A quantitative analysis of the social and economic structure of north Ceredigion in 1891 by Peter Glyn Williams ‘My own father was a village schoolteacher. His father was gassed in the First World War and could not, therefore, work properly thereafter. His father, my father's grandfather, remembered the evictions in West Wales of tenant farmers because they voted according to their consciences in parliamentary elections before the secret ballot Act of 1870 [sic] was passed. They were evicted from their homes and their farms and many of them had to emigrate. They were back country people. They lived unremarked, though not unremarkable, lives, and I take up the noble Lord's words, of duty and service. There are millions like them in our country today. All I would say is this: "they are no petty people".’ (Gareth Wyn, Lord Williams of Mostyn, House of Lords, 15 October 1998) Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy in the Department of History and Welsh History, the University of Aberystwyth Part 1 2011 i DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed (candidate) Date: 20 September 2011 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended in Part 2. Signed (candidate) Date: 20 September 2011 STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available (subject to copyright) for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed (candidate) Date: 20 September 2011 ii SUMMARY This thesis seeks to demonstrate that the detailed evidence available in census enumerators’ returns can be used to construct a valid and robust model of the social and economic structures of communities and localities. The geographical region selected for study is the northern part of the county of Ceredigion defined by the ancient Hundreds of Genau’r Glyn and Ilar (Uchaf). It is argued that the present work provides a more comprehensive, geographically extensive and socially inclusive analysis than some previous studies. The 1891 census returns are evaluated both in terms of their utility and their recognised defects and weaknesses. Previous studies are reviewed and contrasted with the present evidence-based work. By extracting, evaluating and interpreting the data recorded for each individual subject cited in the census returns those data are used to provide an added-value analysis in the form of an intimate socio-economic study for each community. Hence, the study aims to analyse personal data and interpret that information in the context of the contemporary social framework alongside the economic pressures and agents for structural change. The indicators that are analysed include personal names, gender ratios, age distributions, places of birth and mobility, language ability and the disadvantaged in society. Particular attention is paid to occupations and employment patterns as reflected in contemporary trading, industrial and commercial structures. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my principal supervisor, Dr Owen G Roberts of the Department of History and Welsh History, Aberystwyth University, for his patience and courtesy in supporting this project and helping me overcome the barriers of physical distance that have been involved. Also for his loose hand on the tiller in terms of my negotiation of many unknowns and uncertainties. He has also encouraged me to challenge some aspects of the work of established historians whilst acknowledging my understandable reticence in this regard. I have also to thank Professor Roger D Price, of the same Department, for his efforts in prompting and coaxing a non-historian out of his comfort zone by pointing me towards hitherto unknown concepts and publications. Also for his insistence that a broader appreciation of historical background beyond the defined study area is not only desirable but essential. The maps defining the study area were most professionally drawn by Mr Ian Gulley of the Institute of Geography & Earth Sciences, Aberystwyth University. Miss Bethan Mair Williams produced the schematic maps showing the parishes within the registration sub-districts. The photograph of the Borth Hydropathic Hotel is reproduced by kind permission of Archifdy Ceredigion. Mrs Pat Evans, Penrhyn-coch kindly provided the photograph of Quebec Row, Llanbadarn Fawr and Mr Mike Alexander, formerly of Llanafan, willingly gave permission to use his photograph of Cwmystwyth. Dr Mike Benbough-Jackson of Liverpool John Moores University responded promptly and generously to my request for sources of information describing iv the connection between physical features and external English cultural influences in Ceredigion. Mr Tim Padfield, Copyright Officer, The National Archives, gave permission for the reproduction of the image from the 1891 Census Enumerators’ Book for part of Pier Street, Aberystwyth. Mr Gwyndaf Williams, Publications Officer, Cymdeithas Hanes Teuloedd Gwynedd, freely provided the schedules of county and parish codes used as the basis of the study of the movement of subjects. In so doing he saved me much time and effort and enabled me to produce a more credible result. Finally, a sincere word of appreciation is due to Miss Helen Palmer and her colleagues at Archifdy Ceredigion for their patient assistance over a considerable number of years. That assistance has generally been given on topics outside scope of the present study. By providing some understanding of the strengths and weaknesses inherent in local history records that encouragement first led me to question how the under-used potential within census returns could be further developed and constructively exploited. v Contents Page Summary iii Acknowledgements iv List of contents vi Chapter 1 – Introduction to the study 1 1.1 Setting the scene 2 1.2 Economic structure of the study area in the latter part of the nineteenth century 3 1.2.1 Shipping and sea trade 5 1.2.2 Agriculture 8 1.2.3 Road and rail communications 15 1.2.4 Mining 22 1.2.5 Social issues, including education, health, and housing 25 1.2.6 Tourism 31 1.2.7 Other industries, enterprises and undertakings 35 1.3 Administrative structure of the study area 38 1.4 Structural and spatial description of the study area 39 1.4.1 Llanrhystud sub-district 41 1.4.2 Aberystwyth Urban sub-district 43 1.4.3 Aberystwyth Rural sub-district 44 1.4.4 Genau’r Glyn sub-district 46 1.4.5 Rheidol sub-district 48 1.4.6 Gwnnws sub-district 50 1.4.7 Eglwys Fach parish 52 vi 1.5 Composition of constituent parishes within the study area 52 1.6 Conclusions 54 Chapter 2 –The UK census of 1891 55 2.1 Introduction 55 2.2 Nineteenth century censuses in England and Wales 55 2.3 Administration of the census 56 2.4 Review of previous studies involving analysis of census data 61 2.5 Explanation of construction of alpha-numeric database including selection and definition of fields 79 2.6 Choice of database software 82 2.7 Transcription of data 84 2.7.1 Place-names and identification of addresses 85 2.7.2 Identification of place of birth 86 2.7.3 Birthplace coding 88 2.7.4 Occupation 89 2.8 Conclusions 93 Chapter 3 - Analysis of gender and age characteristics including regional features and local variations 94 3.1 Introduction 94 3.2 Population trends 94 3.3 Population age profile 100 3.3.1 Age profile in Llanrhystud sub-district 105 3.3.2 Age profile in Aberystwyth Urban sub-district 106 3.3.3 Age profile in Aberystwyth Rural sub-district 107 3.3.4 Age profile in Genau’r Glyn sub-district 108 vii 3.3.5 Age profile in Rheidol sub-district 109 3.4 Gender ratios, marriage and birth rates 110 3.5 Conclusions 114 Chapter 4 - Analysis and discussion of place of birth, including studies of mobility at a local and area level; patterns of inward migration 115 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Methodology 116 4.3 Use of census data in migration studies 120 4.4 Comparative analysis of data 122 4.4.1 Mobility in Llanrhystud sub-district 124 4.4.2 Mobility in Aberystwyth Urban sub-district 125 4.4.3 Mobility in Aberystwyth Rural sub-district 126 4.4.4 Mobility in Rheidol sub-district 126 4.5 Interpretation of mobility data across the study area 127 4.6 Conclusions 135 Chapter 5 – A study of the poor, the sick, the disabled, and marital status, with particular regard to widows and widowers 136 5.1 Introduction 136 5.2 The poor 137 5.3 The sick 140 5.4 The disabled 141 5.5 The widows and widowers 144 5.6 Marital status and age – a note on statistical presentation 146 5.7 Conclusions 148 viii Chapter 6 - Analysis and discussion of personal names 150 6.1 Introduction 150 6.2 Most common surnames 154 6.2.1 Surnames in Llanrhystud sub-district 156 6.2.2 Surnames in Aberystwyth Urban sub-district 156 6.2.3 Surnames in Rheidol sub-district 158 6.3 Overall pattern of surnames distribution 159 6.4 Background to Christian names study 161 6.5 Analysis of Christian names across the study area 164 6.6 Male Christian names 165 6.7 Female Christian names 166 6.8 Conclusions 167 Chapter 7 – A study of the language question 169 7.1 Introduction 169 7.2 Background to the language question 170 7.3 Previous studies on the 1891 language question 174 7.4 Interpretation of the raw data 180 7.5 Language capability across geographic location 186 7.5.1 Language and gender 187 7.5.2 Language and age 189 7.5.3 Language