Women’s empowerment: 90 years of ILO action ! The celebration of the ninetieth anniversary of the International Labour Organization presents an opportunity to salute the women who defended the principles of gender equality in the world of work and who were instrumental in spearheading ILO action. This occasion encourages reflection on the progress made, on the challenges that have been overcome in advancing equality of opportunity and treatment, and on what still remains to be done to empower women in the world of work. It is timely to recognize the significant leadership and participation of the many women in the annals of the past ninety years. These pioneers were key players in standing up for the rights of women in the workplace and for working closely with the men who supported their cause. Their personal stories bring the history of the institution to life. WOMEN AND THE ORIGINS OF THE ILO The issues of anti-slavery, temperance, and women’s suffrage, combined with the exploitation of women and children in the Industrial Revolution, produced a dynamic set of women leaders in Europe and North America at the turn of the 20th century. Efforts were driven by the harsh conditions in which women had to work and the substantially lower wages they earned in comparison to men. In the late nineteenth century, “protective” laws were being adopted by governments in a number of industrialized countries. The need for international treaties to shield against unfair competition was also recognized. A precursor to the ILO was the International Association of Labour Legislation, organized by individuals and governments concerned about working conditions. In its 1905 and 1906 meetings in Berne, Switzerland, the Association passed the Berne Declarations urging international agreements to protect women from exploitation, both in terms of night work and in terms of exposure to white phosphorous in the manufacture of matches. In 1913, additional agreements were drafted on prohibiting night work for young persons and limiting the hours of work for women and young persons. These were used as the basis for proposals developed by the British Ministry of Labour and the Home Office for the inclusion of a new international labour organization in the Paris Peace Conference and Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I. Women’s delegations from Belgium, France, UK and the US were active at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. The International Council of Women, for example, called for equality of opportunity for men and women, equal pay for equal work, limiting the working week to forty-four hours, and the suppression of night work for women. La Ligue Française pour le Droit des Femmes had a similar platform. Other issues were raised by women leaders, including ending child labour, providing pensions and maternity benefits and even minimum wages for housework. Many of these demands were seen as too radical for the day, while others focused on more pragmatic steps. For example, Margaret Bondfield (see box below) was able to persuade negotiators to include a provision requiring the participation of women whenever a question concerning women’s labour was under discussion. Jeanne Bouvier, a union leader from France, was also active in presenting the views of French workers on social insurance. She represented the Federated Dressmakers’ Union and later took a leadership role on working women’s concerns. GENDER EQUALITY AT THE HEART OF DECENT WORK GENDER EQUALITY AT THE HEART OF DECENT WORK Historical time line of gender equality in the world of work: Selected dates 1919 Constitution of the ILO Maternity Protection Convention (No. 3) 1944 Declaration concerning the aims and purposes of the International Labour Organisation (Declaration of Philadelphia) 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights Night Work (Women) Convention (Revised) (No. 89) 1951 Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100) 1952 Maternity Protection Convention (Revised) (No. 103) and Recommendation (No. 95) 1958 Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention (No. 111) and Recommendation (No. 111) 1964 Employment Policy Convention (No. 122) and Recommendation (No. 122) 1974 Paid Educational Leave Convention (No. 140) 1975 First World Conference on Women (Mexico City) Declaration of Equality of Opportunity and Treatment for Women Workers Human Resources Development Convention (No. 142) and Recommendation (No. 150) 1976 Office of the Special Adviser for Women Workers’ Questions (FEMMES) established 1977 Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (in force 1981) 1980 Second World Conference on Women (Copenhagen) 1981 Workers with Family Responsibilities Convention (No. 156) and Recommendation (No. 165) 1982 ILO Mid-Term Plan (1982–87) includes “women workers” as one of 6 global themes 1984 Employment Policy (Supplementary Provisions) Recommendation (No. 169) 1985 Third World Conference on Women (Nairobi) ILC 71st Session resolution on equal opportunities and equal treatment for men and women in employment 1986 Governing Body evaluates women-specific technical cooperation (TC) programmes and recommends women in development (WID) approach 1987 Governing Body endorses Plan of Action on equality of opportunity and treatment of men and women in employment 1988 Guidelines for integrating women’s interests in TC project design 1990 Night Work Convention (No. 171) and Recommendation (No. 178) Launch of Interdepartmental Project on Equality for Women in Employment 1991 ILC 78th Session resolution concerning ILO action for women workers 1993 World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna) and Programme of Action 1994 Part-Time Work Convention (No. 175) and Recommendation (No. 182) 1995 World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen) Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing) ILO Action Plan on Gender Mainstreaming for Gender Equality Office Circular on sexual harassment policy and procedures (No. 543) 1996 Home Work Convention (No. 177) and Recommendation (No. 184) 1997 Launch of TC project “More and Better Jobs for Women” 1998 ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work Job Creation in Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Recommendation (No. 189) 1999 CEDAW Optional Protocol Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182) and Recommendation (No. 190) Bureau for Gender Equality (GENDER) established Office Circular on gender equality and mainstreaming in the ILO (No. 564) 2000 World Summit for Social Development and Beyond: Copenhagen +5 (Geneva) 23rd Special Session of the General Assembly: Beijing +5 (New York) Millennium Development Goals Maternity Protection Convention (No. 183) and Recommendation (No. 191) 2001 First Participatory Gender Audit in the Office 2002 Governing Body examines report on first Participatory Gender Audit in the Office 2004 ILC 92nd Session resolution concerning the promotion of gender equality, pay equity and maternity protection 2005 Governing Body instruction to include gender in technical cooperation 2006 Employment Relationship Recommendation (No. 198) 2008 ILO Declaration on Social Justice for a Fair Globalization The first International Labour Conference (ILC) was held in October 1919 in Washington, DC. Six conventions were adopted at this Conference; two involved women – prohibiting night work for women and ensuring maternity protection for working women; two involved children – a minimum age for employing young persons and prohibiting night work for young persons; and two involving general policies on hours of work and unemployment. The protective conventions were adopted with little debate, as their basic provisions tracked the work done by the International Labour Association. At this first Conference, 22 women attended as advisers, 13 for governments, one for employers and eight for workers. Jeanne Bouvier was among those who pushed for protectionist legislation and felt that the maternity protection standard should encompass mandatory protection of women for six weeks before and six weeks after maternity, whereas two advisers for Scandinavian governments, Kerstin Hesselgren from Sweden and Betzy Kjelsberg from Norway took differing positions. Kerstin Hesselgren, the Chief Woman Factory Inspector and a member of the Swedish Senate, believed that standards should be ratifiable and not reach beyond what governments are prepared to adopt. Betzy Kjelsberg, who served many years as a full delegate to the ILC, was opposed to protectionist laws generally and ©ILO favoured the principle of equality of treatment. These contrasting Betzy Kjelsberg positions in the early days have continued to influence policy deliberations throughout the history of the ILO. The women worker advisers to this first ILC stayed on in Washington, DC to participate in the first International Congress of Working Women. They were joined by others from Europe and the USA and established an International Federation of Working Women. The Federation operated only briefly as a separate entity and voted in 1924 to integrate into the International Federation of Trade Unions as a women’s department. In subsequent ILCs throughout the 1920s and 1930s women’s participation rarely exceeded 25, mostly as advisers. Betzy Kjelsberg was a full government delegate, and she was joined by Mary Fitzgerald from South Africa and Margaret Bondfield from the UK as Worker delegates. Margaret Bondfield also attended as a government delegate following her election to Parliament.