MUSIC IN THE Social and Behavioral Sciences An Encyclopedia

Volume 1

William Forde Thompson Macquarie University EDITOR

Alexandra Lamont Keele University Richard Parncutt University of Graz Frank A. Russo Ryerson University ASSOCIATE EDITORS

($)SAGE reference

Los Angeles ILondon INew Delhi Singapore IWashington DC Contents

Volume 1

List of Articles vii Reader's Guide xiit About the Editor xviii List of Contributors xix Introduction xxv Chronology xxix

Articles A 1 B 119 C 157 D 311 E 353 F 447 G 495 H 525 I 573

Volume 2

List of Articles Vtt

Articles L 643 M 667 N 799 0 821 P 835 R 925 S 975 T 1097 U 1155 V 1165 W 1179 Y 1205

Glossary 1209 Resource Guide 1217 Appendix 1223 Index 1241 Photo Credits 1310 List of Contributors

Rita Aiello Emmanuel Bigand New York University Universite de Bourgogne Paolo Ammirante Sarah Boak Ryerson University University of South hampton Christina Anagnostopoulou Sarah E. Boslaugh University of Athens Kennesaw State University J ames Andean Janet Bourne University of the Arts Helsinki Northwestern University Artemis Apostolaki Bernd Brabec de Mori University of Hull University ofMusic and Performing Arts Graz Richard Ashley Jillian L. Bracken Northwestern University University of Western Ontario Michael Austin Evan David Bradley Howard University Pennsylvania State University Amee Baird Alessandro Bratus Macquarie University Universita di Pavia, Cremona Felicity Baker Jacob Braun University of Melbourne Bowling Green State University Daniel Bangert Roberto Bresin University of New South Wales KTH Royal Institute of Technology Katherine Bank Nancy Bressler University of London Bowling Green State University Jonathan Bruce Barber Warren Brodsky National Ageing Research Institute Ben-Gurion University of the Negev David Bashwiner Debra Burns University of New Mexico Purdue University Indiana Christine Beckett Densil Cabrera Concordia University University of Sydney Tonya Bergeson David Cashman Indiana University School of Medicine Southern Cross University

xix xx list of Contributors

Roger Chaffin Meredith Eliassen University of Connecticut San Francisco State University Alexandros Charkiolakis Robert J. Ellis MIAM Istanbul Technical University Harvard Medical School Juan Chattah Paul Evans University of Miami University of New South Wales Morgen Chawawa Peter Fielding Botho University Mahidol University Eddy K. M. Chong Amy L. Fletcher Nayang Technological University University of Canterbury Linda Cimardi Georgina Floridou University of Bologna Goldsmiths, University of London Amy Clements-Cortes Anders Friberg University of Toronto KTH Royal Institute of Technology Annabel J. Cohen Dustin Garlitz University of Prince Edward Island University ofSouth Florida Michael Conklin Sandra Garrido The College of New Jersey University of Melbourne, University of Eduardo Coutinho Western Australia University of Liverpool Travis Garrison Lola Cuddy East Carolina University Queen's University, Canada Elise G. M. Gayraud Meagan E. Curtis Durham University State University ofNew York, Purchase College Andrew Geeves Eugene Dairianathan Macquarie University Institute of Ethnomusicology, University Monika Geretsegger of Music and Performing Arts, Graz Aalborg University, Denmark/ Stephen Davies University of Vienna, Austria University of Auckland Joice Waterhouse Gibson Tereza Virginia de Almeida Metropolitan State University Universidade Federal de of Denver Santa Catarina Bruno Gingras Roger T. Dean University of Vienna University of Western Sydney Jane Ginsborg Alexander P. Demos Royal Northern College of Music, University of Connecticut Manchester Christina M. Vanden Bosch der Nederlanden Robert O. Gjerdingen University of Nevada, Las Vegas Northwestern University Diana Deutsch . Jonathan Glixon University of California, San Diego University of Kentucky Frederic Dohl Daniel Gonzalez Moya Freie Univrsitat Berlin Freie Universitat Berlin Paul Doornbusch Aria Good Australian College of the Arts Ryerson University Christopher Dromey Jessica A. Grahn Middlesex University University of Western Ontario Tuomas Eerola Alexander Gra ur Durham University University of Torino Athena Elafros Anthony Gritten Keuka College Royal Academy of Music List of Contributors xxi

Denise Grocke Jorg Jewanski University of Melbourne University of Munster Juliana Guerrero Jordan Johnson University of Buenos Aires Bowling Green University Himanshu Gupta Nicolai J0fgensgaard Graakjrer University of Western Ontario Aalborg University Golan Gur Olivier Julien Humboldt University of Berlin Paris-Sorbonne University Lauren Victoria Hadley Melissa Jungers University of Edinburgh Ohio State University Sara Haefeli Lukasz Kaczmarek Ithaca College John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin Susan Hallam Maria Katsipataki University of London University of Durham Rachel Hallett Kim Kattari Keele University Texas A&M University Erin Hannon Peter E. Keller University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of Western Sydney David Hargreaves Dianna Theadora Kenny Roehampton University University of Sydney Ralph Hartsock Neha Khetrapal University of North Texas Macquarie University ~arta Hawryluk Andrew King John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin University of Hull Lars Erik Helgert Elaine King Georgetown University University of Hull William M. Helmcke Stefan Koelsch University of Massachusetts Amherst Freie Universitat Berlin Ruth Herbert Dimitra Kokotsaki University of Oxford University of Durham Stephen Hinton Vladimir J. Konecni Stanford University University of California, San Diego ~{atthew Hollow Anastasya Koshkin Durham University Columbia University Lisa Hooper Franz Kasper Kronig Tulane University Cologne University of Applied Sciences David Martin Howard Kinga Krzymowska-Szacon University of York John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin ~lichael Huber Belma Kurtisoglu Institute for Musiksoziologie Istanbul Technical University '\{arryn Hudson Alexandra Lamont Newcastle University Keele University Bryn Hughes Lara Lengel University of Miami Bowling Green State University Elina Hytonen-Ng Lisa Liskovoi University of Eastern Finland Ryerson University Kelly Jakubowski Marie Pierre Lissoir University of London-Goldsmiths Universite Libre de Bruxelles ~f.olly Jeon Fang Liu Independent Scholar University College London xxii List of Contributors

Steven R. Livingstone Gra\=a Mota Ryerson University Instituto Politecnico do Porto Raymond MacDonald Kathleen M. Murphy Edinburgh University University of Evansville Karl George Madden Eugene Narmour City University of New York University of Pennsylvania Damien Mahiet Lillooet Nordlinger Denison University Carleton University Stephen Malloch Adam Ockleford University of Sydney University of Roehampton Elizabeth Hellmuth Margulis Brooke M. Okada University of Arkansas University of Maryland, College Park Flavia Marisi Rowan Oliver Independent Scholar University of Hull Rossella Marisi Kirk N. Olsen Independent Scholar University of Western Sydney Jeremy Marozeau Alessandra Padula Bionics Institute Conservatorio di Musica "Giuseppe Verdi"­ Elizabeth Marvin Milan University of Rochester Richard Parncutt Eldonna L. May University of Graz Wayne State University Mercedes Pavlicevic Susan E. Mazer Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy Independent Scholar Jonathan Geoffrey Secora Pearl Karen McAulay Independent Scholar Royal Conservatoire of Scotland Jessica Phillips-Silver Josh H. McDermott BRAMS, Montreal Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chiara Pierobon Lytton N. McDonnell Bielefeld University Rutgers University Jonathan Pitkin Brett McKern Royal College of Music Australian Music Centre Nick Poulakis Gary E. McPherson National and Kapodistrian University University of Melbourne of Athens Prayrna Devi Mehan Jon Prince University of Western Ontario Murdoch University Dawn L. Merrett Hyacinthe Ravet University of Melbourne Universite Paris-Sorbonne Dorothy Miell Christina L. Reitz Univeristy of Edinburgh Western Carolina University Matthew Mihalka Nicholas Reyland University of Arkansas, Fayetteville Keele University Jennifer Mishra Nikki Rickard University of Missouri Monash University Shawn Mollenhauer Cricia Rinchon Metropolitan State University of Denver University of Western Ontario Joseph E. Morgan Frank A. Russo New England Conservatory Ryerson University Terry A. Morrow Stephanie Salerno Nova Southeastern University Bowling Green State University list of Contributors xxiii

Ysabel M. Sarte Tom Sykes University of Kentucky University of Salford E. Glenn Schellenberg Leonard Tan University of Toronto Nanyang Technological University Amanda Scherbenske Mari Tervaniemi Wesleyan University University of Helsinki Klaus R. Scherer Michael H. Thaut Swiss Center for Affective Sciences Colorado State University Michael F. Schober Nico Thorn New School for Social Research Lubeck University of Music Franziska Schroeder William Forde Thompson Queen's University Belfast Macquarie University Emery Schubert Barbara Tillmann University of New South Wales Lyon Neuroscience Research Center Michael Schutz Laurel J. Trainor McMaster University McMaster University Steven D. Shaw Ruxandra Trandafoiu University of Western Ontario Edge Hill University Anne Shelley Colwyn Trevarthen Illinois State University University of Edinburgh Gene Shill Peter Tschmuck Australian College of the Arts University of Music and Performing Arts, Marissa Silverman Vienna Montclair State University Giorgos Tsiris Dean Keith Simonton Nordoff Robbins Music Therapy University of California, Davis Leigh VanHandel L. Robert Sieve Michigan State University University of Maryland, College Park Naresh N. Vempala Gareth Dylan Smith Ryerson University Institute of Contemporary Music Jonna K. Vuoskoski Performance University of Oxford Daniela Smolov Levy Zachary Wallmark Stanford University University of California, Gaye Soley Los Angeles Bogazi(i University Wayne Warburton Neta Spiro Macquarie University University of Cambridge, Sarah L Watson N ordoff-Robbins University of Western Ontario Thomas Stegemann John L. Whitener University of Music and Performing Arts, University of Southern California Vienna Victoria Williamson Catherine Stevens University of London-Goldsmiths University of Western Sydney Graeme Wilson Chris Stover Newcastle University New School for Jazz and Sarah Winokur Contemporary Music Smith College Eric S. Strother Reba A. Wissner University of Kentucky Berkeley College Johan Sundberg Clemens Wollner KTH Royal Institute of Technology University of Hamburg Inspiration 609 and combined with decay functions like those Forte, A. The Structure of Atonal Music. New Haven, of classical (STM) models. In this way "higher­ CT: Yale University Press, 1977. order" phenomena like tonal relationships are Gibson, J. J. The Ecological Approach to Visual explained without the need for schemata stored in Perception. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979. long-term memory. Other researchers have made Gibson,]. J. The Senses Considered as Perceptual use of neural network models, such as J. J. Bharu­ Systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966. cha's MUSACT (1987), which, although operat­ Gjerdingen, R. O. Music in the Galant Style. New ing on symbolic inputs of musical pitches rather York: Oxford University Press, 2007. than audio signals, is typical of subsymbolic mod­ Krumhansl, C. K. Cognitive Foundations of els in its modeling of higher-level cognition, in this Musical Pitch. New York: Oxford University case tonal function, as an emergent property of Press, 1990. dynamic processes. Other music researchers have Leman, M. "An Auditory Model of the Role of Short­ drawn upon J. J. Gibson's "ecological" approach, Term Memory in Probe-Tone Ratings." Music seeing music listening as deeply connected with Perception, v.17/4 (2000). the physical, physiological, and cultural situated­ Lerdahl, F. and R. Jackendoff. A Generative Theory ness of the listener, rather than abstracted away of Tonal Music. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983. from these complexities. Lindsay, P. H. and D. A. Norman. Human Information Processing. New York: Academic Richard Ashley Press, 1977. Northwestern University Meyer, L. B. Explaining Music: Essays and Explorations. Chicago: University of Chicago See Also: Complexity; Computer Models of Music; Press, 1973. Statistical Learning; Tonality. Narmour, E. The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic Structures: The Implication-Realization Further Readings Model. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Anderson, J. R. The Architecture of Cognition. 1990. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. Narmour, E. The Analysis and Cognition of Melodic Atkinson, R. and R. Shiffrin. "Human Memory: Complexity: The Implication-Realization Model. A Proposed System and Its Control Processes." Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. In The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Newell, A. and H. A. Simon. Human Problem Advances in Research and Theory, Vol. 2, K. Solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972. Spence and J. Spence, eds. New York: Academic Paivio, A. Imagery and Verbal Processes. New York: Press, 1968. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. Bharucha, J. J. "Music Cognition and Perceptual Tulving, E. "Episodic and Semantic Memory." In Facilitation: A Connectionist Framework." Music Organization of Memory, E. Tulving and W. Perception, V.S (1987). Donaldson, eds. New York: Academic Press, 1972. Clarke, E. Ways of Listening. New York: Oxford University Press, 200S. Craik, F. and R. Lockhart. "Levels of Processing: A Framework for Memory Research." Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, v.ll (1972). Inspiration Deutsch, D. "Tones and Numbers: Specificity of Interference in Immediate Memory." Science, v.168 The notion that all artists, but especially poets and (1970). musicians, depend on inspiration for their work is Dibben, N. "What Do We Hear When We Hear an ancient one. Related ideas have been that cre­ Music? Music Perception and Musical Material." ative productivity suffers without inspiration and Musicae Scientiae, v.S12 (2001). that artists should therefore always be actively Dowling, W. Jay. "Scale and Contour: Two seeking it (although there is some disagreement Components of a Theory of a Memory for about the usefulness of this strategy). In the Chris­ Melodies." Psychological Review, v.8S14 (1978). tian era, the stereotypical image has been one of 610 Inspiration the artist privately attending to the whispered historiometric, and music-psychological investi­ messages from angels, which sometimes take the gations, but even in these inquiries inspiration­ form of religious prophecies. The musicologist its source, phenomenology, and effects-is the Louise Duchesneau has proposed, on the basis of least tractable and the most elusive private event musicians' diaries and letters, a typology of musi­ to describe and analyze. cal inspiration in which three general sources of There are two major phases of the creative pro­ composers' inspiration are mentioned: the claim cess: the preparatory and the executive, which of an ethereal communication that has a quasi­ are temporally loosely separated from each other divine (metaphysical or religious) origin; a source by the decision to begin work on a particular of inspiration that is located within the composer piece. The preparatory phase consists of a close and characterized by psychological or physiologi­ familiarization with the stylistic, structural, and cal factors; and, finally, a real-world sociological technological novelties in the work of other com­ or cultural source. In the following, the origins of posers, a critical review of one's own past work, music composers' inspiration are explored; inspi­ and the features of a commission a composer may ration is placed in the preparatory phase of the have received. Above all, there is an active, multi­ creative process and differentiated from the con­ pronged search for musical ideas varying in com­ cept of insight. plexity and magnitude. It is a period of sometimes feverish anticipation of the beginning of sustained The Creative Process work. It is during the preparatory phase, often The creative process should be distinguished from during a lull in activity, that inspiration may arise creativity, with the latter generally referring to an and be a prompt for the initiation of the execu­ art-music composer's inherent ability or long-term tive phase. However, especially in the case of very personality disposition. For the present purpose, short pieces, inspiration (for example, melodic) the term creative process is used to refer to vari­ may lead to concrete work without a preparatory ous phases of art-music composers' development phase-which by no means excludes the necessity of a score. Unlike creativity, which can be mea­ of an extensive musical background. Inspiration sured by a variety of general and special-purpose can also concern large-scale musical structure and tests, the creative process is not within scholars' a novel organization of musical material. direct reach. There is the veil of mystery and the hyperbole in description. Often the composers Inspiration and Insight themselves, for various reasons, obfuscate the There are numerous anecdotal accounts by musi­ process beyond the requirements of their obvi­ cians and poets of the occurrence of inspiration ous and, in some cases, extreme need for privacy. and its temporal sequence. Many of these, includ­ Among the reasons are the objective difficulties ing a notable description by the writer and poet and inadequacies of the process of introspection, Vladimir Nabokov, mention a barely intelligible as well as the sometimes self-serving, romanticiz­ early "glow" that increases and subsides in terms ing notions. of accessible detail, followed by a period of "incu­ With living top-echelon art-music composers, bation." Eventually the central idea reemerges­ the researcher's presence at the act of composi­ somehow anticipated, rather than catching the tion is unthinkable even for a single session, let composer by surprise. It is clear that instances alone in the case of works that take months or of documented inspiration differ with regard to years to complete. The means that are available detail, scale, suddenness of onset, and musical to researchers are therefore indirect and they are purpose, so that the amount and type of work all to some extent unreliable. These include com­ needed to put inspiration to proper use in the posers' sketchbooks (Ludwig van Beethoven has executive phase vary a great deal from one case been famous for them), letters, diaries, and mem­ to another. oirs; contemporaries' notes and reminiscences; The subjective experience of inspiration tends and, in the case of living composers, their inter­ to be concerned with ideas that initiate new views and various commentaries. All of these work, or new directions in ongoing work, rather documents can be submitted to musicological, than solve the existing, well-defined problems. Inspiration 611

Solutions to such problems are instead often details of both types of event is likely to be high, it obtained by insight, which is by some referred to is doubtful that generalizations can be drawn even as the moment of "illumination." In music, the from meticulous investigations of the available implementation of inspiration often leaves many records by musicologists and music historians. musical problems open, the solutions to which profit from insight. This concept has a long past in Inspiration in Times of Loss and Stress psychology as "aha!" and much longer in philos­ One of the sources of inspiration in Duchesneau's ophy as "eureka!" Insight is thought to require a tripartite typology mentioned above is a com­ "transformative act." It occurs suddenly, without poser's psychological state, an example of which conscious incremental steps toward the solution, may be grief following the loss of a loved person. although here, too, there is apparently a subcon­ Another of the three sources is "sociological" in scious preamble. When the solution is reached, nature, which can reasonably be construed as there is an overwhelming certainty that it is the referring to a composer's stressful and adverse life correct one-be the problem musical, mathemati­ circumstances, such as living in poverty or in time cal, scientific, or in chess. of war. In the popular imagination, as well as in It is of interest to note that insight is often numerous works of art (novels, poems, operas) reached after a period of relaxation or "de-focus." that have been concerned with this topic, espe­ This was anecdotally described at the beginning cially in the 19th century, artists should suffer and of the 20th century by the mathematician Henri be poor in order to deserve inspiration and be cre­ Poincare (who recommended taking a walk when ative. A corollary of this view is the contempt held reaching an impasse), and confirmed in the past by many to this day for wealthy artists, especially decade by several groups of neuroscientists who those perceived as darlings of the establishment. have intensively studied the neural activity that There is, however, very little conclusive evi­ is correlated with events immediately preceding dence for the view that inspiration is more likely the moment of insight. Even though the neuro­ to take place when a composer is grieving or in scientific work on insight understandably has existential need-either when one compares com­ not addressed problems in music composition, posers who lived in very different, but stable, cir­ the findings are of great interest. In the case of cumstances throughout their lives or when one verbal problems that have been studied (remote compares periods within the lives of composers associates, anagrams), initial activity in the pre­ whose circumstances sharply fluctuated. Anec­ frontal cortex (responsible for incremental work) dotal evidence for the Muses bringing inspira­ is soon augmented by that in parts of the right tion to struggling or suffering musicians (with hemisphere (the insight route). Franz Schubert as one of the prototypes) is coun­ In case of an impasse, relaxation is useful, per­ tered by examples of well-off creative composers haps because this allows the recruitment of more for whom there is solid evidence of numerous remote right-hemisphere associations. Already moments of inspiration (with Georg Friedrich eight seconds before the occurrence of insight, it Handel as one of the prototypes). Moreover, there can be predicted by the degree of steadiness, in are many examples of those not blessed by inspi­ comparison to the controls, of alpha waves that ration while poor. There are also composers who are detected electroencephalographically. Activ­ experienced a loss or a joyful event but were nev­ ity of the anterior superior temporal gyrus in the ertheless inspired to compose music contrary in right hemisphere is observed in the second prior to emotional tone to a state of grieving or happiness, insight. Finally, 300 milliseconds before the solu­ such as Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Gustav Mahler, tion is verbalized, there is a spike of gamma waves. respectively. In the course of the executive phase of work The absence of reliable information regard­ on an extensive piece, a composer may experi­ ing inspiration in composers' different life cir­ ence both additional moments of creative inspi­ cumstances should be viewed in conjunction ration, which propel the work forward, and of with the inconclusiveness of the data obtained insight that addresses specific problems. How­ by Dean Simonton with regard to the effect of ever, because the variability in the frequency and various adverse events in the lives of many major 612 Instruments

composers (including the loss of a spouse and Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang, poverty) on several measures of creative output 1986. and originality. Although it is probable that high Konecni, V. "Composers' Creative Process: The Role output is positively correlated with the frequency of Life-Events, Emotion, and Reason." In Musical of inspiration, the strength of that association Imaginations: Multidisciplinary Perspectives remains unknown. on Creativity, Performance, and Perception, David Hargreaves, Dorothy Miell, and Raymond Inspiration in Jazz and Rock MacDonald, eds. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Needless to say, moments of inspiration and insight Press, 2012. are also experienced by jazz and rock composers­ Kounios, ].,]. Fleck, D. Green, L. Payne,]. performers. Even though many in the top echelon Stevenson, E. Bowden, and M. lung-Beeman. are living, the documentation regarding inspira­ "The Origins of Insight in Resting-State Brain tion and its effects is even less reliable than in the Activity." Neuropsychologia, v.46/1 (2008). case of art music. Careful historiometric studies Lockwood, L. Beethoven: Studies in the Creative are lacking, including those that would concen­ Process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University trate on the effects of adverse psychological-state Press, 1992. and sociological factors (such as the influence of Sandkiihler, S. and J. Bhattacharya. "Deconstructing drug use on inspiration or its source in antiwar Insight: EEG Correlates of Insightful Problem sentiments). Key issues are mired in self-serving Solving." PLoS One, v.3/1 (2008). hype and marketing efforts. Inspiration by indi­ Simonton, D. "Creative Productivity, Age, and vidual artists is difficult to pinpoint, given their Stress: A Biographical Time-Series Analysis of frequently hazy memory and the absence of scores 10 Classical Composers." Journal of Personality and sketches. and Social Psychology, v.35/11 (1977). Moreover, inspired ideas are often immedi­ ately fleshed out together with other group mem­ bers or are changed beyond recognition in the course of improvisation. Because in rock music the work is so often a song, there is the question Instruments of primacy in inspiration between words (" lyr­ ics") and music. This aspect of rock-the pos­ What defines something as an instrument is sible differential development of a song given largely based on culturally contextual systems that the original inspiration occurred in one or of classification. Because almost anything can another medium-is, or should be, of consider­ be used as an instrument, a look at some of the able scholarly interest and related to the existing ways different human cultures have come to clas­ body of writing about song, songs, and singing in sify or recognize something as an instrument can the philosophy of music. demonstrate the myriad ways in which percep­ tion and categorization inform and are informed Vladimir]. Konecni by musical practices. Taxonomies can vary University of California, San Diego so widely that one system may list something as an instrument while another may not. Ele­ See Also: Composition; Creativity, Theories of ments such as the materials, structure, method , Musical; Emotion; Emotions, Aesthetic; Hymns; of sound excitation, performance practice, and Imagery; Music Research, Causal Effects in; Religion; even cultural associations may influence the way Spirituality; Spirituals. a given culture classifies its instruments. The most widely utilized scholarly system of instru­ Further Readings ment classification in the 20th century was first Arieti, S. Creativity: The Magical Synthesis. New proposed in 1914 by Erich M. von Hornbostel York: Basic Books, 1976. and Curt Sachs. Duchesneau, L. The Voice of the Muse: A Study of Most other systems developed by Western the Role of Inspiration in Musical Composition. scholars in the 20th century have been attempts