REINTERPRETING WELSHNESS: SONGS AND CHORAL MEMBERSHIP IN CULTURAL IDENTITY Jennifer L. Johnstone A dissertation submitted to Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Jennifer L. Johnstone May, 2012 Dissertation written by Jennifer L. Johnstone B.M., Piano Performance, Youngstown State University, 1999 M.M., Piano Performance, Youngstown State University, 2001 M.A., Ethnomusicology, Kent State University, 2007 Ph.D., Musicology-Ethnomusicology, Kent State University, 2012 Approved by _________________________ Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Kazadi wa Mukuna _________________________ Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Denise Seachrist _________________________ Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Thomas Janson _________________________ Member, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Richard Feinberg Accepted by _________________________ Director, School of Music Denise Seachrist _________________________ Dean, College of the Arts John Crawford ii TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL PAGE………………………………………………………………….ii TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………….iii LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………..v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………vii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Signs in Cultural Identity…………………………………….1 Theoretical Paradigm………………........................................3 Goals and Methodologies…………………….........................12 II. MUSICAL AND NON-MUSICAL SIGNS OF WELSHNESS A Review of the Literature…………………………………..31 The Importance of Language Research………………….…..42 A History of Welsh Signs…………………………………....53 III. WELSHNESS AND CHORAL MEMBERSHIP IN NORTHWEST WALES……………………….87 Male Voice Choirs in Northwest Wales……………………..88 Women in the Welsh Choral Tradition……………………...111 Youth Choirs in Northwest Wales…………………………..124 Discussion: Welshness in Northwest Wales………………...135 IV. SONGS AS SIGNS OF WELSHNESS……………………………..148 Choral Repertoire in Northwest Wales……………………....149 Songs as Signs of Welshness: Data From the Surveys……....174 iii V. REINTERPRETATION OF CHORAL IDENITY IN WALES Changes in the Choral Institution…………………………...190 Welsh Choirs in the Media………………………………….207 Reinterpretation of Welsh Choral Identity………………….217 VI. WELSHNESS AND CHORAL MEMBERSHIP IN NORTH AMERICA The “Blank-Americans” and Welsh Migration to North America………………………………...236 Welsh Music in North America: A Brief History………......246 North American Choral Welshness…………………………269 VII. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Welsh Choral Identity in Wales and North America……......285 The Significance of This Dissertation and Possible Areas for Future Research………………………………......303 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………......316 APPENDIX A………………………………………………………………………345 APPENDIX B………………………………………………………………………348 APPENDIX C ……………………………………………………………………....355 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. A map of the Welsh counties since 1996. Figure 2. Welsh speakers in both raw numbers and in percentage of the population Figure 3. An example of the hymn “Bangor” in both staff and tonic sol-fa notations Figure 4. UK choirs with an online presence. Figure 5. Maelgwn interviewees’ reasons for being in the choir. Figure 6. Maelgwn interviewees’ views about the inclusiveness/exclusiveness of Welshness. Figure 7: Signs of Welshnesse by Maelgwn interviewees. Figure 8. Malegwn interviewees’ background in music/singing. Figure 9. Malegwn opinions about the future of the Welsh choral tradition. Figure 10. Welsh choir types with websites and/or advertised online contact information. Figure 11. Conwy interviewees’ reasons for being in the choir. Figure 12. Conwy interviewees’ views about the inclusiveness/exclusiveness of Welshness. Figure 13: Signs of Welshness expressed by Conwy interviewees. Figure 14. Conwy interviewees’ background in music/singing. Figure 15. Conwy opinions about the future of the Welsh choral tradition. Figure 16. Glanaethwy interviewees’ reasons for being in the choir. Figure 17. Glanaethwyy interviewees’ views about the inclusiveness/exclusiveness of Welshness. Figure 18: Signs of Welshness expressed by Glanaethwy interviewees. v Figure 19. Glanaethwy interviewees’ background in music/singing. Figure 20. Glanaethwy opinions about the future of the Welsh choral tradition. Figure 21. Signs of Welshness mentioned in interviews, presented first in raw numbers and then by percent of the total from each choir. Figure 22. Percentage of song types chosen by each age group Figure 23: MVCs in the St. John’s Concert Series programs, 2008-2009, Llandudno, Northwest Wales. Figure 24. MVCs in North Wales, extracted from Owen 2009. Figure 25. Nineteenth-century Welsh-American musical activities in North America. Figure 26. A selection of choirs competing in American eisteddfodau as reported in The Cambrian, 1880-1919, by choir type Figure 27. Canadian Welsh MVCs. Figure 28. North American interviewees’ views about the inclusiveness/exclusiveness of Welshness. Figure 29. Toronto MVC interviewees’ reasons for being in the choir. Figure 30. Song types chosen by North American singers as signs of Welshness. Figure 31. Reasons why a song represents Welshness and percentages of the totals for each group. Figure 32. North American non-singers’ responses to “What is the first thing that comes to mind when you think of Wales/Welshness?” Figure 33. North American non-singers’ responses to “Nothing says Welshness to me like…” vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the following choral directors for their time and help with this dissertation: George Jones, Cefin and Rhian Roberts, Tim Rhys-Evans, James Cassarino, and Mari Morgan. A special thanks to Trystan Lewis, not only for his insights on Welsh choral singing, but also for graciously allowing me to attend a year’s worth of rehearsals for both of his choirs. Thank you also to the following people for help with my research after I returned home: Aja Ewing, Shaun Alphonso, Brian and Sue Evans with the International Eisteddfod, Gareth Oliver of Cantorion Colin Jones, Gareth Hicks, Jeanne Jindra Jones, Joel Ware IV, WNAA President Stacy Evans and members of the organization, Nelson Llewllyn, and Anne Habermehl. A special thanks to Holly Kollar, for helping me make sense of the television lingo. Diolch yn fawr iawn to the following choirs and individuals for their participation in this dissertation—thank you also to all of those who participated anonymously, or who I may have forgotten: Côr Meibion Llanrwst Ar Cylch (Llanrwst and District Male Voice Choir), Llanrwst Côr Meibion y Penrhyn (Penrhyn Male Voice Choir), Bethesda Côr Meibion Maelgwn (Maelgwn Male Voice Choir), Deganwy/Llandudno Junction Côr Meibion y Foel (Foel Male Voice Choir), Llanerchymedd, Anglesey Côr Meibion Dinbych A’r Cylch (Denbigh and District Male Voice Choir), Denbigh Côr Merched Bro Nest (Bro Nest Ladies Choir), Teifi Valley Côr Ieuenctid Môn (Anglesey Youth Choir), Llangefni, Anglesey Côr Cymysg Dyffryn Conwy (Conwy Valley Mixed Choir), Conwy Côr Glanaethwy (Glanaethwy Choir), Bangor Only Men Aloud, Cardiff Côr Cymru Goledd America (The North American Welsh Choir) Toronto Male Voice Choir, Ontario vii Gwenda Jones T.A.P. Davies Rev. Deian Evans Sylvia Plant Bryn Hughes Cathleen Morris Doris Bland Meinir Wyn Roberts Anne Habermehl Rosina Jones Gruffydd Owen Loris Thomas Pat Hargreaves Rheinallt Wyn Davies Joyce McCullough John Kennerley Ceurwyn Anthony Robert Hughes Jon Richmond Humphreys Mary Triola Glyn Robert Lowri Elenid Davies Nice Lady Nancy and George Jones Arvona Haycock Family H.E. Lewis Eleri Roberts Gwyneth Ann Sue Richardson McDonald Lynda Mula Owen Owens Ruth Davies Geraint Evans Alaw Davies Bleddyn Williams Eirian Davies R.H. Jones Carys Vaughan Rees Wil Parry Margaret Daniel Hywel Owen Alison Burford Victor Burton Parry Kim Rowlands Idwal L. Jones Lisa Jên Jones John Outram Nicole Clamp Emyr Vaughan Evans Bethan Mai Parry Gareth David Jones Sian Catrin Jones Kenneth Jones Rhys Owain Ruggiero Jesse Bellis Ceri Elsbeth Lewis Gerallt Price-Roberts Arianwen Mererid Bill Chapman James David Hands Miriam Elin R.W. Owen Roberta Ingman Ifan Hughes, M.B.E. Roberts T.J. Edwards Robert E. Davies and Robin Roberts Family David M. Parry Torry Watkins J.R. Jones Beth Landmesser Willie Lewis Roberts Shaun Alphonso Bob Williams Patrick Bowman John Hughes R. Stephen Jones David Bryn Jones Aja Lynn Ewing E.M. Evans Greg Brown Geraint S. Roberts Don Galloway Ken Armstrong Bill Watson Phil Taylor Fred MacKenzie Keith Jones Dewi Jones Glyn Edwards Ed Golem Clwyd Wynne John Mitchell Alwyn Jones D. Ray Freebury viii I would especially like to thank Hugh and Betty Roberts, Colin and Julie Godley, and Paul and Cathy Eales for their hospitality and love; they were our families in Wales. A special thanks also to the Bangor Rotary Club for their support and generosity. Thank you to the fine scholars on my committee, who took time from their busy schedules to read and carefully edit my wordy chapters—Denise Seachrist, Richard Feinberg, Tom Janson, and my advisor Kazadi wa Mukuna are all inspirations to me. Thank you to Dr. Terry E. Miller for his instrumental role in my ethnomusicological training. Thanks also to Dr. Ted Albrecht for turning me on to the work of Linda Pohly. Thanks to Linda Iceman for holding everything together. A special thanks to Denise Seachrist, Bob Sines, Robin Kuzenko, and Doug Byerly: it is not often that one writes a massive dissertation while gainfully employed in a much-loved job, and I have them to thank for this. Thank you to my friends—including my awesome co-workers—and my students for constant