Foraminiferal Assemblages of Cretan Beaches (Greece) - Proxy for Tsunami Deposits?

Home , Globigerina bulloides, Gramvousa Peninsula, Lentas, Neoconorbina, Peneroplis, Rotaliida

Foraminiferal assemblages of Cretan beaches (Greece) - proxy for tsunami deposits?

From the Faculty Georesource and Materials Engineering of the

RWTH Aachen University

Submitted by

Thu Anh Vu, M.Sc.

from Hanoi, Vietnam

in respect of the academic degree of

Doctor of Natural Sciences

approved thesis

Advisors: Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Klaus Reicherter

Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Andreas Vött

Date of the oral examination: 22.12.2020

This thesis is available in electronic format on the university library´s website

50000 Fax: 0241-80-92370 Fakultät für Georessourcen und Materialtechnik Email: [email protected] S. Frenzel-Gumlich Intzestr.1 52062 Aachen

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Abstract

Foraminiferal assemblages and sediment characteristics on Crete island are examined by quantitative analysis multivariate techniques on drill core and beach sand samples along Crete´s coastal zones. This research aims to reconstruct the environment, bathymetry of recent foraminifera, and sediment composition and determine the relationship between foraminifera distribution and grain size. The methods applied include diversity statistics, cluster analysis (Q and R modes), and PCA (Principal Component Analysis). The species diversity or biodiversity is measured using species richness, the Fisher - α index, Simpson index, Shannon-Wiener index, and the percentage of species dominance. The P/R ratio (the portions of planktic foraminifera in the total foraminifera assemblages) is also used to calculate the bathymetry.

In the western area, results of microfossil analysis show a total of 14 common species from a total of 66 species, which are divided into four clusters corresponding to four groups using R and Q modes, respectively: (Ia) Peneroplis pertusus; (Ib) Cibicides pseudolobatulus; (II) Ammonia beccarii; (III) Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber. The P/R ratio and PCA result reveals the inner shelf species´ appearance in cluster I and II, the inner to middle shelf of species in cluster II; and outer shelf to upper bathyal species in cluster III.

In the southern area, four clusters are defined from cluster analysis results: (IV) Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii; (V) Amphistegina lobifera; (III) Globigerinoides ruber; (VI) Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii. The P/R ratio and PCA results of cluster III indicates species belong to the outer shelf to upper bathyal and semi-pelagic to eupelagic environment while in clusters IV, V and VI present species from the inner shelf environment.

In the eastern area four clusters can be distinguished: (Ia) Peneroplis pertusus; (V) Amphistegina lobifera; (VII) Globigerinoides ruber; (VIII) Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia beccarii - Elphidium crispum. The P/B ratio in cluster I indicates species from the inner shelf to upper bathyal areas, whereas the P/R ratio and PCA of cluster VIII and V and Ia present the inner shelf environment.

Finally, seven dominant foraminifera assemblages are defined in the whole study area: Amphistegina lobifera; Peneroplis pertusus; Globigerina bulloides; Globigerinoides ruber; Ammonia beccarii; Elphidium crispum and Cibicides pseudolobatulus. Foraminifera analysis results reveal a high percentage of Globigerinoides ruber and Globigerina bulloides in the inner shelf of the environment´s sediment and the core samples. These species are not well preserved and reworked. PCA, CCA, and cluster analysis show the uncorrelated relationship between coastal species and outer bathyal to bathyal species in their specific. These species work as a proxy for transport from the outer shelf bathyal zone to the coastal area during tsunamis or extreme wave events.

The correlation of the most abundant species and specific sediment fractions from all three areas indicates that sediment grain size is the primary factor determining species distribution. In each subarea, a correlation of most species in particular or the most abundant species with one or more sediment fractions is shown by bivariate and multivariate applications. The correlation e

between sediment components and foraminiferal assemblages by applying quantitative analysis shows a relationship between the foraminifera and sediment composition of the Cretan coastal area, supporting provenance analysis of beach sediments.

Kurzfassung

Die Zusammensetzungen von Foraminiferen-Vergesellschaftungen und Sedimenten auf der Insel Kreta wurden mit multivariaten Techniken an Bohrkern- und Strandsandproben entlang der Küstenzonen Kretas untersucht. Forschungsziele sind die Rekonstruktion der Umweltbedingungen, der Bathymetrie rezenter Foraminiferen und der Sedimentzusammensetzung sowie die Untersuchung der Beziehung zwischen Foraminiferenverteilung und Korngröße. Zu den angewandten Methoden gehören Diversitätsstatistik, Clusteranalyse (Q- und R-Modus) und PCA (Principal Component Analysis). Die Artenvielfalt oder Biodiversität wird anhand des Artenreichtums, des Fisher - α Index, des Simpson-Index, des Shannon-Wiener-Index und des Prozentsatzes der Dominanz der Arten gemessen. Das P/R-Verhältnis (der prozentuale Anteil der planktischen Foraminiferen im Vergleich zu den gesamten Foraminiferen-Vergesellschaftungen) wird ebenfalls zur Berechnung der Bathymetrie verwendet.

Im westlichen Gebiet zeigen die Ergebnisse der Mikrofossilanalyse insgesamt 14 häufige Arten von insgesamt 66 Arten, die in vier Cluster unterteilt sind, die vier Gruppen entsprechen, die den R- bzw. Q-Modus verwenden: (Ia) Peneroplis pertusus; (Ib) Cibicides pseudolobatulus; (II) Ammonia beccarii; (III) Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber. Das Ergebnis des P/R- Verhältnisses und der PCA zeigt das Auftreten der Arten des inneren Schelfs in Cluster I und II, des inneren bis mittleren Schelfs der Arten in Cluster II und des äußeren Schelfs und des oberen Bathyals in Cluster III.

Im südlichen Bereich werden aus den Ergebnissen der Analyse vier Cluster definiert: (IV) Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii; (V) Amphistegina lobifera; (III) Globigerinoides ruber; (VI) Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii. Das P/R-Verhältnis und die PCA-Ergebnisse von Cluster III weisen darauf hin, dass die Arten vom äußeren Schelf, zum oberen bathyalen und semi-pelagischen bis eupelagischen Milieu gehören. Während in den Clustern IV, V und VI Arten vorwiegend im inneren Schelf vorkommen.

Im östlichen Bereich lassen sich vier Cluster unterscheiden: (Ia) Peneroplis pertusus; (V) Amphistegina lobifera; (VII) Globigerinoides ruber; (VIII) Amphistegina lobifera - Ammoniak beccarii - Elphidium crispum. Das P/B-Verhältnis in Cluster I zeigt Arten vom inneren Schelf bis zum oberen Bathyal an, während das P/R-Verhältnis und die PCA der Cluster VIII und V und Ia die Umgebung des inneren Schelfes darstellen.

Schließlich werden sieben dominante Foraminiferen-Assemblagen im gesamten Untersuchungsgebiet definiert: Amphistegina lobifera; Peneroplis pertusus; Globigerina bulloides; Globigerinoides ruber; Ammonia beccarii; Elphidium crispum und Cibicides pseudolobatulus. Die Ergebnisse der Foraminiferenanalyse zeigen einen hohen Prozentsatz von Globigerinoides ruber und Globigerina bulloides im Sediment des inneren Schelfmilieus und in den Kernproben. Diese Arten sind meist nicht gut erhalten und aufgearbeitet. Die Ergebnisse von PCA, CCA und Clusteranalyse zeigen eine nicht korrelierende Beziehung zwischen Küstenarten und Arten des äußeren bathyalen Bereichs. Diese Arten können als Proxy für den Transport von der bathyalen Zone des äußeren Schelfs zur Küstenzone während Tsunamis oder extremen Wellenereignissen. g

Die Korrelation der am häufigsten vorkommenden Arten und spezifischen Sedimentfraktionen von allen Probennahmegebieten der drei Regionen zeigt, dass die Sedimentkorngröße der primäre Faktor ist, der die Verteilung der Arten bestimmt. In jedem Untergebiet wird durch bivariate und multivariate Analyse eine Korrelation der meisten Arten oder der häufigsten Arten mit einer oder mehreren Sedimentfraktionen gezeigt. Die Korrelation zwischen Sedimentkomponenten und Foraminiferen-Vergesellschaftungen durch Anwendung quantitativer Analysen zeigt eine deutliche Beziehung im Bereich des kretischen Küstengebiets, unterstützt durch eine Herkunftsanalyse der Strandsedimente.

Contents

Abstract ...... e

Kurzfassung ...... g

Contents ...... i

List of Figures ...... iv

List of Tables ...... vii

Foreword ...... viii

Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Foraminifera overview and foraminifera of the Mediterranean Sea ...... 1 1.1.1 The general characteristics of foraminifera ...... 1 1.1.2 Foraminifera research in the Mediterranean Sea ...... 5 1.2 Foraminifera and paleotsunami events ...... 8 1.2.1 Microfossils and coastal environment ...... 8 1.2.2 Foraminifera and paleotsunamis ...... 8 1.3 Geological summary and tsunami history of Crete ...... 14 1.3.1 Geological summary ...... 14 1.3.2 Water circulation, wave and wind directions in the Cretan Sea ...... 17 1.3.3 History of tsunami activities ...... 19 Chapter 2: Material and methods ...... 22 2.1 Materials ...... 22 2.2 Methods ...... 23 2.2.1 Foraminifera ...... 23 2.2.2 Grain size and composition analysis ...... 29 Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores ...... 35 3.1 Abstract ...... 35 3.2 Introduction...... 35 3.2.1 Western Crete - an overview ...... 37 3.2.2 Beach deposits in the study area ...... 39 3.2.3 Evidence of tsunami layers from previous investigations ...... 40 3.3 Material and methods ...... 41 3.4 Results ...... 43 3.4.1 The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal fauna ...... 43

Contents

3.4.2 The diversity of foraminifera assemblages ...... 43 3.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis ...... 45 3.5 Analysis of the environment ...... 48 3.6 Discussion ...... 54 3.7 Conclusions ...... 55 Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete ...... 59 4.1 Abstract ...... 59 4.2 Introduction ...... 59 4.2.1 The aim of the study ...... 59 4.2.2 The regional setting ...... 60 4.2.3 History of tectonic activity in the central south of Crete ...... 61 4.2.4 Main beach deposits in the study area...... 62 4.3. Material and methods ...... 64 4.4. Results ...... 64 4.4.1 The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal assemblages ...... 64 4.4.2 The diversity indices of foraminiferal assemblages ...... 64 4.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis ...... 66 4.4.4 Paleoenvironment analysis ...... 70 4.5 Discussion ...... 74 4.6. Conclusions ...... 75 Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete ...... 76 5.1 Abstract ...... 76 5.2 Introduction ...... 76 5.3 Material and methods ...... 78 5.4. Results ...... 78 5.4.1. The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal assemblages ...... 78 5.4.2. The diversity indices of foraminifera species ...... 78 5.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis ...... 80 5.4.4 Paleoenvironmental analysis and paleobathymetric assessment ...... 82 5.5 Discussion ...... 87 5.6 Conclusions ...... 87 Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete ...... 89 6.1 Abstract ...... 89

Contents

6.2. Introduction ...... 89 6.3 Material and methods ...... 91 6.4. Results ...... 92 6.4.1 Characteristic of foraminifera ...... 92 6.4.2. Characteristics of sediment deposit ...... 99 6.4.3 The correlation between foraminifera and grain size ...... 103 6.5. Discussions ...... 108 6.6. Conclusion...... 109 Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions ...... 111 7.1 Foraminifera ...... 111 7.1.1 The western part ...... 114 7.1.2 The southern part ...... 114 7.1.3 The eastern part ...... 115 7.1.4 Outlook ...... 118 7.2 Grain size analysis ...... 118 7.2.1 Textural analysis ...... 118 7.2.2 Composition analysis ...... 119 7.2.3. Correlation between foraminifera and grain size analysis ...... 119 7.2.4 Outlook ...... 120 Chapter 8: References ...... 121

Chapter 9: Acknowledgements ...... 143

APPENDIX ...... 144 APPENDIX A: SAMPLE SITES ...... 145 APPENDIX B: SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS ...... 153 APPENDIX C: MICRO - HABITAT OF SPECIES ...... 160 APPENDIX D: GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS ...... 170 APPENDIX E: PLATES ...... 177 APPENDIX F: FORAMINIFERA ANALYSIS ...... 183

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List of Figures List of Figures

Chapter 1 Fig. 1.1: Foraminifera suborders and their relationships ...... 1 Fig. 1.2: The characteristic of planktic and benthic foraminifera ...... 2 Fig. 1.3: A generalized map of the marginal, coastal, marine environment with some species ... 3 Fig. 1.4: Wall types of foraminifera ...... 4 Fig. 1.5: Basic patterns of chamber arrangement in foraminifera ...... 4 Fig. 1.6: Index of oceans, diversity of foraminifera ...... 5 Fig. 1.7: The number of modern benthic foraminifera species present in the Mediterranean Sea ...... 6 Fig. 1.8: Biogeographical distribution of some species in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea ...... 7 Fig. 1.9: Different causes of tsunami waves ...... 9 Fig. 1.10: Schematic illustration of a principal pathway of tsunami sediment transport ...... 9 Fig. 1.11: Comparison of deposition by the tsunami (A) and coastal storm (B) ...... 11 Fig. 1.12: Generalized cross-section of a coastline indicate habitat and life of microfossils ...... 12 Fig. 1.13: Distribution of microfossils from transects across the full environmenta ...... 13 Fig. 1.14: The terrane map of the Hellenides ...... 15 Fig. 1.15: The geological map of Crete ...... 17 Fig. 1.16: Overview of the tsunami history on Crete and surroundings ...... 19 Fig. 1.17: The tsunamigenic zones of the Mediterranean Sea ...... 20

Chapter 2 Fig. 2.1: Sample locations in the study area ...... 22 Fig. 2.2: Fisher alpha index ...... 25 Fig. 2.3: Index of oceans ...... 26 Fig. 2.4: Ternary diagram of wall structure...... 26 Fig. 2.5: Placement of agglutinate, hyaline and porcelanid foraminifera in the ternary diagram 26 Fig. 2.6: Simplified two-variable example conceptually ...... 27 Fig. 2.7: Simplified two-variable example conceptually the process involved in PCA ...... 28 Fig. 2.8: Concept of Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) ...... 28 Fig. 2.9: Types of skewness ...... 31 Fig. 2.10: The measure of asymmetry (skewness) ...... 31 Fig. 2.11: General forms of kurtosis ...... 33 Fig. 2.12: The CM diagram of grain size analysis ...... 34 iv

List of Figures

Chapter 3 Fig. 3.1: Map of the study area and sampling sites ...... 36 Fig. 3.2: Percentage of dominant species in all samples of western Crete ...... 44 Fig. 3.3: Diversity indices ...... 45 Fig. 3.4: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of species (R-mode) ...... 46 Fig. 3.5: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters ...... 47 Fig. 3.6: Ternary plot of foraminifera suborder of samples and triplot ...... 48 Fig. 3.7: Paleobathymetry estimation based on the P/B ratio ...... 49 Fig. 3.8: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) ...... 52 Fig. 3.9: Summary of the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics ...... 54 Fig. 3.10: The drill cores of PHA3 (left) and KIS4 (right) ...... 58

Chapter 4 Fig. 4.1: Map of the study area and sampling sites ...... 60 Fig. 4.2: Percentage of dominant species in the samples ...... 65 Fig. 4.3: Diversity indices ...... 66 Fig. 4.4: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters ...... 68 Fig. 4.5: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of species (R-mode) ...... 69 Fig. 4.6: Paleobathymetry estimation based on the P/B ratio ...... 70 Fig. 4.7: Ternary plot of Foraminifera order of samples and triplot ...... 71 Fig. 4.8: Summary the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics ...... 72 Fig. 4.9: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) diagram projection ...... 73

Chapter 5 Fig. 5.1: The map of the study area and sampling sites ...... 77 Fig. 5.2: Percentage of dominant species in samples ...... 79 Fig. 5.3: Diversity indices ...... 81 Fig. 5.4: Dendrogram classification presenting the assemblages of species by R-mode ...... 82 Fig. 5.5: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters ...... 83 Fig. 5.6: Paleobathymetry investigation based on the P/B ratio ...... 84 Fig. 5.7: Ternary plot of foraminifera suborder of samples and triplot ...... 84 Fig. 5.8: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) diagram projection ...... 85 Fig. 5.9: Summary of the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics ...... 86

List of Figures

Chapter 6 Fig. 6.1: Map of the study area and sample sites...... 90 Fig. 6.2: Average percentages of the recorded species in the studies areas ...... 93 Fig. 6.3: The relative abundance of species in the western, southern and eastern part ...... 94 Fig. 6.4: Diversity indices ...... 96 Fig. 6.5: Paleobathymetry investigation based on P/B ratio of the study area ...... 97 Fig. 6.6: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters ...... 98 Fig. 6.7: Average values of grain size statistical parameters in the study area ...... 99 Fig. 6.8: Cumulative frequency of samples in the western, southern and eastern part ...... 100 Fig. 6.9: The CM diagram plot of Crete coast samples ...... 101 Fig. 6.10: Tractive current deposit plot ...... 101 Fig. 6.11: Cumulative frequency from the western, southern and eastern part of Crete ...... 102 Fig. 6.12: Percentage of Quartz, Carbonates and Feldspar from west, south and east part ... 105 Fig. 6.13: Correlation betweent dendrogram classification showing in the species and compositions of sediment (Q-mode) ...... 106 Fig. 6.14: CCA result in the western, southern and eastern part of Crete ...... 107

Chapter 7

Fig. 7.1: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of station (Q-mode) and in the groups of species (R-mode) ...... 112 Fig. 7.2: The P/B ratio in samples ...... 113

List of Tables List of Tables

Chapter 1

Table 1.1: Similarities and differences between tsunami and surge storm deposit ...... 10 Table 1.2: Geological nappes of Crete ...... 16 Table 1.3: Overview of the tsunami history on Crete and surrounding region ...... 21

Chapter 2

Table 2.1: Classesification of sorting ...... 30 Table 2.2: The symmetry or preferential spread (Skewness) ...... 32 Table 2.3: The symmetry or preferential spread (kurtosis) ...... 32 Table 2.4: Size scale used in the GRADISTAT program ...... 33

Chapter 3

Table 3.1: Eigenvalues of the four principal components extracted ...... 49 Table 3.2: Component loadings of the taxa on the first and second principal component axes 50 Table 3.3: Summary of density parameters in the clusters ...... 53 Table 3.4: Summary of the abundant genus from the western part ...... 57

Chapter 4

Table 4.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters ...... 72 Table 4.2: Component loading for foraminifera in the study area ...... 73 Table 4.3: Eigenvalues of the five principal components extraction ...... 74

Chapter 5

Table 5.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters ...... 86

Chapter 6

Table 6.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters ...... 95 Table 6.2: Pearson correlation between pairs of species and sediment fractions ...... 104 Table 6.3: Estimated eigenvalues of CCA for the variances ...... 105

Chapter 7

Table 7.1: Summary of diversity indices in the study area ...... 116 Table 7.2: Presenting of species in the western, southern and eastern part of Crete ...... 117

vii

Foreword

Rationale

Foraminifera have become a critical phylum in geological and palaeoenvironmental interpretation in a long history of research because of their dominant universal distribution over time, and they are critical for the balance of the biosphere. The skeletons of foraminifera often remain in sedimentary rocks. The specific foraminifera assemblages correspond to diverse substrates. The sediment category is one of the components affecting the distribution of species, as there is a close link between density abundance and species richness of foraminifera with sediment grain. Consequently, this kind of fossils becomes an excellent tool that expresses changes in basic ecology and the earth´s historical evolution. The abundance and distribution changes on foraminifera also provide a good indicator for environmental reconstruction and as admirable biostratigraphic markers.

The eastern Mediterranean Sea plays a significant role in classical foraminifera research. This region comprises unique parameters of geography, morphology, and climate, so that in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, fossil communities, environmental dispositions, their distribution, and interrelationship are studied. Some foraminiferal taxa are supported in marginal, shallow, and deep marine zones of this area. In shallow shelf environments of this region, oxygen, temperature, salinity, organic matter, the turbulence of surface water currents, and substrate type are the main environmental factors influencing the distribution pattern of foraminifera. The study on foraminifera in the eastern Mediterranean Sea might contribute in the regional and global contexts.

Crete is located in the south of Greece, in the Hellenic Arc center, in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The island´s geodynamic situation results from tectonic activities with some earthquakes developing along thrust faults relative to the Hellenic trench in a long history. The evidence for historical earthquakes are based on historical and ancient reports, traces on archaeological monuments and tsunami deposits in some places in the coastal areas. With a limitation of quantitative research about the relationship between foraminifera and sediment characteristic, on the one hand, the different ecological milieus, as well as special geological activities on the other hand, the coast of Crete seem to attract researchers from marine fields to reconstruct the paleoenvironment and paleobathymetry to get data sources in this area.

Scope

This research aims to better of understand the paleoenvironment and paleobathymetry and correlation between foraminifera and grain size, which has received very little attention in recent times by applying multivariate quantitative techniques to samples from drill cores and along beaches. It will raise some essential questions that need to be answered to understand the paleoenvironment and paleobathymetry and the pattern of microfossil distribution of Crete.

viii

Foreword

The principal questions we aim concerning foraminifera in Crete are:

 What is the main factor controlling the distribution of foraminifera assemblages?  Is there any evidence that foraminifera can be linked to tsunami or high-energy events?  Is there any correlation between foraminifera species and grain size?

To clarify these questions, R, Excel, and the Gradistat soft-ware were used for quantitative analyses.

Thesis structure

Chapter 1 gives a brief overview of foraminifera in the eastern Mediterranean Sea and describes Crete´s geology situation. The material and methods are presented in chapter 2. Chapters 3 to 5 describe the foraminifera assemblages in western, southern, and eastern Crete and are formatted as academic papers that have been prepared for publication. Chapter 6 describes the correlation between foraminifera and the grain size of the sediments. Chapter 7 is the discussion and conclusions, which discuss and illustrate the study area results and the outlook. Chapter 8 contains the references, and chapter 9 is the acknowledgments.

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Foraminifera overview and foraminifera of the Mediterranean Sea

1.1.1 The general characteristics of foraminifera

Studies about foraminifera began around three centuries ago, and the knowledge is beneficial in many scientific disciplines. Foraminifera occur in modern oceans and as fossils in sediments with a long geological record covering roughly the entire Phanerozoic earth history, approximately 570 million years. D’Orbigny (1846) described 1000 species of recent foraminifera in all modern oceans. Vickerman (1992) calculated roughly 10.000 species currently occur in modern oceans. Early research on foraminifera was focused on taxonomy (e.g., Montagu, 1808; Parker and Jones, 1859; and Brandy, 1884) followed by an increasing number of studies focused more on ecology and became increasingly important (e.g., Loeblich and Tappan, 1986; Brönnimann and Whittaker, 1988; Scott and Vilks, 1991; Javaux and Scott, 2003; and Milker and Schmiedl, 2012). Loeblich and Tappan (1988) classified foraminifera suborders and illustrated their relationships (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1: Foraminifera suborders and their relationships (after Loeblich and Tappan, 1988)

Foraminifera are very abundant and widespread in space as well as time, mainly in almost all marine environments such as from the intertidal to the deepest ocean trenches, from the tropics to the poles, from brackish to hyper-saline waters (Meisterfeld et al., 2001; Holzmann and Pawlowski, 2002; and Holzmann et al., 2003). Foraminifera have a continuous evolution up to present with various species at different times. They are sensitive to environmental conditions and generally adapted to a particular environment. As a consequence, this kind of fossils is precious in the field of paleoenvironmental reconstruction.

To date, many studies show that mainly ecological factors control the distributions of foraminifera, including water salinity and bathymetry; sedimentary environment and substrate; biogeography, temperature; and oceanography. Other important biotic or biological factors are food availability, predation, and competitive interaction between individuals and communities. Significant abiotic or physical-chemical factors are calcium carbonate availability and pH in the

Chapter 1: Introduction case of calcareous benthic and planktic foraminifera; light availability in the case of larger benthic and planktic. Some characteristics of benthic and planktic foraminifera are shown in figure 1.2.

Planktic foraminifera Benthic foraminifera

Fig. 1.2: The characteristic of planktic and benthic foraminifera (Bellier et al., 2010)

The foraminifera test composes a few material types that are a primary feature to classify this group´s higher taxonomic system (Loeblich and Tappan, 1964). There are two main wall types of foraminifera: the agglutinated or arenaceous forms which generate their test by cementing detrital material, this form is primeval specimens; the calcareous forms who secrete a CaCO3 test, are divided into porcellanous, hyaline, and miro-granular types (Figs. 1.3 & 1.4). The agglutinated forms generally are taken over from CaCO3 secreting forms with increasing salinities and temperatures except for a low pH, which is caused by low oxygen or high organic matter concentrations or both of them (Greiner, 1970).

Foraminifera have various morphological tests, which are also the main characters to classify them, such as chamber arrangement and aperture style with several small differences around some essential attributes. The chambers of foraminifera are separated from each other by partitions, so-called septa. The final chamber is connected with the external part by one or some apertures (Fig.1.5).

Foraminifera are widespread with planktic and benthic species from the brackish water to the marine environment (Fig.1.6). The benthic forms are divided into forms that live freely in the sediment and sessile, and hemi-sessile species that live attached to plants, rock, shell, and corals. The second type lives planktic within the water column. Among all foraminifera, benthic ones are the most dominant, about 90%, while planktic ones are estimated only 10% of all foraminifera species (Bellier et al., 2010).

Chapter 1: Introduction

Foraminifera are very beneficial in palaeoenvironmental interpretation and spatially assigning rock sequences based on the morphological, functional principle to arrange rock records in space (Jones, 1994; 2006). The facies fossils in palaeoenvironmental interpretation have two general characteristics: restricted ecological distributions for a particular bathymetric zone or biogeographic province, low evolutionary development rates, and a long stratigraphic duration. Some ancient foraminifera are analyzed as they occupy a range of more or less marine environments, adopt a difference in life strategies, life positions, and feeding strategies. For specific purposes, the most significant are abundance, good-preservation, and easy identification (Jones, 2014).

Fig. 1.3: A generalized map of the marginal, coastal, marine environment with some typical foraminifera species (after Scott et al., 2001)

Foraminifera are also useful in interpreting palaeobathymetry based on comparing their modern analogs or related fossils and sediment facies spread over at least three palaeobathymetric zones: marginal, shelf, and deep marine. In some cases, some species´ proxy of current bathymetric distribution data does not have a significant role in palaeobathymetric interpretation, which other components than depth determine distribution (Jones, 1996; 2006).

Chapter 1: Introduction

SUBORDER WALL TYPE X-SECTION

Fig. 1.4: Wall types of foraminifera (Scott et al., 2001)

Fig. 1.5: Basic patterns of chamber arrangement in foraminifera (after Scott et al., 2001)

Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 1.6: Index of oceans, diversity of foraminifera (Bellier & Mathieu, 2008)

1.1.2 Foraminifera research in the Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a particular location with various ecological habitats, which propose an excellent area for classical fieldwork of foraminifera studies, and much taxonomy is obtained from this area to research floral and faunal assemblages as well as the environmental parameters that control foraminifera distribution. An archive of benthic foraminifera from the Mediterranean Sea was described with high-resolution morphological studies and published over the last 200 years for the Mediterranean Sea (Soldani, 1789, 1795; d´Orbigny, 1846; Sidebottom, 1904-1909, 1910; Wiesner, 1912; Buchner, 1940; Parker, 1958; Hofker, 1960; Reiss and Issar, 1961; Reiss et al., 1961; Blanc-Vernet, 1969; Blanc-Vernet et al., 1979; Daniels, 1970; Cherif, 1970; Colom, 1974; Jorissen, 1987, 1988; and Reinhardt et al., 1994).

The studies of foraminifera species and assemblages cover almost all coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea. Cimerman and Langer (1991) and Sgarrella and Moncharmont-Zei (1993) found more than 370 species. The statistic on foraminifera diversity in the Mediterranean Sea is mainly based on research from the regional scale that is principally located in the shallow photic zone (Langer, 2008).

In the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Samir et al. (2003) found 82 species of recent foraminifera at depths between 1 and 71 meters on the coast of Egypt west of the Nile delta near Alexandria. Besides, some studies in the Levantine basin of the Mediterranean Sea identified numerous species of recent foraminifera from shallow and deep water sites (Sidebottom, 1904-1909, 1910; Parker, 1958; Reiss and Issar, 1961; Reiss et al., 1961, 1999; Cherif, 1970; Reinhardt et 5

Chapter 1: Introduction al., 1994; and Hyams et al., 2002). It is calculated that there are about 480 species of recent benthic foraminifera found in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. However, there is a lacks of data on the diversity of foraminifera at a depth > 1000 m, and it is also necessary to include the non- testate soft-shelled species of foraminifera in future research. Among these 480 species, Wiesner (1912) listed more than 200 porcellaneous species in the Adriatic Sea alone, while Buchner (1940) found around 150 species of Lageniids living at the depth between 0 and 900 m in the Gulf of Naples. Other studies have also recorded the number of foraminifera species of at least 450 in the Adriatic Sea and 580 taxa in the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Fig. 1.7: The number of modern benthic foraminifera species present in the Mediterranean Sea (Langer, 2008)

In the western Mediterranean Sea, including the Alboran Sea and the Balearic Sea, the number of species of recent benthic foraminifera is lower along the northern coast of Africa and out into the Atlantic through the strait of Gibraltar compared to the eastern Mediterranean Sea (Colom, 1941; 1952; 1974; and Lévy et al., 1995). The number of species is approximately 350 in the western part of the Alboran and the Balearic Sea. This number is the same for other basins in the Mediterranean Sea, and it separates specific foraminifera statistical data in depth over 1000 m and does not comprise the soft-shelled foraminifera. The application of modern techniques to incomprehensible species increases the taxa of foraminifera in the Mediterranean Sea (Langer, 2008).

It is quite clear that in each basin and throughout the Mediterranean Sea, the number of foraminifera species can be even higher as estimated in other studies (Buchner, 1940; Blanc- Vernet, 1969; Blanc-Vernet et al., 1979; Jorissen, 1987, 1988; Moufli-El-Houari et al., 1999; Cimerman and Langer, 1991; and Guelorget et al., 2000). A rough calculation of the number of benthic foraminifera species in the entire Mediterranean Sea is approximately 700 species or even higher (Fig.1.7).

The Mediterranean Sea marine environments have a common Tethyan history, which ended with the Mesopotamian Corridor´s closure during the late Miocene. The ocean basin assemblages of foraminifera vary significantly in their composition of species, and the origin of the modern benthic foraminifera in the Mediterranean Sea is mainly from the Atlantic ocean.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Some authors mentioned that the foraminifera in the Mediterranean Sea show separate biogeographic provinces and identified by highly diverse faunas (Cimerman and Langer, 1991; and Langer, 2008). The biogeographical distribution of some species in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea are shown in figure 1.8.

Fig. 1.8: Biogeographical distribution of some species in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Langer, 2008)

When the Suez Canal was opened in 1896, some benthic foraminifera migrated through the re- established seaway from the Red Sea back into the eastern Mediterranean Sea along the new seaway back. The migrant foraminifera species are mainly temperature - tolerant generalists and opportunists. Compared to the Mediterranean Sea´s original species, the so-called “alien species” have different biogeographical distribution patterns. It is an excellent key to reveal their origin and distribution modes. Some migrant foraminifera species have recently turned into dominant and local species. There is a need for monitoring, comprehensive attention, and detailed research on their effect (Langer, 2008).

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.2 Foraminifera and paleotsunami events

1.2.1 Microfossils and coastal environment

Many geological traces of paleo-earth quakes and tsunamis are recorded from coastal sediments of low-energy depositional environments. One of the most common methods to reconstruct these events is determined by microfossil composition changes such as foraminifera, diatom, and ostracods (Pilarczyk et al., 2014). Unusual beds of overwork sand in low-energy environments where they usually disappear, for example, salt and freshwater marshes, coastal lake, and swales (Dawson et al., 1996; Hemphill-Haley, 1996; Bourgeois et al., 1999; Bondevik, 2003; Gelfenbaum and Jaffe, 2003; Kelsey et al., 2005 and Garrett et al., 2013).

The most significant of using microfossils lies in the reconstruction of sediment transportation. They are considered excellent indicators for environmental conditions changes, as their assemblages react quickly to changes (Murray, 2006). The distribution of foraminifera species shows a relationship with tidal uplift, and they are good proxies for sea-level changes (Scott and Medioli, 1978, 1980; Zong and Horton, 1999; and Horton and Edward, 2006). The occurrence of allochthonous marine species in the terrestrial area near the coast would indicate short, abrupt flooding by a tsunami. Foraminifera can be analyzed qualitatively to examine the origin of overwash sediment, the depth, and the distance of movement (Hawkes et al., 2007; Pilarczyk and Reinhardt, 2012a and Tanaka et al., 2012).

Microfossils usually range in size from silt to sand, and they have a potential for a quantitative investigation that is of great value in core samples (Birks, 1995) as they can be used for reconstruction and coastal deposition over a few thousand years (Shennan et al., 2000). Microfossils are thought to provide good proxies for coastal marine flooding, as they are found in various ecological niches ranging from marine to freshwater environments (Pilarczyk et al., 2014). In the intertidal zone, assemblages agglutinated foraminifera and calcareous assemblages are dominant on marshes and mudflats.

1.2.2 Foraminifera and paleotsunamis

A tsunami is a wave, or series of transient waves in a wave train with tremendous power, generated by sudden, vertical displacement of a column of water in the ocean or enclosed basins (Bryant, 2008). The waves of a tsunami are relatively often generated by earthquakes, submarine landslides, volcanic eruptions, or an extraterrestrial impact (Shiki et al., 2008). However, subaqueous earthquakes and submarine landslides are the most common triggers, while volcanic events and asteroid (extraterrestrial) impacts are rare causes (Fig.1.9). Because of the wave train movement (a series of waves) of a tsunami, the sediment can be deposited as distinct layers (Fig. 1.10). The number of layers depends on the number of waves and the coastal region´s morphology (Koster, 2014).

The geomorphology at the coast plays a critical role in the preservation of tsunami deposits. Two major coastal geomorphological types with a good preservation potential are the flat soft coast and the hard cliff coast (Hoffmann and Reicherter, 2015). Typical tsunami deposits comprise marine and terrigenous material. The original marine material comes from beach sediments, shallow marine environments, and the continental slope, whereas the terrigenous components may also be of anthropogenic origin anthropogeny, such as ceramic artifacts, trees, and bushes from the beach. Paleotsunamis can be preserved in deposits along and off 8

Chapter 1: Introduction the shoreline at marine and lacustrine areas. These deposits also could distribute to a knowledge of tsunami dynamics. However, natural marine erosion can erase these traces and the interpretation of tsunami events.

Fig. 1.9: Different causes of tsunami waves: (A) earthquake-related; (B): submarine landslide related; (C): volcano-related; (D): extraterrestrial impact (Koster, 2014)

Fig. 1.10: Schematic illustration of a principal pathway of tsunami sediment transport and deposition (after Costa et al., 2015, Einsele et al., 1996)

The distinction between tsunami and storm deposit in fossil documents is not easy due to similar feature deposition during marine inundation. The inflow deposits of storm and tsunami events have similar sedimentary structures and good preservation of these structures in sand sheets such as single and multiple regular gradings, reverse grading, parallel, incline and foreset lamina, rip-up clasts, and mud drapes, and they are typical of a high energy environment (Phantuwongraj and Choowong, 2012).

The storm and tsunami preservation conditions are mostly based on the scale topographic configurations of both tsunami or storm events on the land. The inflows have had better preservation compare to storm and tsunami outflows, and these preservations are mostly persistent longer in the geological record in marshland environments, which are the right place to trap the storm and tsunami sediments (Morton et al., 2007; Sugawara et al., 2009; Phantuwongraj and Choowong, 2012). 9

Chapter 1: Introduction

Table 1.1: Similarities and differences between tsunami and surge storm deposit (after Kortekaas and Dawson, 2007; Morton et al., 2007; Sugawara et al., 2009; Sakuna-Schwartz et al., 2015; and Kociok, 2016)

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES Physical components Tsunami Storm surge - Local tsunamis and storm - Length of impacted coast - Length of impact coast = 100 - can affect similar lengths of = 10 - 10000 km 600 km coastline - Large inland extent due to - Small inland reach due to small - Dependence on the large wave run-up wave run-up elevations topography elevations - Deposit elevation commonly ≤ 4 - Deposit elevation m commonly ≥ 5 m Morphology - Wash-over fans behind Tsunami Storm surge breached barriers None None - Landward thinning of the Stratigraphy layer Tsunami Storm surge - Landward fining of the - Few layers in the - Often many layers in the sand sheet stratigraphy stratigraphy - Basal unconformity, erosional contact Sedimentology Tsunami Storm surge - Layer with marine and - Large inland extent - Small inland reach terrigenous components - Basal load structure, - Max.clast size = cobbles and cross-bedding sand - Normal grading - Max.clast size = boulders - Heavy mineral laminae - Incorporated rip-up clasts, - No rip-up clasts, intraclasts - Well or poorly sorted intra-clasts of the underlying - No loading structures at the base material - Lamination, finning- - Bi-directional imbrications - Uni-directional imbrications upward sequences, - Average grain size smaller - Average grain size bigger than of sometimes homogeneous than of storm deposit tsunami deposit - Potential earthquake - Potential slope wash, debris features flows, or aeolian deposits - Increase in geochemical Geochemistry elements indicating marine Tsunami Storm surge origin None None Paleontology Tsunami Storm surge - Increased diversity of - A mixture of marine and fossils (marine and freshwater fossils - Beach sediments, brackish) biogenic materials (shell, - Beach sediments, - Beach sediments, biogenic corals, aquatic plants), and biogenic material and material, and microfossil of shallow microfossils incorporated in microfossil up to 50 - 0 m coastal areas are deposited the layer depth can only be transported by a tsunami - Pieces of broken shells - Complete shells and their and corals fragments

Chapter 1: Introduction

The different hydrodynamics and sediment-sorting processes during the transport are the primary distinctions between the storm and tsunami sediments. It needs a combination of complementary physical, paleontological, chemical, and extensive stratigraphical data from the core and tranches to distinguish the difference between a tsunami and storm deposit (Kortekaas and Dawson, 2007; Morton et al., 2007).

Tsunami deposits are related to a few high-velocity, long-period waves which catch sediment from the shoreface, beach, and landward erosion environments. The flow depths of a tsunami can be reached higher than 10 m, and sediments transport primarily in suspension, and they distribute the load over a broad region (Morton et al., 2007).

The storm surge sediment generally comprises nearshore components abundant in the beach, and nearshore sands and storm inundation usually are gradual and prolonged. They comprise some waves that erode dunes and beaches without traces of overland return flows until after the major flooding. The depth of storm flow has general < 3 m, and their sediments transport primarily as best load by traction. A load of those sediments is deposited within a zone relatively nearby to the beach. (Morton et al., 2007; Sugawara et al., 2009; Sakuna-Schwartz et al., 2015).

Fig. 1.11: Comparison of deposition by the tsunami (A) and coastal storm (B) (Morton et al., 2007)

Chapter 1: Introduction

The most critical difference is rip-up clast. Rip-up clasts are rare within storm deposits compared to tsunami deposits. Moreover is the extent in only the landward of tsunami deposit. However, storm deposits can exceed everywhere. The storm´s grain size characteristics also tend to those tsunamic deposits (Kortekaas and Dawson, 2007). In contrast, the tsunami deposits contain a greater variety of material from the inner shelf to terrestrial fragments, and tsunami sediments show a higher concentration of foraminifera than the storm deposits (Kortekaas and Dawson, 2007; Switzer and Jones, 2008) (Table 1.1 and Fig. 1.11).

Knowing the typical foraminifera species and their coastal habitats is an excellent method to recognize lithostratigraphic documents as palaeotsunamis. It is known that there is a relationship between foraminifera species and tidal elevation. Therefore foraminifera can be used as an indicator of relative land movement. Some studies report that foraminifera analysis of recent tsunami overwash deposits effectively identifies past tsunami events (Pilarczyk et al., 2014).

Fig. 1.12: Generalized cross-section of a coastline indicating habitat preference and life modes of microfossils (Pilarczyk et al., 2014)

Some authors mentioned that paleotsunami deposits often occur as abnormal sand layers after washing into marsh or lake sediments (Hemphill-Haley, 1996; Clague et al., 1999; Bondevik, 2003; and Kelsey et al., 2005). In tsunami overwash deposits, foraminifera is abundant as their shells are washed out of marine sedimentary deposits (Dominey-Howes et al., 2000; Mamo et al., 2009; Goff et al., 2012, and Tanaka et al., 2012). Notwithstanding, there is a limitation in the identification of the origin of tsunami deposits because foraminifera often comprises other assemblages, as

Chapter 1: Introduction tsunami deposits are subject to erosion, transport, and redeposition in marine, brackish, and freshwater environments during subsequent flooding of the coastal region (Dawson et al., 1996; Grand Pre et al., 2012, and Briggs et al., 2014). Thus, a combination of geomorphological and sedimentological, historical documents, and foraminifera analysis could provide the best result in determining sediment provenance and overwash layers (Pilarczyk et al., 2011).

Fig. 1.13: Distribution of microfossils from transects across the full environmental (tidal elevation) gradient (Pilarczyk, 2014)

Foraminifera are used in several studies about tsunami deposits of the 2004 Indian Ocean and the 2011 Tohoku tsunami. Hawkes et al. (2007) determined the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami run-up along the Malaysia-Thailand Peninsula by focusing on mangrove foraminifera, which indicates offshore radiolarian transport and backwash. It demonstrates single tsunami waves. Sugawara et al. (2009) used foraminifera to quantify the coastal material transported by a tsunami on Thailand´s southwestern coast. Some species of Elphidium spp., Rosalina spp, Ammonia sp., Ammobaculites spp. have been washed-out by backwash. They appear as allochthonous species in deeper, low-energy submarine sediments. Therefore, it is useful to determine paleotsunami deposits in offshore environments (Figs 1.12 and 1.13). Comparably, Pilarczyk et al. (2012a) used foraminifera to find tsunami deposits in the beach and dune of overwash sands from the Sendai coast from the 2011 Tohoku tsunami (Pilarczyk et a., 2012a; Szczuciński et al., 2012; and Takashimizu et al., 2012).

Chapter 1: Introduction

Moreover, each foraminiferal specimens´ taphonomic features play an important role in distinguishing between current and paleotsunami deposits from under and overlying layers (Hemphill-Haley, 1996; Goff et al., 2011; and Pilarczyk and Reinhardt, 2012b). Murray (1973), Dawson et al. (1996) and Kortekaas, and Dawson (2007) state that the size, shape, and feature of each fragmentation, abrasion, and corrosion play a significant role to measure the intensity of tsunami event, the depth of scouring and the provenance of sediment. However, there is a limitation of taphonomic analysis in the use of foraminifera. Because the distinction between the original environment and the overprinted by an event is not always possible (Pilarczyk et al., 2011).

Both of the characteristics of foraminifera assemblages and each test´s taphonomic conditions are essential keys to determine the provenance and transport of sediment materials in the past. The applicability of foraminifera to identify the relationship to the tsunami deposits depends on the possibility of preservation of transport conditions. Foraminifera preservation conditions are best in non-erosive, low-energy environments with continuous sedimentation (Grand-Pre et al., 2012).

Foraminifera and other microfossils have a significant role in understanding tsunami processes, their effect on coastal evolution, and their evidence within coastal sediment sequences. It is concluded that the use of microfossils from coastal environments as proxies of paleotsunami events can contribute to the accuracy and correctness of their reconstruction (Pilarczyk et al., 2011). A combination of statistical methods and other quantitative proxies for the ecology and taphonomy of foraminifera and microfossils will be required in future studies. Other factors, which affect the results, are the geological and geomorphological background of regions and associated progress (Khan et al., 2013).

There some studies archives evidence of The Late Bronze Age (LBA) tsunami and the AD. 365 tsunami from coastal sediment and geomorphological imprint in the northern coast (Rethymnon), the north-central (Geropotamos river), and the southwestern coasts (Sougia and Palaiochora) in Crete by applying foraminifera as one of proxy (Werner et al., 2018; Werner et al., 2019a; and Werner et al., 2019b).

1.3 Geological summary and tsunami history of Crete

1.3.1 Geological summary

Crete (Greece) is situated in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The island is elongated from east to west and measures about 300 km2. Crete is located about 150 km north of the Hellenic subduction zone in a forearc position, respectively forming is the topographic accretionary wedge of the subduction zone (Gallen et al., 2014). The Hellenic Arc and trench system contains the subduction zone itself and some trenches. It is the biggest subduction zone with the fastest movement in the Mediterranean Sea (Gallen et al., 2014; Peterek and Schwarze, 2004). Two major typical fault regimes can be distinguished (Caputo et al., 2010; Shaw and Jackson, 2010; Mourtzas, 2012; Gallen et al., 2014). The first regime consists of a set of approximately N-S striking faults with extensional character, while the second one is also extensional and consists of a set of roughly E-W striking faults.

There are two groups of paleogeographic units observed in Greece. The first comprises continental units, including pre-Alpine crustal basement rocks and a sedimentary cover of shallow water platform carbonate, while the second one is oceanic units containing basin sediments. According to Papanikolaou (1997; 2013), there are five continental units (H1, H3, 14

Chapter 1: Introduction

H5, H6, H7, and H9) and four oceanic units (H2, H4, H6, and H8). All the study areas are of units H1 (External Carbonate platform) and H2 (Pindos/Cyclades oceanic basin) (Fig.1.14).

Fig. 1.14: The terrane map of the Hellenides (Papanikolaou, 2013)

Crete´s geological characteristics comprise overthrusts nappes with various lithologies and facies (Manutsoglu et al., 2003). These nappies are part of the external Hellenic Arc and moved southward during the Alpine orogeny (Zulauf et al., 2008). This orogeny was active in Eupore between Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, and the main phase took place during the Tertiary (Coward and Dietrich, 1989). There are two formations in Crete. The first formation contains nappes with none-pronounced metamorphosis, while the second formation comprises nappes with high pressure/low temperature (HP/LT) metamorphosis of Oligocene to early Miocene age (Thomson et al., 1999). Table 1.2 gives an overview of Crete´s five nappes (Jacobshagen, 1986; Thomson et al., 1999; Manutsoglu et a., 2003; Rahl et al., 2005; Kock et al., 2007; and Zulauf et al., 2008).

A low-angle detachment fault separates the none-pronounced metamorphosis and pronounced metamorphosis (Rahl et al., 2005). The Phyllite-Quartzite Unit (unit 4 in table 1.2) is the first allochthonous unit, while the Plattenkalk unit (unit 5 in table 1.2) presents an autochthonous unit. The degree/extent of metamorphosis indicates an autochthonous formation. Hence the unit can be described as para-autochthonous after Jacobshagen (1986). This nappe is overlaid by post-orogenic Neogenic sediments separated into different lithostratigraphic units depending on the basin in which they are deposited. The Neogene sediments contain limestone breccia, breccia-conglomerate, marine, lagoonal and fluvial-lacustrine conglomerates, sand, silt, or clay marl (Van Hinsbergen and Meulenkamp, 2006) (Fig. 1.15). 15

Chapter 1: Introduction

Table 1.2: Geological nappes of Crete (modified after Kociok, 2016)

Metamorphosis Age Unit Description degree The combination of an ophiolite unit and the colored Melange consisted Carboniferous/ Few of sediments, volcanic rocks, and Uppermost 1 Permian to metamorphosed metamorphic rocks. Rocks are Variegated Paleogene rocks included ophiolite, pillow basalts, mica- schists, marbles, gabbros, carbonate rock, and many more. Deepwater schist-chert-carbonate series and radiolarite alternated with Pindos flysch. Facies of pelagic environment, an orogenic Early Triassic No 2 Pindos indication with the sedimentation of to Eocene metamorphism the Pindos flysch. Rocks are carbonate rocks, marl, sandstone, chert, and flysch (sandstone, limestone breccia, marl).

Pronounced metamorphosis Pronounced Rocks of the shallow-water

- Triassic to platform, lagoonal environment,

No Middle to Indication for terrigenous flysch. Rock are Eocene, average Tripolitza carbonate rocks, marble 3 Tripolitza Flysch of temperature limestone, and dolomite, as well as Palaeocene to metamorphism flysch (argillaceous schist, marl, Eocene sandstone, conglomerate, and breccia). Pre-alpine crystalline basement influenced by Carboniferous, Triassic, and Alpine metamorphosis and Carboniferous to Triassic Carboniferous, meta-sediment and meta-volcanic rocks influenced by Oligocene to Triassic to Phyllite- HP/LT 4 Oligocene/Mio Quartzite metamorphism Miocene high-pressure cene metamorphosis. Facies of shallow marine environment. Rock are argillaceous schist, phyllite, quartzite, marble, and metavolcanic. Autochthonous or Paraautochthonous, lowest unit, Late Carboniferous to Triassic outcrops just locally. Facies from Late shallow marine environments to Pronounced metamorphosis Pronounced HP/LT 5 Carboniferous Plattenkalk deepwater environments. metamorphism to Oligocene Consisting mainly of carbonate, calcitic and dolomitic marble, cherts, and meta-pelites. Rocks are marble layers, limy meta- sandstone.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 1.15: The geological map of Crete (modified after Kociok, 2016)

1.3.2 Water circulation, wave and wind directions in the Cretan Sea 1.3.2.1. Water circulation There are three main water masses: surface, intermediate, and deep water circulations in the Cretan Sea. (Fig. 1.15). Surface and subsurface circulation

Atlantic Water (AW), Black Sea Water (BSW), and Levantine Surface Water (LSW) are three main surface and subsurface layers in the Cretan Sea (Velaoras et al., 2014). AW travels through Eastern and Western Cretan Straits and reaches the Cretan Sea. After this, circulation trace up to the central part of the Cretan basin. These masses have a low salinity (around 38.5 38.9 ‰). At the Cretan Sea´s eastern entrance, AW enters with less salinity (Zodiatis, 1991a, 1991b; and Theocharis et al., 1993, 1999).

The second surface water masses is originated from Black Sea Water. These masses come from the North Aegean Sea through the Dardanelles with brackish, low density, surface water to the Aegean Sea. BSW is effected by a cyclonic path in the North and Central Aegean. These circulations move through the west of the Cyclades plateau and as reaching the south Aegean, it increases in its salt content and mixes with surface Aegean masses (Zodiatis, 1991a, 1993; Theocharis et al., 1993, 1999; Gertman et al., 2006; Velaoras and Lascarstos, 2010; and Velaoras et al., 2014). BSW appears in the western Cretan Sea up to western straits with a low salinity surface/subsurface notable (S < 38.9 ‰). The AW and BSW in the west of the Cretan 17

Chapter 1: Introduction

Sea are quite similar in salinity and temporal variability (Theocharis et al., 1999; Velaoras and Lascaratos, 2010; and Velaoras et al., 2014).

The last surface/subsurface water masses is the Levantine Surface Water (LSW). This water layer is characterized by warm and highly saline surface water and Asia Minor current (AMC). The salinity of LSW can increase up to 39.3 ‰ because of intense evaporation (Theocharis et al., 1999). The LSW is divided into two branches after arriving at the Cretan Sea. The first branch travels westward, while the second branch shifts northward (Zodiatis, 1991b, 1993; and Theocharis et al., 1993).

Intermediate circulation

The Levantine Intermediate Water (LIW) and the Cretan Intermediate Water (CIW) are intermediate water layers in the Cretan Sea. The LIW moves to the Cretan Sea at the intermediate depth and has the same direction as the LSW after passing through the Cretan Straits´ east. These masses contribute significantly to the Rhodes Gyre region´s temperature and salinity in the Antalya Bay during the winter. The value of salinity ranges between 38.9 ‰ < S < 39.1‰. Both LSW and LIW have a crucial impact on heat and salt in the Cretan Sea and the Levantine basin (Velaoras et al., 2014).

The second intermediate circulation is the CIW. The CIW origin is the Cretan region, and the properties are similar to those of the LIW, but the water is somewhat cooler. These masses appear at a depth of 200 - 300 m during the winter (Velaoras et al., 2014). However, in the Cretan Sea, the CIW is slightly colder, has higher salt content, and is denser than the LIW. When the CIW reaches the Cretan Sea, it is located at the depth between the LIW and the Eastern Mediterranean Deep Water (EMDW) and moves westward along the Cretan continental slope to the Ionian and Adriatic Seas. The CIW density illustrates seasonal variability (Schlitzer et al., 1991; Roether et al., 1999; Theocharis et al., 2002; Manca et al., 2006; and Millot, 2013).

Deepwater circulation

There are two main deep water masses in the Cretan Sea. The first is the Cretan Deep Sea (CDW), and the second is the Eastern Mediterranean Deep Water (EMDW). According to Lacombe et al. (1958) and Theocharis et al. (1993), the CDW appears in the west Cretan Sea and shows a typical salinity value below 38.95 ‰ and moves at a depth of 1000 m. As the density of CDW increases in the Cretan Sea, these masses sink into the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and reach the bottom layers with a 2000 m. This massive shift into the deep water, namely Eastern Mediterranean Deep Water, occurs from Adriatic to the Aegean Sea (Schlitzer et al., 1991; Roether et al., 1999; Klein et al., 1999; and Theocharis et al., 1999).

1.3.2.2 Wave and wind direction

The summer wind around Crete, the so-called Etesians or Meltemi, has northwestern directions. Nevertheless, N and W winds are common. The summer winds are light to moderate, occasionally increasing to gale force (Pyökäri, 1999). The second seasonal wind is the Cyclonic winter wind, which is more varied in directions. They are common in NW with a secondary W mode. However, N, NW, and SW directions are also frequent in Crete. The winter winds are stronger and moderate to strong than the summer wind, but they also rarely reach gale force.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Two wave systems are approaching the Cretan coast. The first comes from WNW to NNW direction according to the most frequent wind direction. The second direction affects each of the coastal sections because of the fetch (Pyökäri, 1999).

1.3.3 History of tsunami activities

Due to the geodynamic location of Crete, the island was repeatedly affected by extreme wave events. The evidence for tsunamis in Crete can be identified mainly from three types of documents: historical reports, damage to archaeological monuments, and tsunami deposits in several areas along the coast. Table 1.3 summarizes the earthquake and tsunami history of Crete. Almost all of the tsunami on Crete are relative, and the island´s effect is illustrated to earthquake activities. There are 19 documented extreme wave events on Crete. Most of them were generated by the strong offshore earthquake and very rarely by volcanic eruptions and landslides. The earthquakes are shallow, have an intermediate-depth and an interplate nature. The shallow earthquakes are generated in front of the northern coast of Crete. Their original locations were earthquakes at the Hellenic trench system (Papadopoulos, 2001; Papadopoulos, 2010; Maramai et al., 2014).

Tsunami events intensity based on Papadopoulos & Imamura scale 1 2 3 Fig. 1.16: Overview of the tsunami history on Crete and surroundings (Papadopoulos & Imamura, 2001)

The archive of tsunamis in this region dates back to -1628 BC and includes all events up to AD 2009. These data show an increase in the number of tsunamis over time. Table 1.3 is based on previous studies, including data from archaeological locations, geomorphological and sedimentological indicators along the coast of Crete, and other Eastern Mediterranean coastal areas (Figs 1.16 and 1.17). Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) developed three intensity levels of tsunamis based on a combination of archaeological and sedimentological evidence. The higher intensity is illustrated by the bigger size of red circles.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Fig. 1.16 presents three events level events, four-level 2-events, and twelve other events of level 1. Most of these events are of local origin. The tsunamis with an intensity of 3, which left devastation throughout the eastern Mediterranean, were triggered by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (Papadopoulos & Imamura, 2001; Kociok, 2016). Papadopoulos (2009) summarized 18 tsunamigenic zones of the Mediterranean Sea that are divided into four levels: low, intermediate, high, and very high. Corinth Gulf has a very high level, West and East Hellenic arc have a high level.

Fig. 1.17: The tsunamigenic zones of the Mediterranean Sea

The tsunami potential of each one zone is classified on a relative scale according to the frequency of occurrence and intensity of tsunamis (Papadopoulos, 2009)

WMS = West Mediterranean Sea, EMS = East Mediterranean Sea, AS = Aegean Sea, MS = Marmara Sea, BS = Black Sea, Zonation key: 1 = Alboran Sea, 2 = Liguria and Côte d’ Azur, 3 = Tuscany, 4 = Aeolian islands, 5 = Tyrrhennian Calabria, 6 = Messina straits, 7 = Gargano promontory, 8 = South-East Adriatic Sea, 9 = West Hellenic arc, 10 = East Hellenic arc, 11 = Cyclades, 12 = Corinth Gulf, 13 = East Aegean Sea, 14 = East Aegean Sea, 15 = North Aegean, 16 = Marmara Sea, 17 = Cyprus, 18 = Levantine Sea

Traces of tsunamis are distributed around the entire island of Crete, but the highest intensity occurred mostly in the west and east of the island. There are five key remarkable events, which appeared in the following years: -1628 BC, AD 365, AD 1303, AD 1650, and AD 1965. The causes for these tsunamis were volcanic eruptions and shallow earthquakes. The high energies of these tsunamis affected large areas and changed the geomorphological properties of the island of Crete (Thommeret et al., 1981; Pirazzoli, 1986; Dominey-Howes, 1996; Pirazzoli et al., 1996; Papadopoulos, 2001; Stiros, 2001; Stiros and Papageorgiou, 2001; Scheffers and Scheffers, 2007; Papadopoulos and Vassilakis, 2010; Maramai et al., 2014; Werner et al., 2018, Werner et al., 2019a, and Werner et al., 2019 b).

Chapter 1: Introduction

Table 1.3: Overview of the tsunami history on Crete and surrounding region (after Papadopoulos, 2011 and Kokciok, 2016)

Tsunami Parameter Cause Parameter No. Date Time Place Short description References Last Max.T. Cause T.R R. Type Ms Intensity Long Intensity 36.40 Volcanic The intense volcanic eruption of the Thera volcano believed that 1. 1628 BC VA 3 X-XI 4 - VEI=7-8 4,8,9 25.40 eruption this eruption destroyed the Minoan culture.

35.00 IV 6.4 VIII Coastal displacement, tsunami, indication on archaeological site of 2. AD 66 (±1) ER 4 4 Shallow 7,10,11 24.42 Falasarna (±0.2) Gortyn the harbour of Falasarna.

35.00 X 8.3 VIII+ One of the largest earthquakes occurred in the Mediterranean Sea. 3. 21.7.365 Night ER 4 4 Intermediate 8,9,10,11 24.42 Alexandria (±0.3) Kissamos Destructive sea inundation, uplift of western Crete.

35.00 6.4 Doubtful event: recording of the earthquake in several documents, 4. 796/800 Kythira Strait ER 1 VI 4 Interplate - 8,9,10,11 23.00 (±0.3) the tsunami event mentioned only in one source.

East Crete, 35.00 X 8.0 IX-X Interplate earthquake at the eastern Hellenic Arc and one of the 5. 08.08.1303 03:30 ER 4 4 Interplate 8,10 Dia island 27.00 Heraklion (±0.3) Heraklion biggest tsunamis in the Mediterranean Sea.

35.50 IV 6.2 The shallow offshore earthquake which were triggered a tsunami 6. 01.07.1494 10:10 Crete ER 3 4 Shallow VII-VIII 8,10,11 25.00 Heraklion (±0.2) and was followed by a strong aftershock.

09:00 or 35.60 IV-V 6.3 VIII Shallow offshore earthquake damaging Crete, (esp. Chania). High 7. 26.11.1595 Chania ER 4 4 Shallow 10 10:30 24.60 Chania (±0.2) Chania waves in the harbour of Chania and seaquake offshore.

35.30 IV 6.2 VIII Shallow earthquake close to a tectonic trough. Potential tsunami 8. 08.11.1612 Crete EA 2 3 Shallow 3,8,9,10,11 24.40 Heraklion (±0.2) Heraklion waves in the harbour not well documented.

36.00 IV-V 6.5 VIII-IX Shallow offshore earthquake damaging Crete, especially 9. 09.03.1630 08:59 Heraklion ER 4 4 Shallow 5,8,9,10,11 24.00 Kythira (±0.2) Heraklion Heraklion. Well documented triggered tsunami event.

36.50 V-VI Volcanic The Eruption of a submarine volcano in front of Thera led to a 10. 30.09.1650 15:00 Thera Is. VO 4 4 - VEI=3 8,9,10 35.50 Heraklion eruption tsunami event. Maximum vertical run-up = 20-50 .

35.50 V 6.0 IV-V The shallow offshore earthquake which potentially triggered a local 11. 10.10.1650 Thera Is. ER 2 2 Shallow 2,8,10 25.10 Heraklion (±0.2) Heraklion tsunami.

34.80 6.9 IX Large interpolate earthquake South of Crete and wave anomaly in 12. ??.02.1741 Crete ER 1 III 4 Interplate 1,8,10,11 24.80 (±0.2) Heraklion Alexandria and Malta.

36.10 7.6 IX-X One of the most intense earthquake at the earthquake at the 13. 12.10.1856 02:45 Crete ER 2 III 4 Intermediate 10,11,12 35.20 (±0.3) Heraklion Hellenic Arc and trench system,tsunami appearance not verified

36.12 Offshore earthquake in front of Kythira which triggered a local 14. 06.02.1866 13:45 Kythira Strait ER 4 VI 4 Shallow 6.0+ VII+ 8,9,11 23.20 tsunami. Maximum vertical run-up = 8 m.

SE 36.30 6.5 V Offshore earthquake triggering tsunami which reached to Serifos, 15. 20.09.1867 03:44 ER 4 III-IV 4 Shallow 8,10,11 Peloponnese 22.42 (±0.2) Heraklion Syra and Crete. Wave anomaly at Chania.

SW 37.06 IV 6.8 IV Intense intraplate earthquake in front of S. Peloponnede triggered 16. 27.08.1886 21:32 ER 4 4 Interplate 6,9,10,11 Peloponnese 21.30 SW Pelop. (±0.3) Heraklion local a tsunami, impact of Crete is unverified.

Strongest earthquake since seismologicarl record. Intense Cyclades,S. 36.64 III Skala IX 17. 09.07.1956 03:11:44 ER 4 4 Shallow 7.4 aftershock. Associated wave a large, strong tsunami. Maximum 8,9,10 Aegean 35.91 IV Sitia Thera isl. vertical run-up = 15-30 m.

34.22 IV-V III-V Low magnitude offshore earthquake which triggered a local 18. 05.04.2000 04:36:59 Crete EA 4 4 Shallow 5.7 8,9,10 25.69 Heraklion Ierapetra tsunami. Maximum vertical run-up = 50-60 m.

34.35 IV V Interplate earthquake and triggered local tsunami South of Crete. 19. 01.07.2009 09:30:13 Crete ER 4 4 Interplate 6.4 10 25.42 Arvi, Myrtos Ierapetra Maximum vertical run-up= 20-30 m to 1 m.

Chapter 2: Material and methods

2.1 Materials

Total 43 surface samples from sandy beaches and 26 drill core samples were collected from three regions, the western, southern, and eastern parts of Crete (Fig. 2.1). Sand beach samples along the coast were collected by a Van Veen grab from the upper 5cm of the sediment for grain size and foraminifera analysis (Van Veen, 1933; 1936). From the drill core, 16 samples from the PHA3 core near Falasarna and ten samples from the KIS4 core in the Kissamos area were taken. GPS (Global Positioning System) was used to locate all sampling stations (Appendix A).

Fig. 2.1: Sample locations in the study area

For the grain size analysis, about 100 g of each sample was washed with a solution of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and distilled water at a ratio of 1:3 for 30 - 48 hours at room temperature and then washed twice with natural water. The samples were dry sieved with mesh size from -1 to +4 Φ ( after the American Society for Testing and Materials - ASTM). The weight of the residue of the respective mesh size was determined after re-drying in an oven. Sediment types were determined according to Shepard´s (1954) classification and Wentworth´s (1992).

Sample processing for foraminifera was undertaken following standard micropaleontological methods. 20g of each dry sample was immersed in water for about 2 hours until it was easily disaggregated and then was washed through a 63μm sieve and dried in an oven at 40o C. Three hundred specimens are needed for the usual split size. All foraminifera specimens in each 22

Chapter 2: Material and methods sample were picked and identified following the generic classification of Loeblich and Tappan (1988); Jones (1994, 2014), and Ellis and Messina online catalog (1942 - 2012) and also compared with specimens from the collections of foraminifera identified by Van der Zwaan (1982); Cimerman and Langer (1991) as well as with published illustrations of species from the Mediterranean region (Bizon, 1985; Milker and Schmiedl, 2012; and Holboun et al., 2013).

The classification of the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS, 2018) was adopted for higher levels of taxonomy, other than genus and species. Specimens with significant test damage or destroyed tests were excluded from picking and were not quantified in the statistic analysis. In some samples, some ostracode, agglutinated species, calcareous coralline algae, bryozoa were found.

2.2 Methods

2.2.1 Foraminifera

2.2.1.1 Diversity indices

For statistical application, the data matrix was standardized, and five measures of species diversity were calculated:

(a) Species richness: This is the total number of different species in samples (Murray, 1991). The larger the sample, the more species are expected to find.

풔 푫 = √푵

s: the number of different species; N: the total number of individuals

(b) The Fisher - 훂 index: is an indicator of species richness, relating the number of species to individuals (Fisher et al., 1943). The alpha index eliminates the impact of sample size, whereas the heterogeneity´s data function in assemblages (Murray, 1991) (Fig. 2.2).

푵 푺 =∝. 푳풏 (ퟏ + ) 휶

S: the number of species sampled (species richness)

N: the total number of individuals

훼: Fisher´s alpha

(c) Simpson index: uses the abundance of each species in a sample to assess the proportion that each species has in the total amount. This equation is expressed by the reciprocal of Simpson’s (1949) formula based on MacArthur (1972) and Peet (1974).

∑ 풏(풏 − ퟏ) 푫 = 푵(푵 − ퟏ)

ퟏ Simpson´s Reciprocal index = 푫

Chapter 2: Material and methods

n: the total number of organisms of a particular species N: the total number of organisms of all species

d) The Shannon Wiener index [H(s)]: which is the species diversity taking into account the dominance of species (Shannon and Weaver, 1963; Murray, 1973; 1991).

풏 풏 푯 = − ∑ ( ) 푳풏 ( ) 푵 푵

n: the total number of organisms of a particular species

N: the total number of organisms of all species

(e) The percentage dominance: the highest percentage abundance of foraminifera species in a sample (Walton, 1964).

2.2.1.2 Statistic analysis

P/R ratio analysis

The P/B ratio is used to assess the deposition depth that can be estimated from the percentages of planktic foraminifera in the total foraminifera assemblages, which followed by:

P/B ratio= P/ P+B*100

P: the number planktic specimen; B: the number benthic of specimen

In this study, the bathymetric zonation of Van-Morkhoven et al. (1986) is used: inner shelf: 0 - 30 m; middle shelf: 30 - 100 m; upper bathyal: 200 - 600 m.

In terms of paleodepth reconstruction, some previous studies attempted to use the relative abundance of planktic foraminifera as an indicator of paleo-depth reconstruction (Murray, 1976; Marks, 1979; Rodriguez-Tovar et al., 2010; Van der Zwaan et al., 1990 and De Rijk et al., 1999) and mentioned in their research that there is a regression for the relationship between the paleodepth and the percentage of planktic foraminifera. Although foraminifera are widely used as a tool for paleobathymetry, the relationship between foraminifera distribution and water depth is still poorly understood (Van der Zwaan et al., 1991).

Van der Zwaan et al. (1990) and De Rijk et al. (1999) showed a positive relationship between the depth and the proportion of planktic foraminifera specimens. Several studies are referenced to support the results of paleodepth estimation in the study area, such as Van - Morkhoven et al., 1986; Murray, 1991) and compared to some published data that mentioned the Mediterranean Sea (Todd, 1957; Parker, 1958; Bandy and Chierici, 1966; Cita and Zocchi, 1978; Wright, 1978; Venec-Peyre, 1984; Jorissen, 1987; Cimerman and Langer, 1991; and Drinia et al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c) (Fig. 2.3).

Wall structure analysis: Loeblich and Tappan (1964) established a classification of foraminifera with modern hard tests, divided into three orders: Textulariida, Rotaliida, and Miliolida. These orders correspond to agglutinated, porcellaneous, and hyaline wall structures, respectively (Fig. 2.4).

Chapter 2: Material and methods

Fig. 2.2: Fisher alpha index (after Fisher et al., 1943)

In the infra- and circalittoral domains, the relative percentages of hyaline, porcellaneous, and agglutinated tests permit an evaluation of water temperature (Murray, 1991). Thus a simple analysis of the composition of a biocoenosis using the three types of test provides data on ambient Physico-chemical conditions. Fig. 2.5 shows the biocoenoses in which hyaline and porcellanids predominate indicate warm seas, while hyaline and agglutinates predominate in cold seas.

Chapter 2: Material and methods

Fig. 2.3: Index of oceans (Gibson, 1989 and Bellier et al., 2010)

Porcelaneous/Miliolida

Hyaline/Rotaliida Agglutinated/Textulariida

Fig. 2.4: Ternary diagram of wall structure (Murray, 1991)

Porcelaneous

Hyaline Agglutinates

Fig. 2.5: Placement of agglutinate, hyaline and porcelanid foraminifera in the ternary diagram of the biocoenoses in the infra - and circalittoral environments (Murray, 1991; Billier et al., 2010)

Chapter 2: Material and methods

The Bivariate Correlation (BC) method

The data are arranged in a single matrix to analyze the correlation of pairs of variables between grain size and foraminifera assemblages. Pearson’s index determines the Bivariate Correlation (BC). This coefficient is only examined if a linear correlation between two variables exists. It has been used to demonstrate the correlation between the relative abundance of single species and sediment fractions (Debenay et al., 2001).

2.2.1.3 Cluster analysis

Multivariate statistical analyses R-mode factor analysis and Q-mode cluster analysis are applied to the statistically significant abundance values to examine the paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Biological data were analyzed with the multivariate techniques of cluster analysis and ordination. The classification of sample locations (“Q Mode”) and classification of species (“R Mode”) is made using the quantitative similarity matrices calculated of the Euclidean similarity coefficient (Gower, 1985) and the Unweighted Pair Group Method Using Arithmetic Average (UPGMA). This program was developed by Rohlf (1989) and then adopted by Reinhardt et al. (1996) to generate a dendrogram.

A data matrix was created using the absolute frequency and abundance of foraminifera species from 69 samples of the study area. Species at any sample occurring with a frequency of ≤ 2% of the total assemblages are eliminated from the matrix. The species with scattered and infrequent taxa (≤ 2% relative abundance) are omitted as they have a significant effect on the formation of the major groups (Kovach, 1987,1989) (Fig. 2.6). Consequently, the recorded 74 foraminifera species found in the 69 samples were reduced to 13 abundant species, considered the most important and common species. The cluster analysis classified the samples into assemblages (clusters) so that each cluster show a group of species with a similar spatial distribution pattern.

Fig. 2.6: Simplified two-variable example conceptually (Debenay et al., 2001)

2.2.1.4 Ordination methods

The purpose of ordination methods is to reduce the original multivariate data set to a few critical components by creating new synthetic variables that explain the maximum amount of original data variance. These analytical techniques aim to examine the samples along ecologically or environmentally meaningful gradients to interpret differences in the community´s structure. The number of principal axes corresponds to the number of original axes.

Chapter 2: Material and methods

Principal Component Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the ordination method is also used to detect the data structure with variables to extract the significant relationship between specimens that may express different types of paleoenvironmental characteristics (Rao, 1964; Davis, 1986; and Harper, 1999). This method arranges group samples based on their similarities or differences in a multidimensional space (Fig. 2.7). This method is also suitable for R-mode studies relative to abiotic variables (Murray, 2006). Almost all quantitative studies successfully applied the PCA method to assess foraminifera and their relationship to the environments. Additionally, if taxa in at least one sample have 5 %, the PCA can also provide an excellent presentation of foraminifera changes´ the spatial pattern. A more realistic ordination of the matrix is archived using variables left after excluding the variables with a low appearance percentage to avoid redundancy.

Fig. 2.7: Simplified two-variable example conceptually the process involved in PCA (Clapham, 2011)

Canonical Correspondence Analysis

The Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) is one of the ordination methods that is a combination of regular correspondence analysis and linear regression (Gardener, 2014) (Fig. 2.8). CCA has been used to relate the foraminifera distribution to elevation and other environmental parameters and evaluate observed relations (Ter-Braak, 1986, 1988, 1990; and Ter-Braak and Verdonschot, 1995).

Fig. 2.8: Concept of Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) (Legendre & Legendre, 1998)

Chapter 2: Material and methods

The Monte Carlo permutation test plays a vital role in the statistic method CCA method. All species contributing with less than 5% of the relative abundance of any assemblage are not considered in order to obviate redundancy and to present a more realistic ordination (Patterson and Fishbein, 1989; Borcard et al., 1992; Fatela and Taborda, 2002; and Horton and Edwards, 2006).

Some previous studies confirm the correlation between foraminifera and single sediment fractions using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Hayward et al. (1996) showed that the grain size effect on foraminifera distribution was related to the percentage of mud in a tidal inlet in New Zealand. Donnici and Serandrei Barbero (2002) found a linear correlation between the dominance of 43 species and environmental parameters such as water depth, total organic carbon, total organic nitrogen, sand, and mud on the Northern Adriatic continental shelf. Abu- Zied et al. (2007) mentioned the correlation between foraminifera species and grain size and total organic carbon in the Qarun salt lake (Egypt). For three marine coastal areas Bagnoli, and Baia (in the Pozzuoli Gulf, Naples, and Sicily´s eastern coast (Augusta). Bergamin et al. (2003; 2005) used these regions´ potential characteristics to examine the relationship between foraminifera contribution and sediment texture.

The results of foraminifera and grain size analysis are processed using bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis with R version 3.4.1 (Ihaka and Gentleman, 1996). After sieving, the samples are analyzed with GRADISTAT version 14.0 software (Blott and Pye, 2001) (Appendix D). The density, diversity, richness, and evenness of foraminifera species are also calculated by this software based on raw data. The species within each genus are described in alphabetical order (Appendix F). Photographs of the most abundant, essential, and ecologically significant species were taken with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), model Zeiss SUPRA™55 was taken with the most. The foraminifera specimens are presented in Plates, and specimens are stored at the Lab of Neotectonics and Natural Hazards Institute at the RWTH Aachen University, Germany.

2.2.2 Grain size and composition analysis

2.2.2.1 The texture of grains

Grain size, sorting and, skewness, as well as kurtosis, are essential characters of the grain size distribution, and they provide essential information about the sediment provenance, history of transportation, depositional conditions, and evolution of coastal sediments (Folk and Ward, 1957; Friedman, 1979; Bui et al., 1990 and Carranza-Edward, 2001). Four parameters are used to describe the grain size distribution, including (a) the average size (mean), (b) the spread (sorting) of the size around the average, (c) the symmetry or preferential spread (skewness) to one side of the average, and (d) the degree of concentration of the grain size relative to the average (kurtosis) (Folk and Ward, 1957). In this study, the following four parameters are calculated. a. Mean (MZ)

The Mean is the average grain size. The equation of the mean is given by Folk (1968), including graphically derived value. The mean is measured in phi (Φ) units and is the most widely compared parameter.

횽ퟏퟔ + 횽ퟓퟎ + 횽ퟖퟒ 퐌퐞퐚퐧 = 퐌 = 퐙 ퟑ

Chapter 2: Material and methods with Φ16, Φ50, and Φ 84 presenting the size at 16, 50, and 84 percent of the sample by weight. b. Median (Md)

The median is the value in a set of data arranged in rank order, and it is corresponding to the 50 percentile on the cumulative curve, where half particles by weight are larger, and half are smaller than the median. This parameter is given in phi unit (Φ).

퐌퐞퐝퐢퐚퐧 = 퐌퐝 = 횽ퟓퟎ c. Sorting (σi)

The sorting measures the grain size variation of a sample by encompassing the largest part of the size distribution. Folk (1968) established the inclusive graphic standard deviation with the equation as follows:

횽ퟖퟒ − 횽ퟏퟔ 횽ퟗퟓ − 횽ퟓ 퐒퐨퐫퐭퐢퐧퐠 = 훔 = + 퐢 ퟒ ퟔ. ퟔ with Φ5, Φ16, Φ84, and Φ95 presenting the phi value at 5, 16, 84 and 95 percentiles. The verbal classification scale for sorting of Folk (1968) is presented in table 2.1 below:

Table 2.1: Classesification of sorting (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Values from To Equal

0.00 0.35 Φ Very well sorted

0.35 0.50 Φ Well sorted

0.50 0.71 Φ Moderately well sorted

0.71 1.00 Φ Moderately sorted

1.00 2.00 Φ Poorly sorted

2.00 4.00 Φ Very poorly sorted

> 4.00 Φ Extremely poorly sorted

d. Skewness (SK)

Skewness describes the symmetry of the cumulative curve of a real-valued random variable about its mean. The equation of inclusive graphic skewness by Folk (1968) is illustrated below:

횽ퟏퟔ + 횽ퟖퟒ − ퟐ횽ퟓퟎ 횽ퟓ + 횽ퟗퟓ − ퟐ횽ퟓퟎ 퐒퐤퐞퐰퐧퐞퐬퐬 = 퐒 = + 퐊 ퟐ(횽ퟖퟒ − 횽ퟏퟔ) ퟐ(횽ퟗퟓ − 횽ퟓ) 30

Chapter 2: Material and methods

with Φ5, Φ16, Φ84, and Φ95 present the phi value at 5, 16, 84 and 95 percentiles

Fig. 2.9: Types of skewness (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Fig. 2.10: The measure of asymmetry (skewness) of the curve (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Type of skewness and measure of asymmetry are presented in Figs 2.9 and 2.10. Symmetrical curves have a skewness equal to 0.00; those with a large proportion of fine material are positively skewed; those with a large proportion of coarse material are negatively skewed. The formula shows the measurement of the “tail” of the cumulative curve concerning the middle part. This equation is more appropriate than other methods that do not measure the curve´s tails, such as the formulas of Trask and Rolston (1950) and Inman (1952). A descriptive classification

Chapter 2: Material and methods of skewness by Folk (1968) is presented the table 2.2. The mean, median, and mode will have the same value as symmetric distributions in Fig. 2.9.

Table 2.2: The symmetry or preferential spread (Skewness) (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Graphically skewed to Values from To Mathematically the

Strongly positive Very negative (Φ) +1.00 +0.30 skewed values, coarse

+0.30 +0.10 Positive skewed Negative (Φ) values

+0.10 -0.10 Near symmetrical Symmetrical

-0.10 -0.30 Negative skewed Positive (Φ) values

Strongly negative Very positive (Φ) values, -0.30 -1.00 skewed coarse

e. Kurtosis (KG)

Kurtosis is a method to measure the peakedness in a curve. The equation of kurtosis of Folk (1968) is shown below:

횽ퟗퟓ − 횽ퟓ 퐊퐮퐫퐭퐨퐬퐢퐬 = 퐊 = 퐆 ퟐ. ퟒퟒ(횽ퟕퟓ − 횽ퟐퟓ)

with Φ5, Φ25, Φ7, and Φ95 presenting the phi value at 5, 25, 75 and 95 percentiles.

Table 2.3: The symmetry or preferential spread (kurtosis) (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Values from To Equal 0.41 0.67 Very platykurtic 0.67 0.90 Platykurtic

0.90 1.10 Mesokurtic

1.10 1.50 Leptokutic 1.50 3.00 Very leptokurtic

> 3.00 Extremely leptokurtic

A classification scale of kurtosis is presented in table 2.3, and general forms of kurtosis is shown in Fig. 2.11. If the sample is better sorted in the central part than in the tails, the curve is

Chapter 2: Material and methods excessively peaked or leptokurtic. If the sample is better sorted in the tails than in the central portion, the curve is flat peaked or platykurtic. A typical curve with a value of KG =1.00; a leptokurtic curve with a value of KG >1.00 and platykurtic curves have a value of KG < 1.00.

Fig. 2.11: General forms of kurtosis (Folk and Ward, 1957)

Table 2.4: Size scale used in the GRADISTAT program (compared with a size scale of Udeen (1914), Wentworth (1922) and Friedman and Sanders (1978)

Gain size Descriptive terminology

Udden (1914) and Friedman and Phi (횽) (μm) GRADISTAT program Wentworth (1922) Sanders (1978)

0 1000 Very coarse sand Very coarse sand Very coarse

1 500 Coarse sand Coarse sand Coarse

2 250 Medium sand Medium sand Medium Sand

3 125 Fine sand Fine sand Fine

4 63 Very fine sand Very fine sand Very fine

2.2.2.2 Coarsest one percentile versus mean (CM) pattern

Passega (1964) and Visher (1969) mentioned that the grain size parameters and CM plots facilitate the differentiation between some environments´ sediments. In the CM pattern, the C parameter is one percentile of the grain size distribution, and the M is the median. Both C and M are plotted at logarithmic scales with micron values derived from cumulative curves (Fig. 2.12). The relationship between C and M is controlled by sorting by the bottom turbulence. The CM plot is divided into six segments, namely NO (rolling), OP (rolling and suspension), PQ (suspension and rolling), QR (graded suspension no rolling), RS (uniform suspension), and ST (pelagic suspension). Each segment corresponds to a particular sedimentation mechanism. Fouty-three beach samples of Crete were analyzed with grain size methods to determine the relationship between environments and grain size distribution.

Chapter 2: Material and methods

10000 IX III II I

O N 1 2 P 1000 VIII VII 3 IV V R 4 S 5

100 (1) Uniform suspension VI (2) Graded suspension 6 T Coarsest size (1%)(Microns) 1. NO Rolling C= One-percentile in Microns; 2. OP Rolling & suspension M= Median in Microns 3. PQ Suspension & rolling 4. QR Graded suspension no rolling 5. RS Uniform suspension 6. ST Pelagic Suspension 10 1 10 100 1000 10000 Median size (Microns)

Fig. 2.12: The CM diagram of grain size analysis (after Passega 1957; 1964)

The position and size of 6 segments of the CM plot may differ in form. The sediment transport mechanism involves that sediments of specific grain sizes are available under certain hydraulic conditions. Consequently, a deposition type is commonly represented only in a few CM diagram segments (Passega, 1957; 1964; and Passega and Byramjee, 1969).

2.2.2.3. The composition of grains

About 40% of the global coastline comprises sand and gravel beaches and consists of unconsolidated sediments (Bird, 2008). The redistribution of sediments of the coastal zone eroded rocks, and the production of bioclastic particles in the sea is carried out by various waves and tidal influences and currents (Moretti et al., 2016). The Gazzi-Dickinson method is used to analyze the composition and identify the origin of the study area´s sediment materials (Dickinson, 1970). 300 representative, random points of a thin section were examined petrographically under the microscope. These counts are then converted into percentages and used for composition comparisons for the provenance of the sediments. There are five categories presented in bar charts, including quartz, carbonate, feldspar, volcanic rock fragments, accessory minerals, lithic fragments, and mineral fragments.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

3.1 Abstract

This part of the study examines the foraminifera assemblages from 36 samples collected along the coast of western Crete (Greece) at Falasarna, Kissamos, Balos, Napalia, and Frangokastello. Based on different multivariable methods of cluster analysis, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the composition and distribution as well as the paleoenvironment of foraminifera assemblages are investigated: 14 common species from a total of 66 species are divided into four clusters corresponding to four sites by using R-mode and Q-mode, respectively: (Ia) Peneroplis pertusus (5 sites); (Ib) Cibicides pseudolobatulus (18 sites); (II) Ammonia beccarii (2 sites); (III) Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber (11 sites). The PCA supports the results of the cluster analysis. Moreover, to highlight the species diversity, the species richness, the Simpson index, the Fisher-α index, the Shannon-Wiener index, and calculated variables. Each of the four clusters expresses particular environmental conditions at the beach and the foraminifera´s specific origin. Wind and current directions play an essential role in the distribution of foraminifera in beach sediments. The results are compared with tsunami-related microfossil assemblages.

3.2 Introduction

Foraminifera spread over a vast diversity of marine habitats from the deep oceanic environment to supra-littoral areas in coastal zones. They are among the most significant components of ancient and modern faunal communities. Foraminifera have resistant shells, so their tests have a high conservation potential (Murray, 1991). As the collection and separation from the sediments as well as their preparation, is comparably easy (Amani and Wafaa, 2016), foraminifera fossils have been widely used in the reconstruction of environments and paleoenvironments (e.g., Holbourn et al., 2001a, 2001b; and Reolid et al., 2008). They provide various valuable information on ecosystems and are commonly investigated in terms of assemblage characteristics such as species compositions, abundance, and diversity (Frontalini et al., 2009; and Bouchet et al., 2012).

Benthic foraminifera are widely spread over the marine and transitional environments such as between marginal marine, neritic and deep marine environments of low energy and high energy settings. They react sensitively to changing environmental conditions (Sen Gupta, 1999; Murray, 2006), so they are very useful for ecological and paleoecological studies worldwide. The following factors play a significant role in controlling benthic foraminifera distribution: light penetration, temperature, salinity, oxygen levels, energy level, and nutrient supply, which vary with water depth (Herkat and Ladjal, 2013).

The sediment properties, such as grain size, organic carbon content, and oxygen concentration in the sediment´s pore water, are essential determinants (Corliss and Emerson, 1990; Barmawidjaja et al., 1992; Rathburn and Corliss, 1994 and Wells et al., 1994). Some authors comment that different species´ existence may not reflect the differences between environments exclusively, but varying dominance within the assemblages (Albani et al. 1991; Hayward et al. 1996; Herkat, 2013). The changes in foraminifera abundance and species composition may give hints in environmental factor changes (Debenay et al., 2000). 35

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Fig. 3.1: Map of the study area and sampling sites (simplified geological map based on Geological Map of Crete, 1972, scale 1:50.000)

Planktic foraminifera mainly live in the open marine sea and float close to the surface and in subsurface waters, they are commonly used as an indicator of water masses, and pelagic seas in ancient and recent oceans (Jones, 2014). With a short life span and a quick reaction to environmental changes, high diversity, and adaptability, some key planktic foraminifera taxa play an essential role as biostratigraphic markers (Jones, 2014; and BouDagher-Fadel, 2015). The analysis of planktic foraminiferal distribution allows reconstruction of sedimentary marine, paleoenvironmental, and paleoceanographic conditions in local and global dimensions (Drinia et al., 2003).

Recently, an increasing number of investigations on environmental variables have been carried out to provide baseline data for foraminifera as ecological proxies (Maria et al., 2016). Based on foraminifera assemblages´ distribution and composition, statistical studies still prove that these organisms can be successfully applied to identify various ecological characteristics.

A quantitative and comparative analysis of foraminifera in this study allows conclusions on environmental characteristics and represents a significant data source for identifying various foraminifera assemblages and assessing the relationship between the geological and tsunami activities and ecological data. Thus, this research aims to provide a broader database that can be used for a better understanding of the ecological driven distribution and composition of foraminifera assemblages for future paleoecological works.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

3.2.1 Western Crete - an overview

Despite an increased number of foraminifera-related studies for the coast of western Crete in the last decades (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998 and references therein), there has been a lack of works relating to foraminifera fauna and coastal sedimentation. Because of its geographical position in a transition zone between the North African arid climate and the Central European moderate and humid climate, Crete is exposed to the Mediterranean Sea´s strongly seasonal climate (Giorgi and Lionello, 2008). Interactive mid-latitude and tropical processes affect the area, which causes dry summers and temperate, wet winters.

Wind speed reaches up to 50 m/s in the west of Crete at sea level, and the scale of wind is around 100 to 600 w/m2 on the sea surface based on the data of the National Observatory of Athens (Christoforaki and Tsoutsos, 2017). The summer wind, so-called Etesians or Meltemi, comes from the NW, although N and W winds are also frequent in summer. This wind´s characteristic strength ranges from light to moderate, seldom increasing to gale force with a noticeable stable direction (Pyökäri, 1999). The second seasonal wind is the Cyclonic winter wind, which varies more in its main directions, commonly blowing from the N to NW (Fig. 3.1). In contrast, N, NW, and SW winds in the winter with moderate to strong, and occasionally gale force are not regular (Kendrew, 1953; Markgraf, 1961).

Three inflow and outflow systems of the water mass-structure exist around Western Crete, including surface, sub-surface, intermediate, and deep circulation systems. The surface and sub-surface water layers include three circulations. The first is the low salinity Atlantic Water (AW), which enters eastward through the West Cretan straits (Theocharis et al., 1993, 1999; and Zodiatis, 1991a). The second surface mass is the Levantine Surface Water (LSW), which travels to the Cretan Sea through the Eastern Cretan straits with warm and highly saline surface water (Zodiatis, 1991a; and Theocharis et al., 1993). The third water current is the Black Sea Water (BSW), which moves southward along the western Aegean coastline after entering the south Aegean basin (Zervakis and Georgopoulos, 2002). This flow mixes with surface Aegean masses and quickly increases in salinity.

The intermediate circulation includes two masses: The Levantine Intermediate Water (LIW) and the Cretan Intermediate Water (CIW). The former (LIW) transports warm water with high salinity and flows from the Levantine Sea at a depth of 200 - 300 m (Zodiatis, 1991a) westwards while decreasing in salinity and temperature. The latter (CIW) has similar characteristics as the LIW but is slightly colder, more saline, and denser and flows at a depth of 400-700 m (Zodiatis, 1991b; Astraldi et al., 1999; and Theocharis et al., 1999). The CIW flows through the Eastern straits, then turns to a westward direction along the Cretan continental slope toward the Adriatic and Ionian Seas (Roether et al., 1999; Theocharis et al., 2002; Manca et al., 2006; and Millot, 2013). The deepwater circulation, Cretan Deep Water (CDW), which has a typical salinity of no 3 more than 38.95 and σθ up to 29.2 kg/m , forms in the west of the Cretan Sea before sinking to the depths of 2000 m when leaving the Cretan straits (Theocharis et al., 1993, 1999).

In terms of wave characteristics, the prevailing direction of waves in Crete is from WNW to NNW, whereas the predominant is the most effective influence on any particular stretch of coast, and its direction from WSW to WNW. The maximum tide reaches about 0.3 m but may rise to 1 m under the influence of stormy winds (Pyökäri, 1999).

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Crete lies in the Hellenic Arc´s central section of, close to the Ionian Trench´s southern limit, a tectonically active region in the Aegean. The island belongs to the external Hellenides (Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Mason et al., 2016). The west of Crete is adjacent to the plate boundary and repeatedly struck by earthquakes (Stiros and Papageorgiou, 2001). Major bedrock normal faults are the Gramvousa, Rodopos, and Zacharias-Pemonia fault zones and the Sfakia and Asomatos faults. The normal faults in Crete have ca. NNE-SSW and ESE-WNW orientations (Mason et al., 2016). Three nappes (Plattenkalk, Pindos, and Tripolis Unit), Neogene, and Quaternary deposits represent the study area´s main structural elements.

The Plattenkalk Formation, represented by 1500 m thick limestones and marbles and locally chert, reaches from the eastern central mountains to the southeastern coast (Fig. 3.1). The Pindos Unit (Early Triassic/Eocene), consisting of deepwater limestones and radiolarites, is rare and located in the northwestern and southern coastal areas. The Tripolis Unit builds up the eastern and western peninsulas, which enclose the Kissamos Bay. In the following, the bay is described in more detail: From Late Triassic to Late Eocene, marine limestones have been deposited followed by a ca. 30 m succession of Jurassic limestones.

The shallow water-sediments of the Early Cretaceous, which reach approximately 900 m of thickness, contain benthic foraminifera and calcareous algae. The dolomites, limestones calcibreccia, and rudist fragments of the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian, Turonian) have a thickness of about 500 m; rudist-bearing limestones from the Santonian and Campanian reach roughly 200 m. The Late Paleocene is a transgressive unit with evidence of planktic foraminifera. The Middle Eocene also has a transgressive character and contains bryozoans, algae, and sea urchins. Finally, there is a transitional phase to flysch sedimentation in the Late Eocene (Jacobshagen, 1986).

The metamorphic Arna Unit (Carboniferous, Triassic-Oligocene/Miocene) and the metamorphic Western Crete Unit (Permian/Late Triassic) are the two main geological units in the central part of northwestern Crete. They are outcropping along with narrow stripes surrounding the Kissamos Bay, near Falarsana, and east of Palaiochora (Fig. 3.1). A large extent of these lithologies is overlain by Neogene and Quaternary sediments of marine, lagoonal, and fluviatile origin (Van Hinsbergen and Meulenkamp, 2006).

Crete has experienced a long history of earthquakes. The Aegean Sea north of Crete is characterized by shallow and strong offshore earthquakes originating from thrust faults along the Hellenic Trench (Papadopoulos, 2001; Reilinger et al., 2010; Papadopoulos et al., 2010; Nocquet, 2012; Maramai et al., 2014 and Vernant et al., 2014). These earthquakes are capable of triggering high energy wave events (tsunamis). In fewer cases, a tsunami may also be triggered by volcanic eruptions. All indicators of tsunami events in Crete are presented and divided into the three categories: (i) historical documentation, (ii) traces on archaeological monuments, and (iii) sedimentological evidence (Papadopoulos, and Imamura, 2001; Papadopoulos et al., 2010; and Maramai et al., 2014).

Papadopoulos and Imamura (2001) include seven high-energy wave events, of which two are especially remarkable: The eruption of the Santorini volcano in -1628 BC and the earthquake in AD. 365 that both caused tsunamis leading to enormous destruction and changed Crete´s geomorphology (Samaras et al., 2015).

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

3.2.2 Beach deposits in the study area

On the west coast of Crete, the beach of Falasarna stretches slightly curved from north to south for about 4,5 km along Falasarna Bay. At its northern end, adjacent to Gramvousa peninsula and Cape Kutri, ancient Falarsana is situated. The settlement existed from the Late Archaic to the late Hellenistic period. At the acropolis foot, a small harbor enclosed by defensive walls was built and connected to the sea by a 120 m long channel (Tzedakis, 1969; Hadjidaki, 1988; and Pirazzoli et al., 1992). It was a military port, presumably a pirate port, and probably in 67 BC, the town and its harbor were destroyed and abandoned (Pirazzoli et al., 1992). The harbor basin was filled with sediments (mainly silt, sand, and muddy carbonate sands) and was then uplifted to a recent height of 7 m (Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Dominey-Howes et al., 1998). The surrounding coast is rocky and built of karstified limestones.

Sample 17/1 comes from a small cave in the uplifted shoreline. To the south, the coast gets less rocky, and due to winds from the west, fine and finest material is carried to the backshore area forming wide dunes (Pyökäri, 1999). In the hinterland of the beach, limestones and marl limestones crop out. The result of grain size analysis of the beach sands showed moderate to well moderately sorted coarse sand. The skewness is from fine skewed to symmetrical, and finally, the kurtosis ranges from plakurtic to mesokurtic.

From the Falasarna area, three beach samples and 16 samples from the drill core PHA3 were taken. PHA3 (35°28´50.43” N - 23°34´38.35” E) was drilled by the team of Prof. Dr. Andreas Vött (The Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz), and it has a length of 5.50 m, including four core loss-sections with an overall length of 0.62 m (Appendix A, Fig. A.1. E; D)

Balos lagoon is located between the west coast of Gramvousa peninsula and the island of Kheri Tiganiou forming (35°34'59.85" N - 23°35'28.30" E). A lowland bridge formed by a rocky barrier connects the Gramvousa peninsula and Kheri Tiganiou. Beach-rock, sand, and silt deposits are found in the lagoon´s SW, where the water is shallow. In the northeast, a wide channel connects to the sea. Near the northern beaches, sediments´ geological character is dominated by sand, rubble, and boulders. The water south and west of the southern spit is deep.

Scheffers and Scheffers (2007) related the current destruction and transport of beach rock fragments to the 365 AD tsunami. It is unlikely that modern storm events deposit clasts in this area. It is possible that during a tsunami, huge waves transported sediment from south to north through the waterway between Kheri Tiganious and Gramvousa peninsula (i.e., the current lagoon) and also translocated huge boulders with the weight of several tons. Grain size analysis revealed the medium sands with moderate sorting, and the skewness is from symmetrical to coarse skewed. The kurtosis is mesokurtic to very leptokurtic. Three surface samples around the Balos beach area were taken (Appendix A, Fig. A.1. A).

Kissamos Bay is part of the Kastelli - Kissamos Basin (NW-Crete, (35°30'0.06" N -23°38'46.90" E), one of a series of sediment basins formed in the Quaternary. The marginal coastal area is surrounded by Holocene alluvial deposits and Pleistocene fluvial-terraces inland from the beach area (Anastasatou et al., 2017). The onshore basement rocks consist of Mesozoic limestones to Eocene age, shales, and sandstones (Moisidi et al., 2014).

The u-shaped Kissamos Bay beach extends straightly from the Gramvousa peninsula to the west and the Rodopos peninsula to the east. Two small rivers enter the bay near the eastern,

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores western ends of the beach, and several rivulets exist. Granulometry analysis indicates that the significant particle size is sand, and the proportion of coarser material (gravel) increases toward the west of the bay. In depths of 40 m, mud content is higher (Anastasatou et al., 2017). Pyökäri (1999) described the beach sediments of Kissamos as mainly of poorly rounded coarse sand and other marine and non-marine deposits comprising marl and sandstone clasts. The sediments are moderate to well-sorted, although the fluvial deposits are mixed by waves from the north and complex littoral drift system. The beach´s eastern part is dominated by well-sorted fine sand showing a coarse skewness and a leptokurtic kurtosis.

Samples comprise two sites (10/1 and 11/1) from the western half of the bay and ten core samples from the Kissamos. The drill site of KIS4 (35°29´56.01” N-23°41´37.24” E) lay around 250 m landward from the recent coastline and was drilled by the team of Prof. Dr. Andreas Vött (The Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz). The length of KIS4 is 2.50 m (Appendix A, Fig. A.1. B; C).

Napalia is the easternmost beach of the study area (35°27'38.60" N - 24°9'42.80" E) located on the northern coast of Crete. The backshore basement rocks are composed of flysch, sandstones, marine and non-marine sediments. The sediment is characterized by moderately well-sorted and mainly coarse sands. The beach´s non-carbonate minerals are characterized as minerals of the silicate group (Pyökäri, 1999). Grain size analysis indicates medium-sized moderately well- sorted sand. The skewness is coarse, and the kurtosis is platykurtic (Appendix A, Fig. A.1. F).

The Frangokastello area is situated on the southern coast of western Crete, ca. 13 km east of Hora Sfakion (35°8'4.09" N - 24°31'56.35" E). Steep rocky slopes surround the coastal plain incised, and uplifted alluvial fans predominate at the coastline (Shaw, 2012). To the east of Frangokastello, the 365 AD shoreline can be observed at an elevation of 1-2 m, and it is marked by a deep cliff (Shaw, 2012). The wave-dominated beach with low-moderate energy conditions is characterized by fine-medium sand. The sorting is moderate, the skewness is symmetrical, and the kurtosis is mesokurtic. Two samples were taken from the beaches near Napalia, and Frangokastello (Appendix A, Fig. A.1. G).

3.2.3 Evidence of tsunami layers from previous investigations

Previous studies significantly contributing to the knowledge of geology and particularly sedimentology of the area was carried out by Thommeret et al. (1981); Jacobshagen (1986); Pirazzoli et al. (1992); Frost (1997); Dominey-Howes et al. (1998); Pyökäri (1999); Scheffers and Scheffers (2007); and Mason et al. (2016). Micropalaeontological investigations were accomplished by Dominey-Howes et al. (1998); Stewen (2017), and Bock (2017). Despite an increasing number of foraminifera-related studies on Crete’s western coast (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998 and references therein), there is still a lack of literature relating to it foraminifera with coastal sedimentation.

In the past and present, coastal areas on Crete have been investigated for sedimentary archives of paleotsunamis (e.g., Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Dominey-Howes et al., 1998; Scheffers and Scheffers, 2007; Bruins et al., 2008; Boulton and Witworth, 2017; Werner et al., 2018; and Werner et al., 2019a; 2019b). Evidence of tsunamis has been found in various coastal areas, including Falasarna, Balos, Paleochora, Sougia, and Frangokastello. The southwestern part is indeed open to strong wave influence, but it is unlikely that current storm events deposit clasts in this area. The sediment cover north of the lagoon between Kheri Tiganion and Gramvousa peninsula is interpreted as tsunamigenic (Scheffer and Scheffers, 2007). 40

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

The harbor of Falasarna was investigated by Hadjidaki (1988), Frost (1989), Pirazzoli et al. (1992), and Dominey-Howes et al. (1998). Trenches inside the harbor basin reveal two possible tsunami layers with coarse material, more or less rounded blocks, and articulated shells. The upper layer possibly belongs to the 365 AD tsunami, and the lower one was correlated to an event in 66 AD (Pirazzoli et al., 1992). An investigation by Dominey-Howes et al. (1998) only confirms a tsunamigenic origin for the 66 AD event´s deposits. Scheffers and Scheffers (2007) detected huge boulders with weights of up to several tons at distances of 60 - 70 m from the shoreline. They assume that these blocks could only be moved to their present location by a tsunami.

Pirazzoli et al. (1992) found numerous foraminifera in the lower parts of the inside of the harbor basin´s trenches. They reconstructed the harbor water conditions and found changes in marine´s environmental parameters to a terrestrial milieu. After Pirazzoli et al. (1992), 30 species of foraminifera could be identified in the lower part of the harbor´s marine sediments. An according genus list is given in table 3.4. Almost all individuals show traces of abrasion, and some are broken. The water depth of the foraminifera habitat was estimated from 5 to 15 m. Freshwater influence increases with time, and foraminiferal assemblages have been replaced by Ostracoda. During a short period, the marine influence was renewed but again ended rapidly. Additionally, Dominey-Howes et al.´s (1998) publication gives additional information about the abundance of 28 species in the trenches inside the harbor basin.

More indications of tsunamis are described for the southwestern coast of Crete. Near the village of Palaiochora, in the back of a recent promontory, two different sand layers from a high energy event are deposited on Neogene bedrock and covered by recent littoral deposits and colluvial silt. Concerning grain size analyses, Ca/Fe ratio, color, and microfossil content, the sands are interpreted as tsunami layers (Werner et al., 2018). Around ten kilometers east of Palaiochora, on the Sougia coastal plain, sands containing marine foraminifera are intercalated between alluvial clayey silts beneath and colluvial deposits above. These sand-sheets at Palaiochora and Sougia are presumed to have been deposited during the 365 AD tsunami (Werner et al., 2018). At least at Frangokastello, boulders dislocated by a tsunami are found (Boulton and Whitworth, 2017).

3.3 Material and methods

A total of 36 samples were collected from 10 sandy beach sites and cores PHA3 for the foraminiferal assemblages´ ecological characterization. Sample analyses were carried out following standard micro-paleontological methods. Approximately 20 g of each dry sample is immersed in water for about 2 hours until it is disaggregated. They then were washed through a 63 μm sieve and dried in an oven at 40o C.

Three hundred specimens in each sample were picked and identified following the generic classification of Loeblich and Tappan (1988), Jones (1994, 2014), and Ellis and Messina (1942- 2012) in comparison with specimens from the collections of foraminifera identified by Van der Zwaan (1982), Langer (1988); Cimerman and Langer (1991) with published illustrations of species from the Mediterranean region (Bizon, 1985; Langer 1993, 2008; Milker and Schmiedl, 2012; Holbourn et al., 2013 and Lopez-Belzunce et al., 2014) classification for a higher level of taxa above genus and species level WoRMS (2018).

For statistical purposes, the data matrix is standardized, and five measures of species diversity are calculated: Species richness (Murray, 1991); Fisher - α index (Fisher et al., 1943); the 41

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Simpson index (Simpson, 1949; MacArthur, 1972 and Peet, 1974); the Shannon - Wiener [H(s)] index (Shannon and Weaver, 1963; Buzas and Gibson, 1969; Murray, 1973; 1991); and the dominance of species in each sample (Walton, 1964). The cluster analysis and principal component analysis are performed using percentage abundance data in R software v1.3.4.3. The density, diversity, and richness of foraminiferal species also are calculated by this software based on raw data.

For paleoenvironmental reconstructions, biological data are analyzed with multivariate techniques of cluster analysis and ordination method. Multivariate statistical, including Q - mode and R - mode of cluster analysis, is used to assess the statistically significant fractional abundance values. The classification of sites (“Q Mode”) and classification of species (“R Mode”) is made using quantitative similarity matrices calculated from the Bray-Curtis similarity coefficient (Bray and Curtis, 1957) and the Unweighted Pair Group Method Using Arithmetic Average (UPGMA). This program was developed by Rohlf (1989) and then adopted by Reinhardt et al. (1996) generated the dendrogram.

A data matrix is created by using the absolute frequency and abundance of foraminifera species from 36 sites in the PHA3 and KIS4 drilled core and beach samples. Species occurring with a frequency of ≤ 2 % of the total assemblages at any sample are eliminated from the matrix and the abundant species scattered and infrequent, occurring taxa (≤ 2 % relative abundance) are omitted as they have a significant effect on the formation of the major groups (Kovach, 1987; 1989). Consequently, 66 foraminiferal species´ record, accounted for in the 36 samples, is reduced to 14 common species, considered the most important and common species. All species are divided into groups with a coincident spatial distribution pattern by applying cluster analysis.

Previous studies also attempted to apply the relative abundance of planktic and benthic foraminifera to indicate paleo-depth reconstruction (Murray, 1976; Bremer et al., 1980; and Reolid et al., 2010). The research of Van der Zwaan et al. (1990) and De Rijk et al. (1999) mentioned that regression for the relationship between bathymetry and the proportion of planktic forms. The ratio P/B between planktic and benthic foraminifera is used as an indicator to estimate the paleobathymetry of sediments. The P/B ratio is expressed as P*100/(P+B) (percentages of planktic foraminifera of the total foraminifera assemblages. Paleobathymetry is also calculated for each sample by using the P/B ratio in the equation of Van der Zwaan et al. (1990). The P/B ratio is also applied to identify the samples´ paleoenvironmental characteristics (Davis, 1986; Harper, 1999).

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is implemented to foraminiferal assemblages as a fundamental detailed method to assess the variables´ relationship. A matrix is executed with environmental variables. The variable that has a low percentage is eliminated to avoid redundancy and present a more realistic ordination. Therefore, only taxa with 5 % in at least one sample are calculated by the PCA method.

The species within each genus are in alphabetical order. Photographs with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) are taken by the Zeiss SUPRA™ 55 model. The benthic and planktic foraminifera taxa are presented in Plate 1 and Plate 2 (Appendix E). Samples and specimens are stored at the Lab of Neotectonics and Natural Hazards Institute at the RWTH Aachen, Germany.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

3.4 Results

3.4.1 The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal fauna

The foraminifera assemblages are rich and diverse, with a majority of porcelaneous forms. In the whole study, a total of 66 species of 10624 specimens of benthic and planktic foraminifera are found (Fig. 3.2), belonging to the order Rotaliida (66 %), Miliolida (32 %), Lagenida, Textulariida and Lituolida (< 1 %). Fig. 3.2 shows the main species belonging to the families Cibicididae, Hastigerinidae, and Globigerinidae. The order Miliolida, as the second most important component of specimens, comprises 32 % of the total assemblages. Order is mainly presented by the families Peneroplidae, and Hauerinidae. Orders Lituolida, Textulariida, and Lagenida occur in minor amounts ( < 1 % respectively). The planktic species represented by the suborder Globigerinina, account for 20 %. They include the following genera: Globigerina, Orbulina, Globorotalia, and Candeina. There are apparent differences between the composition and abundance of common species. Peneroplis pertusus is the most abundant species, accounting for 16 % of the total assemblages followed by Cibicides pseudolobatulus, Globigerina bulloides, Globigerinoides ruber, Quinqueloculina seminula (12%, 10 %, 8 % and 7 % of the total of assemblage, respectively).

3.4.2 The diversity of foraminifera assemblages

The assemblages are described using the Shannon - Wiener index, the information function (H’), the Fisher - α index, the Species Richness, the Simpson index, and species dominance. The results reveal distinct differences between the sites (Fig. 3.3), and there is a similar course between the Shannon -Wiener index and Fisher - α index. The α index dismisses the sample size effects while the information index indicates heterogeneity within an assemblage (Murray, 1991).

The highest number (24) for species richness is found in samples 11/1 (Kissamos beach) and 12/2 (Balos beach) while the minimum value (9) is registered in sample 17/1 (Falasarna, rocky part of the coast). Other samples display intermediate values, falling within the range of 17-20. The Fisher - α index trend is concomitant with that of the species richness trend. The maximum value (6.14) is found in samples 11/1 (Kissamos beach) and 12/2 (Balos beach), whereas the minimum value (2.23) is detected in sample 17/1. Other values are within the range of 3.9 - 4.8. The Simpson index shows a different trend.

Core sample PHA3.8 (0.66 - 0.67 m depth) presents the highest value (0.9). The lowest value (0.6) occurs in sample 53/1 (Frangokastello). Other samples have values between 0.78 and 0.82. In Fig. 3.3, the dominance value is contrarily proportional to other diversity indices such as the Simpson index, Fisher - α index, Shannon - Wiener index [H(s)], and the number of individuals in samples.

Core sample KIS4.9 (0.67 - 0.71 m depth) has the highest values (2.53) while the core sample KIS4.17 (1.25-1.29 m depth) has the lowest value of this index (1.46). Other samples have intermediate values, ranging from 1.9 - 2.2. The samples have low values which indicate only a few species are in abundance. The highest dominance value (62 %) is found in sample 53/1, whereas the lowest value (14 %) is found in core sample PHA3.8 (0.66 - 0.67 m depth). The other samples have values ranging between 26 and 32%.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Species

Fig. 3.2: Percentage of dominant species in all samples of western Crete

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

% 70

10 Number of species

Dominance (%) 0

Fisher-α index 11 Shannon-Wiener index

10 Simpson index

7 6

3 2

14/1 17/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 12/2 12/3 18/1 53/1

13/1

KIS4.6 KIS4.7 KIS4.8 KIS4.9

PHA3.1 PHA3.2 PHA3.3 PHA3.4 PHA3.5 PHA3.6 PHA3.7 PHA3.8 PHA3.9

KIS4.14 KIS4.17 KIS4.10 KIS4.11 KIS4.12 KIS4.13

PHA3.10 PHA3.11 PHA3.12 PHA3.13 PHA3.14 PHA3.15 PHA3.19

Fig. 3.3: Diversity indices (Fisher α-, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson index, Number of species and dominance)

3.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis

The application of the Q - mode cluster analysis is divided into four site groups. Similar clusters are obtained by the R - mode, also indicating four species assemblages. There is clear evidence of different ecological communities of the different species groups in the sites. The assemblages are named based on the dominant species in each group (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5). Ternary plot of foraminifera suborder and triplot of agglutinated, hyaline and, porcelaneous foraminifera are shown in Fig 3.6.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

CIa CIII CIb CII Blue: Cluster Ia=CIa Green: Cluster II=CII Purple: Cluster Ib=CIb Red:Cluster III=CIII

Fig. 3.4: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of species (R-mode)

Cluster Ia - Peneroplis pertusus

The cluster Ia is dominated by the Peneroplis pertusus assemblage. This group includes porcelaneous species (64 %), hyaline species (35 %), and agglutinated species (< 1 %). Peneroplis pertusus specimens represent 46 % of the total assemblage and show the highest proportion of individuals. The environment is characterized by sediment dominated by medium sand. Cluster Ib - Cibicides pseudolobatulus Eighteen sites are grouped as cluster Ib - Cibicides pseudolobatulus. This group is characterized by Cibicides pseudolobatulus specimens (16 % of the total of the species). This assemblage includes a high proportion of porcelaneous species (55.47%). The value of hyaline species is 44 %, while agglutinated species have the lowest value (< 1 %). This cluster is characterized by a sedimentary environment with a significant contribution of fine sand. Cluster II - Ammonia beccarii The cluster II comprises only two sites and is dominated by the Ammonia beccarii assemblage, which accounts for 32 % of total species and is illustrated in the specimens´ percentage. There are 82% of hyaline species, 17 % of porcelaneous species and 1 % of agglutinated shells. Coarse sand is an environmental characteristic of this cluster.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

% Species

CIa

CIII

CII

CIb

Blue: Cluster Ia=CIa Green: Cluster II=CII Purple: Cluster Ib=CIb Red:Cluster III=CIII

Fig. 3.5: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters 47

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Porcelaneous/ Miliolida

Hyaline/ Rotaliida Agglutinated/ Textulariida

Fig. 3.6: Ternary plot of foraminifera suborder of samples and triplot of the proportion of agglutinated, hyaline and, porcelaneous in foraminifera assemblages

Cluster III - Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber This cluster contains eleven sites and is dominated by the species Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber (32 % and 23 %, of the total of the assemblage, respectively). With 98 % the foraminiferal assemblage is dominantly hyaline. The porcelaneous species represent 2 % and the agglutinated species < 1 %. Except for cluster III, all assemblages are characterized by the significant presence of epifaunal foraminifera. Cluster Ia and Ib have the highest proportions of epifaunal species (94% and 84 %, respectively). The percentage of infaunal species in all assemblages is very deficient, ranging from 0.4 to 5.7%.

3.5 Analysis of the environment

There is an increase in the proportion of planktic foraminifera corresponding to water depth. Some previous studies have already applied the percentage (%) of planktic foraminifera (P/B ratio) as one of the most significant and consistent proxies to examine the paleo-water depth (Boltovskoy and Wright, 1976; Gibson, 1989; Van der Zwaan et al., 1990, 1999; and Van Hinsbergen et al., 2005). Murray (1976) indicates that the inner shelf is distinguished by up to 20 % of planktic specimens. The middle shelf is characterised by 10 - 60 %. The outer shelf ranges between 40 and 70 % and for the upper bathyal zone. The P/B ratio is > 70 %. The highest proportion, approximately 90 %, is recognised in the lower bathyal environment (Valchev, 2003). Moreover, Pflum and Frerichs (1976) present that neritic environments (0 - 200 m) show a P/B ratio < 50 %, the upper bathyal (200 - 1000 m) zone corresponds to P/B ratio = 50 to 90 %, and the middle and lower bathyal environment (1000 - 4000 m) have a P/B ratio of > 90 %.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Middle-lower bathyal 600-2000 m

Upper

bathyal 200-600 m

Outer shelf 100-200 m Cluster II Cluster

Cluster Ia Cluster III Middle shelf 30-100 m

Cluster Ib Inner shelf 0-30 m

Fig. 3.7: Paleobathymetry estimation based on the P/B ratio

According to the results of the P/B ratio diagram in Figs. 3.7 and 3.9, it is clear that there is a distinct P/B ratio in each cluster. Cluster III shows the highest P/B ratio (from 46 % to 91 %), a good indicator for an outer shelf to the upper bathyal environment. The foraminifera, therefore, belong to a semi-pelagic species. Cluster Ia and Ib have the lowest P/B ratio (<10 %) values and represent an inner shelf species. Finally, the P/B ratio of cluster II lies between 2 and 17 %, so the foraminifera originated from the inner to middle shelf species.

Table 3.1: Eigenvalues of the four principal components extracted

Component % of variance Cumulative % 1 59.67 59.67 2 13.07 72.74 3 0.97 82.46 4 0.63 88.71

All taxa data with > 5 % in at least one sample was performed based on Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The results of the PCA distinguished four significant components accounting for 89 % of the total variance. There are only two first components that are significant (Tables 3.1 and 3.2 and Fig. 3.8). The first component accounts for 60 % of the total variance, and it is characterised by high positive loadings for Elphidium crispum (0.61) and Globigerina bulloides (0.61). The second component accounts for 13 % of the total variance, and it is identified by a negative correlation for Globigerina bulloides (-0.50) and Peneroplis pertusus (-0.62).

The PCA divides the fauna into four main species groups with rather similar ecological requirements. The results are similar for the assemblages obtained by cluster analysis.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Cluster Ia: This group is characterised by Peneroplis pertusus. The other dominant species are

Asterigerinata mammilla, Miniacina miniacea, Quinqueloculina vulgaris and Cibicides pseudolobatulus, with a minor specimen. Peneroplis pertusus is epifaunal and lives in lagoons and on the innermost shelf (Murray 1973; 1991; 2006; Phleger 1960; and Hohenegger and Baal, 2003).

Table 3.2: Component loadings of the taxa on the first and second principal component axes

Species PC1 PC2 Ammonia.beccarii 0.08 0.45 Amphistegina lessonii -0.01 0.12 Amphistegina lobifera -0.02 0.27 Asterigerinata mammilla -0.18 -0.03 Cibicides dutemplei 0.04 0.03 Cibicides pseudolobatulus -0.15 -0.06 Elphidium crispum 0.61 0.16 Globigerina bulloides 0.61 -0.50 Globigerinoides ruber 0.41 -0.04 Miniacina miniacea -0.09 0.09 Neoconorbina terquemi 0.12 -0.07 Peneroplis pertusus -0.55 -0.62 Quinqueloculina bradyana -0.05 0.02 Quinqueloculina seminula -0.16 0.16 Quinqueloculina vulgaris -0.06 0.01 Rosalina bradyi -0.07 0.03 Sorites marginalis -0.05 -0.02

It also lives epiphytal as herbivore species, clinging on seagrass or hardgrounds (Murray 1973; Murray 1991; and Hohenegger and Baal, 2003). Cibicides lobatulus, Asteriginata mamilla, and Quinqueloculina vulgaris feed on plants or detritus, whereas Miniacina miniace and Peneroplis pertusus are completely herbivorous (Hohenegger and Baal, 2003; and Murray, 1991). Miniacina miniacea is commonly attached to plants like Posidonia in lagoons and flat reefs (Murray, 1991). All species have in common a herbivorous lifestyle if the environment is favourable. So it is likely that group Ia represents a shallow marine realm within seaweed areas within the photic zone. The high percentage dominance value in cluster Ia indicates a strong relationship with the lower average species richness (34), Fisher α - index (6.19), Simpson index (0.77) and Shannon - Wiener index (2.12).

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Cluster Ib: is mainly dominated by Cibicides pseudolobatulus. Other subsidiary species are Asterigerinata mamilla, Quinqueloculina seminula, Rosalina bradyi and Elphidium crispum. Agglutinated species do not have significant importance. Besides a herbivorous lifestyle, Cibicides pseudolobatulus is epifaunal species. These species prefer living on hard substrates species in high energy environments and they feed on detritus and plants, like Asterigerinata mamilla, Quinqueloculina seminula, Rosalina bradyi and Elphidium crispum (Hohenegger and Baal, 2003; and Murray, 1991, 2006).

Cluster Ib has the highest species diversity reflected by the highest average species richness (42), Fisher α - index (6.94), Simpson index (0.89) and Shannon - Wiener index (2.58) in comparison with the other clusters. It leads to favourable and relatively stable environmental conditions for cluster Ib. Environmental conditions in Cluster Ib are stable down to a liner depth of 2.25 m, as shown by the results of core samples from PHA3.

Sample 17/1 differs concerning the lowest Fisher α - index (2.23). The sample was taken from a more rocky part of the coast. Wave action between the rocks may have led to enhanced destruction of shells. A remarkable difference between the bulk samples and sample 17/1 is the occurrence of some specimen of Globigerina bulloides. However, this finding is not further interpreted here, owing to a lack of material. Group Ib reflects similar conditions as group Ia and foraminifera come from a flat marine area.

The foraminifera species´ interpretation shows group Ia and Ib comprising the shallow shelf representatives typically within the photic zone and seaweed areas. All cluster Ib samples belong to Falasarna beach containing beach samples and all cores except for one (PHA 3/9). Environmental conditions seem to be stable for the more extended period down to a core depth of 2.25 m. Ages for this core section are still missing. Three out of five samples of group Ia belong to the Balos beach area. The beach does not experience the direct influence of the open sea. It is cut off by a rocky barrier enclosed by the Gramvousa peninsula and Kheri Tiganiou. Compared with Falasarna beach, the sample location is not exposed to the prevailing fetches from WSW to WNW so that differences in environmental conditions are likely.

Cluster II: is largely characterised by Ammonia beccarii. Others subsidiary species like Amphistegina lobifera, Quinqueloculina seminula, Elphidium crispum do not have a significant weight. Ammonia beccarii is infaunal and its microhabitats are muddy sand, brackish and hypersaline lagoons. It commonly lives on the inner-middle shelf (Murray, 1991). Although Amphistegina lobifera is not the main species of cluster II, its occurrence is remarkable. Amphistegina lobifera is an invasive species that entered the eastern Mediterranean from the Red Sea after the Suez Canal opening in 1869 (Meriç et al., 2016; Enge et al., 2018; Guastella et al., 2018; and Quell et al., 2018). Although the water temperature is lower than in its original habitat, Amphistegina lobifera is spreading over the Mediterranean Sea and has reached Falasarna (Triantaphyllou et al., 2009).

Cluster III: This is dominated by the Globigerina bulloides-Globigerinoides ruber species which are not reworked from the Teriary. Cibicides pseudolobatulus, Neoconorbina terquemi do not have a significant weight but occur as concomitant forms. Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber are floating species and commonly live in the epipelagic, outer-bathyal zone in the open sea (Szczechura 1984, Murray, 1973). Neoconorbina terquemi belongs to the

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores neritic epifauna to the upper bathyal zone (Murray, 1991; and Holbourn et al., 2013) and Cibicides pseudolobatulus, if not living herbivorous, can occur at greater depth (Murray, 1973).

The percentage of planktic foraminifera in cluster III is the highest, ranging between 46 % and 92 %. This cluster is found continuously in the fine sands of core KIS4 and beach sample 11/1, which shows high planktic foraminifera. Group III occurs in the middle to the eastern part of the Kissamos beach except for one beach sample (11/1) and core KIS4 samples down to 1.25 m. It has to be discussed why a normally pelagic or deep marine assemblage occurs in a beach area.

Bathyal

component axis

Inner shelf- Middle shelf

Component loadingof the taxaon the second principal

Component loading of the taxaon the first principal component axis

Fig. 3.8: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) (projection on the two first axes of the PCA of the % the main, > 5% foraminifera species)

Data on the foraminifera at Paleochora are comprehensive. Abundant species of the tsunami layer are Ammonia beccarii, Asteriginata sp., Cibicides sp., Elphidium sp., Peneroplis pertusus, Quinqueloculina sp., Rosalina bradyi and Sorites orbicularis. Adelosina sp., Asteriginata sp., and Cibicides lobatulus are subsidiary forms (Werner et al., 2018). Due to the abundance of Peneroplis pertusus together Quinqueloculina sp., Rosalina bradyi and Elphidium sp., it can be made the foraminifera originate from an environment similar to that of cluster Ia, and indeed cluster 1 in general. They were transported onshore by the tsunami waves.

Besides some other species from strata below and above the tsunamigenic layer, the occurrence of many Globigerina sp., and Orbulina universa is of interest. These foraminifera are reworked from the bedrocks (Werner et al., 2018). Because the 53/1 sample is located relatively far east of Sougia and Paleochora, it cannot be recognised which of the foraminifera reflect the typical assemblages of these beaches and which ones have been washed in.

Amphistegina lobifera proves the young age of deposition after 1869 AD (Meriç et al., 2016) at different localities in the study area. It may serve as a proxy for age estimation by correlation

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores with distance to the Suez canal. Samples with Amphistegina lobifera occur in groups Ia (12/1, 12/2, 12/3), Ib (13/1, 14/1,17/1) and II (10/1 and 18/1). The samples of Balos beach do not indicate a tsunamigenic deposition in the lagoon part of the area.

The content of foraminifera in the core samples (PHA3) is similar beach samples (13/1, 14/1 and 17/1) in Falasarna area. All these samples are dominant benthic foraminifera, and their shells are broken and poor preservation. Only planktic species Globigerinoides ruber was found in PHA3, they are not apparent in beach samples. The state of preservation and shells is a good hint for tsunami events in this area.

Table 3.3: Summary of density parameters in the clusters

Fisher Shannon- (%) Simpson No. Dominance Clusters Stations - α Wiener Plantonic index Species (%) index index species

53/1, PHA3/9, Cluster 12/2, 12/1, 6.19 0.77 2.12 34 43.53 0.33 Ia 12/3,

13/1,14/1, 17/1, PHA 3/1, PHA 3/2, PHA3/3, PHA3/4, PHA3/5, PHA 3/6, PHA3/7, Cluster PHA 3/8, PHA 6.94 0.89 2.58 48 19.93 1.78 Ib 3/10, PHA3/11, PHA3/12, PHA3/13, PHA3/14, PHA3/15, PHA 3/19

Cluster II 10/1, 18/1 6,36 0.86 2.39 29 32.17 8.50

11/1, KIS4/7, KIS4/8, KIS 4/9, KIS4/10, Cluster KIS4/11, 6.79 0.83 2.41 42 31.56 62.33 III KIS4/12, KIS4/13, KIS4/14, KIS4/6, KIS4/17

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

In the core samples and beach samples of Kissamos area, the content of foraminifera is the same: abundant planktic species such as Globigerinoides ruber, Globigerina bulloides, Globorotalia menardii, Globorotalia panda. These species are dominant in outer shelf to upper bathyal zone. The tests of foraminifera were broken and reworked. This planktic´s highest dominant was found in KIS4.6, KIS.4.10 and KIS4.17 (Appendix F). It shows that the highest energy condition that occurred in samples KIS4.6, KIS.4.10 and KIS4.17. The shells´ characteristics and situation indicate that in Kissamos undergoes a high energy environment.

Fig. 3.9: Summary of the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics

3.6 Discussion

The four clusters of assemblages are distinguished based on the composition and distribution of species. Cluster Ia, Ib and II comprise foraminiferal assemblages from the photic zone of the middle to the inner shelf. The extraordinary findings of planktic and bathyal species in cluster III are not expectable for a beach area which is only open to the north, and besides, that is protected by peninsulas to the east and west. Their occurrence is stable down to a liner depth of 1.25 m in core KIS4 (Fig. 3.10). The coast was situated further inland before the uplift, but the foraminifera assemblages did not change, and deposition conditions were similar to today. Results from sample 10/1 from a truncated western part of the beach seem conflicting because they belong to cluster II. In detail, this part of the coast shows a foraminifera assemblage specifically adapted to this environment.

The foraminiferal content of the harbour of Falasarna published by Dominey-Howes et al. (1998) is dominated by Ammonia (A. beccarii, A. tepida, and A. parkinsoniana), Elphidium (E. advenum, E. crispum) and Quinqueloculina (Q. aspera, Q. bicornis, Q. vulgaris, Q. seminula) 54

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores that together make up 64%. This qualitative and quantitative composition may allow a careful correlation with cluster II before the invasion of Amphistegina lobifera. Nevertheless, for some foraminifera, such as Ammonia tepida, the harbour basin has been their natural habitat. They prefer sheltered environments with fine-grained sediments and can react to fluctuating salinity. Many shells from the harbour samples are broken and occur together with some less common foraminifera that can also be found in abyssal plains (e.g. Eponides repandus). Therefore, the findings are interpreted as tsunami deposits (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998). The mixture of species from the outer shelf and deepwater (e.g. Eponides repandus, Globigerina ruber) and the state of preservation are valuable hints to a tsunami event. Quantitative information is missing in Pirazzoli et al. (1992), but there are no substantial differences in the findings published by Dominey-Howes et al. (1998) even though Pirazzoli et al. (1992) determined some species.

Werner et al. (2018) describe tsunami layers from Sougia and Paleochora at the southwestern coast of Crete. Besides micropaleontology method, the interpretation is based on field observations, sedimentology, and geochemistry. Sample 53/1 is the only location on the southwestern coast and has been assigned to group Ia. At Sougia, the tsunami layer is intercalated between terrestrial sediments and all foraminifera were brought in by a high energy event. Most of the microfossils are broken. The following genera occur in an appreciable frequency: Ammonia sp., Bolivina sp., Adelosina sp., Elphidium sp., Bulimina sp. Rosalina sp., and Globigerina sp. are less frequent. Our data is not sufficient to assign the foraminifera to an environment that fits into one of the groups described above. Both benthic and planktic foraminifera were mixed by a high-energy event.

3.7 Conclusions

The characteristics of foraminiferal assemblages of 36 sites in western Crete were investigated. A total of 10624 specimens was analysed which belong to 66 species. The foraminifera species provide valuable insights into ecological communities and transport processes. This study identifies four main clusters of foraminifera assemblages by performing Q and R modes of cluster analysis. For each of these groups, we identified a corresponding habitat. Each cluster comprises species from a different depth of the inner shelf, middle shelf, and upper bathyal zone.

Cluster Ia, Ib, and II reflect shallow marine conditions within the photic zone. Cluster Ia is dominated by the Peneroplis pertusus assemblage. Cluster Ib is characterised by Cibicides pseudolobatulus. Cluster II is identified by Ammonia beccarii, and Amphistegina lobifera and the sediments show the younger development of foraminiferal assemblages. Cluster III shows the dominance of Globigerina bulloides-Globigerinoides ruber in samples from the middle of the eastern Bay of Kissamos.

Local wind directions may be the cause of the occurrence of planktic foraminifera at this locality. However, the occurrence of abundant planktic foraminifera is not a good indicator of high energy events that in turn would preferably be evidenced by mixing up benthic and planktic genera. To detect tsunami deposits´ intercalation in terrestrial strata of marine and coastal areas, the typical fauna´s knowledge is decisived. Generally, also, other methods should be applied besides micropaleontology to prove a tsunami eventually.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

The knowledge of recent foraminiferal assemblages from sandy and rocky coasts of Crete helps distinguish different kinds of sedimentation like high energy events from normal sedimentation. Attention must also be paid to the state of conservation and reworking of microfossils. This investigation is just at the beginning, and the knowledge about coastal evolution and the faunal characteristics must be deepened in many regards in the future.

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

Table 3.4: Summary of the abundant genus from the western part Falasarna Kissamos Balos Napalia Frakokastello Sites Pirazzoli et Dominey- PHA 3 13/1 14/1 17/1 al., Howes KIS 4 10/1 11/1 12/1 12/2 12/3 18/1 53/1 1992 et al., 1998 Ammonia r      r c r  r r a  Amphistegina  c a a   r a r  r r r r Amphisterinata c         c c c r c Cibicides c         c c c c c Elphidium c r r c   c c r c c r c r Globigerina r      a  a  r  r  Globigerinoides r      a  c    c r Globorotalia       c        Minicanina r r r     r   r   r Neoconorina       c  c      Peneroplis a a a a    r r a a a r a Quinqueloculina a a a a   r c r c c c r c Rosalina c      r  r r c r r r Sorites r c c r      r r r r r Biloculinella               Cassidulina       r  r      Eponides       r  r      Massilina r              Nonion          r r    Spiroloculina r r       r r r   Triloculina r         r    r Valvulineria               Lachlanella r r             Lobatula r r     r         -present; - absence; r- rare; c-common; a-abundant

Chapter 3: Foraminifera assemblages of western Crete coastal areas from beach samples and drill cores

The increase in the depth of cores (1-2-3) The top of cores

Fig. 3.10: The drill cores of PHA3 (left) and KIS4 (right)

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

4.1 Abstract

Based on quantitative analysis and diversity indices of foraminiferal assemblage compositions from 15 coastal surface samples along the southern coast of Crete, this study illustrates the changes in the distribution of microfossils related to the provenance of the sediment along the coast to find out the evidence of tsunami in southern Crete. Four clusters were identified: (III) Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber; (IV) Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii; (V) Amphistegina lobifera; and (VI) Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii. The multivariate analysis results show a lack of correlation between the outer-bathyal species, and the remaining species, and the appearance of allochthonous outer-bathyal species in the coastal environment. The result reveals the potential application of outer bathyal foraminifera as a proxy for extreme wave deposits.

4.2 Introduction

Sediment from a low-energy environment in the coastal zone can preserve geological evidence of paleotsunamis. Marine microfossils usually appear in tsunami deposits because of transport and deposition processes of inundation marine sediment ashore. If microfossils are well preserved, knowledge about their habitat can be used to identify the origin of coastal sediments (Pilarczyk et al., 2014; and Quintela et al., 2015).

Foraminifera are widespread from brackish to marine environments, and they live freely in sediment, on shells and corals and within the water column (Jones, 2014). These microfossils were used to provide valuable information on tsunamis, including the source sediment´s water depth, transport processes, hydrodynamic properties and processes after deposition (Mamo et al., 2009). As a result, foraminifera are one of the best tools to reconstruct tsunami events due to microfossils´ composition changes, as they reflect subtle changes in the environment.

South Crete, with its diverse coasts, plays a vital role in the history of foraminifera research, and numerous current taxa are presented from this region. Previous studies by different authors have contributed to the profound knowledge of the sediment and geology of the area (Thommeret et al., 1981; Jacobshagen, 1986; Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Frost, 1997; Dominey- Howes et al., 1998; Pyökäri, 1999 and Scheffers and Scheffers, 2007. Some previous studies mentioned foraminifera in the south of Crete (Drinia et al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Kröger, 2004; Boulton and Whitworth, 2017; and Werner et al., 2018).

4.2.1 The aim of the study

Despite the increase in the few late decades about foraminifera research in the south of Crete (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998) there has been a limitation of works relating foraminifera and coastal sedimentation. According to the need for proxies in tsunami research, this work should provide primary data from foraminifer analysis. Statistic studies play an essential role in successfully applying these organisms to identify different ecological and palaeoenvironmental characteristics (Maria et al., 2016).

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

An assessment of the environmental properties based on quantitative analyses, statistical and comparative analyses of the foraminifera of the study area should show the relationship between the sedimentary environment, ecological data and foraminifera community. Consequently, this study presents data on the composition and distribution of benthic and planktonic foraminifera, which allow the identification of tsunami deposits in the study area.

4.2.2 The regional setting

The study area is located in the south of Crete, the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (between 23o - 26.5o longitude and 34o - 35o latitude). Crete was formed during the early Cenozoic time by a series of thrust sheets (Creutzburg et al., 1977; Bonneau, 1984; Hall et al., 1984; Papanikolaou, 1997; and Manutsoglu et al., 2003). In Fig. 4.1, five major tectonic units with nappes of the study area are shown, which include lithologies with a pronounced to metamorphosis (Jacobshagen, 1986; Thomson et al., 1999; Manutsoglu et al., 2003; Rahl et al., 2005; Kock et al., 2007; and Zulauf et al., 2008). The lower nappes contain the Plattenkalk Unit and the Phyllite-Quartzite Unit (Bonneau, 1984; Hall et al., 1984; Krahl et al., 1982; Robertson, 2006, 2008; and Romano et al., 2006). The upper nappes comprise the Tripolitza Nappe, the Pindos Nappe and related units including the Arvi, Vatos and Miamou Units, and the Asteroussia Nappe.

Fig. 4.1: Map of the study area and sampling sites (simplified geological map based on Geological Map of Crete 1972, scale 1:50.000)

The Plattenkalk Unit (autochthon) of Late Carboniferous to Oligocene age occurs mainly in the North of the study area. The Pindos Unit (Early Triassic to Eocene age), the Tripolitza Unit of

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

Triassic to Middle Eocene, flysch of Palaeocene to Eocene age and the Arna Unit with Carboniferous, Triassic-Oligocene/Miocene sediments are located in the centre part (Fig. 4.1).

The Tripolitza Unit also occurs in the east of the study region and the Asteroussia Unit of Carboniferous/Permian to Paleogene. The Holocene-Pleistocene and marine sediments (Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene) overlay the presented nappes in basins in several areas (Papanikolaou, 1989; and Pirazzoli et al., 1992).

In the study area, the Pindos - Ethia nappe is mainly represented by Triassic pelagic limestones (Robert and Bonneau, 1982). The Arvi, Vatos, and Miamou Units are low-grade metamorphosed units, and they overlay the Pindos Nappe which is built of Triassic alkaline lavas, Triassic - Jurassic deep-water calcareous and siliceous sediments, Upper Cretaceous siliciclastic turbidites and Palaeocene pelagic carbonates (Bonneau and Fleury, 1971; Fleury, 1980; Krahl et al., 1982; Killias et al., 1993; Papanikolaou, 1989; and Fassoulas, 2001).

The Etesians or Meltemi is a summer wind blowing from the NW. Other common winds in the summer are N and W winds. The intensity of wind is light to moderate, occasionally rising to gale-force and constant direction (Pyökäri, 1999). The winter wind is named Cyclonic and varies in direction between NW and W however, N and SW winds are also frequent. They are moderate to strong and rarely reach the gale-force (Kendrew, 1953; Markgraf, 1961; and Pyökäri, 1999). The average wind speed ranges from 13 to 16 m/s.

Two ocean circulations are present the Atlantic Water (AW) and the Black Sea Water (BSW) in the study area. Both of them are surface to sub-surface water masses. The AW flows eastward from the west of the Mediterranean to the Sicily strait. The AW crosses the western Cretan straits and passes through the east of Kasos strait (Theocharis et al., 1993, 1999; and Zodiatis, 1991a; 1991b). Characteristics for the AW are a minimum of salinity from 38.5 ‰ to 38.9 ‰ and a water depth of 30 to 100 m. The second circulation, the BSW moves from the northern Aegean through the Dardanelles strait then bypasses southward the western Aegean coast. At the surface and sub-surface, the minimum of salinity of this water mass is < 38 ‰. This salinity shows a strong seasonally relationship between low temperatures during summer (Zervakis and Georgopoulos, 2002).

The prevailing waves on the coast south of Crete are directed from WNW to NNW direction. The second is the predominant wave coming from WSW or SE. The tide can reach a maximum of 0.3 m. However, the stormy wind can raise the sea level by more than 1 m (Istituto Idrografico Della Marina, 1981).

4.2.3 History of tectonic activity in the central south of Crete

Southern Crete has been suffering from various tsunami and earthquakes in its long history. Three intense earthquake activities destroyed Gortyn between the 4th, 7th century AD and an earthquake in the 1st century AD (DiVita, 1995). The urban fabric of Gortyn was destroyed during the 66 AD earthquake, while the Acropolis ancient urban centre existed (DiVita, 1995, 1996). The 365 AD earthquake had a seismic sequence, and it struck almost the entire eastern Mediterranean. The earthquake around 618-621 AD led to extensive destruction in the area of Gortyn (Table 1.3).

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

The AD 365 earthquake has caused significant tectonic dislocations in Crete (Stiros, 2001; Stiros and Drakos, 2006) and this event raised the terrain locally by 9 m (Scheffers and Scheffers, 2007). Shaw et al. (2008) mentioned the earthquake´s tectonic location and suggested a fault dipping at about 30o within the overriding plate.

Based on the analyses of the block and boulder accumulations at Lakki, Kommos and Diplomo Petris at the southern coast of Crete, traces of the AD 365 tsunami have seen eventually found (Boulton and Whitworth, 2017). The big slabs at Kommos could be deposited both by storm and by a tsunami. The stones are interpreted as tsunami deposits in Lakki. The Diplomo Petris area presents the most compelling evidence for tsunami deposits based on the boulder characteristics such as large size, geomorphological features and orientation (Boulton and Whitworth, 2017).

Kociok (2016) described three profiles by photomosaic analysis and t-LiDAR images to distinguish the boundary between the tsunami layer and the under- and overlying layers, the fining upward sequences in the layer in Agia Fotini beach (sample 58/1). The thickness of the sediment layer above the average of 1.68 m.

Werner et al. (2018) used sedimentological, geochemical, geochronological and micropalaeontological methods to investigate the areas near Sougia. The Palaiochora foreland suffered under the tsunami of 365 AD. and found valuable geoscientific traces preserved in the fine coastal sediments in the west and southwest of Crete.

4.2.4 Main beach deposits in the study area

Ammoudi beach: The sample 59/1 was taken (35°10'16’’11 N - 24°25'11’’37 E). The beach has a pocket shape. Near the sample station, a small river from inland lead to the beach. The result of grain size analysis indicates coarse sand. The skewness is symmetrical, and kurtosis is meso-kotursis. The sand is mainly composed of mafic minerals and quartz, 35 % and 37 %, respectively (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. A).

Agio Ammo beach: samples 20/1 (35°8'42.07" N - 24°30'52.48" E) and 20/2 (35° 8'41.26"N - 24°30'48.69" E) were taken. A small river runs to the beach. The grain size characteristic of sample 20/1 is moderately sorted coarse sand. The skewness is very fine skewed and the kurtosis is very platykurtic. The sample 20/2 is a moderately well sorted, platykurtic, medium sand with coarse skewness. The sand´s dominant components are carbonate and quartz (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. B).

Agia Fotini beach: One sample, 58/1 (35°8'42.70" N-24°30'50.10" E) was taken. Debris and gravel are significant components of the beach with grain sizes from 2 mm to 1 m, and also a sand fraction is present. The main component of sand is quartz (32 % of the total the composition), mafic minerals, feldspar, and lithic fragments have the same proportion, around 10 % to 13 %.

The dominant wave action here is turbulent with high energy at the shore, which destroys shells of a marine organism. As a result, this area´s typical grain size is a coarse sand with rounded bioclastic remains. Kociok (2016) found the bivalve species-Glycimeris sp., which belongs to family Glycymerididae (Huber, 2010). The various species indicate themselves in size differences and external structures. Glycymerididae live on the ground and prefer a marine and 62

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete subtidal environment with a gravelly substrate and agitated water. Their shell is, therefore, thick (Thomas, 1975).

A mark of a tubeworm is found on the shell´s inner side, which indicates post-mortem colonisation. According to the results of the combined methods (coastal morphology, t-LiDAR scan and, profile analysis), Kociok (2016) revealed the evidence of tsunami deposits at a beach parallel to the coast. However, no foraminifera were found in that outcrop and in sample 58/1 (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. B).

Ligres beach: Sample 57/1 (35°08'04’’09 N - 24°31'56’’35 E) was taken from a straight beach. The sample consists of moderately sorted, symmetrical very leptokurtic medium sand with asymmetrical skewness. Quartz, feldspar and mafic minerals group are the most dominant components of this beach sand (23.33 %, 20.67 % and, 20 %, respectively). (Appendix A, Fig. A. 2. C).

Pavlos beach: (35°06'09’’43 N - 24°33'46’’90 E): Sample 60/1 was collected from a pocket shaped beach (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. D).The characteristics grain size is coarse sand that is moderately well sorted, leptokurtic. The main components are mafic minerals (28 %) and quartz (24.67 %).

Agia Galini beach: (35°04’52’’54 N - 24°41'27’’96 E): has a pocket shape. The site of sample 22/1 lies between the Agia Galini port and a river that runs down to the beach (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. E).The medium sand is the moderately sorted, symmetrical, mesokurtic. Quartz is the most dominant component (31 %) which is followed by carbonate and feldspars (18 % and 15 %, respectively).

Kommos beach: (35°0'45"20 N - 24°45'36"00 E) is situated south of the Mesaras Plain. Shaw and Shaw (1995) mentioned that the bedrock sequence is built of soft limestones and Neogene age marls, Quaternary colluvial material and aeolian sand (Shaw and Shaw, 1995). That research also describes the poorly sorted sediments, slightly fine gravel, sandy mud. The sand content is 49% and has a grain size between 0.5 to 1.5 Φ. In this sediment occur fragment of sub-rounded to well-rounded of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Also, foraminifera, sponge spicules and shiny, well-round quartz grains can be found in angular limestone fragments. (Shaw and Shaw, 1995). The grain size of recent beach sediment ranges from 1-15 Φ. Aeolian sand covers large parts of the Kommos area.

Mourtzas et al., (2016) described sediments from the nearshore zone west of Kommos transported south by bottom current and deposited as a thin layer of sand over an almost flat rock surface. The author also found evidence of uplifted and submerged tidal notches along the coast of Kommos. The height of elevation is derived from an island that has been lifted 0.50 m to 4.20 m out of the sea. Samples 24/1, 24/2, 24/3, 24/3 and 24/5 were taken at Kommos beach (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. F).

Matala beach: sample 51/1 (34°59'37’’69 N-24°44'57’’60 E) was taken from a pocket beach and consisted of shape with medium, moderately well, mesokurtic sorted sand with a coarse skewness. Quartz is the most dominant component (39 %). (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. G).

Lentas beach: sample 49/1 (35°55'47’’80 N - 24°55'21’’45 E) and sample 50/1 (34o56'01’’20 N - 24o57'03’’05 E) were collected at a pocket beach (Appendix A, Fig. A.2. H). Sample 50/1 was 63

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete taken nearby Lentas port. The grain size of the sand is coarse sand. It is moderately to well- moderately sorted, finely skewed, platykurtic to symmetrical platykurtic. The main components both of samples are quartz (25 - 37.67 %), mafic minerals (23 - 28 %) and lithic fragments (10 - 27 %).

4.3. Material and methods

Fifteen beach samples on the southern coast of Crete were treated according to standard paleontological methods. All methods in this chapter are the same as described in Chapter 2. Some researches are referenced to support the results of paleo-depth in the study area (Van Morkhoven et al., 1986; Murray, 1991) and compared to some papers dealing with the Mediterranean Sea (Todd, 1957; Bandy and Chierici, 1966; Cita and Zocchi 1978; Wright, 1978; Venec-Peyre, 1984; Parker, 1985; Jorissen, 1987; Cimerman and Langer, 1991; and Drinia et al., 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c). Planktic and benthic foraminifera are displayed in Plate 3 and 4 with a 100 μm bar for scale (Appendix E).

4.4. Results

4.4.1 The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal assemblages

A total of 1311 specimens of benthic and planktic foraminifera have been found belonging to 32 species (Fig. 4.2). The foraminifera belong to four orders: Miliolida, Rotaliida, Lagenida, and Textulariida. Rotaliida has the highest proportion of species, accounting for 97 %, the orders Textulariida and Lagenida have the lowest percentages of foraminifera species, approximately 0.23% and, 0.15%, respectively. Miliolida is the second most frequent with a proportion of 3 % of all the total assemblages. The Rotaliida species belong to the following families, sorted according to their frequency. Amphisteginidae, Globigerinidae, Elphidiidae and, Rotaliidae. Miliolida is mainly presented by the families Peneroplidae with the Peneroplis genera and Hauerinidae with the Quinqueloculina genera.

The planktic species are presented by the suborder Globigerinina, accounting for 41 %. They belong to Globigerinidae, Hastigerinidae, Candeinidae, and Globorotaliidae families, including following genera: Globigerina, Orbulina, Globigerinoides, Globorotalia, and Candeina. Of the altogether 32 species, only ten genera are common. A difference between the composition and the abundance of common species is observed. Amphistegina lobifera is the most dominant, accounting for 19 % of the total assemblages, followed by Globigerinoides ruber, Globigerina bulloides, Elphidium crispum, Ammonia beccarii, Globorotalia panda (15 %, 13 %, 9 %, 8 % and 7 % of the total of assemblages, respectively).

4.4.2 The diversity indices of foraminiferal assemblages

There is a similar trend between the Shannon - Wiener index and the Fisher α - index. The Fisher α - index avoids the influence the sample size has on the results, and the calculation indicates the heterogeneity within an assemblage (Murray, 1991). The sample 24/1 has the highest value of species richness (21), while samples 20/2, 59/1 have the lowest values (1). The remaining samples present an intermediate value of species richness within the range of 13 to 14. Similarity trend is in the Fisher α - index and species richness. The Fisher α-index reaches its maximum value (6.81) in sample 24/1, whereas the minimum value (0.24 and 0.26) occur in samples 20/2 and 59/1, respectively. The remaining values lie from 1.55 to 3.07 (Fig. 4.3). 64

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

Species

Uvigerina mediterranea

Triloculina trigonula Textularia agglutinans Siphonina reticulata Rosalina bradyi Quinqueloculina seminula

Quinqueloculina poeyana Quinqueloculina bradyana Pseudotriloculina consobrina Planulina ariminensis Peneroslip pertusus Orbulina universa Neoconorbina terquemi Melonis pompiliodes Lagena striata Globulina gibba Globorotalia panda Globorotalia menardii Globigerinoides ruber Globigerina bulloides Elphidium crispum Elphidium advenum Cibicides pseudolobatulus

Cibicides dutemplei Candeina nitida

Bulimina elongata Bolivina robusta

Asterigerinata mamilla Amphistegina lobifera

Amphistegina lessonii Ammonia beccarii Adelosina mediterranensis 0 5 10 15 20 % Fig. 4.2: Percentage of dominant species in the samples

The Simpson index shows a lower value in comparison with other indices. The sample 24/1 is identified by the highest value (6.13), and the lowest value (1.08) is found in sample 60/1. Other samples have values between 1.55 and 5.02. According to Fig. 4.3, the percentage of dominant species and the Shannon - Wiener index[H(s)] contrast with the other diversity indices. The value of the Shannon - Wiener index[H(s)] also contradicts the percentages of the dominant 65

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete species distribution. The sample 24/1 has the highest value of Shannon - Wiener index (2.24) but the lowest value of the dominant percentage (28 %); while the sample 60/1 has the lowest value of the Shannon - Wiener index (0.16) but the sample has the highest proportion of dominant species (95.15%).

Other samples have an average Shannon - Wiener value, ranging from 0.67 to 1.95. These relatively low values indicate that only a few species are present in abundance. In cluster IV, the highest species diversity with the highest average richness (22), Fisher - α index (5.16), Simpson index (5.32) and Shannon - Wiener index (2.11) may demonstrate favourable and relatively stable environmental conditions for this cluster. In opposition, the highest proportion dominance value in cluster V (79 %) shows a significant correlation with the lowest species richness (6), Fisher - α index (1.15), Simpson index (1.54) and Shannon - Wiener index (0.69). The sample 20/1 from cluster I is characterised by the lowest Fisher - α index (0.24).

Fig. 4.3: Diversity indices (Fisher - α, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson index, number of species and dominance)

4.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis

The Q-mode cluster analysis of 15 samples used the relative dominance of foraminifera species and revealed four homogeneous site groups named after the most dominant species. Four corresponding clusters are identified by R-mode cluster analysis for 32 foraminifera species that

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete present four species assemblages. Each cluster illustrates the differences in the ecological community of species and the dissimilarity of the environment (Table 4.1 and Figs. 4.4 and 4.5).

Cluster III- Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber:

Cluster III includes only two samples and is dominated by Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber (32 %, 26 % of the total species, respectively). Accompanying species are Globorotalia panda, Candeina nitida and Neoconorbina terquemi. Rotaliida is the most dominant one, amounting to 100 %, whereas the orders (Miliolida and Textulariida) are absent. This environment is characterised by sediment with a significant contribution of fine to medium sand. Planktic species are dominant and account for 86 %, while benthic are rare, with only 14 % of the assemblage. Only hyaline specimens are present, while the porcelanoid and agglutinated species type are absent.

Cluster IV - Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii:

Cluster IV contains three samples and is characterised by Amphistegina lobifera-Amphistegina lessonii which accounts for 49 % and 33 %, respectively of the species. Elphidium crispum and Ammonia beccarii occur but in small numbers.

The hyaline species represent 92 %, porcelanoid is 8 %. Agglutinant species are absent. The percentage of the order Rotalida is 92 % and the second most common order, Miliolida, 7 %. The Textularia suborder has the lowest proportion, with only < 1 % and planktic species are absent.

Amphistegina lobifera lives epifaunal on the sediment in a high energy setting with moving sediment particles or sand sheltered between coral rubble covered with algae. They are normally found in very shallow water from 0 to 30 m depth. Amphistegina lessonii is an epifaunal species that occur on the sediment surface and hard substrates at the depth between 0-90 m. The um-biconvex form is an adaption to moving sandy substrate (Murray, 2006). This cluster is characterised by coastal foraminifera.

Cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera: This cluster comprises three samples and is identified by Amphistegina lobifera (78.95 % of the total of the species). Other subsidiary species is Amphistegina lessonii, which does not have a significant amount.

The hyaline foraminifera of cluster V has the highest proportion (98 %) while agglutinated species have the lowest percentage (0.48 %). The amount of porcelanoid specimens accounts for 2 %. Rotaliida has the highest percentage (98 %), while Miliolida and Textulariida have the lowest proportion, accounting for only 1.9 %, 0.48 %, respectively. Planktic specimens are absent in cluster V. This cluster is characterised by a sedimentary environment with a significant medium sand contribution. All foraminifera indicate an origin from a coastal zone.

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

CIII

CVI

CIV

Yellow: Cluster IV=CIV Orange: ClusterV=CV Red:Cluster III=CIII Green: Cluster VI=CVI

Fig. 4.4: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

CIII CV CVI CIV

Yellow: Cluster IV= CIV Orange: Cluster V=CV Red: Cluster III=CIII Green: Cluster VI=CVI Fig. 4.5: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of species (R-mode)

Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber live communally in the epipelagic, outer-bathyal zone (Murray, 1973; Szczechura, 1984). These genera prefer subpolar water masses, but their distribution depends on the higher food-offer through strong freshwater-inputs and the sea´s upwelling-zones. These species mix strongly seasonally (Hemleben et al., 1989; Lourens, 1994; Pujol and Vergnaud-Grazzini, 1995). Cluster III represents the outer shelf up to bathyal species.

Cluster VI - Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii:

The cluster VI comprises three samples. This group is identified by Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii with approximately 30 % and 27 %, respectively, of the total species. Cibicides dutemplei are subsidiary species. The hyaline species have the highest proportion, accounting for 94 %, whereas the porcelanoid species account for 6 %. Agglutinated species are absent. The percentages for the orders are 94,33% for Rotaliida and 5,67% for Miliolida. Medium sand size is an environmental characteristic of this cluster. Benthic species are abundant and account for 89 %, while planktic species account for only 11 % of the assemblage. Medium sand size is an environmental characteristic of this cluster.

Elphidium crispum and Ammonia beccarii are epifaunal-infaunal species and live on the inner- middle shelf and the neritic zone (Murray, 1973; 1991; 2006; Phleger, 1960; Hohenegger and Baal, 2003). Ammonia beccarii is a cosmopolitan species that lives in the littoral and neritic environment. However, it is very adaptable (Debenay et al., 1998). This species is identified in hyposaline lagoons and estuaries. However, it is also often observed in a sandy sediment in the inner shelf (Murray, 1971). Cluster IV is characterised by species from the coast and inner shelf. 69

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

All assemblages are characterised by the significant presence of epifaunal-infaunal foraminifera with an exception for cluster III. Cluster IV and V have the highest percentage of epifaunal- infaunal species (97 %), while cluster III has the lowest value (1%). Cluster VI has the highest percentage of epifaunal specimens (19 %) while cluster IV and V have the lowest epifaunal (4 % and 2 %, respectively). The percentage of epifaunal in cluster III is 10 %. The infaunal species is very deficient in all four clusters (the maximum is 4 % in cluster III and around 1% in clusters IV, V and VI. Infaunal species are absent in cluster IV.

4.4.4 Paleoenvironment analysis

Fig. 4.6 shows a distinction in P/B ratio in each cluster. The cluster III has the highest P/B ratio (from 83 to 88%), which indicates an outer shelf to upper bathyal and semi-pelagic to eupelagic biofacies species. The clusters V and VI contain no planktic foraminifera. Consequently, these clusters have the lowest P/B ratio (0%) presenting the inner shelf species. Finally, the P/B ratio

in cluster VI lies between 8-12%. It is dominant in the inner shelf species. (%)

Middle-lower 100 600-2000 m

bathyal 90 Upper 200-600 m

80 bathyal 70

Outer shelf 100-200 m

II 50 Cluster V Cluster VI Cluster IV

Middle shelf 30-100 m

Cluster I Cluster 20

0-30 m

10 Inner shelf

58/1 49/1 50/1 24/4 24/5 24/1 24/2 24/3 20/1 20/2 22/1 51/2 57/1 59/1 60/1

Fig. 4.6: Paleobathymetry estimation based on the P/B ratio

The cluster IV and V have no planktic foraminifera. It illustrates species of the inner shelf environment (0 - 30 m) (Murray, 1973; van Morkhoven et al. 1986). It is what could be expected from beach samples. The P/B ratio in cluster VI ranges between 0 % - 12%, corresponding to the inner-middle shelf of sediment environment (0 - 100 m). Cluster III has the highest percentage of the P/B ratio (83 - 88 %), which correlates with the outer shelf to upper bathyal zone (200 - 600 m). Besides, the biofacies of cluster III is eupelagic (1200 - 4000 m) (%P from 70 to 100 %) (Pflum & Frerichs, 1976).

According to the water depth zonation of Bremer et al. (1980) and van Morkhoven et al. (1986), the deposition depth of the sediment varies around 0 - 600 m and also reveals an environment in the inner shelf to the upper bathyal zone. The achieved curve for cluster III suggests that the

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete sediments were deposited on the one hand, in a water depth corresponding to the outer shelf to bathyal zone (200 - 600 m) or on the other hand, are transported by prevailing winds. The P/B ratio of the 15 samples ranges between 0 % - 88 %. It indicates the foraminifera origin from the inner-middle shelf to the upper bathyal zone (Figs. 4.6 and 4.8). The proposition of P/B ratio also fluctuates in between the samples.

Murray´s triangular diagram (Murray, 2006) shows the distribution of porcelaneous, hyaline and agglutinate species assemblages of the samples and allow the correlation to a paleoenvironment (Fig. 4.7). The cluster III-Globigerina bulloides-Globigerinoides ruber lies to the hyaline corner in the field of hyposaline marshes or hypersaline lagoons. Cluster IV and V are distributed in the filed to spread in the field of normal marine lagoons and hypersaline lagoons.

Porcelaneous/ Miliolida

Hyaline/ Rotaliida Agglutinated/ Textulariida

Fig. 4.7: Ternary plot of Foraminifera order of samples and triplot of the proportion of agglutinated, hyaline and porcelaneous in foraminifera assemblages

All species belonging to Miliolida, Rotaliida and Textulariida are shown in Murray (1973)’s a triangular plot. It is quite an exact, distinct distribution of four clusters in the diagram apparent. Almost all species are located in the corner of Rolaliida. Because Rotaliida is the most dominant order in all four clusters (93 - 100 %) and due to the absence of Textulariida. In the clusters IV and VI, there are more in species of the order Miliolida (7 %), so the normal marine lagoons are also documented. A clear distribution of the four clusters in the diagram is obvious.

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

Table 4.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters

Fisher Shannon- Planktic Simpson No. Dominance Cluster Samples α- Wiener species index Species (%) index index (%)

Cluster 24/4, 24/5 3.26 4.96 1,95 17 32.17 85.5 III

20/1, 20/2, Cluster 22/1, 51/2, 1.27 2.82 1.26 6 48.94 0 IV 57/1, 59/1, 60/1

49/1, 50/1, Cluster V 1.15 1.54 0.69 6 78.95 0 58/1

Cluster 24/1, 24/2, 5.16 5.32 2.11 22 30.19 10.80 VI 24/3

Fig. 4.8: Summary the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics (For legend of geology see Fig. 4.1)

In tables 4.2, 4.3 and Fig. 4.8, the result of PCA analysis is shown. Only the taxa with at least 5% in each sample percentage were used. Five significant components account for 99.54% (Table 4.3). However, only two first components are significant. The first one accounts for 72

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

56.46% of the total variance, represented by the highest positive loadings for Amphistegina lobifera (0.94). The second component accounts for 28.34% of the total variance and has the highest negative loading for Amphistegina lessonii (0.94).

Inner shelf CVI

CIV Inner shelf

Outer shelf-Bathyal CIII

the on second principal

component axe

Yellow: Cluster IV=CIV Orange: Cluster V=CV Inner shelf

Red:Cluster III=CIII CV Green: Cluster VI=CVI

Component loadingof the tax PC1

Component loading of the taxon the first principal component axe

Fig. 4.9: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) diagram projection on the two first axes of the PC1 and PC2 (important species loadings)

Table 4.2: Component loading for foraminifera in the study area

Species PC1 PC2

Ammonia beccarii -0.17 0.16 Amphistegina lessonii 0.00 -0.94 Amphistegina lobifera 0.94 0.11

Candeina nitida -0.02 0.01 Cibicides dutemplei -0.07 0.06 Elphidium crispum -0.23 0.23

Globigerina bulloides -0.09 0.06 Globigerinoides ruber -0.11 0.08 Globorotalia menardii -0.02 0.01

Globorotalia panda -0.04 0.03 Neoconorbina terquemi -0.02 0.01 Orbulina universa -0.03 0.03 Peneroplis pertusus -0.05 0.06 Quinqueloculina seminula -0.01 0.01 73

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

Table 4.3: Eigenvalues of the five principal components extraction

Component % of variance Cumulative % 1 56.5 56.5 2 28.3 84.8

3 11.4 96.2 4 0.24 98.6 5 0.08 99.5

4.5 Discussion

This study shows Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber in the coastal zone´s sedimentary record based on the foraminiferal analysis. These species are typically for the outer shelf to the upper bathyal environment (Hohenegger and Baal, 2003). Preservation conditions of their tests are usually poor while the autochthonous species are well preserved in some samples. It can indicate that they have suffered considerable transport activity.

It is revealed that an ideal environmental condition tends a direct correlation with higher species diversity, while unfavourable conditions should be expressed by low diversity (Phleger, 1960; Murray, 1973; 1991). Murray (1991) concluded that a lower Fisher α - index could indicate restricted environmental conditions. So the samples may locate within or come from an area with unfavourable condition areas for foraminifera. The reason for this exception in diversity is not clear. It can be the influence of a high-energy event that has left its mark on the Bay of Agio Fotini. For the other samples, the diversity indices and the clustering illustrate the environment, where the foraminifera came from, and show that foraminifera of cluster III is transported to the beach.

The cluster analysis results and PCA approve an unclear relationship between outer shelf- bathyal and coastal species (Fig. 4.6). Thus, the outer shelf-bathyal species can be explained as a proxy of transport from deeper domains of the outer shelf-bathyal environment to shallower, which are the inner shelf to the middle shelf zones.

Five samples (24/1, 24/2, 24/3, 24/4, 24/5), all from the Kommos area, show divergent results. Two of these samples (24/4 and 24/5) belong to cluster III, which comprises the outer shelf to upper bathyal species. Three samples (24/1, 24/2 and 24/3) are part of cluster IV, which is interpreted as the inner shelf to the middle shelf. The shells are most broken and poorly preserved. The appearance of planktic species recorded in coastal sediment and the statistical analysis showed an uncorrelation between the coastal and outer shelf to upper bathyal species. Boulton and Whitworth (2017) mentioned that the Kommos´s slabs could record tsunami or storm deposits. Thus, the change foraminifera composition and preservation and the environment discussed above could also point to a tsunami event instead of transport by prevailing winds.

Chapter 4: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the southern coast of Crete

4.6. Conclusions

The examination of benthic and planktic foraminifera is a micropaleontological approach to find evidence of tsunami deposits along the coast of southern Crete. Four foraminifera assemblages were found: Cluster III - Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber; Cluster IV - Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii; Cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera; and Cluster VI - Elphidium crispum and Ammonia beccarii. The PCA results and cluster analysis present a relationship between outer shelf-bathyal foraminifera in the coastal zone. It can be possible that outer shelf-bathyal zone foraminifera can provide a proxy of tsunami deposits in the Kommos area. Future studies need to investigate foraminifera in the mid-continental shelf and outer shelf area to reveal the tsunami processes, the origin of foraminifera and their translocation.

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

5.1 Abstract

Eighteen surface samples were collected on the east coast of the Crete coast, and 53 foraminifera species were identified. Biotic parameters (Species Richness, the Fisher - α index, the Simpson index, the Shannon - Wiener index [H(s)], and the percentage dominance were calculated to quantify the foraminifera assemblages with environmental parameters. The result of cluster analysis allowed to separate four groups of stations (Q-mode) corresponding to four foraminiferal assemblages (R-mode) with different environments: (Ia) - Peneroplis pertusus; (V) - Amphistegina lobifera; (VII) - Globigerinoides ruber; (VIII) - Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia beccarii - Elphidium crispum.

Foraminifera analysis results represent a high percentage of Globigerinoides ruber and Globigerina bulloides in the inner shelf´s sediment. These species are quite not well preserved or reworked. PCA and cluster analysis results reveal the uncorrelated relationship between coastal and outer bathyal to bathyal species. These species can be a considerable proxy for transport from the outer shelf bathyal zone to the inner zone under extreme wave events.

5.2 Introduction

Foraminifera assemblages are useful as a bioindicator of coastal zones´ environment (Buosi et al., 2013). Distribution patterns are often related to a complex set of environmental and sedimentological parameters controlled abiotic factors, e.g., grain size, organic matter, salinity and dissolved oxygen (Colom, 1974; Jorissen, 1987,1988; Murray, 1991, 2006; Melis and Covelli, 2013; Dimiza et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2016; and Baz, 2017). Besides, the changes in species composition, abundance, and variation in test morphology may illustrate evidence for fluctuation in several environmental factors and can be used as efficient instruments for determining ecosystem conditions (Buosi et al., 2013).

It is also claimed that foraminiferal analysis is vital for reconstructing paleoenvironment, paleobathymetry and paleooxygenation because they quickly respond to temperature and environment changes (Murray, 1991, 2006; Kaiho, 1994; and Schumacher et al., 2007). Moreover, foraminifera used as a micropalaeontological proxy in tsunami studies (Hindson et al., 1996, Patterson and Fowler, 1996; Shennan et al., 1996; Clague et al., 1999; and Hindson and Andrade, 1999).

The geology of east Crete consists of large overthrusts nappes with various lithology and facies which comprises a number of these thrust sheets which have been successively imbricated by other sedimentary and metamorphic units (Manutsoglu et al., 2003; Van Hinsbergen et al., 2005; and Papanikolaou and Vassilakis, 2010) (Fig. 5.1). There are five main nappes, which are included pronounced metamorphosis and no pronounced metamorphosis (Jacobshagen, 1986; Thomson et al., 1999; Manutsoglu et al., 2003; Rahl et al., 2005; Kock et al., 2007; and Zulauf et al., 2008). The lower nappes, namely the Plattenkalk Series, the Tripali Unit and the Phyllite- Quartzite Series broadly represent the Apulian continent and a collapsed internal rift (Bonneau, 1984; Hall et al., 1984; Krahl et al., 1982; Robertson, 2006; 2008; and Romano et al., 2006).

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

Above this, the upper nappes comprise the Tripolitza Nappe, the Pindos Nappe and related Units including the Arvi Unit, of particular interest here, and the Asteroussia Nappe.

Fig. 5.1: The map of the study area and sampling sites (simplified geological map based on Geological Map of Crete Palaiokhora sheet 1972, scale 1:50.000)

Gavrovo-Tripolitza-Series crop out occurs in most of the eastern parts of Crete. The remaining area is covered by marine sediments of Late Miocene-Early Pleistocene, and syn-tectonic sediments of Middle Miocene. The stratigraphically lowest Mani Unit, also known as the Plattenkalk Unit, is the so-called autochthon basement comprising crystalline limestone (Mason et al., 2016). This unit was imbricated by the Western Crete Unit which comprises mainly Permo-Triassic phyllites and Middle to Late Triassic evaporites. The Tripolis Unit was then imbricated and comprised a thick sequence of flysch, limestone, dolomite, andesite, diabase and, phyllites, all of which are preserved.

The eruption at Santorini (Aegean Sea) was the biggest Holocene volcanic event in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, and it affected the eastern part of Crete. Bruins et al. (2008) found geological and archaeological evidence of tsunami deposits in the Palaikastro area linked by radiocarbon dating to the Late Minoan IA eruption on Santorini. Bruins et al. (2008) concluded that the tsunami wave reached a height of 9 m at Palaikastro. There is a need for research on foraminifera on eastern Crete´s beaches to know more about the evidence of paleotsunamis in this area. Only a few studies on foraminifera in Ierapetra Basin are mentioned by Drinia et al. (2008; 2013).

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

5.3 Material and methods

In this chapter, the material and methods were the same as in chapters 2 and 3. The diversity indices: (1) value H(s) of diversity which uses the Shannon - Wiener information equation (Shannon and Weaver, 1963; Buzas and Gibson, 1969; and Murray, 1973; 1991); (2) Simpson Index presented by the reciprocal of Simpson’s (1949) equation which is based on MacArthur (1972) and Peet (1974); (3) Species Richness (the number of species); (4) The Fisher α - index (Fisher et al., 1943); and (5) the dominant percentage (the highest dominant percentage of specimens in each sample (Walton, 1964).

The multivariate statistical methods cluster analysis and Q-R modes analysis were used to examine the significant abundance values. Q-mode classifies the sites while R-mode separates species clusters by using the quantitative similarity matrices calculation of the Bray-Curtis similarity coefficient (Bray and Curtis, 1957) and the Unweighted Pair Group Method Using Arithmetic Average (UPGMA) (Rohlf, 1989; and Reinhardt et al., 1996). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the ordination method was used to obtain the data structure with variables to identify principal assemblages between specimens that reveal different types of paleoenvironmental characteristics (Rao, 1964; Davis, 1986; and Harper, 1999).

5.4. Results

5.4.1. The characteristic aspects of the foraminiferal assemblages

An examination of 18 beach samples at eastern Crete showed a total of 3806 specimens of foraminifera and was calculated and divided into 53 species (Fig. 5.2). All specimens were separated corresponding to the orders: Miliolida, Rotaliida, Textulariida and, Lagenida. The most dominant is the Rotaliida order, accounting for 85 %, while Textulariida has the lowest proportion, around 0.16%. The second most common order is Miliolida (14 %), and the percentage of the order Lagenida is 0.74%. Amphistegina lobifera is the most dominant species in all 15 samples, followed by Peneroplis pertusus species (41 % and 10 %, respectively). The other frequent species belong to Globigerinoides ruber, Elphidium crispum, Cibicides dutemplei, with about 7 %, which belong to Amphisteginidae, Peneroplidae, Globigerinidae, Elphidiidae and, Cibicididae (in order of their frequency). The planktonic species represented by the suborder Globigerinina, accounting for 14 %. They are represented with the families Globigerinidae, Candeinidae and Globorotaliidae, including the following genera: Globigerina, Orbulina, Globigerinoides, Globorotalia and Candeina. Foraminifera assemblages comprise 53 identified species, but only ten genera are common (Fig. 5.3). There is an apparent difference between the composition and the abundance of the common species.

5.4.2. The diversity indices of foraminifera species

The distinction between diversity indices, species richness and dominant and percentage species was expressed by the Shannon - Wiener index or the information function (H’), Fisher - α index, species richness, Simpson index, and percentage dominance (Fig. 5.4).

The number of species has its highest value (34) in sample 44/1 while the lowest value (2) was found in samples 35/1, 37/1 and 41/1, other samples have intermediate values between 16 - 20. The Fisher-α index dismisses sample size effects while the information function indicates the heterogeneity within an assemblage (Murray, 1991). The Fisher - α index reached its maximum 78

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete value (9.86) in sample 44/1, and the minimum value (0,18) in sample 37/1. Other values were in the range of 1.96 to 4.51.

Species

Fig. 5.2: Percentage of dominant species in samples

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

The Simpson index showed a similar trend in comparison to the other indices. The sample 44/1 has the highest value (11.84), and the lowest value (1.04 and 1) was calculated for sample 41/1 and 37/1. Other samples have values between 1.29 - 4.29. As shown in Fig. 5.4, the percentage dominance and the values of Shannon - Wiener index [H(s)] are inversely proportional to the other diversity indices. The sample 44/1 has the highest Shannon - Wiener index (2.82), but it has the lowest value of dominant percentage (15 %); while the sample 41/1 has the lowest value of the Shannon - Wiener index (0.01), but it has the highest proportion of dominant species (99 %). Other samples have intermediate values of the Shannon - Wiener index, ranging from 1.52-1.82. These relatively low values indicate that only a few species were present in abundance (Fig. 5.4).

5.4.3 Q-mode and R-mode cluster analysis

The Q-mode cluster analyses separate 18 samples into four clusters: Ia, V, VII and VIII. This analysis was carried out using the relative dominance of foraminifera species in each sample. Each cluster was identified by a particular assemblage of foraminifera species. As a result, four distinct clusters were recognized.

In addition, the same clustering was also identified by R-mode for 53 foraminifera species, presenting four species assemblages (Fig. 5.5). There is clear evidence of different ecological communities for the different species clusters of the in samples. The assemblages were named based on the dominant species in each group (Figs. 5.5 and 5.6).

Cluster Ia - Peneroplis pertusus

Cluster Ia includes three samples and is dominated by Peneroplis pertusus. The hyaline and porcelanoid species have the highest percentage (63 % and 37 %, respectively) whereas agglutinated species are absent. Peneroplis pertusus are the most common specimens in the cluster (32 % and 31 % of the total species, respectively). This environment is characterised by sediment with a significant contribution of fine to medium sand.

Cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera

Four samples were grouped to cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera. This cluster is identified by Amphistegina lobifera (94 % of the total of the species). The hyaline foraminifera of cluster V has the highest proportion and is the most dominant (99 %) while porcelanoid and agglutinated species have the lowest percentage (1 %). This cluster is characterised by a sedimentary environment with a significant contribution of coarse sand to very coarse sand, except for sample 40/1 (medium sand).

Cluster VII - Globigerinoides ruber

Cluster VII comprises four samples. The group is identified by Globigerinoides ruber, approximately 22 %, of all species and is calculated in the percentage of specimens. In this cluster, the hyaline species are the most abundant with a proportion value of 94 %, whereas porcelanoid species account for 6 %. Agglutinated species are absent. Sample 25/1 and 27/1 are characterised by medium sand, while sample 31/1 is fine-medium sand, and sample 45/2 is dominated by coarse sand.

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

Cluster VIII - Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia beccarii - Elphidium crispum

The cluster VIII includes seven samples and is dominated by the Amphistegina lobifera and Elphidium crispum. 73 % of the cluster IIa are hyaline species, followed by porcelanoid species (27 %). Agglutinated species show the lowest value (< 1 %). Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia beccarii - Elphidium crispum are the three most dominant specimens in this cluster (27 %, 10 % and 9 % of the species, respectively). The environment is characterised by sediment with a significant contribution of fine to medium to coarse sand.

100

80 70

60 50

40 30

20 10

Number of speices 0 Dominant species Fisher-α index

14 Simpson index Shannon-Wiener index

12 10

8 6

39/1 40/1 41/1 28/1 30/1 34/1 35/1 37/1 38/1 29/1 44/1 25/1 27/1 32/1 43/1 31/1 45/2 33/1

Fig. 5.3: Diversity indices: Fisher - α, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson index, Number of species and Dominance species

All assemblages are characterised by the significant presence of epifaunal foraminifera. Cluster V and cluster Ia have the highest percentage of epifaunal species (99 % and 95 %, respectively) while cluster VII has the lowest value (58 %). The percentage of epifauna of cluster VIII is 85 %. The percentage of epifauna-infauna species reached the highest value (37 %), while cluster V and cluster Ia have the lowest value (0.08 % and 4 %). The cluster VIII has the medium value (12 %). In all three subclusters, the infaunal species is very deficient (the maximum is 6 % in cluster VII and below 1 % in cluster V and Ia). In cluster VIII, this value is 3 81

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

%. This analysis was originally carried out using the relative abundance of foraminiferal species in each sample. Each group is identified by a particular assemblage of foraminifera, reflecting primary ecological parameters.

CV CIa CVII CVIII Pink: Cluster VII=CVII Orange: Cluster V=CV Green: Cluster VIII=CVIII Blue:Cluster Ia=CIa

Fig. 5.4: Dendrogram classification presenting the assemblages of species by R-mode

5.4.4 Paleoenvironmental analysis and paleobathymetric assessment

Based on the %P ratios analysis, the cluster VI has the highest %P ratio, followed by the cluster VIII, and cluster V and cluster Ia have the lowest %P. It indicates, cluster VII is dominant planktic species which prefer outer shelf to the upper bathyal zone. While cluster Ia, V, VIII are abundant benthic species that prefer inner shelf (Fig. 5.6).

Murray’s (2006) triangular diagram of porcelaneous, hyaline and agglutinated foraminifera species shows that samples are distributed over several environments (Fig. 5.7). The cluster VII - Globigerinoides ruber and cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera plot into the hyaline corner in the field of hyposaline marshes or hypersaline lagoons. The absence of agglutinating foraminifera in cluster VII is why the position in this corner of the diagram. The clusters VIII and Ia tend to spread over normal marine lagoons and or hypersaline lagoons. The position of the clusters in the diagram is consistent with the sampling points in a coastal zone.

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

CV Cluster V Amphistegina lobifera

Cluster VIII CVII Amphistegina lobifera – Ammoni beccarii- Elphidium crispum

Cluster VII Globigerinoides ruber CVII

Cluster Ia Peneroplis pertusus CIa

Pink: Cluster VII=CVII Orange: Cluster V=CV Green: Cluster VIII=CVIII Blue:Cluster Ia=CIa

Fig. 5.5: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

(%)

Middle-lower 100

bathyal 600-2000 m 90 Upper 200-600 m

80 bathyal 70 Outer shelf 100-200 m 60 Cluster V Cluster VIII Cluster VII Cluster Ia

Middle shelf 30-100 m 30

Inner shelf 0-30 m

39/1 40/1 41/1 28/1 30/1 34/1 35/1 44/1 37/1 38/1 25/1 27/1 31/1 45/2 29/1 32/1 43/1 33/1 Fig. 5.6: Paleobathymetry investigation based on the P/B ratio

Besides, all samples from the study area were shown in Murray's (1973) triangular diagram, the corners of which are assigned to Miliolida, Rotaliida and Textulariida. Almost all cluster VII and V are Rolaliida. The plot is near the corner of Rotaliida due to the absence of Textulariida (Fig. 5.7). Rotaliida are most dominant in all 3 clusters (61 % - 99 %). The second dominant order is Miliolida. Cluster Ia has the highest percentage of Milioliida (39 %), followed by cluster VIII (28 %).

Porcelaneous/Miliolida

Hyalines/ Rotaliida Agglutinated/Textulariida

Fig. 5.7: Ternary plot of foraminifera suborder of samples and triplot of the proportion of agglutinated, hyaline and porcelaneous in foraminifera assemblages

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

A Principal Component Analysis was performed based on all taxa proportion data with > 5% in at least one sample. The result of PCA is shown in Fig. 5.9. The PCA divides the fauna into four main species groups rather similar to ecological requirement. The summary of clusters is shown in table 5.1.

Group Ia: is identified by the abundance of Peneroplis. Peneroplis pertusus is epifaunal, clinging foraminifera, living on plants, and hard substrate, on the inner shelf, in lagoons and subtidally. Habitat and living conditions of Amphistegina lobifera are already described under Group V.

Group V: is characterized by Amphistegina lobifera, which is particularly abundant. It preferentially lives epifaunal in warm, clean, shallow water on seagrass (Reiss and Hottingger, 1984). Murray (1991) also mentions the typical marine environment of moving water and hard substrate, and coral reefs and lagoons (Murray, 1973, 1991, 2006).

Outer shelf- Bathyal

Inner shelf Inner shelf- middle shelf

e second principal component axis component principal second e

onth

Inner shelf

Componentof loading tax the Component loading of the taxon on the first principal component axis

Fig. 5.8: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) diagram projection on the two first axis of the PCA of the % the main ( > 5% foraminifera species)

Group VII: is dominated by Globigerinoides ruber. Globorotalia panda, Candeina nitida, Neoconorbina terquemi do not have a significant weigh. Globigerina bulloides-Globigerinoides ruber are planktic species and live commonly in the epipelagic, outer-bathyal zone (Szczechura, 1984; Murray, 1973). This cluster includes five samples (25/1 - Myrtos beach), 27/1 - Ierapetra beach), 31/1 - Diaskari beach), 45/1 - Karteros beach). The P/B ratio in sample 25/1 is 70%, in sample 27/1 is 41 %, in sample 31/1 is 32 % and in sample 45/2 is 14 %.

Group VIII: is characterized by Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia beccarii - Elphidium crispum. The other frequent species are Peneroplis pertusus and Quinqueloculina seminula. The fauna is dominated by pollution-tolerant genera. Amphistegina is particularly abundant and flourishes in 85

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete warm, clean, shallow water on seagrass. Elphidium is a freely moving, herbivorous, epifaunal species that prefers sandy substrates with vegetation on the inner shelf with warm water in depth between 0-5 m, and lagoons (Murray, 1991). Several studies show that Elphidium exhibits various contaminants and survives successfully in polluted near-shore environments (Schafer, 1973; Buckley et al., 1974; Schafer and Young, 1977; Bates and Spencer, 1979 and Schafer et al., 1991). Elphidium crispum-Ammonia beccarii are epifaunal-infaunal, and both live on the inner-middle shelf and in the neritic zone (Murray, 1973, 1991; 2006; Phleger 1960; Hohenegger, 2003). Ammonia beccarii is a cosmopolitan species preferring in littoral and neritic environments, A. beccarii is also capable of adapting (Setty and Niga, 1984; Debenay et al., 1998).

Table 5.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters

Shannon- Planktic Fisher - α Simpson No. Dominance Cluster Wiener species index index Species (%) index (%) Cluster Ia 4.76 1.13 0.26 5 93.75 0

Cluster V 0.67 4.66 1.96 25 31.56 1.11

Cluster VII 7.23 8.95 2.63 37 22.17 39.42

Cluster VIII 9.19 8.60 2.63 37 26.68 0

Fig. 5.9: Summary of the bathymetry estimation and foraminifera characteristics

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete

5.5 Discussion

Multivariable and statistical analyses were performed to explore a sifnificant distinction in foraminifera assemblages and their distribution along the eastern Crete coast. Four groups of foraminifera corresponding to four group stations were identified depending on the composition and distribution characteristics.

The results showed that there is a clear differentiation of the diversity indices between 18 samples. Cluster I has the highest species diversity corresponding to the highest average richness (37), Fisher - α index (7.23 and 9.19, respectively), Simpson index (8.95 and 8.60, respectively) and Shannon-Wiener index (2.63). It is well known that ideal environmental conditions are directly related to biodiversity, while unfavourable conditions should be expressed by low diversity (Phleger, 1960; Murray, 1973; 1991). So the indices indicate groups I and IIa lived under favourable and relatively stable environmental conditions. In contrast, the highest dominance values in Cluster IIc (93.75 %) show a significant correlation with the lowest species richness (5), Fisher - α index (0.76), Simpson index (1.13) and Shannon-Wiener index (0.26). The sample 34/1 in cluster IIb has the lowest Fisher - α index (0.18). Murray (1991) concluded that a low Fisher - α index indicates restricted environmental conditions so that the sample reflects unfavourable conditions for foraminifera.

The proportion of planktonic foraminifera (P/B ratio or % P) was used to reconstruct the paleobathymetry and the paleoenvironment (Figs. 5.7 and 5.10). The relationship between depth and the abundance of planktic/benthic foraminifera is based on the availability of nutrients on the seafloor, and it depends on depth. The samples 25/1, 27/1, 31/1 and 45/2 have a high proportion of planktic species. Globigerinoides ruber prefers nutrient-rich habitats, for example, from recurrent upwelling events (Pfleger, 1960). Besides, there are poorly preserved and reworked tests of foraminifera. It is caused by longer transport or more than an aspect of species depositions. The high proportion of dominant and subsidiary species can be considered a hint to the outer shelf- bathyal environment.

For the result of the PCA analysis, the 1st and 2nd components were used. The correlation is shown in Fig. 5.9. The absence of a negative correlation between the outer shelf-bathyal and inner species is the evidence. Fig 5.9 expresses more correlated with the outer shelf-bathyal cluster, correspond to levels that tend to exhibit higher proportions of outer shelf-bathyal species.

Q mode cluster analysis also presents a lack of correlation between the outer shelf-bathyal species and the remaining species. The absence of correlation is evidenced by a branch, composed only of the outer shelf-bathyal species, visibly separated from the main cluster, composed of species characteristic of a lower depth environment. The R - mode cluster analysis separates the samples into four clusters (Fig.5.6). Cluster IIa, IIb and IIc have the lowest proportion of outer shelf-bathyal species. Cluster I includes samples with the highest proportion of outer shelf- bathyal species (Fig. 5.9).

5.6 Conclusions

The results of Q mode analysis and sediment data indicate a zonation of eastern Crete into four segments. It is as well supported by R - mode cluster analysis, which distinguishes four different

Chapter 5: Assessment of foraminifera assemblages in the eastern coast of Crete assemblages. The group I comprises four samples 25/1, 27/1, 31/1 and 45/2. It is dominated by the Globigerinoides ruber assemblage. Group IIa - Amphistegina lobifera-Elphidium crispum comprises seven samples. Group IIb is identified by Amphistegina lobifera and includes four samples. Group IIc comprises three samples. This study could reveal that three distinct assemblages reflect different depth: inner shelf, middle shelf and, upper bathyal zone. The changes in the distribution of foraminifera give an idea of differences in environmental factors other than the water depth.

The foraminifera analysis results reveal the occurrence of Globigerinoides ruber and Glolobigerina bulloides in the sediments of the coastal environment in samples 25/1 27/1, 31/1, 45/2. These species are typical for the outer shelf-bathyal zone (Sen Gupta, 2013). The tests of these species are usually poorly preserved. It may indicate that they were exposed to extreme transport conditions.

Both PCA and cluster analysis confirm that the outer shelf-bathyal species are not associated with the coastal species. As a result, the species from the outer shelf bathyal can be regarded as a proxy for the transport from the outer shelf or bathyal zone to environments on the inner shelf.

The preliminary results of 53 beach samples led to the assumption that the occurrence of species from the outer shelf bathyal to the inner shelf could be suitable as a proxy for high wind, storm or tsunami events. However, these results require in-depth studies of tsunami deposition in onshore areas based on micropaleontological data and the studies should be extended to the central and outer shelf.

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

6.1 Abstract

The three coastal zones in western, southern and eastern parts of Crete are evaluated by studying the relationship between foraminiferal assemblages and grain size characteristics of 43 surface samples from the beaches. Three clusters of foraminifera assemblages are recognised corresponding to three sample sites using multivariable statistical analysis (Q-R mode): Amphistegina lobifera; Globigerinoides ruber - Ammonia beccarii and Peneroplis pertusus. The relationship between the composition of material and samples is also examined with the help of cluster analysis.

The Pearson index of Bivariate Correlation (PC) method presents 16 species displaying positive correlation with one or more sand fractions that comprise very fine to very coarse sand. In addition, the result of the Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) indicates that Peneroplis pertusus shows a positive correlation with fine and very fine sand with positive values for the second axis and negative values for the first axis. There is a positive correlation with negative values for both the first and second axis of Quinqueloculina vulgaris with medium sand. Amphistegina lobifera shows a positive correlation with very coarse sand for both the first and second axis. The appearance of outer shelf species combined with a decrease in mean grain size indicates that these species were transported by an extreme wave event.

The multivariable statistical analysis results confirm the absence of a relationship of the species from the outer shelf bathyal to the inner shelf. The division of clusters between the dominant species and seven main sediment compositions will be compared to detect an initial relationship between them and help identify the paleoenvironment and original material between the inner shelf and the upper bathyal setting.

6.2. Introduction

Among other microfossils, foraminifera are preferred as a useful and sufficient tool for analysing coastal areas´ environmental characteristics (Buosi et al., 2013). The changes in foraminiferal distribution in terms of diversity, composition and, structure are controlled by abiotic factors such as grain size, seabed oxygenation, nutrient availability, salinity, temperature or biotic factors such as predators, competition and reproduction (Colom, 1974; Jorissen, 1987; 1988; Murray, 1991; 2006; Melis and Covelli, 2013; Dimiza et al. 2016; Martins et al., 2016; and Sherif, 2017).

The changes in species composition, abundance, and variation in shell morphology may evidence variations regarding several environmental factors, and be used as efficient tools for determining ecosystem conditions (Buosi et al., 2013). Foraminifera are a vital instrument for reconstructing paleoenvironment, paleo-bathymetry, and paleooxygenation as they quickly respond to temperature and environmental changes (Murray, 1991; 2006; Kaiho, 1994; and Schumacher et al., 2007).

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Some authors recognised the important correlation between grain size and foraminifera distribution using a preference for a selected substrate (Blanc-Vernet, 1969; Sgarrella and Moncharmont-Zei, 1993; Debenay et al., 2001; Frezza and Carboni, 2009). Hyams-Kaphzan et al. (2008) found different foraminifera biofacies corresponding to various sediment fractions. In addition, the research of Armynot du Chatelet et al. (2009) shows a relation between sediment grain size and species density (the number of individuals of a given species that occurs within a given sample unit) and species richness (the number of different species represented in an ecological community).

Some studies successfully applied statistical analysis and ordination methods to demonstrate a correlation between foraminifera and single sediment fractions. Hayward et al. (1996) found that the percentage of mud is one of the main factors determining faunal distribution in the tidal zone of New Zealand by using Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Alve and Murray (1999) showed a significant correlation between the relative abundance of selected species and mud percentage. Donnici and Barbero (2002) indicated a linear correlation between the abundance of Ammonia beccarii assemblage and the shallow, nutrient-rich belt sediment; Nonionnella opima and nutrient-rich zone of clay-rich sediment; Textularia agglutinans and deeper less mud, nutrient-poor, sediment.

Fig. 6.1: Map of the study area and sample sites (simplified geological map based on Geological Map of Crete, scale 1:50.000)

Mendes et al. (2004) incorporated the abundance of some species into Folk´s granulometric triangular diagram (Folk and Ward, 1957) and recognized some species´ preference for particular sediment types. Magno et al. (2012) showed that species positively correlate with fine

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete sediment fractions in Italy. In addition, data on the foraminiferal distribution and sediment grain size were considered, and grain size influence is compared to the foraminiferal assemblages (Bergami et al., 2009; and Romano et al., 2009a, 2009b). A few studies mention the relationship between foraminiferal assemblages and the composition of coastal sediment deposits of the coastal zone.

The Cretan interior is formed by many plateaus and mountains whose peaks reach heights between 800 and 2450 meters. The mountain ranges generally extend from west to east. Some rivers flow to the coast and built several small coastal plains there. On the North and East coasts several tectonic horsts, consisting of limestones, dolomites, phyllites and, quartzites, reach into the sea. They built usually high cliffs, and the depressions between the horsts are filled with fluvial-lacustrine sediments (Creutzburg et al., 1997). The coasts of the South and West are rocky and cliffy. On the South coast in the west of Crete, the cliffs built by coastal horsts, are impressive. The southwestern horsts are composed of limestones and dolomites, phyllites, and quartzites. The depressions between the horst are formed of thick sequences of marl, flysch, sandstones, and few cemented fluvial-lacustrine, lagoonal or marine sediments. The shape of beaches varies from up to the 3 km long well-developed backshore to very wide beaches with dunes and small pocket beaches behind which there is a steep slope of debris (Creutzburg et al., 1997) (Fig. 6.1).

Geology and foraminifera of Crete were studied by some researchers (Dermitzakis, 1969; Gradstein, 1973; Zachariasse, 1975; Fortuin, 1977, 1978; Meulenkamp et al., 1979a, 1979b; Meulenkamp and Hilgen, 1986; Drinia, 1989; Pirazzoli et al., 1992; Postma and Drinia, 1993; Shaw and Shaw, 1995; Pyökäri, 1999; Stiros 2001a, 2001b; Drinia et al., 2003; Drinia et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Pipponzi et al., 2004; Kock, 2007; Scheffers and Scheffers, 2007; Bruins et al., 2008; Drinia et al., 2008; Caputo et al., 2010; Drinia et al., 2013; Mason et al., 2016; Bock, 2017; Boulton and Whitworth, 2017; Stewen, 2017; and Werner et al., 2018, 2019a, 2019b). However, studies about foraminifera for grain size analysis and the correlation in Crete´s coastal zones to reconstruct of paleoenvironment and paleobathymetry in the study area are still needed.

Therefore, this work investigates the distribution of foraminiferal assemblages along the coast of Crete, as the coast of Crete has a wide range of water depths and different environments. The relationship between the composition and texture of sediments and foraminifera on Crete will be determined using cluster analysis and ordination methods to provide a suitable data basis.

6.3 Material and methods

A total of 43 surface samples was collected along the coast of Crete to identify the ecological characterization of foraminifera assemblages: 10 samples on the western coast, 15 samples on the southern coast and 18 samples on the eastern coast, Samples for grain size and foraminifera analysis were collected a Van Veen grab from upper 5 cm of the sediment layer (Van Veen, 1933, 1936). GPS (Global Positioning System) was used to locate all sampling sites.

A data matrix was created by using the absolute frequency and abundance of foraminifera species from 43 sites. Species occurring with a frequency of ≤ 2% of the total assemblages in any sample were eliminated. The species occurring with these were omitted as they significantly affected the formation of the main groups (Kovach, 1987, 1989). The cluster analysis classified

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete the sites into assemblages (clusters), of which each cluster includes a group of species with a similar spatial distribution pattern.

In terms of paleodepth reconstruction, some previous studies use the relative abundance of planktic foraminifera as an attempt (Murray, 1976; Mark, 1979; and Rodriguez-Tovar et al., 2010). Van der Zwaan et al. (1990) and De Rijk et al. (1999) showed a regression for the relationship between the paleodepth and percentage of planktic forms. Although foraminifera are commonly used as a tool for paleobathymetry, the correlation between foraminifera allocation and water depth is still poorly understood (Van der Zwaan et al., 1990).

Notwithstanding, environmental parameters can be applied to indicate a bathymetric zonation because they are controlled by water depth (De Rijk et al., 1999). The P/B ratio represents the percentage of planktic foraminifera in the total foraminifera assemblages as 100*/(P+B). Paleobathymmetry is also calculated for each sample by using P/B ratios, according to Van der Zwaan et al., 1990). In this study, the bathymetric zonation of Van-Morkhoven et al. (1986) is calculated with: the inner shelf at 0 to 30 m; middle shelf at 30 to 100 m; upper bathyal at 200 to 600 m.

The data are arranged into a single matrix to analyse the correlation of variable pairs between grain size and foraminifera assemblages. The Bivariate Correlation (BC) is determined by Pearson’s index. This coefficient is regarded as significant only if there is a linear correlation between two variables. It is used to demonstrate the correlation between the relative abundance of individual species and sediment fractions (Debenay et al., 2001).

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) is applied to examine the relationship between species and environmental variables by directly comparing the data matrices. Only the species with a percentage of ≥ 5 % of the total abundance in at least two samples were used to avoid anomalous results. The foraminifera and grain size analysis results were proceeded using bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis using the R version (3.5.2). The samples for grain size data were analysed in GRADISTAT program (version 14.0).

6.4. Results

6.4.1 Characteristic of foraminifera

In the study area, 7941 specimens are found. These belong to the Miliolida (1868 species), Rotaliida (5982 species), Textulariida (29 species) and Lagenida (62 species). The dominant species belonging to the order Rotaliida, reaching about 75 % of total assemblages (Fig. 6.2). The species are distributed among families Amphisteginidae (Amphistegina); Cibicididinae (Cibicides); Globigerinidae (Globigerinoides); Hastigerinidae (Globigerina, Orbulina); Rotaliidae (Ammonia) and Elphidiidae (Elphidium). The second dominant species belong to the order Miliolida with approximately 24 % of the total assemblages. This order is mainly represented by specimens of the families Peneroplidae (Peneroplis); Hauerininae (Quinqueloculina) and Soritidae (Sorites). Less abundant orders are Lagenida and Textulariida, minor assemblages, accounting to 0.78 % and 0.37 %, respectively. These are mainly represented by the families Vaginulininae (Lenticulina) and Textulariinae (Textularia).

Planktic species make up 16 % of the total of assemblages. They are represented by forms related to the families Hastigerinidae (Globigerina, Orbulina); Globigerinidae (Globigerinoides) 92

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete and Globorotalia (Globorotalia). A detailed qualitative foraminifera analysis showed that out of 70 species, only 13 were common species. The changes in the composition of foraminifera assemblages in three areas indicated different environmental conditions. The environmental conditions spread from hypersaline lagoons, hyposaline marshes and the normal marine sea conditions with full exposure to the influence of open water. The relative abundance of species is illustrated in Fig. 6.3. In western Crete, Peneroplis pertusus is the most abundant (26 %), while in the southern part Amphistegina lobifera and Amphistegian lessonii are the most dominant (39 % and 18 %, respectively). In eastern Crete, Amphistegina lobifera is also the most abundant species 44 % (Figs.6.2 and 6.3).

Species western part southern part eastern part

Fig. 6.2: Average percentages of the recorded species in the studies areas

6.4.1.2 Q and R mode analysis

According to the Q-mode cluster analysis results, the study area samples can be divided into three clusters (Fig. 6.5). The same clusters are also recognised by application of the R-mode that displays three species assemblages. It shows the existence of various ecological conditions in the study area. The foraminiferal assemblages are named based on the dominant species in each cluster.

Cluster Ia - Peneroplis pertusus includes nine samples. Peneroplis pertusus is the most abundant species 35 % of the total assemblages). This cluster is identified by 51 % of porcelanoid specimens and 49 % of hyaline specimens. With the same trend as cluster V the agglutinated specimens are minor with only 0.63 %. This assemblage is characterised by epifaunal species (96 %). The infaunal and infaunal - epifaunal are rarer in this cluster with only 0.97 % and 3.4 %, respectively. The environment of this cluster is quite unstable and dominated by medium sand.

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

western part

southern part

eastern part

Fig. 6.3: The relative abundance of species in the western, southern and eastern part

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Cluster V- Amphistegina lobifera is contained in 24 and is characterised by the Amphistegina lobifera species. These species account for 67 % of the total of assemblages. Cluster V- Amphistegina lobifera comprises hyaline specimens (94 %), porcelanoid (5 %) and agglutinated (< 1 %). This environment existed unstable conditions and is characterised by medium-coarse to very coarse sands. Epifaunal species are the most abundant in this cluster (92 %) while infaunal and infauna - epifauna is minor 0.50 % and 7.5 %, respectively (Fig. 6.4).

Cluster IX- Globigerinoides ruber- Ammonia beccarii is presented in ten samples. The typical foraminifera of this assemblage corresponding to this cluster is Globigerinoides ruber and Ammonia beccarii (18 % and 11 %, respectively). Ammonia beccarii lives infaunal in muddy sand in brackish and hypersaline lagoons or lives on the inner-middle shelf (Murray, 1991). Cluster IX comprises hyaline (91 %), porcelanoid 8.9 % and agglutinated species (0.1 %). Epifauna and infauna account for 59% and 36 % respectively of the species in this assemblage. Infaunal species in cluster II account only for 5 %. Medium to coarse sand is dominant in and identified by cluster IX. The summary of clusters is shown in table 6.1.

Table 6.1: Summary of density parameters in the clusters

Shannon Number Planktic Fisher - α Simpson Dominance Cluster Site -Wiener of species index index (%) index species (%)

12/1, 12/2, 12/3, Ia 13/1, 14/1, 29/1, 7,88 5,78 2,34 46 35 0,59 32/1, 43/1 and 53/1

17/1, 20/1, 20/2, 22/1, 24/1, 24/2, 24/3, 28/1, 30/1, 33/1, 34/1, 35/1, V 4,89 2,13 1,36 30 67 2,1 37/1, 38/1, 39/1, 40/1, 41/1, 49/1, 50/1, 51/2, 57/1, 58/1, 59/1 and 60/1

10/1, 11/1, 18/1, 24/4, 24/5, 25/1, IX 10,63 12,75 2,98 60 18 40,1 27/1, 31/1, 44/1, and 45/2

6.4.1.3 Diversity of foraminifera species

The Fisher - α index, Simpson index, Shannon - Wiener index, species richness and percentage dominance were examined to compare diversity values in different parts of the study area (Fig.6.4 and Table 6.1). Cluster IX has the highest Fisher - α index (10.63), Simpson index (12.75), Shannon - Wiener index (2.98), number of species (60) and percentage of planktic 95

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete species (40 %) while it has the lowest dominant percentage (18 %). In contrast, cluster V has the lowest of Fisher - α index (4.89), Simpson index (2.13), Shannon - Wiener index (1.36), number of species (30) but the highest value of dominant species (67 %). In cluster Ia, the values for Fisher - α index, Simpson index, Shannon - Wiener index, number of species and dominant percentage are 8 %; 6 %; 2 %; 46 % and 35 %, respectively.

Fig. 6.4: Diversity indices (Fisher - α, Shannon-Wiener, Simpson index, number of species and dominance)

Sample 37/1 in cluster V has the lowest Fisher α - index (0.18) while sample 41/1 has the lowest value of Shannon - Wiener index (0.02) and Simpson index (1). In contrast, sample 44/1 has the highest the value of Fisher - α index (9.86), Simpson index (11.84), Shannon - Wiener index (2.82) and the number of species (34), however, this sample has the lowest value of the dominant percentage (only 15 %).

6.4.1.4 Paleoenvironmental analysis and paleobathymetry estimation

The results of the planktic percentage analysis of this study are given in Fig. 6.5. The value of P/B ratios for the clusters are different. The P/B ratios of 43 sites range between 0 and 88 %. Cluster IX has the highest proportion of planktic specimens (40 %) while cluster Ia has the lowest (0.59 %). The percentage of planktic specimens is only 2 % in cluster V. The P/B ratios is between 0 and 21 %, in cluster IX, this value is between 0 and 67 - 88 %. In cluster Ia, the P/B ratio ranges between 0 and 3 %.

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

% P 100 Cluster IX Cluster Ia 90 Cluster V Upper bathyal 80 (200 - 600 m) 70 60 Outer shelf (100 - 200 m) 50 40 Middle shelf 30 (30 - 100 m) 20 Inner shelf 10 (0 - 30 m) 0

24/2 24/5 33/1 39/1 40/1 41/1 17/1 58/1 37/1 49/1 50/1 24/1 24/3 38/1 51/2 34/1 20/2 57/1 60/1 35/1 28/1 22/1 20/1 59/1 30/1 25/1 31/1 27/1 45/2 11/1 24/4 18/1 10/1 44/1 53/1 43/1 12/3 12/1 12/2 13/1 14/1 29/1 32/1

Fig. 6.5: Paleobathymetry investigation based on P/B ratio of the study area

Pflum and Frerichs (1976) mentioned that the neritic zone (0 m - 200 m) has a P/B ratio < 50 %, while the upper bathyal (200 m - 1000 m) zone ranges between of 50 and 90 % of the P/B ratios The middle and lower bathyal (1000 m - 4000 m) has the P/B ratios > 90 %. Vella (1962) used the amount of P/B ratios distinguish two deep-water biofacies: the semi-pelagic biofacies which ranges from 600 m to 1200 m water depth with the P/B ratios from 40 to 60 % and the eupelagic biofacies which reaches from 1200 m to 4000 m with the P/B ratio from 70 to 100 %.

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Variance

CIX

CIa

Organge: Cluster I=CV Red: Cluster II=CIX Blue: Cluster III=CIa

Fig. 6.6: The most abundant foraminifera and the assemblage clusters

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

6.4.2. Characteristics of sediment deposit

6.4.2.1 Textural analysis

Textural characteristics of sediments such as mean grain size, sorting, skewness and, kurtosis are analysed. The grain size of sediments and the weight percentage of sediment distribution and cumulative frequency are presented in table 6.2 and Figs. 6.7 and 6.8. Frequency distribution curves for the mean size, standard deviation, skewness and, kurtosis are constructed to decipher the significant variation statistically in sediments from different environments.

Mean size: Most of the samples show a unimodal grain size distribution, except for three samples 20/1, 24/4 and 24/5 from the southern part and sample 28/1 from the eastern part of the study area. The mean ranges between -0.11 to 2.41 Φ in the western part, 0.30 to 1.58 Φ in the southern and -0.02 to 2.46 Φ in the eastern part. The sands are classified mainly as a medium to very coarse sand. The plunge point samples are moderately sorted to moderately- well sorted, indicating a prevailing high energy environment.

A 1.0 B 1.5 1.23 1.12 0.76 1.01 0.8 0.65 0.65 1.0 0.6 0.4

0.5 Mean Mean (Phi) sorting (Phi) 0.2 0.0 0.0 western southern eastern western southern eastern part part part part part part

1.05 1.02 D 0.04 0.03 C 0.02 0.02 1.00 0.97 0.00 0.96 -0.02 0.95 -0.05

-0.04 Kurtosis (Phi)

Skewness (phi) -0.06 0.90 western southern eastern western southern eastern part part part part part part

Fig. 6.7: Average values of grain size statistical parameters in the study area

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

western part

southern part

eastern part

Fig. 6.8: Cumulative frequency of samples in the western, southern and eastern part of Crete

100

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Sorting: Most of the sediment in the study area is moderate to moderately well sorted. The values range between 0.42 and 0.88 Φ) in the western part, 0.45 and 1.31 Φ in the southern part and 0.41 and 1.40 Φ in the eastern part.

10000 IX III II I O N 1 2 P 1000

VIII VII 3 IV V Q R 4 S 5 (1) Uniform suspension 100 (2) Graded suspension VI 6 Coarsest size (1%)(Microns) T 1. NO Rolling 2. OP Rolling & suspension 3. PQ Suspension & rolling 4. QR Graded suspension no rolling C=One-percentile in Microns; 5. RS Uniform suspensiom M= Median in Microns 6. ST Pelagic Suspension 10 1 10 100 1000 10000 Median size (Microns)

Fig. 6.9: The CM diagram plot of Crete coast samples

1 4

)

(

)

(

e 3

s e 2

a 1: Tills o

C 2. Pelagic 3. Tractive current 4. Beach

Median Size (Micron)

Fig. 6.10: Tractive current deposit plot

101

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

100 10/1 100 11/1 100 12/1 100 12/2 100 12/3 100 13/1 100 14/1 100 17/1 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 18/1 100 20/1 100 20/2 100 22/1 100 24/1 100 24/2 100 24/3 100 24/4

80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 24/5 100 25/1 100 27/1 100 28/1 100 29/1 100 30/1 100 31/1 100 32/1 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 33/1 100 34/1 100 35/1 100 37/1 100 38/1 100 39/1 100 40/1 100 41/1

80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 43/1 100 44/1 100 45/2 100 49/1 100 50/1 100 51/2 100 53/1 100 57/1

80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

100 58/1 100 59/1 100 60/1 100

80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60

Quartz

Feldspars

fragments Carbonates

40 40 40 Volcanicrock

40 minerals Mafic Lithicfragments

20 20 20 20 minerals Accessory

0 0 0 0

Fig. 6.11: Cumulative frequency from the western, southern and eastern part of Crete

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Skewness: The frequency distribution curves of skewness values show that the plunge point samples are negative to symmetrically skewed and coarse skewed with most of the values at - 0.17 Φ. Values vary between -0.27 and 0.91 Φ in the western part. It is between -0.38 and 0.89 Φ in the southern part and between -0.38 and 0.39 Φ in the eastern part. Most of the samples in the study area are negatively skewed, which tendentially indicate quite high energy conditions.

Kurtosis: The kurtosis curve distribution frequency displays that the plunge point samples are mainly platykurtic to mesokurtic with most common values around 1.00 Φ. Values range between 0.35 and 1.78 Φ in the western part, 0.46 and 1.57 Φ in the southern part and 0.53 and 1.48 Φ in the eastern part of the study area.

The CM diagram of coastal sediments shows that the transport is predominantly rolling and in suspension in almost all samples, except for only a few samples mainly transported in suspension (Fig. 6.9). Fig.6.10 shows the tractive current diagram in which most samples are classified into beach environments and some samples into the traction current environment. It can be explained by their interaction with waves.

6.4.3 The correlation between foraminifera and grain size

6.4.3.1 Pearson index

The Bivariate Correlation (BC) shows several significant correlations between foraminiferal species and grain size fractions (Table 6.2). A group of 16 species has a positive correlation with one or more sand fractions. Globigerina bulloides, Globigerinoides ruber, Globorotalia menardii, Globorotalia panda, Neoconorbina terquemi, Peneroplis pertusus, Cibicides pseudolobatulus, Peneroplis planatus and Sorites marginalis show a positive correlation with the very fine sand fraction. Textularia agglutinans, Peneroplis pertusus, Cibicides pseudolobatulus, Cibicides dutemplei and Elphidium crispum show a positive correlation with the fine sand fraction. Ammonia beccarii and Amphistegina lessonii have both positive and negative correlations with the fine sand fraction and a negative correlation with very coarse sand and coarse sand. Amphistegina lobifera correlates positively with very coarse sand, coarse sand and medium sand. Cibicides dutemplei, Peneroplis planatus and Sorites marginalis show a negative correlation with medium sand while Ammonia beccarii, Amphistegina lobifera and Quinqueloculina vulgaris have a positive correlation.

6.4.3.2 Compositions of sediment

The composition analysis determines the three most dominant constituents on Cretan beaches (e.g. quartz, carbonates and feldspar and illustrate the variation between different sites. Quartz is generally the most dominant constituent. The western part has a higher average of quartz than the southern and eastern parts, 33 % as compared to 28 - 29 %. Sample 11/1 has the highest percentage of quartz (51 %), while sample 32/1 has the lowest percentage (17 %). Carbonate is the second most abundant component. It has the highest value in the west and lowest in the south. The highest carbonate percentage is encountered in sample 12/3 (74 %) and the lowest in sample 49/1 (4 %). Feldspar is the least abundant of the three major components. The lowest percentage of feldspar has been observed in the western part. It has the lowest percentage in the west between 0.33 and 18 %, while in the east and south, it has values higher than 3 % and 34 % and 10 % to 23 % respectively. Location 40/1 has the highest feldspar concentration (34 %) while the lowest is encountered in sample 12/1 (0.33 %).

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Table 6.2: Pearson correlation between pairs of species and sediment fractions (Red bold correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; Green bold is significant at the 0.05 level) Very coarse Coarse Medium Fine Very fine Species sand sand sand sand sand Western Part Ammonia beccarii -0,20 -0,14 0,46 -0,10 -0,25 Amphistegina lessonii -0,23 -0.64 0.04 0,78 0,24 Amphistegina lobifera -0.13 0.01 -0.05 0,12 0,41 Asterigerinata mammilla 0,27 0,44 -0,13 -0,53 -0,55 Cibicides pseudolobatulus 0,73 0,38 -0,50 -0,50 -0,48 Elphidium crispum -0,11 0.10 0.29 -0,27 -0,32 Lenticulina inornata -0.02 -0.25 0.42 -0.08 -0.15 Neoconorbina.terquemi -0.02 -0.24 0.41 -0.09 -0.18 Peneroplis pertusus 0,29 0.35 -0.38 -0.25 0.11 Peneroplis planatus -0.1 0.41 -0.67 0.20 0.64 Quinqueloculina seminula -0.01 0,24 -0.19 -0.09 0,21 Rosalina bradyi 0,18 0,36 0,01 -0,48 -0,50 Sorites marginalis -0,26 0,61 -0,56 0,01 0,57 Textularia agglutinans -0,22 -0,40 0,34 0,84 0,26 Southern Part Ammonia beccarii -0.36 -0.38 0,68 0.68 -0.01 Amphistegina lessonii 0.17 -0.1 0,14 0.14 -0.03 Amphistegina lobifera 0.41 0.50 -0.4 -0.40 -0.43 Cibicides dutemplei 0.36 -0.49 0.49 0.49 0.09 Elphidium crispum 0.36 -0.37 0.70 0.70 -0.06 Globigerina bulloides 0.07 -0.42 -0.37 -0.37 0,61 Globigerinoides ruber 0.07 -0.42 -0.37 -0.37 0.61 Globorotalia menardii 0,13 -0.41 -0.41 -0.41 0.69 Globorotalia panda 0.19 -0.38 -0.39 -0.39 0.78 Neoconorbina terquemi 0.13 -0.45 -0.32 -0.32 0.80 Orbulina universa -0.23 -0.38 0.18 0,18 0.34 Peneroplis pertusus -0.31 0,10 0.35 0,35 -0.37 Quinqueloculina seminula -0.26 -0.20 0.45 0,45 -0.03 Eastern part Ammonia beccarii -0,32 -0,30 0,33 0,25 0,11 Amphistegina lessonii -0,15 -0,10 0,14 0,09 0,32 Amphistegina lobifera 0,53 0,31 -0,31 -0,45 -0,31 Candeina nitida -0,23 -0,26 0,40 0,10 0,00 Cibicides dutemplei 0.01 0,03 0,07 -0,02 -0,06 Cibicides pseudolobatulus -0,37 -0,54 0,10 0,74 0,66 Cibicides tenelus -0,21 -0,11 0,39 -0,06 -0,15 Elphidium crispum -0,16 0,04 0.02 0,06 0,03 Glolobigerina bulloides -0,28 -0,34 0,35 0,25 0,15 Globigerinoides ruber -0,25 -0,28 0,33 0,19 0,09 Nonion commune -0,16 0,53 -0,25 -0,19 -0,15 Orbulina universa -0,10 -0,02 0,22 -0,10 -0,13 Peneroplis pertusus -0,18 -0,44 -0,15 0,71 0,83 Quinqueloculina seminula -0,25 -0,30 0,32 0,22 0,17 Quinqueloculina vulgaris -0,21 -0,24 0,50 -0,04 -0,21 Textularia agglutinans -0,19 0,20 0.22 -0,25 -0,11 104

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Fig. 6.11 shows the result of the cluster analysis for seven main compositions (carbonates, quartz, feldspar, mafic minerals, volcanic rock fragments, accessory minerals and lithic fragments in relation to the location of sites (Q-mode). Three most dominant compositions are Quartz, Carbonate and Feldspar (Fig. 6.12). Three clusters are observed: Cluster A includes 8 samples and is characterized by a carbonatic composition. Cluster B is characterised by quartz and mafic minerals and contains 16 samples. Cluster C show a quartz-feldspar composition and encompasses 19 samples. Fig. 6.12 shows the composition of beaches in histograms.

western southern eastern

Fig. 6.12: Percentage of Quartz, Carbonates and Feldspar from west, south and east part

6.4.3.3 Canonical Correspondence Analysis Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) was applied to understand better how environmental variables influence the composition of foraminifera in the study area. The CCA examines the relations between foraminifera assemblages and the sedimentary environment by making direct comparisons between these data matrices.

Table 6.3: Estimated eigenvalues of CCA for the variances

Western part Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Axis 5

Eigenvalues 0.33 0.18 0.14 6.9 4.3

Percentage 0.2104 0.1189 0.0092 0.0447 0.022

Cumulative percentage 0.2104 0.3293 0.4213 0.4883 0.7632

Southern part Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Axis 5

Eigenvalues 0.891 0.652 0.092 0.068 0.001

Percentage 0.4013 0.2935 0.042 0.031 0.001 Cumulative percentage 0.4013 0.6947 0.7365 0.7675 0.7682 Eastern part Axis 1 Axis 2 Axis 3 Axis 4 Axis 5 Eigenvalues 0.3915 0.2148 0.0424 0.0246 0.0136 Percentage 0.2074 0.1138 0.0225 0.0130 0.0072 Cumulative percentage 0.2074 0.3213 0.3438 0.3568 0.3640

105

Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

A B C Carbonate- Quartz-Carbonate- Quartz-Carbonate-Felspar Quartz Mafic minerals

Variances

Blue: Cluster A Red: Cluster B Brown: Cluster C

Variances

CIa CIX CV

Blue: Cluster Ia=CIa Red: Cluster IX=CIX Organge: Cluster V=CV

Peneroplis pertusus Globigerinoides ruber - Amphistegina lobifera Ammonia beccarii

Fig. 6.13: Correlation betweent dendrogram classification showing in the species and compositions of sediment (Q-mode)

Only 14 species have a percentage value of at least 5 % in one sample in the western part. The cumulative percentages explain 21% and 33 % of the total variance in axes 1 and 2, respectively. Species Amphistegina lessonii and Textularia agglutinans show a positive correlation with the fine sand fraction on the first axis.

In the southern part, 13 species were selected, which are sufficient for a meaningful statistic. The CCA confirms the correlation of medium sand and fine sand with Ammonia beccarii, Cibicides dutemplei and Elphidium crispum, yielding positive values on the first axis. Amphistegina lobifera correlates positively with the coarse sand fraction on the first axis and negatively on the second axis. Globigerina bulloides, Globigerinoides ruber, Globorotalia menardii, Neoconorbina terquemi have a positive correlation with very fine sand for both the first and second axes. The cumulative percentages in axes 1 and 2 make up 40 % and 70 % of the total variance.

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

West

South

valueof variances axis on

igenvalues E

East

Eigenvalues value of variances on axis1

Fig. 6.14: CCA result in the western, southern and eastern part of Crete

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete

Finally, 16 species from the eastern part are used. The CCA results indicate that Peneroplis pertusus correlates positively with fine sand and very fine sand fractions with positive values for the second axis and negative values for the first axis. Quinqueloculina vulgaris correlates positively with medium sand, with negative values for both the first and second axis. Amphistegina lobifera has a positive correlation with very coarse sand for both first and second axis (Fig. 6.13, Table 6.3). The cumulative percentages in axes 1 and 2 amount to 20.74% and 11.38% of the total variance, respectively. Amphistegina lobifera, Amphistegina lessonii, Ammonia beccarii, Peneroplis pertusus and Elphidium crispum are the most frequent species in all samples a widespread distribution in the study area.

6.5. Discussions

Based on characteristics composition and distribution, three main foraminiferal assemblages corresponding to three groups of sites were identified. The results show that a clear distinction of average diversity indices between 43 beach samples. In cluster IX, the highest species diversity is corresponding to the highest average richness (60), Fisher α - index (10.63), Simpson index (12.75) and Shannon - Wiener index (2.98). It may indicate favourable and relatively stable environmental conditions. Ideal environmental conditions are directly related to biodiversity, while unfavourable conditions should be expressed by low diversity (Murray, 1973; 1991). Conversely, the highest proportion dominance value in cluster V (67 %) shows a significant correlation with the lowest species richness (30), Fisher α - index (4.89), Simpson index (2.13) and Shannon - Wiener index (1.36). Murray (1973; 1991) concluded that a lower Fisher α - index may indicate restricted environmental conditions, so the samples reflect locations where environmental factors are unfavourable to foraminifera and at least intolerable to foraminifera.

The compositions and textural characteristics of the sediments show large variations. They depend on geomorphology, coastal geology and active coastal processes. The three most dominants compositions of beach sediments in the study area are quartz, carbonate and, feldspar, which account for an average of 30%, 29 %, and 13 %, respectively. The low percentage of feldspar in following samples 27/1, 45/2 and 49/1 may be related to several littoral drifts´ local conditions, except sample 12/1 and 12/3. Volcanic rock fragments have the lowest percentage, with only 1 %, as volcanic rocks rarely occur in the study area.

On the straight, long beaches, where rivers flow to the beach or nearby, the sediments are mostly coarse sand, moderately well-sorted, nearly symmetrical and mesokurtic to platykurtic. It seems a stable input of material all along the coast with short to medium transport distances (Greenwood, 1969; Visher, 1969; Jacobsen and Schwartz, 1981; Taggart and Schwartz, 1988; Pyökäri and Lehtovaara, 1993; and Pyökäri, 1997; 1999). The most important sediment sources are local coastal formation and non-local rocks (hinterland) in the river catchment basins. These materials are mixed by wave action and littoral drifts. The sediments of the pocket beaches or the beaches without close-by rivulets contain fine to coarse sands except in the surf zone. In contrast, straight beaches are comprised of medium sands. The roundness of the grains is moderate - well sorted.

Carbonate-Quartz, 6 of 8 samples are the same in cluster I, accounting for 75 % in cluster A. Quartz-Carbonate-Mafic minerals, 5 of 16 samples are similar in cluster IX and amount to 31 % in cluster B. Quartz-Carbonate-Feldspar, 13 of 19 samples are the same in cluster Ia

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete accounting for 68 % in cluster C (Fig. 6.12). This result illustrates a slight relationship between the foraminifera and the composition of the beach sediment. Pyökäri (1999) mentioned that the most important factor determining the direction of seasonal littoral drifts are an approach direction of onshore waves and winds. However, this seems to have little effect on the sediment movement on the coast of Crete.

Results of the foraminiferal analysis show the appearance of Globigerinoides ruber Globorotalia panda and Globigerina bulloides. Their tests are usually poorly preserved and reworked, indicating that they have undergone important events. In addition, the CCA and Cluster analysis are quite clearly uncorrelated between the outer shelf and the inner species. Consequently, outer shelf-bathyal species can be interpreted as a proxy of transport from outer environments to the inner shelf.

Magno (2012) indicated that a single statistical correlation is insufficient to demonstrate that sediment properties directly affect the abundance of foraminifera species. The recurrence of such coherences in different areas, under various environmental conditions, maybe a strong indication of such relationships. This study evaluates the correlation of foraminifera species with five sandy fractions (from very coarse sand to very fine) on the western, southern and eastern parts. The results imply that the sediment type is an important factor controlling the distribution of foraminifera. The species correlated with fine and very fine sands were found by the bivariate correlation, while well-distinct species preferring coarse and very coarse sands were not recognized well.

This study´s limitation is that only a few species correlated with very fine sand to coarse sand and not many species clearly to confirm the correlation. It may depend on different feeding strategies and different microhabitats. A strong influence of grain size on foraminiferal distribution may be widely attributable to nutrient availability and oxygen levels, which link to sediment characteristics.

6.6. Conclusion

Statistical evaluation of foraminifera distribution in three coastal Crete areas allowed correlating the distribution of foraminifera species with sedimental characteristics and environmental factors. The biotic indices (species richness, Fisher α - index, Shannon - Wiener index, Simpson index, and dominant percentage) were used. The results of the cluster analysis revealed three groups of sites (Q - mode) corresponding to three foraminifera assemblages (R-mode): Cluster Ia - Peneroplis pertusus includes nine samples; cluster V - Amphistegina lobifera comprises 24 samples and cluster IX: Globigerinoides ruber - Ammonia beccarii is formed by ten samples. The changes in fauna distribution are rather attributed to environmental factors than the water depth. The correlation of species with sediment grain size was performed by using of statistical analysis.

The appearance of Globigerinoides ruber has high proportion in samples 10/1, 11/1, 18/1, 24/4, 25/4, 25/1, 27/1, 31/1, 44/1 and 45/1. These species are very abundant in an outer shelf- bathyal environment and opportunistic species in a high productive setting area which should have remain stable resulting from recurrent upwelling (Quintela et al., 2015). Globigerinoides ruber species in samples are poorly preserved and reworked. Moreover, in these samples, the composition cluster (Fig. 6.13) and sample cluster (Fig. 6.5) have quite a similar contribution,

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Chapter 6: Correlation assessment between grain size analysis and foraminifera assemblages in coastal Crete and the characteristics of grain size are quite similar with mainly medium to coarser sand, which is moderately sorted and symmetrical to coarse skewed.

The texture and composition of 43 beach samples in Crete are variable with sediments from the river´s coastal formations and catchment basins, reworked by the coat´s processes. The grain sizes cover mainly medium to coarse sands, that are rather moderately-well or well-sorted, symmetrical or negatively skewed, and meso- or platykurtic. The most dominant sediment composition are quartz, carbonate, and feldspars. The grains on the beaches far from the river mouths have a higher roundness. The cause may be that sand and gravels are mostly eroded from the coastal formations while the beaches with close-by rivers show a mixed-sediment that is blended from material from the rivers´ catchment basins the and materials eroded from coastal formations. Both material types are blended by waves and littoral drifts. The mixed material consists of poorly sorted beach sediment. The littoral drift as the most important factor is locally variable, as it is controlled by locally formed waves.

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

This chapter summarises the main conclusions of the research. It outlines how the objective set in the scope was achieved and then discusses any uncertainties.

7.1 Foraminifera

From the western, southern and eastern coasts of Crete, 69 samples including 26 core samples and 43 beach samples were analysed. Ten samples were taken from PHA3 near Falasarna and 16 core samples from KIS4 in the Kissamos area. A total of 74 species from 15741 specimens were examined. The most common order is Rotaliida (73 %), followed by Miliolida (25 %). The order Lagenida and Textulariina are rare (0.9 % and 0.15%, respectively). The most frequently occurring species are Peneroplis pertusus (13 %), Amphistegina lobifera (13 %), Cibicides pseudolobatulus (9%), Globigerina bulloides (8 %), Globigerinoides ruber (8 %) and Elphidium crispum (6 %). Among 15741 species, there are 12465 benthic species (79 %) and 3276 planktic species (21 %). Twenty-six species (35 %) occur in all three areas, 22 species (30 %) found in two areas and twenty-six species (35 %) appear in only one area. Both Globigerinoides ruber and Ammonia beccarii assemblages are found in three areas. Elphidium crispum and Amphistegina assemblages are presented in the southern and eastern area. Peneroplis pertusus were found in the west and east parts. Table 7.1 summarises the diversity indices of the three study areas.

Fig. 7.1 presents five foraminiferal assemblage clusters corresponding to five groups of stations:

Cluster Amphistegina lobifera includes four samples. This group is dominated by Amphistegina lobifera and is characterised by a herbivorous, symbiotic harbouring epifauna in a high energy setting.

Cluster Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber contains 13 samples. Globigerina bulloides and Globigerinoides ruber are the most abundant species, they are planktic, omnivore and live in symbiosis with dinoflagellates. This cluster is characterised by a fine sand environment, and located in the outer shelf to the bathyal zone.

Cluster Peneroplis pertusus comprises ten samples. This cluster is dominated by Peneroplis pertusus, a species that prefers the subtidal inner shelf but also occurs in lagoons. It belongs to the herbivorous epifauna, which clings to plants or hard substrates.

Cluster Globigerinoides ruber consists of 7 samples. Globigerinoides ruber has the highest percentage. This cluster is characterised by a fine sand environment, and located in the outer shelf to the bathyal zone.

Cluster Peneroplis pertusus - Cibicides pseudolobatulus - Elphidium crispum encompasses 35 samples. Peneroplis pertusus, Cibicides pseudolobatulus and Elphidium crispum are abundant in this cluster. It is identified by a detritivore and epifaunal herbivore species of a high energy environment on the shelf. The environment of cluster 5 is characterised by coarse to medium sand.

The result indicates a distinction between foraminiferal assemblages related to geology, geomorphology, paleobathymetry, biological and ecological parameters. Based on the 111

Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions characteristics of foraminifera assemblages and the P/R ratio, three environments were distinguished in which species from different depths occur: the inner shelf, the middle shelf, and the upper bathyal zone. The mixing of benthic and planktic species provides information for extreme wave events. Recent foraminiferal assemblages from sandy and rocky coasts of Crete help to distinguish different kinds of sedimentation such as high-energy events from normal sedimentation.

V III Ia VII X U

V Ia III VII X

Fig. 7.1: Cluster dendrogram classification showing the groups of station (Q-mode) and in the groups of species (R-mode)

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

CV CIII CIa CVII CX

Cluster Ia=CIa Cluster III= CIII Cluster V= CV Cluster VII = CVII Cluster X = CX

Fig. 7.2: The P/B ratio in samples

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

7.1.1 The western part

From the western part, 10624 species of 36 samples from 26 core samples of PHA3 near Falasarna and KIS4 in the Kissamos area plus ten beach samples were investigated. Four foraminiferal assemblages were found: Group Ia includes five sites and is dominated by the Peneroplis pertusus assemblages. Group Ib - Cibicides pseudolobatulus comprises eighteen sites. Group II is identified by Ammonia beccarii. Group III - Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber contains eleven sites which are all situated in the middle to the eastern Bay of Kissamos.

Group Ia, Ib and II comprise foraminiferal assemblages from the photic zone of the middle to the inner shelf. This part of the coast shows a small rocky breakup building a small semicircle bay where a foraminifera assemblage evolved, adapted to this microhabitat. The qualitative and quantitative composition may allow a careful correlation with group II before the invasion of Amphistegina lobifera. Nevertheless, for some foraminifera the basin of Falarsana harbor has been their natural habitat such as Ammonia tepida (Marriner and Morhange, 2006). They prefer sheltered environments with fine-grained sediments and can react to fluctuating salinity. Many shells from the harbor samples are broken and occur together with some less common foraminifera, which can also be found in abyssal plains (eg. Eponides repandus). Therefore, the findings are interpreted as tsunami deposits (Dominey-Howes et al., 1998). The mixture of genera from the outer shelf and deeper water (e.g. Eponides repandus, Globigerina ruber) and the state of preservation are valuable hints to a tsunami event. Quantitative information is missing in Pirazzoli et al. (1992) research but there are no substantial differences in the findings of foraminifera published by Dominey-Howes et al. (1998) even though Pirazzoli et al. (1992) determined more species.

In contrast to the intercalation of tsunamites in terrestrial strata, the normal fauna´s knowledge is decisive for recognising tsunamites in marine and coastal areas. The mixing up of benthic and planktic genera is promising better evidence for high energy or tsunami events. However, micropaleontology should not be the only method used in tsunami detection. It may sound banal, but a sample containing Amphistegina lobifera may not have been deposited during a paleotsunami.

7.1.2 The southern part

A total of 1311 specimens of benthic and planktic foraminifera are found and 32 species are assigned but only 10 genera are common to the 15 beach samples of the Southern. Four assemblages were detected: (III) Globigerina bulloides - Globigerinoides ruber; (IV) Amphistegina lobifera - Amphistegina lessonii; (V) Amphistegina lobifera and (VI) Elphidium crispum - Ammonia beccarii.

The planktic species are presented by suborder Globigerinina, accounting for 41 %. They are related to Globigerinidae, Hastigerinidae, Candeinidae, and Globorotaliidae, including the genera: Globigerina, Orbulina, Globigerinoides, Globorotalia, and Candeina. Cluster III has the highest P/B ratio between 83 % and 88 %, indicating an outer shelf to upper bathyal and semi- pelagic to eupelagic biofacies. In cluster V and VI, the planktic foraminifera are absent. Consequently, these clusters have the lowest P/B ratio (0 %) and present species belong to the inner shelf. The P/B ratio in the cluster VI is between 8 and 12 %, and it reveals species of the inner shelf to the middle shelf. The P/B ratio of the 15 samples arranges between 0 % - 88 %. It 114

Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions is an excellent indicator to suppose an inner-middle shelf to the upper bathyal zone. The proposition of the P/B ratio also fluctuates in each sample (Fig. 7.2).

Five samples were collected in the Kommos area. Two samples in cluster III indicate the outer shelf to upper bathyal. Dominant species in three samples 24/1, 24/2 and 24/3 reveal the environment ranging from the inner shelf to the middle shelf. Based on the analysis of block and boulder deposits in the Kommos area, Boulton and Whitworth (2017) mentioned the slabs in the Kommos area could have been moved by a tsunami or storm however the evidence for tsunami deposits are ambiguous. The change in foraminiferal composition and their habitat discussions above can be seen as a confirmation of a tsunami event or a storm in Kommos (Fig. 7.2).

7.1.3 The eastern part

In 18 beach samples of the eastern study area, 3896 foraminifera were found, assigned to 52 species and divided into 4 clusters. Cluster VII comprises four samples and is dominated by the Globigerinoides ruber assemblage. Cluster VIII Amphistegina lobifera - Ammonia becarii - Elphidium crispum is formed by seven samples. Cluster V is identified by Amphistegina lobifera and includes four samples. Cluster Ia comprises three samples and is dominated by Peneroplis pertusus. All assemblages are characterised by the significant presence of epifaunal foraminifera. The number of infaunal species is very low in each cluster (only 6 % in cluster VII and below 1 % in cluster V and Ia). In cluster VIII, this value is 3 %. The results show that there is a clear distinction between the average diversity indices between 18 samples.

The P/B ratio in the samples ranges between 0 % and 70 % indicating an inner-middle shelf to upper bathyal zone, with the percentage varying within each cluster. Cluster VII - Globigerinoides ruber has the highest percentage of planktic foraminifera (39 %) whereas cluster VIII and Ia lack planktic species. Cluster VIII, V, Ia have the lowest percentage of planktic foraminifera. The values are between 0 % and 21 %, in cluster V at 1 %. The environment for clusters VIII, V and Ia can be assigned to the inner shelf (0 - 30 m), and cluster VII to the outer shelf (Murray, 1973, 1976). Based on the water depth zonation of Bremer et al. (1980) and Van Morkhoven et al. (1986), the sediment deposition depth varies between 0 and 600 m, corresponding to the inner shelf to upper bathyal.

Samples from the Myrtos, Ierapetra and Diaskari area have the highest percentage of planktonic species (70 %, 41 % and 32 %), indicating a paleoenvironment from the middle to the outer shelf, and a paleoenvironment depth of 30 - 200 m.

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

Table 7.1: Summary of diversity indices in the study area

Fisher % Cluster Simpson Shannon No. Dominance Sites - α Planktic index index Species (%) index species

33/1, 39/1, 40/1 0.67 1.13 0.26 5 93.75 0 and 41/1

na lobiferana

Amphistegi

- 11/1, 24/4, 24/5, KIS4.6, KIS4.7, KIS4.8, KIS4.9, KIS4.10, 6.58 5.96 2.38 42 30.85 65.97 KIS4.11, KIS4.12, KIS4.13, KIS4.14,

Globigerinoides ruber Globigerina bulloides KIS4.17

PHA3/9, 12/1, 12/2, 12/3, 13/1, 14/1, 7.71 5.87 2.36 46 35.57 0.53 29/1, 32/1,

pertusus Peneroplis 43/1, 53/1

10/1, 18/1, 25/1, 27/1, 10.11 12.20 2.91 54 15.05 26.19

ruber 31/1, 44/1, 45/2

Globigerinoides

PHA3/1, PHA3/2, PHA3/3, PHA3/4, PHA3/5, PHA3/6,

- PHA3/7,

PHA3/8,

- PHA3/10, PHA3/11, PHA3/12, PHA3/13, 7.40 10.43 2.65 49 17.25 2.51 PHA3/14, PHA3/15, PHA3/19, 17/1,

Elphidium crispum 20/1, 20/2,

Peneroplis pertusus 22/1, 24/1, Cibicides pseudolobatulus 24/2, 24/3, 28/1, 30/1, 34/1, 35/1, 37/1, 38/1, 49/1, 50/1, 51/2, 57/1, 58/1, 59/1, 60/1

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Table 7.2: Presenting of species in the western, southern and eastern part of Crete

Species W S E Species W S E 1 Adelosina mediterranensis    38 Lenticulina robulata   2 Ammonia beccarii    39 Lobatula lobatula   3 Ammonia tepida   40 Massilina secans  4 Amphisorus hemprichii  41 Melonis pompiliodes    5 Amphimorphinella amchitkaensis  42 Miniacina miniacea   6 Amphistegina lessonii    43 Neoconorbina terquemi    7 Amphistegina lobifera    44 Neogloboquadrina dutertrei  8 Asterigerinata mamilla    45 Nonion commune   9 Bolivina robusta    46 Orbulina universa    10 Bulimina elongata   47 Peneroplis pertusus    11 Bulimina striata  48 Peneroplis planatus  12 Candeina nitida    49 Planorbulina mediterranensis  13 Cassidulina lomitensis   50 Planulina ariminensis    14 Cibicides dutemplei    51 Pseudotriloculina consobrina   15 Cibicides praecinctus  52 Pseudotriloculina laevigata   16 Cibicides pseudolobatulus    53 Quinqueloculina agglutinans   17 Cibicides refulgens   54 Quinqueloculina akneriana   18 Cibicides tenellus   55 Quinqueloculina bradyana    19 Cycloforina contorta  56 Quinqueloculina leavigata  20 Elphidium aculeatum   57 Quinqueloculina boueana  21 Elphidium advenum   58 Quinqueloculina poeyana   22 Elphidium crispum    59 Quinqueloculina seminula    23 Elphidium macellum  60 Quinqueloculina vulgaris   24 Eponides pygmaeus  61 Rosalina bradyi    25 Eponides repandus  62 Sphaerogypsina globulus  26 Globigerina bulloides    63 Siphonina bradyana  27 Globigerinella siphonifera  64 Siphonina reticulata  28 Globigerinoides ruber    65 Siphonina tubulosa   29 Globorotalia menardii    66 Sorites marginalis  30 Globorotalia panda    67 Sorites orbiculus   31 Globulina gibba    68 Spiroloculina excavata  32 Globulina minuta  69 Spiroloculina communis   33 Guttulina communis  70 Textularia agglutinans    34 Lachlanella variolata  71 Trifarina bradyi  35 Lagena spera  72 Triloculina trigonula    36 Lagena striata   73 Uvigerina mediterranea    37 Lenticulina inornata   74 Vertebralina striata  W: western part, S: the southern part, E: eastern part : species appear in one area, : species appear in two areas, : species appear in three areas

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

7.1.4 Outlook

This investigation is just beginning, and the knowledge about coastal evolution and the faunal characteristics must deepen in many directions in the future. Further quantitative environmental proxies need to be considered to get more strong evidence to confirm tsunami deposits. In addition, the overwash deposits of tsunami deposits must also be analysed because tsunami deposits contain marine microfossils due to the erosion of marine sediment and their transport ashore (Dominey-Howes et al., 2000, Mamo et al., 2009; Goff et al., 2012; and Tanaka et al., 2012). To detect intercalated tsunami sediments onshore and offshore, knowledge of the typical fauna of the marine and coastal areas is important.

Additionally, the study of the taphonomy of foraminifera provides further information that can help distinguish foraminifera assemblages of recent sediments from tsunami deposits. The size, shape, and pattern of each specimen, altered by fragmentation, abrasion, and corrosion, provide valuable information about the magnitude of the event, the exact scour depth and the origin of the sediment (Hemphill-Haley, 1996; Goff et al., 2011; Pilarczyk and Reinhardt, 2012b; and Pilarczykt e al., 2014). These preliminary results of this study show the possibility of using foraminifera from the outer shelf as a proxy for deposits of tsunamis or extreme wave events.

The relationship between shell morphology and wave energy, including turbulent sediment mixtures of different particle sizes, contributes to shell abrasion by arranging and moving a wave tank. There is a relationship between the shell morphology and its fragments and the force and sediment acting on foraminifera during the tsunami movement (Pilarczyk et al., 2014).

7.2 Grain size analysis

7.2.1 Textural analysis

Textural characteristics of sediments, such as mean size, sorting, skewness, and kurtosis, are used to reconstruct the depositional environment of sediments. There are rare studies about the relationship between the grain size and transport mechanisms of sediments from ancient and modern sediment environment (Folk and Ward, 1957; Mason and Folk, 1958; Friedman, 1962; Visher, 1969; Valia and Cameron, 1977; Wang et al. 1998; Asselman, 1999; Malvarez et al. 2001; Ramamohanarao et al. 2003; Suresh Ganhdi et al., 2007; Ramanathan et al. 2009; Anithamary et al. 2011; and Rajganapathi, 2013).

Frequency distribution curves for the mean size, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were constructed to decipher the significant variation in the sediments from different environments. The grain size analysis results represent a range between fine to very coarse, mainly medium to coarse sand. The sorting value ranges between poor to well-sorted and shows a medium level of variation. In the western area, the sorting is better than in the southern and eastern. The skewness is almost symmetrical to coarse skewed while kurtosis is mostly mesokurtosis and plakurtic nature. A very high or low value of kurtosis indicates that part of sediment achieved its sorting somewhere in a high energy environment. The kurtosis with varying values hint to the flow characteristics of depositing medium grain, and the dominance of the coarse size and plakurtic nature of sediment indicates the immaturity of sand (Baruah et al. 1997; and Rajganapathi, 2013).

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

7.2.2 Composition analysis

The following components were found in 43 beach samples: carbonates, quartz, feldspar, mafic minerals, volcanic rock fragments, accessory minerals, lithic fragments. The most dominant are quartz, carbonate, and feldspar (30%, 29% and 13 % of the total). The western part has a higher average of quartz content compared to the southern and eastern parts. Carbonate is the second most common component in the west and lowest in the south. The lowest percentage of volcanic rock fragments and accessory minerals is only 1 % and 6 %. The lithic fragments account for 10 %.

Carbonate and quartz are dominant components (49 % and 31 % respectively) in the western part. Quartz is the most abundant constituent accounting for 30 % in the southern part, while the volcanic rock fragments have the lowest percentage (2 %). Quartz and carbonate have the highest percentage of all components (28 % and 26 %) in the eastern part.

The roundness of grains is rather moderate, only very poor in some samples. It may indicate a stable input of material all along the coast, a most of short to medium transport way and sediment may have several sources (Greenwood, 1969; Visher, 1969; Jacobsen and Schwartz, 1981; Taggart and Schwartz, 1988; Pyökäri and Lehtovaara 1993; Pyökäri, 1997; and Pyökäri, 1999). The largest proportion comes from local coastal formations and another from non-local rock or loses deposits in the river catchment basins. Then these materials are mixed by wave action and littoral drifts. In addition, the sediments at pocket beaches or the beaches where are no river discharge into the sea or flow nearby, consist of fine to coarse sand, except in the surf zone. In contrast, the straight beaches comprise medium sand. The sorting of grains almost is moderate-well sorted, and kurtosis is mesokurtic to slightly leptokurtic.

7.2.3. Correlation between foraminifera and grain size analysis

A correlation between 16 species of foraminifera and five sand fractions (from very coarse to very fine sand) was found in the study area, indicating that the sediment type is an important factor controlling the distribution of foraminifera. The bivariate correlation method yielded good results for the relationship between certain species with fine and very fine sand, while a correlation of well distinguishable species preferring coarse and very coarse sand was not well detected. Too few species correlate with the different sand fractions (very fine sand to coarse sand), so the correlation is generally vague. It may depend on the different feeding strategies and the different microhabitat of foraminifera. A strong influence of grain size on foraminiferal distribution can be largely attributed to two correlatable environmental parameters, namely nutrient availability and oxygen content, which depend on the properties of the sediment.

Another factor influent of grain size on foraminifera distribution in some locations of the study area is wind and wave action. Werner et al. (2018) observed that intense storms could occur in the normally calm Hellenic Sea. In winter, the Ionic wind blows less frequently in west-eastern direction and western winds prevail. Due to these westerly winds and the long fetch, the west coast is subject to the energy-rich dynamics of the open sea. Most of the extreme wind and wave situations occur in the straits between the island of Kythira and Crete. The maximum wind speeds are over 8 m/s, and the highest average waves (> 1.7 m) occur during winter in all Hellenic Seas (Soukissian et al., 2008; Menendez et al., 2014; and Werner et al., 2018).

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Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions

Based on cluster analysis of the species and compositions, Fig. 6.12 reveals a quite relatively similar contribution in clusters of species with the station of samples. In addition, there is also quite clearly a relationship between some species with the compositions of sediment. As the statistical method of composition is random over 300 grains and there are not many statistical studies on the relationship between the composition of sediments and foraminifera species, this is only an initial result on the relationship between foraminifera and sediment composition. However, this approach can be further support for the provenance analysis of sediment on the beaches.

7.2.4 Outlook

The next step in the research will be to obtain more quantitative data by using geochemical analyses to determine environmental characteristics to improve information on the environment and the origin of beach sands. Heavy mineral compositions also play an important role and should be considered to determine the provenance of sediments.

In addition, more accurate classification of the beach sand sediment can be determined by studying the bioclast/lithoclastic percentage in both weight and volume to establish a relationship between the composition of the sediment and foraminifera species by creating a triangular of (1) carbonate lithoclasts (CE = carbonate extra clasts), (2) bioclasts (B, only carbonate particles derived from present-day organisms), and (3) siliciclastic particles (NCE= noncarbonated extra clasts) (Folk,1959; Zuffa, 1980; 1985; Mount, 1985; and Flügel, 2004).

In some areas where tsunami events may have been preserved in sediments, a detailed analysis of the fining-upward sequences should be carried out, as tsunami deposition often shows several sequences (Wagner and Srisutam, 2011). According to Srisutam and Wagner (2010), the characteristics of the tsunami deposit provide valuable data to determine the height and velocity of the tsunami run-up. In further research, these data should be combined with an analysis of tsunami layers eroded from offshore, coastal and onshore zones and transported by the tsunami on inland to obtain more details about the features of tsunami events.

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I would firstly like to thank my first supervisor Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Klaus Reicherter from RWTH Aachen University for giving me the best opportunity to undertake this research in Germany and provided me excellent support during my studies, both in the field as well as in the laboratory. Without his support, I would not complete my thesis, do not have the chance to participate in some field trips, summer schools, workshops and international conferences. I would also like to thank Univ.-Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Andreas Vött, my second supervisor from the Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz. Both of them are very patient in reading my manuscripts.

I would like to thank Dr. Margret Mathes-Schmidt, who accompanied me on the field trip in Crete to collect the samples of this thesis. She also spent much time to read all my academic writing and the thesis and supported me in the laboratory equipment. I also want to thank Dr. Nicole Höbig, who helped me to take all SEM images.

During my period at the Institute of Neotectonics and Natural Hazards at RWTH Aachen University, I acknowledge all my colleagues who give me their valuable assistance and support.

I am indebted DFG Project RE 1361/19-1 and VO 938/12-2 (Tracing the spatial and temporal variation of the tsunami on Crete Island (Greece) by sedimentological, geophysical and geodetic methods) and VIED (Vietnam International Education Development) supported financially in this research.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, friends, lectures and professors who encouraged and support me in my career.

Univ.-Prof. Dr. Rer. nat. Andreas Vött

143

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APPENDIX

144

Appendix A

APPENDIX A: SAMPLE SITES

Type of No. Location ID Latitude Longtitude sample

Western Part

Surface 1. Kissamos 10/1 N 35o30’48’’5 E 23o37'49’’1 sample

Surface 2. Kissamos 11/1 N 35o30’00’’6 E 23o38'46’’9 sample

Surface 3. Balos 12/1 N 35o34’59’’85 E 23o35'28’’30 sample

Surface 4. Balos 12/2 N 35o35’02’’10 E 23o35'23’’25 sample

Surface 5. Balos 12/3 N 35o34’46’’10 E 23o35'19’’10 sample

Surface 6. Falasarna 13/1 N 35o28'59’’10 E 23o34'33’’80 sample

Surface 7. Falasarna 14/1 N 035o28'37’’0 E 23o33'55’’7 sample

Surface 8. Falasarna 17/1 N 35o30’27’’9 E 23o34'15’’9 sample

Surface 9. Napalia 18/1 N 35o27’38’’6 E 24o09'42’’8 sample

Surface 10. Frangokastello 53/1 N 35o10'51’’30 E 24o14'04’’00 sample

Drill core 11. Falasarna PHA3.1 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 12. Falasarna PHA3.2 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 13. Falasarna PHA3.3 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 14. Falasarna PHA3.4 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

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Appendix A

Type of No. Location ID Latitude Longtitude sample

Drill core 15. Falasarna PHA3.5 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 16. Falasarna PHA3.6 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 17. Falasarna PHA3.7 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 18. Falasarna PHA3.8 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 19. Falasarna PHA3.9 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 20. Falasarna PHA3.10 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 21. Falasarna PHA3.11 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 22. Falasarna PHA3.12 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 23. Falasarna PHA3.13 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 24. Falasarna PHA3.14 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 25. Falasarna PHA3.15 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 26. Falasarna PHA3.19 N 35o28'50’’34 E 23o34'38’’35 sample

Drill core 27. Kissamos KIS4.6 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 28. Kissamos KIS4.7 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 29. Kissamos KIS4.8 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 30. Kissamos KIS4.9 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

146

Appendix A

Type of No. Location ID Latitude Longtitude sample

Drill core 31. Kissamos KIS4.10 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 32. Kissamos KIS4.11 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 33. Kissamos KIS4.12 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 34. Kissamos KIS4.13 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 35. Kissamos KIS4.14 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Drill core 36. Kissamos KIS4.17 N 35o29'56’’01 E 23o41'37’’24 sample

Southern Part

Surface 37. Agio Ammo 20/1 N35° 8'42.07" E24°30'52.48" sample

Surface 38. Agio Ammo 20/2 N35° 8'41.26" E24°30'48.69" sample

Surface 39. Agia Galini 22/1 N 35o04’52’’54 E 24o41'27’’96 sample

Surface 40. Kossmos 24/1 N 35° 0'40.60" E 24°45'36.35" sample

Surface 41. Kossmos 24/2 N 35° 0'47.00" E 24°45'35.63" sample

Surface 42. Kossmos 24/3 N 35° 0'55.73" E 24°45'36.67" sample

Surface 43. Kossmos 24/4 N 35° 0'46.89" E 24°45'38.11" sample

Surface 44. Kossmos 24/5 N 35° 0'46.80" 24°45'37.76" sample

147

Appendix A

Type of No. Location ID Latitude Longtitude sample

Surface 45. Lentas 49/1 N 35o55'47’’80 E 24o55'21’’45 sample

Surface 46. Lentas 50/1 N 34o56'01’’20 E 24o57'03’’05 sample

Surface 47. Matala 51/2 N 34o59'37’’69 E 24o44'57’’60 sample

Surface 48. Ligres 57/1 N 35o08'04’’09 E 24o31'56’’35 sample

Surface 49. Agia Fotiti 58/1 N 35o08'40’’9 E 24o31'03’’0 sample

Surface 50. Ammoudi 59/1 N 35o10'16’’11 E 24o25'11’’37 sample

Surface 51. Pavlos 60/1 N 35o06'09’’43 E 24o33'46’’90 sample

Eastern part

Surface 52. Myrtos 25/1 N 35o00’11’’27 E 25o34'51’’92 sample

Surface 53. Ierapertra 27/1 N 35o00’27’’60 E 25o45'26’’40 sample

Surface 54. Korami 28/1 N 35o00’23’’9 E 25o49'25’’2 sample

Surface 55. Achlia 29/1 N 35o02’36’’90 E 25o53'30’’40 sample

Surface 56. Strofi 30/1 N 35o02’08’’2 E 25o58'08’’8 sample

Surface 57. Diaskari 31/1 N 35o02’00’’60 E 25o59'35’’40 sample

Surface 58. Kalo Nero 32/1 N 35°01'05.34" E 26°01'58.21" sample

Surface 59. Asprolithos 33/1 N 35o00’34’’9 E 26o05'43’’34 sample

148

Appendix A

Type of No. Location ID Latitude Longtitude sample

Surface 60. Sitia 34/1 N 35o12’08’’2 E 26o06'47’’4 sample

Surface 61. Palaikastro 35/1 N 35o12’17’’86 E 26o16'18’’90 sample

Surface 62. Zakros 37/1 N 35o05'51’’7 E 26o15'48’’30 sample

Surface 63. Agia Fotia 38/1 N 35o11'56’’10 E 26o09'44’’40 sample

Papadio Surface 64. 39/1 N 35o13'42’’0 E 26o02'13’’3 Kampos sample

Surface 65. Mochlos 40/1 N 35o10'59’’3 E 25o53'56’’2 sample

Surface 66. Mochlos 41/1 N 35o11'04’’40 E 25o54'17’’75 sample

Surface 67. Kavousi 43/1 N 35o09'09’’50 E 25o51'40’’10 sample

Surface 68. Malia 44/1 N 35o17'39’’55 E 25o25'41’’5 sample

Surface 69. Karteros 45/2 N 35o19'56’’66 E 25o12'21’’32 sample

149

Appendix A

A B

C D

E F

G Fig. A.1: Google Earth overview of the sampling sites in the western part A. Balos (12/1, 12/2; 12/3) B. Kissamos (10,11) C. Kissamos drill site (KIS4) D. Falasarna (13/1, 14/1 and PHA3) E. Falasarna (17/1); F. Napalia (18/1) G. Frangokastello (53/1)

150

Appendix A

A B

C D

E HF

G H

Fig. A.2: Google Earth overview of the sampling sites in the southern part

A. Sample 59/1 (Ammoudi beach); B. Samples 20/1 & 20/2 (Agio Ammo beach) and 58/1 (Agia Fotiti beach); C. Sample 57/1 (Ligres beach); D. Sample 60/1 (Pavlos beach); E. Sample 22/1 (Agia Galini beach); F. Samples 24/1, 24/2, 24/3, 24/4, 24/5 (beach Kommos); G. Sample 51/1 (Matala beach); H. Samples 49/1, 50/1 (Lentas beach)

151

Appendix A

A B

C D

F E

G H

I K

Fig. A.3: Google Earth overview of the sampling sites in the eastern part

A. Myrtos (25/1); B. Ierapertra (27/1); C. Korami (28/1) and Achlia (29/1); D. Strofi (30/1), Diaskari (31/1), Kalo Nero (32/1), Asprolithos (33/1); E. Palaikastro (35/1); F. Zakros (37/1); G. Papadio Kampos (39/1), Sitia (34/1), Agia Fotia (38/1); H. Mochlos (40/1) and (41/1); I. Kavousi (43/1); K. Malia (44/1) and Karteros (45/2)

152

Appendix B

APPENDIX B: SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS

Class Tubothalamea Pawlowski, Holzman, 2013 Order Miliolida Delage and Hérouard, 1896

Suborder Miliolina Williamson, 1858 Superfamily Soritoidea Ehrenberg, 1839 Family Soritidae Ehrenberg, 1839 Subfamily Soritinae Ehrenberg, 1839 Genus Sorites Ehrenberg, 1839

1 Species Sorites marginalis Lamarck, 1816

2 Sorites orbiculus Forsskål in Niebuhr, 1775 Genus Amphisorus Ehrenberg, 1839

3 Species Amphisorus hemprichii Ehrenberg, 1839 Family Peneroplidae Schultze, 1854 Genus Peneroplis Montfort, 1808

4 Spices Peneroplis pertusus Forskål, 1775

5 Peneroplis planatus Fichtel and Moll, 1798 Super family Nubecularioidea Family Fischerinidae Millett, 1898

Subfamily Nodobaculariellinae Bogdanovich, 1981

Genus Vertebralina d'Orbigny, 1826

6 Species Vertebralina striata d'Orbigny, 1826 Superfamily Milioloidea Ehrenberg, 1839 Family Hauerinidae Schwager, 1876 Subfamily Hauerininae Schwager, 1876 Genus Massilina Schlumberger, 1893

7 Species Massilina secans d'Orbigny, 1826 Genus Lachlanella Vella, 1957

8 Species Lachlanella variolata d'Orbigny, 1826 Genus Quinqueloculina d'Orbigny, 1826

153

Appendix B

9 Species Quinqueloculina agglutinans d’Orbigny, 1839

10 Quinqueloculina akneriana d'Orbigny, 1846

11 Quinqueloculina boueana d'Orbigny, 1846 3 12 Quinqueloculina bradyana Cushman, 1917 3 13 Quinqueloculina laevigata d'Orbigny, 1839 3 14 Quinqueloculina poeyana d'Orbigny, 1839 3 15 Quinqueloculina seminula Linnaeus, 1758 3 16 Quinqueloculina vulgaris d'Orbigny, 1826 3 Genus Cycloforina Łuczkowska, 1972

17 Species Cycloforina contorta d’Orbigny, 1846 3 Subfamily Miliolinellinae Vella, 1957 Genus Triloculina d'Orbigny, 1826

18 Species Triloculina trigonula Lamarck, 1804 3 Genus Pseudotriloculina Cherif, 1970

19 Species Pseudotriloculina consobrina d'Orbigny, 1846 3 20 Pseudotriloculina laevigata d'Orbigny and Terquem, 1878 3 Family Spiroloculinidae Wiesner, 1920 Genus Spiroloculina d'Orbigny, 1826

21 Species Spiroloculina excavata d'Orbigny, 1846 3 22 Spiroloculina communis Cushman and Todd, 1944 3 Family Cribrolinoididae Haynes, 1981 Genus Adelosina d'Orbigny, 1826

23 Species Adelosina mediterranensis Le Calvez and Le Calvez, 1958 3 Class Globothalamea Pawlowski, Holzman and Tyszka, 2013 Order Rotaliida Delage and Hérouard, 1896

Superfamily Buliminoidea Jones, 1875 Family Buliminidae Jones, 1875

Genus Bulimina d'Orbigny, 1826

24 Species Bulimina elongata d'Orbigny, 1846 3 25 Bulimina striata d'Orbigny in Guérin-Méneville, 1832 3 Superfamily Rotalioidea Ehrenberg, 1839

154

Appendix B

Family Elphidiidae Galloway, 1933 Subfamily Elphidiinae Galloway, 1933 Genus Elphidium Montfort, 1808

26 Species Elphidium aculeatum d'Orbigny, 1846 3 27 Elphidium advenum Cushman, 1922 3 28 Elphidium crispum Linnaeus, 1758 3 29 Elphidium macellum Fichtel Moll, 1798 3 Family Rotaliidae Ehrenberg, 1839 Subfamily Ammoniinae Saidova, 1981 Genus Ammonia Brünnich, 1772

30 Species Ammonia beccarii Linnaeus, 1758 3 31 Ammonia tepida Cushman, 1926 3 Superfamily Siphoninoide Family Siphoninidae Cushman, 1927 Subfamily Siphonininae Cushman, 1927 Genus Siphonina Reuss, 1850

32 Species Siphonina bradyana Cushman, 1927 3 33 Siphonina reticulate Cžjžek, 1848 3 34 Siphonina tubulosa Cushman, 1924 3 Superfamily Buliminoidea Jones, 1857 Family Uvigerinidae Haeckel, 1894

Subfamily Angulogerininae Galloway, 1933

Genus Trifarina Cushman, 1923

35 Species Trifarina bradyi Cushman, 1923 3 Subfamily Uvigerininae Haeckel, 1894 Genus Uvigerina d'Orbigny, 1826

36 Species Uvigerina mediterranea Hofker, 1932 3 Superfamily Asterigerinoidea d'Orbigny, 1839 Family Asterigerinatidae Reiss, 1963 Genus Asterigerinata Bermúdez, 1949

37 Species Asterigerinata mamilla Williamson, 1858 3 155

Appendix B

Family Amphisteginidae Cushman, 1927 Genus Amphistegina d'Orbigny, 1826

38 Species Amphistegina lobifera Larsen, 1976 3 39 Amphistegina lessonii d'Orbigny, 1832 3 Superfamily Acervulinoidea Schultze, 1854 Family Acervulinidae Schultze, 1854 Genus Sphaerogypsina Galloway, 1933

40 Species Sphaerogypsina globulus Reuss, 1848 99 Family3 Homotrematidae Cushman, 1927 Genus Miniacina Galloway, 1933

41 Species Miniacina miniacea Pallas, 1766 3 Superfamily Bolivinitoidea Cushman, 1927 Family Bolivinitidae Cushman, 1927 Subfamily Bolivinitinae Cushman, 1927 Genus Bolivina d'Orbigny, 1839

42 Species Bolivina robusta Brady, 1881 3 Superfamily Planorbulinoidea Schawager, 1877 Family Cibicididae Cushman, 1927 Subfamily Cibicidinae Cushman, 1927 Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808

43 Species Cibicides pseudolabatulus Perelis Reiss, 1975 3 44 Cibicides dutemplei d'Orbigny, 1846 3 45 Cibicides refulgens Montfort, 1808 3 46 Cibicides tenellus Reuss, 1865 3 47 Cibicides praecinctus Karrer, 1868 3 Genus Lobatula Fleming, 1822

48 Species Lobatula lobatula Walker and Jacob, 1798 3 Family Planorbulinidae Schwager, 1877 Subfamily Planorbulininae Schwager, 1877 Genus Planorbulina d'Orbigny, 1826

49 Species Planorbulina mediterranensis d'Orbigny, 1826 3

156

Appendix B

Family Planulinidae Bermúdez, 1952 Genus Planulina d'Orbigny, 1826

50 Species Planulina ariminensis d'Orbigny, 1826 3 Superfamily Discorboidea Ehrenberg, 1838 Family Rosalinidae Reiss, 1963 Genus Rosalina d'Orbigny, 1826

51 Species Rosalina bradyi Cushman, 1915 3 Genus Neoconorbina Hofker, 1951

52 Species Neoconorbina terquemi Rzehak, 1888 3 Family Eponididae Hofker, 1951 Subfamily Eponidinae Hofker, 1951 Genus Eponides Montfort, 1808

53 Species Eponides repandus Fichtel and Moll, 1798 3 54 Eponides pygmaeus Hantken, 1875 3 Superfamily Nonionoidea Schultze, 1854 Family Nonionidae Schultze, 1854 Subfamily Nonioniae Schultze, 1854 Genus Nonion Montfort, 1808

55 Species Nonion commune d'Orbigny, 1846 3 Subfamily Pulleniinae Schwager, 1877 Genus Melonis Montfort, 1808

56 Species Melonis pompilioides Fichtel and Moll, 1798 3 Superfamily Cassidulinoidea d'Orbigny, 1839 Family Cassidulinidae d'Orbigny, 1839 Genus Cassidulina d'Orbigny, 1826

57 Species Cassidulina lomitensis Galloway and Wissler, 1927 3 Suborder Globigerinina Delage and Hérouard, 1896 Superfamily Globigerinoidea Carpenter et al., 1862 Family Globigerinidae Carpenter et al., 1862 Subfamily Globigerininae Carpenter et al., 1862 Genus Globigerinella Cushman, 1927

58 Species Globigerinella siphonifera d'Orbigny, 1839 3 157

Appendix B

Genus Globigerinoides Cushman, 1927

59 Species Globigerinoides ruber d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Family Hastigerinidae Bolli, Loeblich and Tappan, 1957 Subfamily Globigerininae Carpenter et al., 1862 Genus Globigerina d'Orbigny, 1826

60 Species Globigerina bulloides d'Orbigny, 1826 3 Subfamily Orbulininae Schultze, 1854 Genus Orbulina d'Orbigny, 1939

61 Species Orbulina universa d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Superfamily Globorotalioidea Cushman, 1927

Family Candeinidae Cushman, 1927

Subfamily Candeininae Cushman, 1927

Genus Candeina d'Orbigny, 1839

62 Species Candeina nitida d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Family Globorotaliidae Cushman 1927 Genus Globorotalia Cushman, 1927

63 Species Globorotalia menardii d'Orbigny in Parker, Jones and Brady, 1865 3 64 Globorotalia panda Jenkins, 1960

Genus Neogloboquadrina Bandy, Frerichs and Vincent, 1967

65 Species Neogloboquadrina dutertrei d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Subclass Textulariia Mikhalevich, 1980 Order Textulariida Suborder Textulariina Delage and Hérouard, 1896 Superfamily Textularioidea Ehrenberg, 1838 Family Textulariidae Ehrenberg, 1838 Subfamily Textulariinae Ehrenberg, 1838 Genus Textularia Defrance, 1824

66 Species Textularia agglutinans d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Foraminifera incertae sedis Order Lagenida Delage and Hérouard, 1896 158

Appendix B

Superfamily Nodosarioidea Ehrenberg, 1838 Family Chrysalogoniidae Mikhalevich, 1993 Genus Amphimorphinella Keyzer, 1953

67 Species Amphimorphinella amchitkaensis Todd, 1953 3 Family Vaginulinidae Reuss, 1860 Subfamily Lenticulininae Chapman et al., 1934 Genus Lenticulina Lamacrk, 1804

68 Species Lenticulina inornata d'Orbigny, 1846 3 69 Lenticulina rotulata Lamarck, 1804 3 Family Lagenidae Reuss, 1862 Genus Lagena Walker and Boys, 1798

70 Species Lagena aspera Reuss, 1861 9 3 71 Lagena striata d'Orbigny, 1839 3 Superfamily Polymorphinoidea??? Family Polymorphinidae d'Orbigny, 1839 Subfamily Polymorphininae d'Orbigny, 1839 Genus Globulina d'Orbigny, 1826

72 Species Globulina gibba d'Orbigny in Deshayes, 1832 3 73 Globulina minuta Römer, 1838 3 Genus Guttulina d'Orbigny, 1839

74 Species Guttulina communis d'Orbigny, 1862 3

159

Appendix C

APPENDIX C: MICRO - HABITAT OF SPECIES

The depth Salinity* Temperature Feeding Species Paleobathymetry Microhabitat (m)/ [PSU] (oC) strategy (Avarage)

Adelosina Lagoons, Inner Epifauna 0-30a 33-37a 0-50a Detritivore? mediterranensis shelf

Epifauna-Infauna, Lagoons, Inner Detritivore, Ammonia tepida fine sand, mud, 0-50a 33-37a 15-30a shelf a Herbivoreb vagileb

Epifauna on Lagoons, Inner Herbivore, Amphistegina lessonii sediment and hard 0-90j >34a 15-20j shelf a symbiontsa substrates j

Epifauna on substrate in high energy setting and

Inner Inner shelf Lagoons, Inner Herbivore, Amphistegina lobifera on sand in sheltered 0-30j >34a 15-20j shelf a symbiontsa setting between coral rubble covered in algae j

Epifaunal/epiphytic Dinoflagellate, Amphisorus hemprichii Lagoon, nearshore a on hard substrate 30-40 j 32-37 a 19-26 j symbiontsa including seagrass j

160

Appendix C

Asterigerinata mamilla Inner shelf a Epifaunaa,c 30-100j 33-37a Temperatej Herbivore? j

Inner shelf, subtidal, Epifauna, subtidal, Detritivore, Elphidium aculeatum 0-30c 33-37b >15a infralittoralb infralittoralb herbivoreb

Inner shelf, subtidal, Epifauna, subtidal, Detritivore, Elphidium advenum 0-30c 33-37b >15a infralittoralb infralittoralb herbivoreb

Cycloforina contorta Inner shelf a Epifaunaa,c 0-30 c 32-37 b 18-27c Herbivore j?

Epifauna, clinging, Inner shelf, subtidal Herbivore, Peneroplis pertusus plant and hrad 0-70b 33-53c 18-27c and lagoonsj autotrophj substratej

Epifaunal, clinging, Innermost shelf and Herbivore, Peneroplis planatus plant and hard 0-70b 33-53c 18-27c lagoonsj autotrophj substratej

Massilina secans Inner shelfj Epiphytic, cligingj 0-50 b 32-37b Temperate-warm j Herbivore j

Epifauna, attaches Inner shelf, flat (common on Temperate- Miniacina miniacea 0-100c 0-30? Herbivore j reefs, lagoonsc Posidonia), subtropical a,c cemented ac

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Temperate- Lachlanella variolata hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb a,b,c marsh a,b,c

161

Appendix C

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes agglutinans tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes akneriana tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes boueana tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b a,b,c

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes bradyana tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes laevigata tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 0-50 a,b 32-65c sometimes tropical a,c poeyana lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

162

Appendix C

Inner shelf, marine- Epifauna, sand, hypersaline, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Temperate- hypersaline normal to 8-65 a,b 32-65c sometimes seminula tropical a,c lagoons, marine hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb marsha,b,c a,b,c

Epifauna, sand, vegetated areas, Detritivoreb,c, Quinqueloculina Inner shelf, lagoons, Temperate- normal to 30-100a,b, 32-65c sometimes vulgaris upper subtidala,b,c tropical a,c hypersaline lagoons herbivoreb a,b,c

Epifauna, sediment Inner shelf, lagoons Spiroloculina excavata or plant, marine- 5-70a 33-37a,b Temperate-warmj Herbivoreb,c a,c hypersaline

Epifauna, sediment Spiroloculina Inner shelf, lagoons or plant, marine- 5-70a 33-37a,b Temperate-warmj Herbivoreb,c communis a,c hypersaline

Nearshore,lagoons Ephiphytic on Herbivore, Sorites marginalis 0-70c 37-45 a,c 18-26 a,c a,c seagrass a,c autotrophc

Nearshore,lagoons Ephiphytic on Herbivore, Sorites orbiculus 0-30c 37-45 a,c Circum tropical a,c a,c seagrass a,c autotrophc

Detritivoreb,c, Pseudotriloculina Nearshore,lagoons Temperate- Epifauna, free a,c 0-30c 33-37a,b sometimes consobrina a,c tropical a,c herbivoreb

Inner shelf and Seagrass and Herbivore, Vertebralina striata 0-50b 33-53c 18-27c lagoonsj clinging autotrophj

163

Appendix C

- Epifauna-Infauna; Inner shelf-Middle Detritivore, Ammonia beccarii brackish and 30-80a 33-37a 15-30a shelfa Herbivore?b

shelf

Inner

middle middle hypersaline lagoons

Epiphytal, stones, Cold-warm j shells, living Detritivore, Cibicides tenellus Neritick 30-2000a 33-37c animals a, high Herbivoreb energyj

muddy sand, Neritic, subtidal, seaweed, epifaunac, Detritivore, Elphidium crispum 0-30c 33-37b >15a infralittoralb culture herbivoreb photosymbitonse

outer shelf outer Infauna, sediment - Temperate- Globulina minuta Shelfa more common than 0-200a 33-37a Omnivorec tropicala plant a,c

Inner

Neoconorbina Epifauna, hard Neriticc 0-100c 33-37b Temperatec Herbivore j terquemi substratej

Nonion commune Neriticc Infaunac 0-180c 33-35b Cold-warmj Herbivore j

Bulimina striata Inner shelf- Bathyala Infaunaj 0-100j 33-37c Cold- temperate j Detritivore?j

upper upper - Epifauna- Subtidal, inner Infauna,vagile, 0-100 a,c Detritivore, a,b,c Temperate- c Rosalina bradyi bathyal shelf, upper bathyal clinging, attached in 33-37 herbivore , b subtropical a a,b,c hard grounds, 0-300 omnivoreb a,b,c

Inner Inner shelf substrate, plants

164

Appendix C

Epiphytal, stones, Cold-warm j Cibicides Shelf-Bathyal, shells, living a c Detritivore, k a 30-2000 33-37 b pseudolobatulus shalow water animals , high herbivore energyj

Infauna, sediment Temperate- Globulina gibba Shelf- bathyala more common than 0-200a 33-37a Omnivorec tropicala plant a,c

Temperate- Guttulina communis Neritic- bathyala Infauna 30-400a 33-37a Omnivorec tropicala

Inner shelf, subtidal, Epifauna, subtidal, Detritivore, Elphidium macellum 0-30c 33-37b >15a infralittoralb infralittoralb herbivoreb

Dentritivore, Epifauna, attached, herbivorec, Lobatula lobatula Neritic-bathyala hard substrate in 30-100c 33-37 a,c Cold-warmj a,c suspension

high energy feederc

Epifaunal, attached Passive

Planorbulina bathyal a c a,c a - Neritic-bathyal imbobile, hard 0-50 33-37 Temperate-warm suspension mediterranesis substrates feeder?c

Infauna, free l Inner Inner shelf Lower nitric to Trifarina bradyi 0-400 c 32-37 b Cold-temperatej Detritivore?j bathyal A facultative anarobej

Sphaerogypsina Neritic-bathyalc Epifauna, 0-200 c 32-37 b temperatej Omnivorec? globulus

165

Appendix C

Cold-warm j - Infauna; shells, Detritivore, Cibicides praecinctus Middle-Outer shelf living animals a, high 40-2000a 33-37 c herbivoreb energyj

Middle

outer outer shelf

Middle shelf- Bolivina robusta Shallow Infaunaj 600-2400j 33-37c Cold-warmj Detritivore?j Bathyala

Epiphytal, stones, Cold-warm Middle shelf- shells, living Detritivore, Cibicides refulgens 0-2000a 33-37c Bathyalk animals a, high herbivoreb j

bathyal energy

Middle shelf- Epifaunal, free or Cold-temperate j Eponides pygmaeus 32-37 b Detritivore?j Bathyala clinging

c c b a Omnivore and Lagena aspera shelf Middle shelf- Bathyal Epifauna-Infauna 33-37 Cold-tropical deposit feeder j

Middle shelf- Omnivore and Lagena striata Epifauna-Infaunac 0-150a 33-37b Cold-tropicala Bathyalc deposit feeder j

Outer shelf-upper Lenticulina inornata Epifauna-Infaunac 0-600c 33-37 a,c Coldc Detritivore?j bathyalc

Outer shelf-upper Lenticulina rotulata Epifauna-Infaunac 0-600c 33-37 a,c Coldc Detritivore?j bathyalc

upper bathyal upper

Pseudotriloculina - Outer shelf-upper Detritivore, Epifaunac 30-120b 33-37b Temperate-warmj laevigata bathyalk herbivoreb

Infauna, vagile, fine Outer shelf-upper a,b a,b c,j c Textularia agglutinans a,b sand to hard 60-500 33-37 Cold-warm Detritivore

Outer shelf Outer bathyal grounds b

166

Appendix C

Infauna,vagile, fine Uvigerina Outer shelf- upper sand, muddy 100-600 a,b 33-37a,b,c Colda,c Detritivoreb,c mediterranea bathyalk substratea,c,e

Middle shelf- Cassidulina lomitensis Infauna j 100-600a 33-37c Cold- temperate j Detritivorej bathyala

Omnivore, Outer shelf-Bathyal, Subtropical- Candeina nitida Pendingb,f 100b 33-37c symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Epifauna-Infauna¸ Cold-warm

Outer shelf –upper stones, shells, living a c Detritivore, Cibicides dutemplei k a 30-2000 33-37 b bathyal animals , high herbivore energyj

Outer shelf –upper Epifaunal, free or Cold-temperate Eponides repandus 32-37 b Detritivore?j bathyalk clinging

upper bathyal upper

- Omnivore, Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Globigerina bulloides Pendingb,f 100-200b 33-37b symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Omnivore,

Globigerinella shelf Outer Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Pendingb,f 100-200b 33-37b symbiosis with siphonifera epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Omnivore, Neogloboquadrina Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Pendingb,f 100-200b 33-37b symbiosis with dutertrei epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Omnivore, Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Orbulina universa Pending <300b 33-37b symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

167

Appendix C

Omnivore, Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Globorotalia panda Pendingb,f 200b 33-37b symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Omnivore, Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Globigerinoides ruber Pendingb,f <70b 33-37b symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

Epifauna, fine sand, Detritivore, Triloculina trigonula Outer shelf-bathyalk mud, epithytal, party 50-100 a,b 33-55 c Temperate-warmj herbivoreb clingingb,c

Omnivore, Outer shelf-bathyal, Subtropical- Globorotalia menardii Pendingb,f 100-200b 33-37b symbiosis with epipelagic zoneb tropical, >20f dinoflagellatesb

- Primarily an outer shelf-upper-middle Melonis pompilioides Infaunac 100-700c 33-37 a,c <10, coldc Detritivorej bathyal; its deeper- water ecotypek

Outer shelf Outer

middle bathyal middle

Primarily lower Bulimina elongata Infauna, free 32-37 Cold-temperate Detritivorej? bathyal

Detritivore, Siphonina bradyana Upper bathyalk Infaunab 50-150 33-37c Warm? herbivore?

Detritivore, Siphonina reticulata Upper bathyalk Infaunab 50-150 33-37c Warm? herbivore?

Upper bathyal Upper Detritivore, Siphonina tubulosa Upper bathyalk Infaunab 50-150 33-37c Warm? herbivore?

168

Appendix C

- Passive Primarily upper to Epifauna, hard a,b c j Planulina ariminensis k j 40-1000 33-55 Cold-warm suspension middle bathyal substrate j

Upper middle feeder

bathyal

Amphimorphinella Bathyal? Infaunab 200? 33-37? Cold? Detritivore? amchitkaensis

Bathyal

aMurray (1973); bHohenegger and Baal (2003); cMurray (1991); dDebenay (2012); eArmstron and Brasier (2005); fSzczecura (1984); gKoukousioura et al. (2010); hLanger (2008); iSzinger (2008); jMurray (2006); kvan Morkhoven, 1986); lHolbourn et al. (2013) *Salinity [PSU]: < 33: hyposaline; 33-37: normal marine; > 37: hypersaline

169

Appendix D

APPENDIX D: GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

170

Appendix D

10/1 11/1 12/1 12/2 12/3 13/1 14/1 SIEVING ERROR: 0,2% 0,5% 0,6% 0,5% 0,1% 0,1% 0,2% Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately SAMPLE TYPE: Unimodal, Well Sorted Unimodal, Well Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Well Sorted Sorted TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Well Sorted Coarse Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Moderately Sorted SEDIMENT NAME: Sand Well Sorted Fine Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Sorted Coarse Sand Coarse Sand MEAN 777,1 216,3 346,4 330,2 443,9 652,9 592,3 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 246,8 72,82 178,8 191,6 308,3 246,3 289,1 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS 1,085 2,811 2,537 2,681 2,213 0,770 1,111 KURTOSIS 7,991 18,97 14,52 14,57 8,199 6,077 5,388 MEAN 658,9 195,8 292,1 271,4 305,3 540,6 440,6 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 2,101 1,306 1,663 1,794 3,305 2,194 3,044 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -6,929 0,907 -2,538 -3,156 -3,695 -6,151 -4,508 KURTOSIS 59,41 20,75 33,15 35,31 18,59 49,60 25,18 MEAN 0,502 2,352 1,756 1,842 1,362 0,768 0,903 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,512 0,378 0,639 0,679 0,753 0,538 0,613 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS 2,670 -1,792 -0,347 -0,648 -0,695 0,416 -0,200 KURTOSIS 17,54 5,984 3,303 3,282 3,619 2,995 2,540 MEAN 719,1 187,7 287,0 270,5 398,2 581,2 530,1 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,338 1,365 1,638 1,672 1,835 1,523 1,671 (μm) SKEWNESS 0,149 0,172 -0,060 0,061 0,267 -0,227 0,085 KURTOSIS 1,050 1,124 0,967 0,905 1,776 0,878 0,923 MEAN 0,476 2,413 1,801 1,887 1,328 0,783 0,916 SORTING 0,420 0,449 0,712 0,742 0,875 0,607 0,741 FOLK and Ward Method (Φ) SKEWNESS -0,149 -0,172 0,060 -0,061 -0,267 0,227 -0,085 KURTOSIS 1,050 1,124 0,967 0,905 1,776 0,878 0,923 MEAN: Coarse Sand Fine Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Moderately Well FOLK and Ward Method SORTING: Well Sorted Well Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Sorted (Description) SKEWNESS: Coarse Skewed Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Symmetrical Coarse Skewed Fine Skewed Symmetrical KURTOSIS: Mesokurtic Leptokurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic Very Leptokurtic Platykurtic Mesokurtic MODE 1 (m): 750,0 187,5 375,0 375,0 375,0 750,0 750,0 MODE 2 (m): MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (): 0,500 2,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 0,500 0,500 MODE 2 (): MODE 3 (): D10 (m): 522,4 135,1 151,5 145,5 197,7 311,1 288,5 D50 (m): 719,1 187,7 301,6 273,5 366,3 617,6 533,0 D90 (m): 989,8 317,9 493,0 493,7 956,5 945,2 965,2 (D90 / D10) (m): 1,895 2,354 3,254 3,394 4,838 3,038 3,346 (D90 - D10) (m): 467,4 182,9 341,5 348,3 758,7 634,1 676,7 (D75 / D25) (m): 1,491 1,509 1,997 2,141 1,727 1,819 2,125 (D75 - D25) (m): 289,1 77,81 204,7 210,8 202,6 362,8 409,0 D10 (): 0,015 1,653 1,020 1,018 0,064 0,081 0,051 D50 (): 0,476 2,413 1,729 1,870 1,449 0,695 0,908 D90 (): 0,937 2,888 2,722 2,781 2,339 1,684 1,793 (D90 / D10) (): 63,38 1,747 2,668 2,732 36,41 20,72 35,11 (D90 - D10) (): 0,922 1,235 1,702 1,763 2,274 1,603 1,742 (D75 / D25) (): 4,071 1,281 1,776 1,821 1,747 3,771 3,921 (D75 - D25) (): 0,576 0,594 0,998 1,098 0,788 0,863 1,088 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 8,7% 0,0% 0,9% 1,3% 9,2% 4,7% 7,6% % COARSE SAND: 86,8% 0,2% 7,9% 7,8% 12,3% 65,2% 46,7% % MEDIUM SAND: 1,6% 15,0% 56,4% 46,9% 63,5% 29,4% 45,0% % FINE SAND: 1,9% 84,2% 34,2% 43,4% 14,8% 0,7% 0,6% % V FINE SAND: 1,0% 0,6% 0,5% 0,5% 0,2% 0,0% 0,1%

171

Appendix D

17/1 18/1 20/1 20/2 22/1 24/1 24/2 SIEVING ERROR: 0,2% 0,8% 0,8% 0,7% 0,8% 0,5% 1,0% SAMPLE TYPE: Unimodal, Well Sorted Unimodal, Moderately Bimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Well Sorted Well Sorted Sorted Well Sorted Sorted Sorted

TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand SEDIMENT NAME: Well Sorted Very Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Well Sorted Medium Coarse Sand Sorted Medium Sand Very Coarse Sand Sorted Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Sand MEAN 819,6 524,4 516,4 517,6 460,9 522,1 368,9 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 593,9 248,2 545,7 261,7 276,7 306,4 110,4 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS -0,139 1,659 0,833 1,713 1,682 1,967 2,375 KURTOSIS 1,582 6,979 2,322 7,031 6,785 6,855 18,51 MEAN 164,3 447,9 66,26 428,8 364,5 402,0 333,8 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 20,59 1,593 21,97 1,868 1,986 2,509 1,341 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -1,064 -2,002 -0,558 -4,670 -3,046 -4,808 -1,218 KURTOSIS 2,196 32,04 1,436 48,02 28,61 32,90 20,88 MEAN 0,040 1,149 0,480 1,169 1,406 1,134 1,582 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,511 0,611 0,854 0,641 0,789 0,638 0,416 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS 0,771 -0,320 0,779 -0,312 -0,147 -1,093 0,463 KURTOSIS 3,759 3,176 2,657 3,351 2,688 3,584 5,872 MEAN 1079,3 454,4 814,4 449,8 378,3 454,6 341,5 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,403 1,564 1,774 1,593 1,822 1,661 1,366 (μm) SKEWNESS -0,906 0,194 -0,888 0,187 0,025 0,376 -0,161 KURTOSIS 0,353 0,792 0,461 0,847 1,025 1,093 1,087 MEAN -0,110 1,138 0,296 1,153 1,403 1,137 1,550 SORTING 0,488 0,645 0,827 0,672 0,866 0,732 0,450 FOLK and Ward Method (Φ) SKEWNESS 0,906 -0,194 0,888 -0,187 -0,025 -0,376 0,161 KURTOSIS 0,353 0,792 0,461 0,847 1,025 1,093 1,087 MEAN: Very Coarse Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand SORTING: Well Sorted Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Well Sorted FOLK and Ward Method Sorted Sorted (Description) SKEWNESS: Very Fine Skewed Coarse Skewed Very Fine Skewed Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Very Coarse Skewed Fine Skewed KURTOSIS: Very Platykurtic Platykurtic Very Platykurtic Platykurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic MODE 1 (m): 1500,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 MODE 2 (m): 1500,0 MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (): -0,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 MODE 2 (): -0,500 MODE 3 (): D10 (m): 570,0 267,2 288,7 263,4 168,7 272,3 213,6 D50 (m): 1267,7 428,0 1143,7 421,0 370,9 411,3 341,5 D90 (m): 2689,1 863,8 5107,6 873,0 839,9 945,3 478,0 (D90 / D10) (m): 4,718 3,232 17,69 3,314 4,977 3,472 2,238 (D90 - D10) (m): 2119,1 596,5 4818,9 609,6 671,1 673,0 264,4 (D75 / D25) (m): 2,527 1,995 3,739 1,998 2,140 1,889 1,523 (D75 - D25) (m): 1184,5 317,2 1211,0 313,4 296,6 282,6 144,7 D10 (): -1,427 0,211 -2,353 0,196 0,252 0,081 1,065 D50 (): -0,342 1,224 -0,194 1,248 1,431 1,282 1,550 D90 (): 0,811 1,904 1,793 1,924 2,567 1,877 2,227 (D90 / D10) (): -0,568 9,011 -0,762 9,821 10,20 23,12 2,092 (D90 - D10) (): 2,238 1,692 4,145 1,729 2,315 1,796 1,162 (D75 / D25) (): -0,378 2,526 -1,624 2,485 2,300 2,247 1,487 (D75 - D25) (): 1,338 0,996 1,903 0,999 1,098 0,918 0,607 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 62,6% 2,8% 53,7% 3,8% 3,6% 8,1% 0,1% % COARSE SAND: 33,8% 34,0% 16,9% 31,5% 25,3% 22,9% 4,5% % MEDIUM SAND: 3,5% 58,9% 24,4% 59,1% 48,9% 67,2% 82,4% % FINE SAND: 0,1% 4,2% 4,7% 5,3% 21,5% 1,7% 12,9% % V FINE SAND: 0,0% 0,1% 0,2% 0,2% 0,7% 0,0% 0,0%

172

Appendix D

24/3 24/4 24/5 25/1 27/1 28/1 29/1 SIEVING ERROR: 0,9% 0,0% 0,0% 0,8% 0,6% 0,2% 0,2% SAMPLE TYPE: Unimodal, Well Sorted Unimodal, Poorly Bimodal, Poorly Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Bimodal, Poorly Unimodal, Poorly Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand SEDIMENT NAME: Well Sorted Medium Poorly Sorted Medium Poorly Sorted Medium Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Poorly Sorted Fine Poorly Sorted Medium Sand Sand Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Sand Sand MEAN 368,9 378,9 662,7 359,4 611,5 632,1 577,3 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 138,2 347,2 523,4 187,1 372,4 585,4 458,0 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS 4,268 1,871 0,793 2,582 1,189 0,730 1,123 KURTOSIS 34,26 6,625 1,954 14,49 3,932 1,667 2,933 MEAN 329,1 179,0 427,0 300,3 428,7 326,9 386,3 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 1,435 5,917 2,876 1,767 3,228 4,201 2,694 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -4,138 -2,084 -2,160 -3,848 -3,917 -2,083 -2,373 KURTOSIS 70,95 6,718 13,80 41,90 21,02 9,904 16,37 MEAN 1,593 1,581 1,108 1,696 0,931 1,253 1,252 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,451 1,121 1,187 0,642 0,766 1,317 1,079 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS -0,030 -0,005 0,064 -0,324 -0,199 -0,335 -0,242 KURTOSIS 7,298 2,293 2,171 3,539 2,530 1,417 1,964 MEAN 338,8 353,6 486,8 297,5 520,2 422,8 422,1 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,374 2,480 2,444 1,639 1,802 2,631 2,292 (μm) SKEWNESS -0,164 0,057 0,159 -0,073 0,212 0,375 0,155 KURTOSIS 1,098 1,062 0,847 1,074 0,923 0,579 0,828 MEAN 1,561 1,500 1,039 1,749 0,943 1,242 1,244 SORTING 0,459 1,311 1,289 0,713 0,849 1,395 1,197 FOLK and Ward Method (Φ) SKEWNESS 0,164 -0,057 -0,159 0,073 -0,212 -0,375 -0,155 KURTOSIS 1,098 1,062 0,847 1,074 0,923 0,579 0,828 MEAN: Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand

FOLK and Ward Method SORTING: Well Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Poorly Sorted Poorly Sorted (Description) SKEWNESS: Fine Skewed Symmetrical Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Coarse Skewed Very Coarse Skewed Coarse Skewed KURTOSIS: Mesokurtic Mesokurtic Platykurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic Very Platykurtic Platykurtic MODE 1 (m): 375,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 187,5 375,0 MODE 2 (m): 1500,0 1500,0 MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (): 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 2,500 1,500 MODE 2 (): -0,500 -0,500 MODE 3 (): D10 (m): 202,5 109,8 152,0 156,0 270,4 144,5 155,0 D50 (m): 338,8 334,9 412,7 314,5 495,5 315,0 389,0 D90 (m): 476,5 1783,0 1582,6 503,2 1278,2 1727,6 1383,1 (D90 / D10) (m): 2,353 16,24 10,41 3,226 4,728 11,96 8,925 (D90 - D10) (m): 274,0 1673,2 1430,6 347,2 1007,9 1583,1 1228,1 (D75 / D25) (m): 1,531 3,027 3,888 1,900 2,372 6,643 3,486 (D75 - D25) (m): 145,5 383,2 788,7 199,2 465,6 1040,8 558,1 D10 (): 1,070 -0,834 -0,662 0,991 -0,354 -0,789 -0,468 D50 (): 1,561 1,578 1,277 1,669 1,013 1,667 1,362 D90 (): 2,304 3,187 2,718 2,681 1,887 2,791 2,690 (D90 / D10) (): 2,154 -3,820 -4,104 2,706 -5,329 -3,539 -5,749 (D90 - D10) (): 1,235 4,021 3,380 1,690 2,241 3,580 3,158 (D75 / D25) (): 1,490 2,984 -21,636 1,741 4,981 -8,322 6,094 (D75 - D25) (): 0,615 1,598 1,959 0,926 1,246 2,732 1,802 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 0,8% 0,0% 0,0% 1,3% 13,9% 33,9% 17,7% % COARSE SAND: 3,5% 0,0% 0,0% 8,8% 35,5% 3,5% 20,5% % MEDIUM SAND: 81,3% 0,0% 0,0% 59,7% 45,8% 18,9% 32,4% % FINE SAND: 14,2% 0,0% 0,0% 29,7% 4,7% 42,6% 28,1% % V FINE SAND: 0,1% 0,0% 0,0% 0,5% 0,1% 1,1% 1,3%

173

Appendix D

30/1 31/1 32/1 33/1 34/1 35/1 37/1 SIEVING ERROR: 0,1% 0,5% 0,1% 0,4% 0,1% 0,1% 0,2% SAMPLE TYPE: Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Well Sorted Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Well Sorted Well Sorted Sorted Well Sorted Sorted Sorted TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand SEDIMENT NAME: Moderately Well Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Well Sorted Coarse Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Sorted Coarse Sand Sorted Fine Sand Medium Sand Sorted Coarse Sand Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand MEAN 652,2 283,5 611,2 680,3 705,4 425,1 566,0 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 285,7 114,1 378,8 219,9 178,5 285,0 361,4 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS 1,121 1,245 1,405 0,787 0,527 1,890 1,252 KURTOSIS 5,289 6,879 3,950 7,209 9,963 7,439 4,412 MEAN 542,4 247,9 483,8 592,7 637,5 316,5 357,7 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 1,971 1,474 1,938 1,754 1,427 2,422 4,229 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -5,585 -0,093 -2,914 -7,439 -6,858 -3,647 -3,293 KURTOSIS 52,50 6,229 31,72 84,15 112,2 25,64 13,94 MEAN 0,813 2,011 1,008 0,705 0,640 1,520 0,984 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,617 0,554 0,772 0,481 0,421 0,825 0,764 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS 0,255 -0,201 -0,522 0,632 1,654 -0,405 -0,219 KURTOSIS 3,321 2,220 2,689 3,477 7,986 2,575 2,545 MEAN 561,9 247,1 492,9 611,3 669,4 344,9 507,6 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,608 1,548 1,761 1,471 1,373 1,877 1,871 (μm) SKEWNESS -0,108 0,046 0,310 -0,248 -0,174 0,069 0,257 KURTOSIS 0,897 0,739 0,900 1,061 1,132 0,994 1,020 MEAN 0,832 2,017 1,021 0,710 0,579 1,536 0,978 SORTING 0,685 0,631 0,816 0,557 0,457 0,908 0,904 FOLK and Ward Method (Φ) SKEWNESS 0,108 -0,046 -0,310 0,248 0,174 -0,069 -0,257 KURTOSIS 0,897 0,739 0,900 1,061 1,132 0,994 1,020 MEAN: Coarse Sand Fine Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand SORTING: Moderately Well Moderately Well Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Well Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted FOLK and Ward Method Sorted Sorted Sorted (Description) SKEWNESS: Fine Skewed Symmetrical Very Coarse Skewed Fine Skewed Fine Skewed Symmetrical Coarse Skewed KURTOSIS: Platykurtic Platykurtic Platykurtic Mesokurtic Leptokurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic MODE 1 (m): 750,0 187,5 375,0 750,0 750,0 375,0 375,0 MODE 2 (m): MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (): 0,500 2,500 1,500 0,500 0,500 1,500 1,500 MODE 2 (): MODE 3 (): D10 (m): 296,3 141,3 268,2 334,6 391,0 156,1 265,9 D50 (m): 593,2 243,5 447,1 643,1 669,4 338,4 472,1 D90 (m): 961,0 442,3 1170,1 940,3 935,3 833,9 1357,0 (D90 / D10) (m): 3,243 3,131 4,363 2,810 2,392 5,341 5,104 (D90 - D10) (m): 664,7 301,1 901,9 605,7 544,3 677,7 1091,2 (D75 / D25) (m): 1,997 2,039 2,287 1,608 1,519 2,250 2,387 (D75 - D25) (m): 400,5 180,0 418,1 308,2 281,9 276,2 457,4 D10 (): 0,057 1,177 -0,227 0,089 0,096 0,262 -0,440 D50 (): 0,753 2,038 1,161 0,637 0,579 1,563 1,083 D90 (): 1,755 2,823 1,899 1,580 1,355 2,679 1,911 (D90 / D10) (): 30,61 2,399 -8,379 17,77 14,04 10,22 -4,339 (D90 - D10) (): 1,697 1,647 2,125 1,491 1,258 2,417 2,352 (D75 / D25) (): 4,135 1,685 3,784 3,327 3,174 2,160 4,635 (D75 - D25) (): 0,998 1,028 1,194 0,685 0,603 1,170 1,255 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 6,7% 0,0% 12,8% 3,5% 2,0% 4,8% 13,9% % COARSE SAND: 57,5% 1,8% 28,4% 73,0% 82,9% 19,8% 32,1% % MEDIUM SAND: 34,2% 46,2% 54,3% 23,3% 14,4% 45,0% 48,3% % FINE SAND: 1,4% 50,9% 4,4% 0,2% 0,6% 29,9% 5,6% % V FINE SAND: 0,2% 1,0% 0,1% 0,0% 0,1% 0,4% 0,1%

174

Appendix D

38/1 39/1 40/1 41/1 43/1 44/1 45/2 SIEVING ERROR: 0,1% 0,0% 0,2% 0,3% 0,6% 0,4% 0,0% Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately SAMPLE TYPE: Sorted Well Sorted Well Sorted Well Sorted Unimodal, Well Sorted Well Sorted Sorted TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Moderately Sorted Medium Moderately Well Sorted Moderately Well Moderately Well Moderately Well Sorted Moderately Sorted SEDIMENT NAME: Sand Very Coarse Sand Sorted Medium Sand Sorted Coarse Sand Well Sorted Fine Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand MEAN 342,9 1131,7 502,3 963,4 206,0 419,5 751,4 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 241,8 495,3 224,8 473,7 83,66 177,6 376,5 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS 3,145 -0,950 1,646 -0,302 8,664 1,684 0,823 KURTOSIS 15,74 2,626 7,368 2,291 120,3 7,955 3,105 MEAN 233,9 630,3 427,7 493,6 186,7 363,0 589,8 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 3,421 6,700 1,732 7,610 1,285 1,594 2,361 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -3,535 -2,953 -5,172 -2,634 1,410 -3,930 -4,875 KURTOSIS 16,44 10,18 60,21 8,248 34,22 53,02 36,80 MEAN 1,677 -0,102 1,185 0,079 2,420 1,442 0,642 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,744 0,563 0,572 0,491 0,355 0,558 0,716 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS -0,883 1,381 -0,358 0,019 -2,488 -0,147 0,302 KURTOSIS 4,006 5,203 3,642 2,332 16,67 3,798 3,045 MEAN 292,7 1148,5 443,9 1018,6 181,9 369,1 630,9 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,865 1,518 1,538 1,519 1,328 1,530 1,735 (μm) SKEWNESS 0,103 -0,394 0,230 -0,035 0,149 0,049 -0,055 KURTOSIS 1,476 0,694 0,840 0,529 1,051 1,345 1,121 MEAN 1,772 -0,200 1,172 -0,027 2,459 1,438 0,664 SORTING 0,899 0,603 0,621 0,603 0,409 0,613 0,795 FOLK and Ward Method (Φ) SKEWNESS -0,103 0,394 -0,230 0,035 -0,149 -0,049 0,055 KURTOSIS 1,476 0,694 0,840 0,529 1,051 1,345 1,121 MEAN: Medium Sand Very Coarse Sand Medium Sand Very Coarse Sand Fine Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Moderately Well Moderately Well FOLK and Ward Method SORTING: (Description) Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Sorted Sorted Sorted Well Sorted Moderately Well Sorted Moderately Sorted SKEWNESS: Coarse Skewed Very Fine Skewed Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Symmetrical KURTOSIS: Leptokurtic Platykurtic Platykurtic Very Platykurtic Mesokurtic Leptokurtic Leptokurtic MODE 1 (m): 375,0 1500,0 375,0 750,0 187,5 375,0 750,0 MODE 2 (m): MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (): 1,500 -0,500 1,500 0,500 2,500 1,500 0,500 MODE 2 (): MODE 3 (): D10 (m): 153,5 580,2 269,4 565,9 133,2 220,9 304,8 D50 (m): 307,6 1233,8 415,7 970,0 181,9 363,1 660,8 D90 (m): 573,2 1948,2 837,5 1979,4 248,4 681,2 1369,3 (D90 / D10) (m): 3,734 3,358 3,109 3,498 1,864 3,083 4,493 (D90 - D10) (m): 419,7 1368,0 568,1 1413,5 115,1 460,3 1064,5 (D75 / D25) (m): 1,992 1,939 1,886 2,179 1,476 1,637 1,970 (D75 - D25) (m): 208,7 794,7 281,0 816,3 71,27 180,9 446,6 D10 (): 0,803 -0,962 0,256 -0,985 2,009 0,554 -0,453 D50 (): 1,701 -0,303 1,266 0,044 2,459 1,461 0,598 D90 (): 2,703 0,785 1,892 0,821 2,908 2,178 1,714 (D90 / D10) (): 3,367 -0,816 7,396 -0,834 1,447 3,933 -3,781 (D90 - D10) (): 1,901 1,748 1,636 1,806 0,899 1,624 2,168 (D75 / D25) (): 1,792 -0,336 2,234 -0,893 1,258 1,643 7,950 (D75 - D25) (): 0,994 0,955 0,916 1,123 0,562 0,711 0,978 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 7,1% 68,4% 2,1% 47,7% 0,2% 0,6% 17,3% % COARSE SAND: 3,6% 27,5% 30,9% 51,4% 0,2% 17,0% 54,7% % MEDIUM SAND: 56,1% 3,9% 63,9% 0,7% 8,8% 70,3% 25,2% % FINE SAND: 33,0% 0,1% 2,8% 0,1% 89,0% 12,0% 2,7% % V FINE SAND: 0,2% 0,1% 0,3% 0,0% 1,8% 0,1% 0,1%

175

Appendix D

49/1 50/1 51/2 53/1 57/1 58/1 59/1 60/1 SIEVING ERROR: 0,2% 0,5% 0,3% 0,1% 0,2% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% Unimodal, Unimodal, Unimodal, SAMPLE TYPE: Unimodal, Moderately Moderately Well Moderately Well Unimodal, Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Unimodal, Moderately Moderately Well Sorted Sorted Sorted Moderately Sorted Sorted Sorted Well Sorted Sorted TEXTURAL GROUP: Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Moderately Well Moderately Well SEDIMENT NAME: Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Sorted Medium Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Sorted Sorted Coarse Very Coarse Sand Sorted Coarse Sand Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Sand MEAN 961,8 596,4 477,2 404,8 430,3 890,7 758,9 755,4 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 499,2 254,9 180,2 268,7 293,6 416,5 282,1 274,2 Arithmetic (μm) SKEWNESS -0,038 0,942 1,466 2,128 2,645 0,428 0,998 1,354 KURTOSIS 1,333 5,583 5,750 8,642 9,940 1,982 5,773 5,637 MEAN 750,4 484,0 422,3 321,6 344,6 717,6 616,4 666,7 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 2,070 2,268 1,461 1,793 1,853 2,152 2,481 1,500 Geometric (μm) SKEWNESS -2,565 -5,573 -3,500 -0,538 -2,870 -5,077 -5,984 -4,213 KURTOSIS 21,80 42,66 66,75 11,91 34,22 43,88 42,61 68,27 MEAN 0,384 0,917 1,234 1,627 1,497 0,399 0,529 0,575 METHOD OF MOVEMENTS SORTING 0,909 0,594 0,473 0,802 0,718 0,705 0,486 0,505 Logarithmic (μm) SKEWNESS 0,559 0,191 -0,832 -0,470 -0,894 0,410 0,491 0,202 KURTOSIS 2,170 2,981 3,252 2,850 4,507 2,981 5,968 4,051 MEAN 779,1 529,0 426,3 316,1 333,4 789,8 702,3 679,4 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 1,955 1,566 1,485 1,818 1,663 1,731 1,478 1,477 (μm) SKEWNESS -0,210 -0,092 0,257 0,059 0,028 0,019 0,010 -0,046 KURTOSIS 0,742 0,747 0,978 0,967 1,573 1,055 1,420 1,317 MEAN 0,360 0,919 1,230 1,662 1,585 0,340 0,510 0,558 FOLK and Ward Method SORTING 0,967 0,647 0,570 0,863 0,733 0,791 0,564 0,563 (Φ) SKEWNESS 0,210 0,092 -0,257 -0,059 -0,028 -0,019 -0,010 0,046 KURTOSIS 0,742 0,747 0,978 0,967 1,573 1,055 1,420 1,317 MEAN: Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Medium Sand Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Coarse Sand Moderately Well Moderately Well Moderately Well FOLK and Ward Method SORTING: Moderately Sorted Sorted Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Sorted Moderately Well Sorted Sorted (Description) SKEWNESS: Fine Skewed Symmetrical Coarse Skewed Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical Symmetrical KURTOSIS: Platykurtic Platykurtic Mesokurtic Mesokurtic Very Leptokurtic Mesokurtic Leptokurtic Leptokurtic MODE 1 (m): 1500,0 750,0 375,0 375,0 375,0 750,0 750,0 750,0 MODE 2 (m): MODE 3 (m): MODE 1 (m): -0,500 0,500 1,500 1,500 1,500 0,500 0,500 0,500 MODE 2 (m): MODE 3 (m): D10 (m m): 297,8 287,2 273,1 150,8 177,3 361,7 435,0 379,6 D50 (m m): 860,1 545,0 401,1 316,2 343,8 764,2 702,3 683,4 D90 (m m): 1714,7 927,3 780,6 749,5 717,0 1601,9 1071,0 992,6 (D90 / D10) (m m): 5,759 3,229 2,858 4,971 4,044 4,429 2,462 2,615 (D90 - D10) (m m): 1417,0 640,1 507,5 598,7 539,7 1240,2 635,9 613,1 (D75 / D25) (m m): 2,972 2,064 1,673 2,250 1,693 2,027 1,571 1,595 (D75 - D25) (m m): 896,8 391,6 212,4 256,8 183,1 565,3 320,2 321,8 D10 (): -0,778 0,109 0,357 0,416 0,480 -0,680 -0,099 0,011

D50 (): 0,217 0,876 1,318 1,661 1,540 0,388 0,510 0,549 D90 (): 1,748 1,800 1,872 2,729 2,496 1,467 1,201 1,398 (D90 / D10) (): -2,247 16,53 5,240 6,560 5,200 -2,158 -12,140 131,1 (D90 - D10) ): 2,526 1,691 1,515 2,313 2,016 2,147 1,300 1,387 (D75 / D25) ): -2,615 3,637 1,806 2,051 1,654 -5,467 4,549 4,166 (D75 - D25) (): 1,571 1,045 0,743 1,170 0,760 1,020 0,652 0,673 % GRAVEL: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % SAND: 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % MUD: 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% % V COARSE SAND: 44,0% 4,3% 0,5% 3,0% 5,9% 29,5% 10,9% 9,2% % COARSE SAND: 27,7% 52,2% 26,6% 16,8% 8,5% 52,8% 76,7% 74,3% % MEDIUM SAND: 24,5% 41,9% 72,1% 45,6% 65,8% 16,5% 12,0% 16,4% % FINE SAND: 3,7% 1,4% 0,7% 33,6% 19,6% 1,1% 0,3% 0,1% % V FINE SAND: 0,1% 0,2% 0,1% 0,9% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% 0,0%

176

Appendix E APPENDIX E: PLATES

177

Appendix E

178

Appendix E

179

Appendix E

180

Appendix E

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Appendix E

182

Appendix F

APPENDIX F: FORAMINIFERA ANALYSIS

183

Appendix F

1 2 3 4 5 6

No. Sample Adelosina Ammonia Ammonia Amphisorus Amphimorphinella Amphistegina mediterranensis beccarii tepida hemprichii amchitkaensis lessonii 1. PHA 3.1 0 2 0 0 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 8 0 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 3 0 0 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 1 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 0 1 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 2 0 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 1 0 0 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 3 0 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 0 0 1 11. PHA3.11 1 0 0 0 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 1 0 0 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 4 0 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 1 0 0 0 0 17. 13/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 14/1 0 0 0 0 0 30 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 29 20. KIS4.6 0 7 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 13 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 1 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 1 20 0 0 0 0 24. KIS4.10 0 5 0 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 28 0 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 0 18 0 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 0 15 0 0 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 9 0 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 4 0 0 0 0 30. 10/1 3 65 0 1 0 37 31. 11/1 0 21 0 0 0 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 33. 12/2 1 1 0 0 0 0 34. 12/3 0 1 1 0 0 6 35. 18/1 0 128 0 0 0 0 36. 53/1 2 0 0 0 0 2 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 4 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 13 39. 22/1 0 4 0 0 0 3 40. 24/1 2 37 0 0 0 4 41. 24/2 2 28 0 0 0 3 42. 24/3 2 34 0 0 0 1 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 18 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 7 47. 51/2 0 4 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 25 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 8 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 52. 25/1 0 4 0 0 1 10 53. 27/1 0 17 0 0 0 3 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 2 0 0 0 41 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 57. 31/1 0 25 0 0 0 1 58. 32/1 0 14 0 0 0 32 59. 33/1 0 1 0 0 0 23 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 6 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 3 63. 38/1 0 7 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 10 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 34 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 3 22 0 0 0 24 68. 44/1 1 46 0 0 0 8 69. 45/2 1 24 2 0 0 1

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Appendix F 7 8 9 10 11 12

No. Sample Amphistegina Asterigerin Bolivina Bulimina Bulimina Candeina lobifera ata mamilla robusta elongata striata nitida 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 34 1 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 30 0 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 31 1 0 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 24 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 34 0 0 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 41 0 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 32 0 0 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 2 0 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 63 0 0 0 0 11. PHA3.11 0 49 0 0 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 48 0 0 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 31 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 27 0 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 23 0 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 28 0 0 0 0 17. 13/1 53 0 0 0 0 0 18. 14/1 70 0 0 0 0 0 19. 17/1 41 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 17 0 0 1 21. KIS4.7 0 2 2 0 0 3 22. KIS4.8 0 0 19 0 0 10 23. KIS4.9 0 0 5 0 0 4 24. KIS4.10 0 0 6 0 0 10 25. KIS4.11 0 0 1 1 0 3 26. KIS4.12 0 0 2 0 0 3 27. KIS4.13 0 0 5 0 0 2 28. KIS4.14 0 0 4 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 4 1 0 39 30. 10/1 80 0 0 0 0 0 31. 11/1 3 0 3 0 0 0 32. 12/1 0 42 0 0 0 0 33. 12/2 2 36 0 0 0 0 34. 12/3 13 24 0 0 0 0 35. 18/1 14 9 0 0 0 0 36. 53/1 2 18 0 0 0 0 37. 20/1 17 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 1 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 8 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 3 4 0 2 0 0 41. 24/2 3 3 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 5 3 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 15 44. 24/5 0 0 7 0 0 14 45. 49/1 55 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 62 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 7 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 48 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 11 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 25 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 4 0 0 0 0 31 53. 27/1 6 5 0 0 0 0 54. 28/1 13 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 112 6 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 14 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 6 13 6 1 2 2 58. 32/1 150 4 0 0 0 3 59. 33/1 275 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 3 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 24 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 40 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 2 0 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 289 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 262 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 299 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 16 13 0 0 0 0 68. 44/1 39 2 0 3 0 8 69. 45/2 19 10 0 0 0 1

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Appendix F 13 14 15 16 17 18 No. Sample Cassidulina Cibicides Cibicides Cibicides Cibicides Cibicides lomitensis dutemplei praecinctus pseudolobatulus refulgens tenellus 1. PHA 3.1 0 5 0 65 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 49 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 63 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 1 0 37 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 42 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 1 0 34 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 60 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 0 0 43 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 26 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 42 0 0 11. PHA3.11 0 0 0 37 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 0 0 43 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 56 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 62 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 0 0 89 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 51 0 0 17. 13/1 0 0 0 18 0 0 18. 14/1 0 3 0 18 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 4 0 0 12 0 0 21. KIS4.7 2 0 0 22 0 0 22. KIS4.8 1 0 0 22 0 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 0 26 6 8 24. KIS4.10 1 0 0 16 0 0 25. KIS4.11 1 23 0 21 7 0 26. KIS4.12 0 22 0 30 0 0 27. KIS4.13 1 10 0 26 7 0 28. KIS4.14 0 13 0 38 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 1 0 2 0 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 3 0 0 31. 11/1 1 14 0 17 0 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 46 0 0 33. 12/2 0 0 0 51 0 0 34. 12/3 0 0 0 70 0 0 35. 18/1 0 13 0 7 10 0 36. 53/1 0 0 0 27 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 11 0 1 0 0 41. 24/2 0 14 0 2 0 0 42. 24/3 0 19 0 1 0 0 43. 24/4 0 15 0 10 0 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 3 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 33 3 12 0 1 53. 27/1 0 48 4 7 0 3 54. 28/1 0 2 0 2 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 9 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 43 7 25 0 6 58. 32/1 0 0 1 6 0 3 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 4 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 1 0 26 0 1 68. 44/1 0 0 0 12 0 29 69. 45/2 7 89 0 11 4 11

186

Appendix F 19 20 21 22 23 24 No. Sample Cycloforina Elphidium Elphidium Elphidium Elphidium Eponides contorta aculeatum advenum crispum macellum pygmaeus 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 8 31 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 34 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 38 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 0 0 41 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 28 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 2 43 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 24 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 1 0 0 40 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 25 0 0 10. PHA3.10 2 0 0 27 0 0 11. PHA3.11 0 0 0 26 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 0 0 24 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 45 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 30 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 0 0 42 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 35 0 0 17. 13/1 0 2 0 6 0 0 18. 14/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 11 2 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 3 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 0 6 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 1 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 15 0 0 8 24. KIS4.10 0 0 7 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 0 17 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 0 0 13 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 0 0 0 15 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 18 0 0 5 29. KIS4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 24 0 0 31. 11/1 1 0 0 0 7 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 16 8 0 33. 12/2 1 0 0 13 4 0 34. 12/3 0 0 0 10 0 0 35. 18/1 0 0 0 23 0 0 36. 53/1 1 0 0 8 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 0 0 40 0 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 32 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 37 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 4 0 0 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 2 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 3 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 9 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 5 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 0 65 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 9 0 0 55. 29/1 0 1 0 3 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 0 0 11 0 0 58. 32/1 0 1 0 11 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 17 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 28 0 0 68. 44/1 0 0 0 23 0 0 69. 45/2 0 0 0 41 0 0

187

Appendix F 25 26 27 28 29 30 No. Sample Eponides Globigerina Globigerinella Globigerinoides Globorotalia Globorotalia repandus bulloides siphonifera ruber menardii panda 1. PHA 3.1 0 4 0 2 1 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 1 0 3 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 6 0 1 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 2 0 3 0 1 5. PHA 3.5 0 1 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 0 3 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 2 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 2 0 1 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 1 0 0 0 0 11. PHA3.11 0 9 0 2 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 4 0 7 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 1 0 2 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 17 0 2 0 2 16. PHA3.19 0 4 0 0 0 0 17. 13/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 18. 14/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 164 0 8 8 13 21. KIS4.7 0 93 0 82 6 7 22. KIS4.8 0 90 0 92 11 13 23. KIS4.9 0 63 0 65 4 2 24. KIS4.10 5 103 0 69 6 12 25. KIS4.11 0 60 0 70 9 4 26. KIS4.12 0 59 0 78 5 13 27. KIS4.13 0 84 0 83 0 2 28. KIS4.14 0 57 0 106 11 4 29. KIS4.17 0 162 0 67 6 2 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 31. 11/1 14 110 0 24 0 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 33. 12/2 0 3 0 0 0 0 34. 12/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 35. 18/1 0 6 0 42 0 0 36. 53/1 0 0 0 1 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 2 0 2 0 0 41. 24/2 0 2 0 3 0 0 42. 24/3 0 4 0 3 0 0 43. 24/4 0 83 0 102 13 20 44. 24/5 0 75 0 91 17 66 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 16 13 110 2 0 53. 27/1 0 6 0 43 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 14 1 78 0 0 58. 32/1 0 0 0 5 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 68. 44/1 0 2 0 8 0 3 69. 45/2 0 2 0 35 1 0

188

Appendix F

31 32 33 34 35 36 No. Sample Globulina Globulina Guttulina Lachlanella Lagena Lagena gibba minuta communis variolata aspera striata 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 0 1 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 0 0 0 11. PHA3.11 1 0 0 0 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 0 0 0 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 0 0 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 0 0 0 17. 13/1 0 1 0 1 0 0 18. 14/1 1 0 0 0 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 0 0 3 0 24. KIS4.10 0 0 0 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 0 0 0 2 0 26. KIS4.12 0 0 0 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 0 0 0 0 1 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 0 0 1 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 31. 11/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 33. 12/2 1 0 0 0 0 0 34. 12/3 0 1 0 0 0 0 35. 18/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 36. 53/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 1 0 0 0 0 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 1 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 0 2 53. 27/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 1 0 0 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 68. 44/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 69. 45/2 0 0 1 0 0 0 189

Appendix F 37 38 39 40 41 42

No. Sample Lenticulina Lenticulina Lobatula Massilina Melonis Miniacina inornata rotulata lobatula secans pompilioides miniacea 1. PHA 3.1 1 0 0 0 0 6 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 0 0 7 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 12 4. PHA 3.4 0 0 0 0 0 24 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 34 6. PHA3.6 0 0 2 0 0 19 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 0 0 11 8. PHA3. 8 0 0 2 0 0 32 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 0 0 16 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 0 0 10 11. PHA3.11 0 0 2 1 0 26 12. PHA3.12 0 0 1 0 0 27 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 0 0 40 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 0 0 39 15. PHA3.15 0 0 1 0 0 19 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 0 0 12 17. 13/1 0 0 3 0 0 6 18. 14/1 0 0 0 0 0 3 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 18 0 0 4 0 21. KIS4.7 0 12 0 0 8 0 22. KIS4.8 0 5 0 0 7 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 0 0 3 0 24. KIS4.10 0 13 0 0 8 0 25. KIS4.11 0 2 0 0 4 0 26. KIS4.12 4 0 0 0 8 0 27. KIS4.13 2 0 0 0 6 0 28. KIS4.14 2 0 0 0 2 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 1 0 2 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 0 8 31. 11/1 17 0 0 0 4 0 32. 12/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 33. 12/2 0 0 0 0 0 3 34. 12/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 35. 18/1 0 7 0 0 0 0 36. 53/1 1 0 0 0 0 2 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 10 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 1 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 5 0 53. 27/1 7 0 0 0 1 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 1 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 0 0 0 0 0 2 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 0 3 68. 44/1 2 0 1 0 0 3 69. 45/2 7 5 0 0 5 0 190

Appendix F

43 44 45 46 47 48 No. Sample Neoconorbina Neogloboquadrina Nonion Orbulina Peneroplis Peneroplis terquemi dutertrei commune universa pertusus planatus 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 64 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 1 80 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 58 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 0 0 3 69 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 0 80 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 0 0 74 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 0 60 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 0 0 1 38 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 0 110 14 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 0 64 1 11. PHA3.11 0 0 0 0 59 0 12. PHA3.12 0 0 0 0 46 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 0 35 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 1 57 0 15. PHA3.15 0 0 0 0 17 0 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 2 85 0 17. 13/1 0 0 0 0 79 46 18. 14/1 0 0 0 1 51 27 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 26 4 20. KIS4.6 30 0 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 33 0 0 4 0 0 22. KIS4.8 16 0 0 4 0 0 23. KIS4.9 19 0 0 13 0 0 24. KIS4.10 29 0 0 1 0 0 25. KIS4.11 16 0 0 10 0 0 26. KIS4.12 19 0 0 5 0 0 27. KIS4.13 13 0 0 15 0 0 28. KIS4.14 20 0 0 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 3 0 0 0 1 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 2 5 0 31. 11/1 23 0 0 6 20 0 32. 12/1 0 0 1 0 127 0 33. 12/2 0 0 1 1 109 0 34. 12/3 0 0 0 0 120 2 35. 18/1 0 0 0 1 14 0 36. 53/1 0 0 0 0 187 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 0 0 13 4 0 41. 24/2 2 0 0 3 0 0 42. 24/3 2 0 0 7 0 0 43. 24/4 8 0 0 16 0 0 44. 24/5 20 0 0 1 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 4 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 5 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 7 4 0 37 0 0 53. 27/1 5 0 0 75 1 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 2 12 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 108 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 2 0 57. 31/1 9 0 0 2 43 0 58. 32/1 0 0 0 2 45 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 60. 34/1 0 0 2 6 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 17 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 1 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 4 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 131 0 68. 44/1 2 0 0 3 11 0 69. 45/2 8 0 0 4 0 0 191

Appendix F 49 50 51 52 53 No. Sample Planorbulina Planulina Pseudotriloculina Pseudotriloculina Quinqueloculina mediterranensis ariminensis consobrina laevigata agglutinans 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 1 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 1 1 1 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 3 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 1 0 1 0 2 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 0 1 8. PHA3. 8 22 0 5 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 1 0 0 10. PHA3.10 3 0 0 0 1 11. PHA3.11 6 0 3 0 0 12. PHA3.12 1 0 0 0 3 13. PHA3.13 1 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 2 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 1 0 0 1 16. PHA3.19 0 0 0 0 0 17. 13/1 1 0 0 5 1 18. 14/1 0 0 0 0 1 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 4 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 0 17 0 0 1 24. KIS4.10 0 0 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 6 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 0 6 1 0 0 27. KIS4.13 0 0 0 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 1 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 1 0 0 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 2 31. 11/1 0 2 1 0 2 32. 12/1 0 0 3 0 3 33. 12/2 0 0 3 0 1 34. 12/3 0 0 8 0 0 35. 18/1 0 7 0 0 0 36. 53/1 0 0 0 0 1 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 0 1 0 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 44. 24/5 0 1 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 0 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 0 1 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 2 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 6 0 68. 44/1 0 4 0 4 2 69. 45/2 0 8 0 0 0

192

Appendix F

54 55 56 57 58 No. Sample Quinqueloculina Quinqueloculina Quinqueloculina Quinqueloculina Quinqueloculina akneriana bradyana laevigata boueana poeyana 1. PHA 3.1 3 11 0 1 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 7 1 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 9 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 4 21 2 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 8 17 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 7 15 5 1 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 7 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 12 0 5 0 9. PHA3.9 0 2 1 0 0 10. PHA3.10 4 9 3 0 0 11. PHA3.11 10 11 4 1 0 12. PHA3.12 2 16 3 1 0 13. PHA3.13 0 7 1 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 9 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 0 4 2 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 7 1 0 0 17. 13/1 0 8 3 0 0 18. 14/1 0 4 1 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 3 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 0 0 0 24. KIS4.10 0 0 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 0 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 0 0 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 0 0 0 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 0 0 0 30. 10/1 0 6 0 4 0 31. 11/1 0 0 0 0 0 32. 12/1 10 2 1 0 0 33. 12/2 11 2 5 0 0 34. 12/3 8 2 1 0 0 35. 18/1 0 0 2 0 0 36. 53/1 10 7 1 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 1 0 0 2 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 0 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 0 0 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 1 68. 44/1 1 3 0 0 3 69. 45/2 0 0 0 0 0 193

Appendix F

59 60 61 62 63 64 No. Sample Quinqueloculina Quinqueloculina Rosalina Sphaerogypsina Siphonina Siphonina seminula vulgaris bradyi globulus bradyana reticulata 1. PHA 3.1 55 0 13 0 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 26 17 25 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 29 31 20 0 0 0 4. PHA 3.4 16 17 15 0 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 39 0 9 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 32 0 12 0 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 29 37 21 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 30 0 19 0 0 0 9. PHA3.9 50 23 3 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 34 12 11 0 0 0 11. PHA3.11 15 15 12 0 0 0 12. PHA3.12 30 11 26 0 0 0 13. PHA3.13 34 6 38 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 40 5 18 0 0 0 15. PHA3.15 34 5 31 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 28 21 17 0 0 0 17. 13/1 29 3 0 0 0 0 18. 14/1 55 0 0 0 0 0 19. 17/1 4 0 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 7 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 5 0 7 0 0 0 24. KIS4.10 2 0 4 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 1 0 4 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 0 0 6 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 4 0 4 0 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 6 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 0 0 0 0 30. 10/1 50 5 0 2 0 0 31. 11/1 4 0 2 0 0 0 32. 12/1 15 0 10 0 0 0 33. 12/2 12 0 17 0 0 0 34. 12/3 13 8 6 0 0 0 35. 18/1 5 4 1 0 0 0 36. 53/1 7 5 5 0 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 3 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 8 0 0 0 0 2 41. 24/2 3 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 1 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 1 44. 24/5 0 0 1 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 3 0 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 11 0 1 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 1 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 10 4 1 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 4 8 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 17 0 3 0 0 0 68. 44/1 43 20 0 0 2 0 69. 45/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 194

Appendix F

65 66 67 68 69 70 No. Sample Siphonina Sorites Sorites Spiroloculina Spiroloculina Textularia tubulosa marginalis orbiculus excavata communis agglutinans 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 5 0 0 1 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 0 0 2 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 5 0 0 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 12 0 0 2 0 6. PHA3.6 0 10 0 0 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 4 0 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 8 0 0 6 0 9. PHA3.9 0 22 0 0 2 0 10. PHA3.10 0 5 0 1 2 0 11. PHA3.11 0 9 0 0 1 0 12. PHA3.12 0 3 0 0 3 0 13. PHA3.13 0 3 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 6 0 0 3 0 15. PHA3.15 0 6 0 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 3 0 0 2 0 17. 13/1 0 33 0 0 1 1 18. 14/1 0 18 0 0 0 16 19. 17/1 0 4 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 1 0 0 0 0 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 23. KIS4.9 3 0 0 0 0 0 24. KIS4.10 2 0 1 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 4 0 0 0 0 0 26. KIS4.12 4 0 0 0 0 0 27. KIS4.13 3 0 0 0 0 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 29. KIS4.17 0 0 0 0 1 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 0 3 31. 11/1 2 0 0 0 0 0 32. 12/1 1 9 0 0 4 0 33. 12/2 0 15 3 0 4 0 34. 12/3 0 0 2 0 4 0 35. 18/1 1 5 0 0 0 0 36. 53/1 0 9 1 0 1 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 0 0 0 0 44. 24/5 0 0 0 0 0 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 5 0 0 1 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 57. 31/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 58. 32/1 0 4 0 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 2 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 67. 43/1 0 5 0 0 0 0 68. 44/1 1 3 0 0 1 0 69. 45/2 1 0 0 0 0 0 195

Appendix F

71 72 73 74 No. Sample Trifarina Triloculina Uvigerina Vertebralina bradyi trigonula mediterranea striata 1. PHA 3.1 0 0 0 0 2. PHA 3.2 0 0 0 0 3. PHA 3.3 0 0 1 0 4. PHA 3.4 0 1 0 0 5. PHA 3.5 0 0 0 0 6. PHA3.6 0 0 0 0 7. PHA3. 7 0 0 0 0 8. PHA3. 8 0 0 0 0 9. PHA3.9 0 0 0 0 10. PHA3.10 0 0 0 4 11. PHA3.11 0 0 0 0 12. PHA3.12 0 0 0 0 13. PHA3.13 0 0 0 0 14. PHA3.14 0 0 0 1 15. PHA3.15 0 0 0 0 16. PHA3.19 0 1 2 0 17. 13/1 0 0 0 0 18. 14/1 0 0 0 0 19. 17/1 0 0 0 0 20. KIS4.6 0 0 0 0 21. KIS4.7 0 0 3 0 22. KIS4.8 0 0 8 0 23. KIS4.9 0 0 2 0 24. KIS4.10 0 0 0 0 25. KIS4.11 0 0 6 0 26. KIS4.12 0 0 4 0 27. KIS4.13 0 0 2 0 28. KIS4.14 0 0 3 0 29. KIS4.17 1 0 2 0 30. 10/1 0 0 0 0 31. 11/1 0 0 2 0 32. 12/1 0 2 0 0 33. 12/2 0 0 0 0 34. 12/3 0 0 0 0 35. 18/1 0 0 1 0 36. 53/1 0 1 0 0 37. 20/1 0 0 0 0 38. 20/2 0 0 0 0 39. 22/1 0 0 0 0 40. 24/1 0 1 1 0 41. 24/2 0 0 0 0 42. 24/3 0 0 0 0 43. 24/4 0 0 2 0 44. 24/5 0 0 3 0 45. 49/1 0 0 0 0 46. 50/1 0 0 0 0 47. 51/2 0 0 0 0 48. 57/1 0 0 0 0 49. 58/1 0 0 0 0 50. 59/1 0 0 0 0 51. 60/1 0 0 0 0 52. 25/1 0 0 0 0 53. 27/1 0 0 1 0 54. 28/1 0 0 0 0 55. 29/1 0 0 0 0 56. 30/1 0 0 0 0 57. 31/1 0 1 2 0 58. 32/1 0 0 0 0 59. 33/1 0 0 0 0 60. 34/1 0 0 0 0 61. 35/1 0 0 0 0 62. 37/1 0 0 0 0 63. 38/1 0 0 0 0 64. 39/1 0 0 0 0 65. 40/1 0 0 0 0 66. 41/1 0 0 0 0 67. 43/1 0 0 0 0 68. 44/1 0 3 3 0 69. 45/2 0 0 2 0

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