was known as Abdullah’s acquaintance, and contributed to some extent to the spread of Salafiyah discourse during this period.58 However, Salafism was not abim’s only major discourse. abim managed to introduce other Islamic thoughts from various sources such as al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun, Naquib al-Attas, Ismail al-Faruqi, Ali Shariati, Malik Bennabi, Muhammad al-Ghazali, Yusuf al-Qaradawi and others, while continuing to

53 Personal communication with the Mufti of Perlis, Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, 29 July 2014. 54 Personal communication with Anwar Ibrahim, the second president of abim, 13 June 2014. 55 Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. 56 Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin, 17 March 2014. 57 Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin, 17 March 2014. 58 According to Anwar, during his meeting with the Mufti of Saudi Arabia in his visit to the Kingdom as the president of abim in mid-70s, the mufti recommended Abdullah should be taken back with him to Malaysia to be abim’s full-time preacher (personal communication with Anwar Ibrahim, the second president of abim, 13 June 2014).

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318 Malik maintain good relation with al-Mustashar al-thaqafi, wamy and Rabitah despite their non-Salafi approach.59 On the other hand, the uk graduates who were then known as the community of irc made their own significant contribution towards the spread of early Salafiyah thoughts, especially in theological issues. After been exposed to the doctrinal ideology of Arab al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun (Muslim Brotherhood) leaders and activists in exile, and the South Asian Jamaat Islami activists in the uk, irc community activists were trained with the Salafiyah doctrine of Tawhid was propagated by the two movements.60 This is due to the Salafiyah method of the al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun approach to theology, and the adoption of the Afghani-Abduh-Redha reform method in da’wah approach, which was clearly propagated by the founder of the movement itself, Hassan al-Banna (died 1948). As a student of Rashid Redha himself, Hasan al-Banna was strongly influenced by the Abduh-Redha Salafiyyah reform method in the movement he established.61 Upon the return of the irc activists to Malaysia, they contributed indirectly towards the enhancement of Salafiyah theological discourse through the publication of the series ‘Risalah Usrah’ (Usrah Manual), authored by Saari Sungib, also known then, by the pseudonym, Abu Urwah.62 In the first series titled Konsep-Konsep Umum Dalam Islam (General Principles of Islam), the author began with a discussion on ‘Aqidah Tauhid’ (Tawhid Belief) in which he asserted the importance of Tawhid in the Muslim’s life through the Salafiyyah method involving the three tenets of Tawhid. The series was widely used by irc activists and other Islamic groups in the local campuses and schools during the 1980’s and 1990’s, thus, indirectly contributed towards creating openness in its readers to accept a more serious Salafi doctrine from other sources.63 Akin

59 Personal communication with Siddiq Fadhil (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. 60 Personal communication with Mustafa Kadir, former spokesperson of irc, 12 February 2013. 61 Mandaville, Peter. Islam and Politics (Routledge, 2014) p. 76. 62 Abu Urwah or Saari Sungib, currently a state assemblyman for the Parti Islam se-Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Party). He penned the book while belonging to and leading a sec- tion of the Islamic student movement, ‘Islamic Representative Council’ (irc), which was established in the uk by Malaysian Muslim students during the 1970s. He wrote several books as manuals for the group’s inner circles (usrah) and named them Risalah Usrah (Usrah Manuals). The books were then printed by Pustaka Salam in Kuala Lumpur and were used by many revivalists as discussion material (Personal Communication with Saari Sungip, 3 July 2015). 63 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014.

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Salafism in Malaysia 319 to their abim brothers, the Salafiyah discourse emerged strongly amongst irc activists as their theological conviction and the way to understand Islamic text especially through Fathi Yakan’s popular book ‘Madha Ya’ni Intimai lil Islam’64 that was translated into Bahasa Melayu in their circles and discussions as part of the indoctrination and regimentation.65 Similarly, there were few Salafi-inclined groups or individuals who joined pas then at both national and grassroot level. The example of those who made their name Abdul Hadi Awang (the current president),66 Haron Taib (former chief of Dewan Ulama) and Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat, the former Menteri Besar (Chief Minister) of pas-ruled state, Kelantan. A Salafi preacher called Ustaz Latif in jb who was once heading the pas headquarter in jb,67 and other Saudi graduates who chosen to be supporters of pas in its political struggle. However, these groups and individuals however did not come with Salafism theological argument in supporting the legitimacy of their involvement with pas, and did not turn pas into a Salafi party. However, pas’ Haji Abdul Hadi Awang’s ‘Aqidah Muslim (Muslim’s Creed) also contributed to the spread of the theological argument of Salafism, especially due to its emphasis on the central idea of Tawhid within the framework of the ‘Salafiyah’.68

64 The translated version of this book by Alias Othman (see Fathi Yakan, Madha Ya’ni Intimai lil Islam (Apa Erti Saya Menganut Islam), trans. Alias Othman (Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Salam, 1989) was widely used by the revivalists in their usrah (circle) as an introductory material for regimentation (personal communication with Ariffin Hasan, former irc So- ciety leadership during the 80s, 27th December 2012). 65 The understanding of Tawhid according to the most prevailing discourse in Ikhwan makes reference to Ibn Taimiyyah’s classification of Tawhid into three categories (Tawhid Rubu- biyyah, Tawhid Uluhiyyah and Tawhid al-Asma wa al-Sifat) (personal communication with Alias Othman, translator of Fathi Yakan’s book, 25 December 2012). 66 Abdul Hadi Awang is currently the president of pas (Parti Islam se-Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Party)). He authored the book Aqidah Muslim, which is a compilation of a series of kuliah (lectures) which he had previously held on Aqidah. In the book, Abdul Hadi emphasizes the central idea of Tawhid within the framework of Salafiyyah three branches of Tawhid. (Abdul Hadi Awang. 1990. Mukadimah Aqidah Muslim. Kuala Lumpur: Pener- bitan GG Edar, 78–81). 67 Personal Communication with Hatta Selamat, former follower of Ustaz Latif in pas Johor Baharu, 16 September 2015 & Personal Communication with Rahmat Dasuki, former follower of Ustaz Latif in the 70s and early 80s, 16 September 2015. 68 Abdul Hadi Awang is currently the president of pas (Parti Islam se-Malaysia [Malaysian Islamic Party]). He authored the book Aqidah Muslim, which is a compilation of a series of kuliah (lectures) which he had previously held on Aqidah (Abdul Hadi Awang, Aqidah Mukmin (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan GG Edar, 1990) pp. 78–81).

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320 Malik

Accordingly Anwar Ibrahim’s involvement in the ruling party umno in the 1980s and 1990s pushed many of his abim comrades to become involved in the government sectors too, especially in the field of education. During his reign as Minister of Education from 1986 to 1991 until becoming Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia, many ex-abim cadres and other Islamists flooded the educational sector. Under the pretext of the Islamization project initiated by the government, led by Mahathir Mohammad, Islamists within the Ministry of Educa- tion managed to implement their Islamization of the educational system to some extent.69 Notably, they changed the way Islam was taught in schools, in- troducing it as a way of life, a source of knowledge and a civilization, instead of the traditionalistic approach that only views it from its theological, ritual and legalistic points of view.70 The redefinition of Islamic creed according to the Salafiyah approach that emphasizes more on the issue of Tawhid and a broader way of viewing ‘Ibadat (submission to Allah) beyond the parameter of rituals were major themes in the textbooks of Islamic subject then.71 This paradigm-shift prepared the younger generation of Malaysian Muslims to be more acceptable and open to some theological issues from the Salafiyah point of view.72 Notably the International Islamic University of Malaysia (iium), which was established on 23 May 1983 has an indirect mild impact to the discourse of Salafism in Malaysia, especially in the theological issues. Since the early years of the establishment of the university, numerous numbers of major leaders and activists of wamy and abim became its professors, lecturers and students in the 1980s. The close relation between wamy and iium has resulted to make iium a major Muslim intellectual institution that is relatively tied to significant elements of Salafism discourse, especially in its theological realm. This has also contributed towards shaping the Islamization project during Anwar Ibrahim’s period as Minister of Education within which the developments described earlier. The cosmopolitan nature of the faculty and student body was (and is) important in shaping Islamic Studies and Muslim activism, which amongst others including Salafism discourse in the country.73

69 Personal communication with Siddiq Fadhil (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. 70 Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty, former President of abim, 1 June 2013. 71 Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty, former President of abim, 1 June 2013. 72 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. 73 Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty, former President of abim, 1 June 2013.

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Salafism in Malaysia 321

Global Salafism: The Middle Eastern and Western Countries Graduates Factor

Despite the emergence of the early Salafiyah doctrine incepted by various par- ties in early 20th century Malaya, they do not, however, represent the actual impact of the current global Salafiyah phenomenon.74 The emergence of Salaf- ism as a trend in Malaysia was the result of ‘post-revivalism Salafism’. In general, it was graduates returning from overseas who brought back with them the Salafi ideology they had adopted during their time abroad. In this sense, those who returned from Saudi Arabian universities75 played an important role in reinstating the Salafist discourse in the community, especially in the ’80s and ’90s. Amongst the famous Salafi-inclined preachers from this cohort are Ra- sul Dahri, Ismail Omar, Sulaiman Nordin, Johari Mat, Hussein Yee, and many more. Likewise, the Salafi doctrine was brought back to Malaysia through graduates from other Middle Eastern countries including Jordan,76 Morrocco,77 and Egypt,78 as well as from Pakistan. From the latter they were mostly graduates from the famous Salafi university, Jamiyah Abu Bakar, in Karachi.79 According to Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, current Mufti of Perlis, and himself a Jordanian graduate, the influence of Salafism towards some, although not all, Jordanian graduates was due to various factors. Amongst them is the very dynamic and open syllabus taught in Jordanian universities catering for all Is- lamic schools of thought. Similarly, the existence of many Salafi adherents in Jordan who propagate their doctrine through bookshops, classes in mosques, sermons, cassettes and leaflets helped to nurture Salafism among the students. However, perhaps most importantly, the presence of Nasiruddin al-Albani, in Jordan had its own significant impact, specifically through his students who were responsible for spreading Salafism through their hadith classes and

74 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. 75 For example: Madinah Islamic University, Umm al-Qura University in Makkah, King Abdul Aziz University, Jeddah and al-Imam University, Riyadh. 76 Personal communication with Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, the Mufti of Perlis, 2 August 2013. 77 Personal communication with Muhammad Faisal Khamis, a Morrocan Graduate. 4 Sep- tember 2013. 78 Juanda Jaya, Former Mufti of Perlis and Egyptian al-Azhar University Graduate, personal communication, 28 July 2014. 79 Personal communication with Ustaz Razali Tahir, both a Meccan and a Pakistani Jami- yyah Abu Bakar graduate. Currently the principal of Institut Tahfiz al-Quran al-Mizan, Bukit Besi, Terengganu on the 3 August 2013.

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322 Malik lessons in mosques. The popular Salafi trend was also prevalent in some prominent al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun scholars’ thoughts,80 who referred to the Salafis in many of their theological and da’wah issues.81 The same trend can also be traced back to some European, American and Australian universities graduates, although it was mostly dominant in those who graduated from the uk,82 many of whom were inspired basically by the aggressive Salafi da’wah in the 90’s, mostly by the Kuwaiti-based Ihya Turath association operating in London, and by other al-Albani followers running their da’wah mission in university mosques across the uk.83 Essentially, a significant number of uk graduates who adhered to Salafism in those periods were inspired by the talks of many eloquent Salafi speakers and preachers.84 Simi- larly, us graduates were mainly exposed to Salafi da’wah due to their personal involvement with Salafi groups within their localities. As early as the 80s, a few us graduates who returned to Malaysia started to practise their Salafi way of ritual implementation and began attracting the attention of others. These graduates have started communicating with local Salafi preachers and becoming their students, followers and later became activists of Salafi-inclined organizations established by the preachers.85 In the case of Australia on the other hand, the early 80s saw the emergence of early Salafi-influenced individuals. Amongst those were the famous former academic Salafi preacher, Dr Sulaiman

80 Figures such as Dr Omar Sulayman al-Ashqar, Dr Hammam Said, Dr Abdul Qadir Abu Faris, Dr Salah Abdul Fattah al-Khalidi and many others are included in this category (personal communication with Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, the Mufti of Perlis, 2 August 2013). 81 Personal communication with Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, the Mufti of Perlis, 2 August 2013. 82 Personal communication with Ezam Ariffin, an ex-Ihya Turath worker and an activist in London, a Malaysian graduate from Newcastle University during the 90s, 5 August 2013. 83 Personal communication with Ezam Ariffin, an ex-Ihya Turath worker and an activist in London, a Malaysian graduate from Newcastle University during the 90s, 5 August 2013. 84 Such as Sheikh Suhayb Hassan, Nasiruldin al-Albani’s student while he was studying in Madinah, his son, Sheikh Usama Hassan, then, the former Cambridge Islamic Soci- ety President, us-based Sheikh Ali Tamimi and Abu Muntaser (Manwar Ali) all of whom belong to the organization called Jamiyyat Ihya Minhaj as Sunnah, “The Society for the Revival of the Prophetic Way” (jimas) and also a few other Kuwaiti-based Jamiyyat Ihya Turath preachers such as Sheikh Adnan Arur, Sheikh Abdullah al-Sabt and Syeikh Abdullah al-Farsi, in the same period. (See Hamid, Sadek. “The Development of British Salafism.” Isim Review 21 (2008): p. 2). 85 Personal communication with Dr Azman Husein, former misg president, 17 February 2014.

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Salafism in Malaysia 323

Nordin, and the owner of a Salafi-oriented school, ‘Kiblah school’, Ustaz Ismail Omar, who both later went to Saudi Arabia to pursue their religious studies.86 It is understood that most of those who graduated from universities in western countries graduates who affiliated themselves to the Salafi doctrine, picked up Salafism during their stay in those countries either from Salafi preachers in their local mosques or Islamic centres, or from peers they met at the universities’ Islamic societies, while some were exposed to Salafism through the internet and their own readings.87 These graduates who were heavily influenced by the Salafi doctrine, movements and da’wah in those countries were a crucial contributing factor to the emergence of this new trend in Malaysia within the circle of Malay Muslim elites and professionals in Malaysia.88 It is important to note that these groups and individuals did not necessarily share the same thoughts and tendencies in regards to spreading their beliefs and views.

Salafism in Malaysia and the Internet Factor

Another substantive contribution to the spread of Salafi ideology in Malay- sia was the introduction of the internet and the widespread use of informa- tion technology, which both symbolize the fruits of globalization.89 Amongst the consequences of the global internet revolution for the Malaysian Muslim community is the spread of open religious debates in the public sphere. Reli- gious discourses that once resided only in seminaries, classes or circles have migrated to virtual forums in the form of chat rooms, websites, mailing groups, blogs and, recently, Facebook. This has given birth to a new phenomenon in the discourse of religion within Muslim communities in Malaysia. Through the available, abundant sources of Salafi aqidah material on the Internet, some Muslims began to emulate what they perceived as the genuine teaching of the Salafi theology. This situation has led to the emergence of a new trend of global Saudi-oriented and al-Albani-oriented Salafism that tries to prove its existence as the bastion of the true and pristine teaching of Islam in Malaysia.90

86 Personal communication with Ismail Omar, 22 September 2015. 87 Personal communication with Ezam Ariffin, an ex-Ihya Turath worker and an activist in London, a Malaysian graduate from Newcastle university during the 90s, 5 August 2013. 88 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. 89 Muhamad Faisal Ashaari, “Aliran Pemikiran Salafi Di Malaysia: Sorotan Terhadap Peranan Internet Dalam Dunia Siber”, pp. 35–49. 90 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: p. 61.

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Consequently, in the 2000’s, internet forum pages became a fertile discussion ground for users to exchange Islamic thoughts, with most of the postings dealing with predominantly Salafi thoughts on ‘aqidah (creed), fiqh (legal rulings) and hadith (prophetic traditions) in contrast to the mainstream Islam propagated by the authority which was seen by many educated Mus- lims as rigid, close-minded and indoctrination-based. Salafi thoughts, which in many cases are grounded on evidence, facts and arguments instead of blindly-followed dogmas and unquestionable indoctrinations, appeals to many educated Internet users who were mainly urban university and college graduates. A handful of notable websites famously propagated Salafism during this period, contributing to the spreading of Salafi teachings directly and indirectly to mainly college students, young middle class graduates as well as educated circles. Amongst those websites were: al-Ahkam.net, al-qayyim.net, e-hadith .info, alFikrah.net, al-firdaus.com, al-nidaa.com. al-wahidah.com, Darulkautsar .com and Indonesian salafy.or.id.91 However, Al-Ahkam website was observed to be the most popular due to its openness and relative tendency towards selective Salafi discourse.92 It was a continuation of previous Islamic chat rooms of the same name that became popular during the late 90s. Due to the advancement of technology, the found- ers felt the need to open it to a larger audience, hence, the establishment of the web portal with its special forum site for discussion. The administrators agree that they are not inclined exclusively to Salafism, but have a more open attitude towards all forms of Islamic discourse, which they term ‘manhaj fiqh al-muqaran’ (legal comparative method) unlike the method adopted by the traditionalists.93 It was based on this open attitude that they allowed Salafi discourse to dominate the discussions on the page’s forum. It is also important to note that Al-Ahkam webpage has managed to produce groups of religious experts amongst the non-religious background professionals. The method adopted by the website has attracted many professionals and young educated religious executives to become experts in religious issues and consequently labelled ‘protaz’, a synchronism of ‘Professional ustaz’.94

91 Muhamad Faisal Ashaari, “Aliran Pemikiran Salafi Di Malaysia: Sorotan Terhadap Peranan Internet Dalam Dunia Siber”, pp. 35–49. 92 Personal communication with Tuan Hasan Tuan Lah, former Al-Ahkam website modera- tor, 18 July 2014. 93 Personal communication with Khairol Amin Mohd Saleh (Kamin), former Al-Ahkam website administrator, 18 July 2014. 94 Maheram Ahmad, Napisah Karimah Ismail, and Rabitah Mohamad Ghazali. “Ulama dan Kemunculan Profesional Ustaz (protaz): Satu Analisis”, 253–260.

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Similarly, the emergence of Islamic publications during the late 90s and early 2000s has also contributed significantly to the enhancement of the Salafi discourse amongst educated Malaysian Muslims. The publisher, Jahabersa, is seen as the pioneer of mass publication of Salafi literature of this age, profusely publishing works by prominent Malaysian Salafi-inclined figures such as Ra- sul Dahri, Hafiz Firdaus, Mohd Yaakub Mohd Yunus, Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, along with other translated books of international Salafi scholars such as Ibn Uthaymin, Ben Baz, Salih Fawzan, Al-Albani and others. The publication of the books however was for mere business purposes due to the demand, and was not an intentional form of Salafi propaganda machine. This could be seen in the titles published, which comprise all sorts of thoughts, including those of non-Salafis: Tablighi, Ikhwani, anti-Salafi, as well as mainstream traditionalists. However, undoubtedly, literatures related to Salafism produced by Jahabersa have indirectly helped the Salafi activists to enrich their literature collection in Bahasa Melayu.95 Amidst the internet revolution that has caused the spread of Salafi da’wah in Malaysia to proliferate, a young Jordanian graduate in the early 2000s created an impact on the Malaysian da’wah scene. Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, who was then a doctorate student in International Islamic University Malaysia, became a favourite speaker amongst the younger generation of Malay Muslims in particular, due to his series of debates with a controversial liberal figure, Astora Jabat, in 2004. The post-Astora-Asri debate made him known to the public, and eventually elevated him to the position of Mufti for the state of Perlis from 2006 to 2008, and again in 2015. Asrism, as coined by Maszlee Malik, had a great impact on the younger generation embracing the more popular media-savvy Salafi da’wah.96 However, unlike other Salafi preachers, Asri was not in essence a Salafi-oriented scholar, and was seen in many of his writings and speeches to quote other non-Salafi thinkers such as al-Qaradawi, Syed Qutb, Hasan al- Banna, Abu Hasan al-Nadawi and al-Maududi.97 However, those who subscribe to this doctrine vary in their approaches, with some being more moderate in their dealings with ‘others’. Some groups that are associated with this moderate form of Salafism such as Pertubuhan Kebajikan al-Nidaa (al-Nidaa), al-Khadeem, al-Tibyan, al-Qayyim, al-Islah of Perlis are very cautious in spreading their da’wah (propaganda), and are often

95 Personal communication with Hamizan Husin, Editor of Jahabersa Publication, 18 Febru- ary 2012. 96 Maszlee Malik, “Fenomena Asrisme dan Hizbuttahrir di ipt”, Majalah Milenia Muslim. Mac. (Kuala Lumpur: yadim, 2006): pp. 56–59. 97 Personal communication with Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, 30 March 2015.

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326 Malik primarily known for their active charity works and religious classes. Several of these organizations that are based in cities and towns, namely Pertubuhan Kebajikan al-Nidaa (al-Nidaa), al-Khadeem, and Pertubuhan al-Qayyim have managed to attract graduates of western countries’ universities with Salafi inclination to participate in their missionary works.98 Furthermore, many of these organizations’ activists are mainly the educated, English-speaking and professional, urban Malaysian Muslims.99 The Salafi activists of these organizations were often known for their moderate and non-aggressive approach in practising their belief and promoting it to others. They were also known for their less confrontational and much friendlier approach in comparison to other conservative Salafi individuals and groups. In contrast, the radical Salafi groups that mostly subscribe to the ‘Madkhali’ version of Salafism took a different path by launching ferocious attacks on ‘others’ (mainly the traditionalist, Sufis and religious authorities), whom they labelled Ahl Bid’a (innovators). According to Rasul Dahri, Sulaiman Nordin, Fathul Bari, Fadhlan Othman, and their ilmu associates,100 the embracing of genuine Salafi teaching implies the rejection of non-Salafi teachings of Islam. At this juncture, the revivalists’ approach that combines the Salafi doctrine and movement-oriented thoughts and the moderate Salafists had been viewed by these radicals as an adulterated and a non-authentic approach to the original Salafism.101 In the meantime, as a reaction towards the rise of Salafism, the mainstream traditionalists began to gain their momentum by retaliating towards the new rising trend amongst Muslims in Malaysia, whom they labelled ‘heretics’ (Aja- ran sesat).102 This reawakening of the traditionalists can be seen in various activities and events organized by the traditionalists and Sufis with the aim of re-propagating Ashaarite theology and Sufi rituals such as Mawlid, Burdah, Salawat, dhikr etc.103 By working with the established religious authorities in many Malaysian states, these groups were able to influence the officials in banning Salafism or what they coined ‘Wahabism’ from all spectrums of the

98 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. 99 Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. 100 See Osman, Mohamed Nawab Mohamed. “Salafi Ulama in umno: political convergence or expediency?” Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Af- fairs 36, no. 2 (2014): pp. 206–231. 101 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: p. 60. 102 Nor Hafizi Yusof, “Salafi Wahabi”. 103 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: p. 63.

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Malaysian society, and thus placed these groups into the same category as other deviant groups. As for the establishment, the state authorities responded in different ways to the issue of Salafism, depending on a stronger influence the traditionalists managed to gain in different Malaysian states. As for the federal religious territory, they were seen as taking a more neutral stance on the Salafi method of ‘aqidah, and consider them simply as another facet of Ahl al- Sunnah wal Jamaah’s.104 The worst aspect of this debate is that some sections of the radical traditionalists are actively infiltrating the security forces in order to take further action against the ‘Wahhabis’ who according to them are poten- tial terrorists who will bring chaos to the community.105

Conclusion

Salafism that emerged in the nineteenth century has persisted to this day and has spread throughout many parts of the Muslim world, thus becoming a global phenomenon due to certain controversial incidents and events related to it. Salafis describe themselves as strongly adhering to the principle that Al-Quran and As-Sunnah are the only references for Muslims with very limited reference afforded to reasoning and rationality. Furthermore, they also believe that their way is “the only true method of understanding and practising Islam”. Mean- while, ‘Wahhabism’, another facet of Salafism, is currently a dominant ideology in Saudi Arabia which is currently spreading to various parts of the world including Malaysia. This paper is but another attempt to discover the account of the emergence of both Salafism and Wahhabism in Malaysia from the pre- independent Malaya until today. Unlike other research that dealt with the issue of Salafism in Malaysia, fo- cussing predominantly either only on the terrorist aspect of the Salafiyah Ji- hadiyah or Jamaah Islamiyah (ji) or the earlier reformist Salafism of the early 20th century known as Kaum Muda, or the Sunnah movement in the state of Perlis, this paper has introduced another dimension on the emergence of Salafi

104 jakim or Jabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia (the federal religious territory) of the Malaysian government issued a conclusion in their ‘Panel Kajian Aqidah’ (Aqidah Re- search Panel) stating that Salafism is just another method of Ahl al-Sunnah theology (jakim (2000). This was asserted by the jakim research officer, Mohd Aizam Mas’od in his article in jakim journal (Jurnal Penyelidikan Islam) in 2006, in which the author mentioned that Salafism is not a deviant group, but is instead part of the mainstream aqidah. (Mohd Aizam Mas’od, “Isu Wahabiyyah: Menangganinya Secara Realiti”. Jurnal Penyelidi- kan Islam, (Kuala Lumpur: jakim, 2006) pp. 101–14.). 105 Maszlee Malik, “Theology in Malaysia: Between Mainstream and the Periphery”: p. 64.

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328 Malik theology in Malaysia by looking at the bigger picture. By making a distinction between the two terms that are often interchangeably used to describe two different but similar thoughts, Salafism and Wahhabism, the author discov- ered that the emergence of current Salafi trend in Malaysia can be divided into three major phases: the early 20th century reformist era; the Islamic revivalism period; and the internet and globalization period. Based on a plethora of historical evidences on certain events and motivations, this paper has highlighted what previous studies have ignored, which is the contribution of the Islamic revivalism years between the 1970s and 1980s that prepared a fertile ground for the global Salafi trend to emerge later on. Furthermore, much research on the topic of Salafism in Malaysia tends to associate Kaum Muda and the Sunnah of Perlis with the 20th century phenomenon of global Salafism as a trend in Malaysia by referring to the legacy of graduates from Saudi Arabian universities, and the active involvement of certain agencies and institutions related directly or indirectly with Saudi Arabia. This research has proven that the contributors to the emergence of the recent Salafi trend in Malaysia were not only confined to those Saudi graduates, but was also immensely influenced by graduates from universities in other Middle Eastern countries, mainly Jordan, Egypt, Morocco, Yemen and Pakistan. Ad- ditionally, one must not also ignore the fact that there was also a substantial involvement of certain graduates from universities in the uk, us and other western countries in the spread of Salafi thoughts and theology in Malaysia.

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Interviews

Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin, 17 March 2014. Personal communication with Abdullah Yasin and Safwan Badri, 17 March 2014. Personal communication with Alias Othman, 26 December 2012. Personal communication with Anwar Ibrahim, the second president of abim, 13 June 2014. Personal communication with Dr Abdul Basit Abdul Rahman, former president of Malaysian Students in the Islamic University of Madina, 17 March 2014. Personal communication with Dr Azman Husein, former misg president, 17 February 2014. Personal communication with Ezam Ariffin, an ex-Ihya Turath worker and an activist in London, a Malaysian graduate from Newcastle University during the 90s, 5 August 2013. Personal communication with Hamizan Husin, Editor of Jahabersa Publication, 18 February 2012. Personal communication with Ismail Omar, 22 September 2015. Personal communication with Khairol Amin Mohd Saleh (Kamin), former Al-Ahkam website administrator, 18 July 2014. Personal communication with Md Sadik Md Ismail, 25 August 2014. Personal communication with the Mufti of Perlis, Mohd Asri Zainul Abidin, 29 July 2014. Personal communication with Muhammad Faisal Khamis, a Morrocan Graduate. 4 September 2013. Personal communication with Muhammad Nur Manuty (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. Personal communication with Mustafa Kadir, former spokesperson of irc, 12 February 2013.

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Personal communication with Rashid Idris, former president of Pertubuhan al-Qayim Malaysia, 17 March 2014. Personal Communication with Saari Sungip, 3 July 2015. Personal communication with Siddiq Fadhil (Former president of abim), 1 June 2013. Personal communication with Tuan Hasan Tuan Lah, former Al-Ahkam website mod- erator, 18 July 2014.

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