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THE HOMERIC HYMN TO DEMETER AND THE ART OF RAPE: TRANSFORMING VIOLENCE

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By

Dianna Kay Rhyan, B. Mus., M. A.

*****

The Ohio State University 1995

Dissertation Conmittee: Approved by J. M. Snyder v J. R. Tebben M. -- S. I. Johnston T Adviser Department of Classics UMI Number: 9612264

This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Copyright by Dianna K. Rhyan 1995 Famous for beauty was Flatus' daughter, Caenis, her name was, loveliest of girls In Thessaly... Caenis would not consent to any marriage. She used to walk the lonely shore, and Neptune (Or so they say) got hold of her one day, Took her by force, and liked what he had taken And told the girl: 'Ask me for anything, And you shall have it. What do you want the most?' (That was what people said, at least.) And Caenis Replied: "The wrong you have done me makes me ask For something most important, that I may never Again be able to suffer so. I ask you Ihat I may not be woman; that would be best. '

Ovid Metcmorphoses 12.189 ÊF., trans. Rolfe Humphries. To Andrew and for my Grandmother Wade

11 AO

I express sincere appreciation to the members of ny committee, Professors Joseph R. Tebben and Sarah lies Johnston, for generous conments, queries, and sources that shaped every page. Had I acknowledged each of their suggestions, the footnotes would have been full of nothing else. My advisor. Professor Emeritus Jane McIntosh Snyder, helped to shape this project with questions, plied me continually with new sources, and shared with me her balanced sense of play and precision which is familiar to anyone who has the privilege of knowing her. She kept me sailing ahead when I otherwise would have listened to the sirens, crashed into the rocks or found a whirlpool--all of which I did, though she gently and firmly steered me back each time. I owe the completion of this study to her example and to her steadfast belief and encouragement. I gratefully acknowledge the comraderie, stimulating discussions, and forebearance of my colleagues, especially Denise Riley, Dona Reaser, Patrice Ross, Doug Montanaro, and Judy Dann at Columbus State Comnunity College. Talks with Professors Don Lateiner and Bruce Heiden always opened new avenues of inquiry; talks with Professor Stephen Tracy led me to Classics in the first place. Special thanks go to

iii Laura, for making me see that it was necessary; and to Tuck, for helping me clear the way. Andrew knows every word, argument and footnote here; his keen questions, faith, endurance, and humor made this possible.

IV VITA

June 25, 1962...... B o m - - Columbus, Ohio

1984...... B.Mus., The Ohio State University 198 4 ...... Aegean Institute, Galetas, Troizen, Greece 198 5 ...... Research Associate, University of Notre Dame 1986-1992...... Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University 1988 ...... American Academy at Rome, Summer Program 198 9 ...... M.A., The Ohio State University 1991...... Staff Member, The Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia, Greece 1993-present...... Instructor, Columbus State Community College PUBLICATIONS 1996. Review of Helene Foley, ed.. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter; Translation, Ccmnentary, and Interpretive Essays (Princeton University Press, 1994) , forthcoming in Classical World. 1996. Primary Source selections/adaptations for World History: The Human Experience. Forthcoming from Macmillan.

V 1995, Frcm the Source: Readings in World Civilization (ed,, with Patrice Ross and Richard Freed) , Harper Collins, 1989, Ten artist biographies and discographies for The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz.

MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY Classical Languages and Literature

SPECIAL FIELDS OF STUDY Archaic Greek Epic and Hymns Professors Joseph Tebben and Stephen Tracy Women in Antiquity Professors Jane Snyder and Sarah lies Johnston Greek Religion and Mythology Professor Sarah lies Johnston Archaeology Professors Stephen Tracy and Charles Babcock

VI TABLE OF CDNTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iii

VITA...... V CHAPTER I. TRANSFORMING VIOLENCE: RETHINKING THE ART OF RAPE...... 1 General Methodology...... 1 Survey of Scholarship on the Hymn...... 12 Ancient Portrayals of Rape: Statement of the Problem...... 21 i. Elision and Mystification...... 21 ii. Hesiod and the Ifymn...... 27 iii. Displacement and Periphrasis...... 32 Focussing on the Rape Survivor...... 39 II. DEMETER AND METANEIRA: THE LIMITS OF POWER AND EMPATHY...... 44 Metaneira and Demeter...... 44 Tracing Fractures...... 46 A Woman's Place...... 55 Foolish Metaneira...... 65 The Limits of Eirpathy...... 71 The Limits of the Body...... 84 Toward an Old Psychology of Women...... 88 The Master's Tools...... 98 III. PERSEPHONE AND KALLIDIKE: WRITING AND REWRITING THE VICTIM...... 103 Kallidike and Persephone...... 107 Safety in Numbers...... 109 Un-Deflowered. Untamed Kallidike...... 126 Persephone and the Narrator...... 145 The Lacuna...... 180 EPILOGUE: TEXTUAL/SEXUAL VIOLENCE...... 191 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 207

V I 1 CHAPTER GNE TRANSFORMING VIOLENCE: RETHIMŒNG THE ART OF RAPE

GENERAL METHODOLOGY; TRANSFORMING VIOIiSNCE The Homeric Hyrm to Demeter is a violent text. Words for anger (e.g., XpXoq, Mfjvic;, KOtOTCtCRX), grief and distress

(oçxpg, Tsnriiievri), constraint (a^oim, pvr], auxyicri), isolation

(vcx3(|)iv) , screaming and weeping (oXocjjupopEvrj, y6oq), and

silence (o«))0Cfyyoç) contribute to the work's lasting

inpression and unique character. Abduction, disguise, and deceit constitute important features of its plot. Even to speak of the poem's representations of idyllic beauty is to mention places like meadows, which are safe for some but hazardous for others ; to speak of the poem's representation of greatest joy is to mention a moment of reunion which is overcast with the pain of past and future separations. The Hymn is also an enigmatic text containing vexed passages, both on the level of text, and on the level of interpretation, the latter especially concerning those lines that allude to aspects of the Eleusinian mysteries that are still not fully understood. ^ What this has meant for

^On the religious puzzles, many of which arise from lines 192-211, see below. Textual enigmas arise from the manuscript tradition: there is only one medieval (fifteenth 2 scholarship on the poem is that while one interpretive approach might work for a certain section (or sections) of the poem, it will not necessarily cast light on others. For example, examination of the minor role assigned to Triptolemos in the Hyim, or of Demeter's drinking kykeon, will further understanding of the work's religious context but may not be particularly enlightening about the rest of the poem; conversely, a study of the poem's political or cosmological structure will not necessarily illuminate passages with ritual significance.^ This tendency has not, as with the Iliad, led to questions about the poem's unity; it has led to studies which take its lack of coherence for granted and proceed from there.^ In this study I offer an interpretation of the Hymn which considers the work as a whole, as a reflection of a single (if complex) ideology, and as a product of a unified poetic program. In this way, I hope to transform the violence that has been done to the poem's integrity when it has been considered as a series of clues about the Eleusinian mysteries with a plot sketched in century) manuscript of the Hymn, which is fragmentary; a V- shaped tear in it especially affected lines 387-404 and 462- 79. Richardson 1974:65-7; Allen et al. 1936:xvii-xxviii. ^Triptolemos: Clay 1989:230-31 (citing [in n.85] Richardson 1974:194-96; Schwenn 1939); Raubitschek 1982; see also Walton 1952. Kykeon: Clay 1989:236 (with n.lOO); Foley 1994:47 (incl. n.60). Politics: Clay 1989:3-16, 202- 70; Arthur 1977 (rep. Foley 1994:212-42) .

^Allen et al. 1936:111; Clay 1989:222-25. 3 for support, or alternatively, as a brief epic poem that includes some frustratingly obscure references to religion.* I especially hope to shed light upon certain enigmas surrounding the character of Persephone, particularly regarding the repetitive or suspect nature of her only speech in the poem.^ "Transforming violence" can have a number of meanings.® For the purposes of this study, to read the abstract noun "violence" as the agent doing the "transforming" in the Hyim is to focus on the ways in which the poem depicts (male- generated) violence transforming the females it touches. To read "violence" as the object of "transforming, " supplying "females" as the inplied agents at work, is to focus on how the poem depicts females, in the aftermath of violence, transforming violence into something else. These two senses of "transforming violence" offer two contrasting views of female being: one passive, the other active. This study will be attentive to the alternation between these modes and

*The Hyim and Eleusis: Clinton 1992, 1986; Burkert 1983:248-93; Alderink 1982; Parker 1981. Foley 1994:84-97 ("The 'Theology' of the Mysteries") is attentive to the Hymn as a corplex ejqjression of the mysteries in epic form. Clinton 1992:esp. 28-37 and 96-99, considers the iconography and site of Eleusis and the Hymn's oblique references to cult practices, and argues that the Hymn functions as aition for the Thesmophoria. Foley does not take into account Clinton 1992, although she does consider his earlier article and monograph (Clinton 1986 and 1974) . Foley 1994:172-5. ®See Chapter Three. ^Professor Jane Snyder kindly suggested the idea of "transforming violence," 4 the contrasting representation of females engaged in them. Along the way, I will question the poem's distinction between the female as active (or even too active, in need of correction or taming) and the female as passive (subdued, silent, or obedient), and suggest that this is a distinction which, however inportant to the poem's structure and characterization techniques, valorizes violence against women. The Hyim to Demeter portrays women not merely changed by violence, but attenpting to change what violence has done to them. The former dynamic, however, wins out, and their attempts do not succeed. Female rebellion ends in reconciliation to Olynpian order; ultimately the poem can be read as a powerful lesson about the defeat of female power. This consideration must mitigate possible feminist enthusiasm for this poem, even though it does not seem to depict, as do some Classical texts, merely passive, helpless, or silent women, ^pearances can be deceptive. I do not consider the Hyim to be a woman-centered text,

''Foley 1994:109: "We witness an attempt to achieve a divine version of what Engels called 'the world-historical defeat of the female sex.'" Graves 1955:1.93 understood the myth to refer to "male usurpation of the female agricultural mysteries in primitive times," on which see Barber 1994. Neolithic agricultural background for worship of Demeter and Kore: Burkert 1985:160-61. Demeter's relative lack of importance in Homer: Otto 1954:152-3. Possibly related diminishments of Hera and Jphrodite in panhellenic religion: Burkert 1985:132, 154; O'Brien 1993; Boedeker 1974. See also Slatkin 1991 (on Thetis) ; Passmen 1993 (on matriculture) . 5 although the poem has sometimes been read that way in the last two decades; I think that for conplex reasons, the Hyrm is a self-consciously styled imitation of "woman's world," "woman's voice," and "woman's cause," an imitation which reflects archaic Greek ideological assunptions about women, about rape, and about violence.® To put it another way, even as the poem focuses on females and presents convincing mimesis of female responses to violence, it preserves the traditionally patriarchal acceptance of rape and belief in the necessity of female subjugation. Females in the Hymn, made to appear on the surface powerful, active, and central, are in fact portrayed as natural victims for the naturally predatory male, as inevitable sources of male exasperation, fascination, and fear, and as inferior thinkers and actors, who are deluded by brief illusions of power, agency, and centrality. All the while they exist submitted to male power as conpletely as their sisters in epic, tragedy or history. Like the male - oriented "pseudowoman" Athena in the Oresteia or in Ovid's myth of Arachne, females in the hymn, though they come in several varieties, are paraiigms created to teach

®Ancient Greek perspectives on rape: Zeitlin 1986; Scafuro 1990; Just 1989:68-70,120-25; Winkler 1990:101-26; Cohen 1993; Lefkowitz 1993; Brown 1591; Gould 1980; Fantham 1975. Violence and cultural constructs: duBois 1988:39- 166; Burkert 1983; Girard 1977; Riches 1986 (see also Whitman 1970) ; Shelby 1992; Hanson and Armstrong 1986. Divergent feminist perspectives on zhe Hyim: Foley 1994:168-9. 6 females how to fit within the patriarchical societies of ancient Greece, which were, among a great many other things, societies that admitted violence against women.® As may have been the case with the Thesmophoria, a festival dedicated to Demeter and celebrated in Athens only by woriien, the Hymn acknowledges the reproductive capacities of women as their sphere of power within the larger system of patriarchy; a brief respite, but no lasting solution, is provided for the inferior status of females.Therefore, the Hctifôric Hymn to Demeter is, among a great many other things, a text that it is important to question in order to transform the violence its ideology does to its audience if left raw or unexamined. As Judith Fetterley observed in her feminist study of American literature The Resisting Reader, "Literature is political, " and "Power is the issue in the politics of literature, as it is in the politics of anything else. In the preface to her recent edition of the Hymn, Helene Foley writes, "In reading Western literature critically.. .we must ask questions of the texts that the original authors might not have dreamed of asking. " In a similar vein, John WinJ-cler warns against readers being

®Athena as "pseudowoman" : Joplin 1991:51. ^“Thesmophoria: Zeitlin 1981, 1982; Demand 1994:114- 20; Parke 1977:82-8; Brumfield 1981:70-103; Burkert 1985:242-6; Clinton 1992:28-37, 96-99; duBois 1988:59-61; Foley 1994:103 n.74. ^^Fetterley 1978 :xi and xiii. 7 "conmitted. . .to the premises and protocols of the past--past structures of cultural violence" and concludes that, "This above all we will not do. I hope that asking new questions of this text (and of this myth) will allow it to speak to us anew, and to provide us with a profound, if distant, mirror of some of our own traditions concerning women and violence. Although today the poem may teach lessons quite different from those its designer intended, the value of the poem as a reflection of archaic Greek ideology, and the influence of the Persephone nyth on the Ifestem tradition remain intact. If we imagine watching the Hyrm as a film with the sound turned off for a moment, during the course of the story we would see abrupt changes of costume and in the location of actors. We would also notice that it is the males who initiate, but the females who most fully experience, such changes. Persephone and Demeter undergo radical transformation within the compass of the poem, but the adult male characters--Hades, Zeus, Helios, Hermes, Keleos--do not wander, do not wear disguises, or scream and collapse, or embrace anyone; they remain somehow apart as

12 Foley 1994:xi; Winkler 1990a:126. ^Classical texts, the classical tradition/canon and ideological assunptions: Arthur 1973; duBois 1988:5-36, 1982; Rose 1988; Richlin 1989; Skinner 1989, 1986a, 1986b; Lefkowitz 1989; Higgins and Silver 1991:1-5; Cohen 1991:14- 69; Katz 1992; Rabinowitz and Richlin 1993; Rabinowitz 1993:1-27; Just 1989:1-12. Arethusa 27.1 (Winter 1994) is titled "Rethinking the Classical Canon." 8 the changeable women move around them. This apparent gender distinction may have been fitting in a religious sense, because the goddesses represent the power of growth and fertility (as well as death), and thus the power of transformation.^^ Nevertheless, in presenting stable males and changeable females, the poem partakes in shaping, and no doubt has been shaped by, certain cultural definitions of what gender is (or ought to be) Certainly marriage was considered natural for women in archaic Greece. This text presents Zeus' and Hades' flawed, and thus partially unsuccessful, attempt to transform the maiden Persephone into a wife who accepts her new role, and to transform Demeter into a mother-in-law and mother who accepts the drastic change that Zeus and Hades decided to perform without her. Instead of the changes that Zeus and Hades desire. Demeter transforms into an opponent, and Persephone into less a wife than a conplex, mystified, indeed "mysterious" paradigm of change itself: forever divided between two loyalties and two worlds, the bringer of

^‘‘Burkert 1985:159-61. Feminine mutability: duBois 1988; Sissa 1990. ^^Keuls 1985; Halperin 1990 (esp. Loraux 1990); Winkler 1990a; Ortner 1974; Hare-Mustin 1990; Blok and Mason 1987; Just 1989:153-94; Zeitlin 1985; Crawford and Chaffin 1986. The question of gender and audience has received much recent attention in regard to the ancient novel : see Egger 1994a*.32-35, 43-44 (notes 4 through 8) . 16 Foley 1994:104-112. 9 the restless, cyclic seasons.^ Along the way, the convincingly childlike Persephone of the poem's opening scene is somehow sacrificed. Life as she knew it, her unself conscious childhood existing for herself, for the moment, is destroyed in favor of life as a mediator, a self- conscious symbol marking the passage of time,

auTiç ocvEi peya Bocupa Bsoi; Ovrirou; x’’ àv6pciW)iç(403)

"you will rise again, a great marvel to gods and mortal men." bringing springtime and then wealth (r^jouxoç 489) to mortals. From the beginning, Persephone partakes of the symbolic. She is KOtÀxxtàxiÔiKOUpp (8), the "flower-faced maiden": absorbed with the pretty flowers, and unaware of a larger world outside where she is--both characteristically childlike qualities. When she then reaches for the narcissus, which is oépo(çxdysTtScTtViSo30oa (10), "awesome for all to see," she reaches beyond what she understands at the moment for an object that has meaning for others rather than for herself. The miracle of spring, the abundance of the earth-- these are undeniably good things. The poem imagines them, however, entering the mythic world at a price, and imagines

^■^Persephone's mythic springtime arrival and winter departure does not accord with Mediterranean seasons of planting and sowing, but nevertheless, the ancient Greeks viewed her myth as seasonal allegory. Brumfield 1981; Burkert 1985:160; 1983:260-61. 10 that price to have been the innocence of one female child. Persephone will "return to the meadow" year after year; she will never return as a child again. With the exanple of Persephone, the poem teaches that violence is a tool that can spark ultimately positive transformations, that violence against one small female resulted in boons for mankind. And indeed, a young carefree girl must enter into complex womanhood, even if the transformation be somewhat painful.^® But the Hyrm suggests that female pain is worthwhile if the result is valuable for society. Persphone embodies choice itself in lines 5-16; playing, plucking, stretching out both hands in wonder; by lines 19-20 she embodies compulsion itself, screaming as she is borne away by a stranger. The crucial event between these two identities, the crux of transformation for Persephone, is the beginning of her rape by Hades. The irresistible rising and reaching of Hades, the lush but secretly deadly setting of the flowery meadow, and the swiftness of the chariot leaving the meadow behind convey to the poem's audience that rape is powerful, irresistible, possibly erotic, and always a possibility for a female who is alone.One also learns here that males can "own"

^Lincoln 1979; Sourvinou-Inwood 1987; King 1983; Dowden 1989; Lloyd-Jones 1983. See also Pipher 1994; Zpter 1990. ^®Rape discouraging female initiative and independence: Griffin 1978; Brownmiller 1975; Buchwald et al. 1993. 11 (physically possess and determine the future of) females, and that sexual violence can be one outward expression of this proprietorship. While Persephone represents the newly possessed female, Demeter represents another, related, type that develops in a parallel scheme: the female who rebels against male control, disfigures herself and harms innocent bystanders in the process, and is finally reabsorbed into the male power structure. Although Zeus himself must alter his plans because of Demeter's revolt, it is Demeter and Persephone who will live altered existences because of the rape. Mother-daughter reunion mitigates, but does not erase, what went before. Persephone and Demeter together testify to the irrevocableness of rape and to the inevitability of patriarchy. By analyzing how the characters of Persephone and Demeter (and Kallidike and Metaneira) are used to convey ideology in the Hyrm, I am seeking to transform their representations within it. Whereas in the text Demeter first appears quite formidable in her opposition to Olyirpus, but then suddenly returns to thinking of the universe as Zeus-centered (in her speech 393 ff.j, this study will remain Demeter-centered in order to examine how Demeter is

^°Two recent substantial studies of the Hymn, those of Foley 1994 and Clay 1989, disagree in their estimation of this theme. While Foley (111 n. 100; 169) etiphasizes the initiative of Demeter, Clay concentrates on the omnipotence of Zeus. My interpretation is closer to that of Clay. Patriarchy: Lemer 1986; Skinner 1987; see also Hite 1995. 12 used as a puppet or enpty display of "failed feminism"; and whereas in the text Persephone entirely disappears from the poem for 322 lines (between 21 and 343), Persephone will remain central to this study even during her absence from the text. As Stanley Fish suggests, "A text for which only one reading seemed available would be in danger of losing the designation literary. Feminist theory makes it possible to read the poem in a way (which is not the only possible or valuable way) that gives voice to gaps and puzzles in what Demeter and Persephone say and do. Ironically, as their voices become clearer, the voice of the narrator (and aims of the poet) will be called into question and examined, for in the central semantic transformation of the Hymn, "rape" somehow becomes "marriage." Interestingly enough, scholarship on this poem, especially prior to the feminist contribution to Classics, tended to lend assistance to this narrative sleight of hand.

A BRIEF SURVEY OF SCHOLARSHIP ON THE HOMERIC HÎMPT TO DEMSTER For this study I enploy Helene Foley's new edition and translation of the Whenever I cite the Greek text.

^^Fish 1980:312, as cited by Rooney 1991:87. ^^Foley 1994, hereafter referred to sinply as Foley. The Greek text of Foley's edition is reprinted from the Oxford text of N. J. Richardson (see below) with a few minor exceptions. Other primary source editions: Iliad: Wilcock 1978; Odyssey: Stanford 1984; with translations by 13 I will provide the English also; within these pages I have modified her translation at times in order to convey a particular nuance or errphasis. Throughout this study, my debt to the cormentaries of N. J. Richardson and of T. W. Allen, W. R. Halliday, and E. E. Sikes is so pervasive that only in special cases do I cite them, although they are constantly present.The same is true for the brief commentary and long interpretive essay accompanying Foley's text. Foley's edition of the Hywri contains a bibliography which is up-to-date, and will be especially strong in assisting feminist and comparative approaches to the poem. Since I am concerned primarily with applying to the Hymn current thinking about rape as well as employing feminist methods of reading, my own bibliographic contribution to scholarship on the poem corprises two additional areas: sources on rape and rape victims, and sources on feminist methodology and theory, especially those concerned with the representation of rape in the literary and visual arts.

Lattimore (1951 and 1965). Hesiod: Solmsen 1970; Hymns: Allen 1912; for Hesiod and the Hymns I use the translations of Athanassakis: 1976, 1983. Sappho: Lobe1-Page 1963; translated by Snyder 1989. Aeschylus : Page 1972. All translations of tragedy come from the University of Qiicago Complete Greek Tragedies Series, eds. Grene and Lattimore. Ovid's Metamorphoses: Anderson 1991; translated by Humphries 1964. Unattested translations are my own. ^^Richardson 1974, hereafter referred to sinply as Richardson. The edition and commentary of T. W. Allen, W. R. Halliday, and E. E. Sikes (1936) will hereafter be referred to as Allen et al. 14 A brief survey of scholarship on the Ifyim turns up five major techniques for approaching this text, approaches which represent five areas of scholarly endeavor. The first area includes studies of the Hymn as a marber of the body of poetry loosely known as Homeric, and these studies accordingly are attentive to matters of language, orality, meter, style, and narrative structure, especially as these compare to usage in other early epic poetry: the Iliad, the Odyssey, the epic cycle, and Hesiod. In this category, especially useful for this study have been Irene De Jong's Narrators and Focallzers: The Presentation of the Story in the Iliad, which provides a methodology for narrative analysis of epic texts which will prove useful here, and John Miles Foley's The Singer of Tales in Performance, which considers the Hymn especially as a member of the epic tradition.Second, the Hymn has been studied as a reflection, or even documentation, of ancient mystery religion and ritual practice on the archeological site at Eleusis. George Mylonas' The Hymn to Demeter and Her Sanctuary at Eleusis and Eleusis and the Eleusinian Mysteries are outstanding examples of this approach, which today must be considered in light of Kevin Clinton's work on both site and Hymn.^'= Third, the poem and the myth it

^^De Jong 1987. See also Richardson 30-67; Lord 1967 (rep. Foley 181-89); Segal 1981; J. M. Foley 1995:136-80. ^"Mylonas 1942, 1972; Clinton 1986, 1992, 1993. 15 records have proved fertile ground for social scientists. Psychoanalysts and anthropologists have found i.n the Hymn profound reflections about the human condition: the work of Carl Jung and Karl Kerenyi on the archetypes of the Divine Child and Mother/Maiden rely upon the Hymn, as do the studies of "matriarchy" that began with Bachofen.^® The Freudian tradition as applied to ancient Greek texts has been astutely challenged by Page duBois in Sowing the Body: Psychoanalysis and Ancient Representations of Women; her work on patriarchal inscription of meaning onto the silent female body as tabula rasa has been especially influential here. Fourth, comparative mythologists have analyzed the Hymn in the context of its other versions and probed its Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Christian, and Native American parallels.28 The fifth and most recent approach, the

2®Jung 1969; Jung and Kerenyi 1967 (see also Noll, R^steria; Neumann 1955; Otto 1955) ; Bachofen 1948 (along with Harrison 1903 and Frazer 1919-22; Ackerman 1991) . See also Cantarella 1987:11-23; Foley 119-21. Concerning "matriarchy, " Marilyn Arthur observed in 1977 that "IMder the influence of the recent feminist movement, the theory has enjoyed a revival" (Foley 215 n. 3) . Christ (1987) and Eisler (1987), relying heavily upon the work of Gimbutas (1974) , and Mellaarc (1967; 1975) exemplify the revival of interest in ancient goddesses and their worship as part of the modem Goddess religion. See T. Passman 1993:204 n.l5. On Demeter specifically in this context, see Keller 1988; Wolkstein and Kramer 1983 :xv-xix. 22duBois 1988; see also Gallop 1982. 2®0ther versions: Richardson 74-86 et passim, esp. 258-60; Foley 30-31; Allen et al. 108-110; K e m 1922:115-30; Burkert 1983:264. Foley 94-95 summarizes parallel myths from other cultures. 16 feminist, is the one I adopt here.^^ Richardson's 1974 Oxford edition of the Hymn was the first separate cormentary on the poem in English, and it resulted in a new surge of scholarly interest in the poem. Feminist analysis of the Hymn began to appear after this time, with Marilyn Arthur's "Politics and Pomegranates: An Interpretation of the Homeric Hymn to Demefer" leading the way in 1977.^°

To my knowledge, the earliest candid discussion by a classicist of rape in a Classical text is that of Leo Curran, "Rape and Rape Victims in Ovid's Metamoiphoses. Curran observed that "Traditional scholarship systematically ...refus [es] to take rape seriously, glosses over unpleasant reality and prefers euphemism to the word rape. In 1986, in a book starkly titled Rape, came Froma Zeitlin's article "Configurations of Rape in Greek Myth, " a study that attended briefly to the Ifymn, considered "the obsessive

^Selected works on Feminism and the Classics (major studies not already cited here) : Pcxneroy 1975 (on which see Culham 1986), 1991; Foley 1981; Cameron and Kuhrt 1983; Peradotto and Sullivan 1984; Fantham 1986; Lefkowitz 1986; Skinner 1986a, 1986b, 1987; Snyder 1989; Richlin 1991, 1992a; Rabinowitz and Richlin 1993; Archer et al. 1994. For overviews of feirinisn lioerary theor*/ see Hallett 1993 (especially for classicists); Eagleton 1983:194-217; Schneir 1972; Schweickart 1986. ^“Arthur 1977. ^^This paper was first presented at the American Philological Association meetings in 1977 and appeared in Arethusa in 1978. Curran 1984:264; originally in Arethusa (1978), the essay is included in Peradotto and Sullivan 1984:263-87. 17 concern of iryth with the topic of sexual violence" and served to further bridge the gap between "classicism" and "feminism" by implicitly suggesting that each might enrich the other.Adele Scafuro's study of descriptions of rape in Greek tragedy, "Discourses of Sexual Violation in Mythic Accounts and Dramatic Versions of 'The Girl's Tragedy'" appeared in 1 9 9 0 In more recent years, two collections of essays entirely devoted to artistic representations of violence against women have been published. The first, Rape and Representation, edited by Lynn Higgins and Brenda Silver, appeared in 1991 and included three essays on classical topics.The second. Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome, edited by Amy Richlin in the following year, considered violence as an artistic subject and brought feminist criticism into synthesis with

^^Tomaselli and Porter 1986. Zeitlin's essay is on pp. 122-51, (with specific mention of the Hyim on 125 and "obsessive concern" on 127) . ^Scafuro 1990. ^‘^Rape and Representation (Higgins and Silver 1991) includes J. Winkler, "The Education of Chloe: Erotic Protocols and Prior Violence, " 15-34 (a shorter version of "The Education of Chloe: Hidden Injuries of Sex" from Winkler 1990a); P. Joplin, "The Voice of the Shuttle is Ours," 35-64; and F. Zeitlin, "On Ravishing U m s : Keats in His Tradition," 278-302. Interest in rape and its representation in antiquity is growing: a conference titled "Violence and Power, A Syrtposium of Rape in Antiquity, " held November 19, 1994 at the University of Wales, included papers on Greek and Roman life and literature. 18 classical pottery, painting, mosaics, and texts.Although neither volume deals directly with the Hyim in detail, these two collections of essays have been as important for the feminist side of this study as Richardson and Foley have been for its classical aspect. It remains, then, to apply the work begun by Curran, Zeitlin, Higgins and Silver, Scafuro, and Richlin to the Homeric Hymn to Demeter. In order to do so a brief survey of the state of scholarship on 'rape and representation' is in order. Rape: The Power of Consciousness (1978) by Susan Griffin, and Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape (1982) by Susan Brownmiller explored the "uses" of rape as a form of social control on women in patriarchy. In 1986, Susanne Rappeler in The Pornography of Representation followed this line of thought to its radical conclusion: since all art objectifies its subject to some degree (and many artworks objectify women) , "Art will have to go"--a conclusion which I presume here to modify.Works that address the suppression or acquisition of female voice have special relevance when considering the Hymn. Helene Cixous' The Newly B o m Woman (with Catherine Clement, 1986) and Angst;

^^Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome (Richlin 1992a). As Richlin states, "our audience is double" (xii) and so includes introductory sections on "Classics for Feminists" and "Feminism for Classicists," xii-xviii. ^®The maxim is cited in Richlin 1992b:xvii. Rappeler 1986; see also Bronfen 1992:39-56. 19 Claudine Hermann’s Les voleuses de langue (1976), and Toril Moi's Textual/Sexual Violence (1985) are pioneering works in this field.For the purposes of this study, Carol Gilligan's work on adolescent female development, especially In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Wcxnan's Development, Robert Folkenflik's The Culture of Autobiography: Constructions of Self-Representation, and Elaine Scarry's The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World are fundamental for their treatment of the process whereby inner (and sometimes painful) experience finds narrative expression.^® Finally, there exists today a large body of literature devoted to the societal and legal aspects of rape and the psychological treatment of rape victims; these include analyses of our own culture (and that of the ancient Greeks) as "rape cultures," i.e., societies in which rape plays a significant role in gender or power relations.®® A significant concept arising from this area

®'^Cixous and Clement 1986; Cixous 1977; Hermann 1976; Moi 1985. Collection and discussion of Cixous' work: Sellers 1994. See also Jardine 1985. ®®Women's psychological development: Gilligan 1982; see also Gilligan 1986; L. Brown and Gilligan 1991, 1992; L. Brown et al. 1988; L. Brown 1991; Chodorow 1974, 1978, 1986; JosseIson 1987. On later developments of Gilligan's ideas see Foley 115 n. 110. Self-narrative: Folkenflik 1993; see also Lionnet 1989; S. Smith 1993. Pain and narrative: Scarry 1985. ®®Epstein 1994; Buchwald and Fletcher 1993; Gordon and Riger 1989; Kelly 1988; Sanday 1986; Koss et al. 1987; MacKinnon 1987; Griffin 1981, 1978; Klaus et al. 1985; McDermott 1979; Russell 1975. Current psychological models of rape trauma (which can result in stress disorders): 20 of endeavor is the "second rape" or "second assault" that a neglectful or uncomprehending society perpetrates on rape victims, which will be useful for interpreting the Hymn's presentation of PersephoneFinally, research on the dynamics of empathy will serve to illuminate the relationships between Demeter, Hekate, and Persephone. My intention is to apply to this mythic rape current thinking about the nature of rape, and its resolution, in order to contribute to what Marilyn Katz has termed the "unfinished project" of studying the characterization of women in antiquity:

What is, in fact, the nature of women's eras? And what was the character of female sexuality in Greek antiquity? The answer to the second of these questions remains an unfinished project for the study of women in ancient Greece. To undertake it would require both a historiography of the question and a consideration of ancient Greek laws of adultery and of ancient conceptualizations o f such phenomena as prostitution, rape, and pornography. Some important new research in these areas has appeared, for example Cohen's chapters on adultery, Zeitlin's and ScafUro's essays on rape in Greek myth, and a new volume on pornography edited by Richlin. But a full discussion which takes

American Psychiatric Association 1994:424-32 (see also Resick 1993) . Bibliographies on rape (some of which discuss other fcrais of violence against women; : Secrest 1991; Nordquist 1990, 1992; Wilson 1981; Chappell and Fogarty 1978; B a m e s 1977. Rape (or "rape-prone") culture : Herman 1984; Sanday 1986, ^“Second rape/assault: Madigan and Gamble, 1989; J. Williams 1981. ^^Errpathy: Jordan 1987, 1989; Jordan et al. 1991; Miller 1986, 1988. See also the sources on wcxnen's development in n. 33 above, many of which deal with female growth in relation with others. 21 into account distinctions between our own notions and those of the Greeks awaits formulation/^

ANCIENT PORTRAYALS OF RAPE; STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

i . Elision and testification From Ovid we know t±at there is an Art of Love; is there an Art of Rape?"*** Rape is a familiar scene in many periods of western literature and visual art, such a commonplace in Classical literature that when (for exarrple) Romantic poet and Hellenophile John Keats desired to evoke a Classical setting in his "Ode on a Grecian U m , " he began by alluding to hauntingly exotic scenes of (attempted) sexual violence

Thou still unravish'd bride o f quietness, Thou foster-child o f silence and slow time, Sylvan historian, who canst thus express A flowery tale more sweetly than our rhyme: What leaf-fring'd legend haunts about thy s h ^ (5) Of deities or mortals, or of both. In Tempe or the dales o f Arcady? What men or gods are those? What maidens loth? What mad pursuit? What struggle to escape? What pipes and timbrels? What wild ecstasy? (10)

■‘^Katz 1992:95 (with ns. 102-104), citing D. Cohen 1991; Zeitlin 1986; Scaf'nro 1990; and Richlin 1992a. ^For Ovid love and rape may not be easily separable: Richlin 1992b (including a list of "Comic Rapes in Ovid's Fasti," 171); t^erowitz 1992; Curran 1984. Ovid and the Hymn: Richardson 72-3. By "rape" I mean non-consensual sex; see Estrich 1987; Smart 1989; MacKinnon 1983; Bourque 1989; Lottas 1991; Brundage 1993. ^Bee Zeitlin 1991:278-302; Johnson 1995. The ode, first published in 1820, is reproduced here as it appeared in Stillinger 1978 and as cited by Zeitlin 1991:296-8. 22 Rape scenes have had their own artistic conventions, many of which are present in the Hyim. Typically, for the purposes of representing rape in an "artistic" way, key physical elements such as blood, semen, sweat, grimaces, or bruises are erased; genital contact or penetration is suppressed also, and in their stead a before and after technique displays the approach, the capture, the scream, and then, after the (carefully concealed) ugliness is safely over, the artist may depict consequent disturbances in the mind or body of the victim or her family: grief, insanity, disfigurement, pregnancy. A stunning visual example from the classical period is the West pediment of the Temple to Zeus at Olympia, depicting the battle between the Lapiths and Centaurs. Grimaces and labored exertions, serving to indicate lust, belong to the barbarous horse-men alone--the civilized Greek women being seized have faces that are perfectly composed, and no matter where their gowns have gone, their bodies modulate from poise only so far as to place an elbow or arm in an offending Centaur's way. The moment chosen is before, with Apollo present to prevent there being any after, and no erecnions or injuries mar the graceful and symmetrical marble melee.Literary examples

^^ee Just 1989:246. Conventions in the visual arts: Sutton 1991; Shapiro 1991; Myerowitz 1991; S. Brown 1992; L. Higgins 1991; Bryson 1986; Jenkyns 1983. See also Armstrong and Tennenhouse 1989; Bersani and Dutoit 1985. Kathryn Gravdal has analyzed how rape receives artistic treatment in medieval literature : Gravdal 1985, 1991, 1992. 23 from ancient Greece include Tyro in Ocfyssey 11, Cassandra in Aeschylus' Agamemnon, To in the Prometheus Bound, Deianeira in Sophocles' Trachiniae, Creusa in Euripides' Ion, and Callisto, lo, Philomela and many others in Ovid's rendition of Greek myths in the Metamorphoses Each case, whether artistic or literary, carefully "frames" an event that is itself missing: the rape. Critical analysis of rape scenes has had its own conventions too: the huge body of vase paintings depicting divine attacks on mortals have been euphemistically labeled "the loves of the gods," and when the term rape (rather than "abduction") is errployed, as in "the Rape of Persephone," or "the Rape of Ganymede," a definition of rape close to the Latin rapere, "to seize or take," is suggested.'*'^ Attention to the purpose of divine "taking," i.e., the act about to occur after the frozen moment of the artwork, is largely lacking. Such interpretive techniques have been aptly termed "rrystification" since in this case the critic aids the artist in rrystifying (creating a mystique around, concealing, conplicating, perhaps masking fascination with) rape and violence."*" Alternatively, the scholarship may ignore the rape element altogether. Certainly the political

^®In rarer cases the victim is male: Ganymede, Pelops and Tithonos are important exceptions to the rule. Shapiro 1992; Winkler 1990c: 178-83; Vermeule 1979:101, 162-77. "Loves of the gods": Shapiro 1992:63. ^=See Joplin 1991:35-7. 24 inplications of rape and its representation in ancient art have barely begun to receive scholarly attention.^® Insofar as prior critical approaches shape possible readings of the poem, or have been directed at the Hymn itself, they will be considered here. But where is the rape in this story? In a consideration of rape in film, Lynn Higgins writes :

What I am describing...is a pervasive phenomenon: in fiction and life, rape is a special kind o f crime in relation to narrative. It differs from other violent crimes in the kind o f alibis it permits. To prove his innocence, someone suspected of murder must show he himself was elsewhere or that the murder was committed by another person. He can rarely claim that no crime occurred. Murder is not a crime whose noncommission can be narrated. Rape, on the other hand, can be discursively tranformed into another kind o f story. This is exactly the sort o f thing that happens when rape is rewritten retrospectively into "persuasion," "seduction," or even "romance."...A rape defense case can rest on the claim that what occurred was not a rape and so the question is not who committed the crime, butwhether a crime occurred at d l}°

This means that rape is a doubly difficult subject. First, belief in its commission might depend upon believing a woman; secondly, rape by its very nature is likely to be a private or secret act (and therefore lacking in witnesses)Its secrecy is often upheld by poetic

"®See the Epilogue. ®°Higgins 1991:307 (emphasis in original) . ®^Believing women: Ardener 1975; ancient Greek illustrations of the danger of this include Euripides' Helen, whose heroine's claims of victimization lack credibility (Helen represents this problem wherever she occurs in Greek literature) . For diatribes against the 25 practice. In keeping with Homeric reticence about depiction of intercourse, the actual, physical moment of rape in the m o d e m sense is kept outside the narrative of the Hymn by a double process of elision and mystification. Oblique treatment is the rule for intercourse or rape in the Homeric corpus: in the Iliad and Odyssey, divine and mortal couples "sleep beside" each other. At the opening of the Iliad, for exanple, even when Agamemnon insults Chryses by referring to Chryseis' new sexual servitude, he says that she Gjnov

OCVu 6ciX3DCV ("will encounter my bed")--just enough to be understood.More graphic moments contain pertinent concealing devices, as in Iliad 14.350 (where a concealing cloud comes in handy), or Odyssey 8.292 ff., (where Hephaistos ' net displays Ares and .?^hrodite to the gods but not to us) . Alternatively, the poet siitply withdraws at the appropriate moment. Much goes unsaid, and what is said hints at or suggests events rather than clarifies them, a narrative procecure that elides the reality of rape and the painful experience of the rape victim. A representative example of literary elision can be found in Livy 1.58.5: duplicitous character of females, see inter imlta alia Semonides' satire against women (Diehl 7) or the diatribe of Euripides' Hippolytos {Hippolytos 616 ff., on which see Rabinowitz 1993:156-59). ^^Iliad 1.31. Lattimore renders the relevant phrase "she will be in my bed as my companion." ^^E.g. Iliad 3.448; Odyssey 23.296; Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite 167. 26

Quo terrore cum vicisset obstinatam pudicitiam velut victrix libido, profectusque inde Tarquinius...

When with terror Tarquinius had conquered her steadfast chastity, as if it were a triumph o f lust, he left... in which the rape of Lucretia, so vividly elaborated in its before and after, occurs in one swift phrase.Since neither Greeks nor Romans were reticent about artistic depiction of physical violence, artistic elision of rape suggests that Classical cultures considered rape to be primarily a sexual act--not an aggressively violent one. Tarquinius' "conquest" of Lucretia is a triunph of his libido; since it falls within the boundaries of sex, the rape is left in modest silence. With these principles in mind, one would expect that the Hyim would depict Persephone's kidnap by Hades but only imply (non-consensual) sexual intercourse as occurring between Hades and Persephone; and so it does. The implication of rape, nevertheless, is unmistakable, and is fundamental to any understanding of female experience as portrayed in the poem. Hades snatches Persephone away by chariot to make her his wife, and they are next seen at home reclining in bed together after ample time for consummation has passed (line 343) . It does not seem likely that a god

®^Rape of Lucretia: Joshel 1992; Donaldson 1982; Kahn 1991; Bryson 1986; Jed 1989; Hamker 1985; Moses 1993; Lucie- Simith 1991:192-3. 27

S O determined on capture would become laggard or indecisive once he got his bride home to bed, but the Hymn does not intrude upon the time for consummation.^® Ironically, this apparent lack of representation does not erase the rape, but causes it to be--lacking a specific location in the text-- "both everywhere and nowhere."®® Deliberate concealment does not fully hide the rape, but does create a sense of mystery and dread; a visual correlate from mystery cult might be the Dionysiac paintings from the Villa of the Mysteries at Pompeii, with its interplay between concealing and revealing.®'^ Since the whole of this study is devoted to exploring the means and inplications of this twofold process of elision and mystification, I will now explore how the process operates in just a few words from the opening lines of the Hyim.

a . Hesiod and the Hymn

®®0n this point I disagree with Foley, who with some difficulty maintains an agnostic stance in regard to the rape issue, both maintaining that "sexual consummation is uncertain" (32, 108-9) and adducing Hebrew rape law (36) in order to bring cun possible implications of Persephone's scream. In a critic so sensitive to textual nuance throughout the poem, and willing to engage with possible meanings and readings, such a stance in regard to the physical rape the text implies is remarkable. In any case, Foley later refers to the "rape" passim (e.g. 127).

®®Richlin 1992a: XX. ®''Mystery cults involved secrecy as well as ritual concealment and revelation. Eleusis: Burkert 1985:285-90; 1983:274-97; Martin 1986; Foley 62-63. 28 In cottposing the Hyim, the poet fleshes out three lines Hesiod wrote about Zeus in the Theogony.^^

A uropo ArpTtpo; TioAx^dppriç eç À^oç TiAiBev ff TGKG rfepC3(j)0Vr|V AaWiAEvov, "ffv 'AiScovs^ flpTidCKVTfg Tcopàpr^ prrhGra&ug. (912-914)

Also he came to the bed of all-nourishing Demeter, and she bare white-armed Persephone whom Aidoneus carried o ff from her mother; but wise Zeus gave her to him.

There is no rape here. And yet at least one, and perhaps two, occur in this small compass: Zeus "came to the bed" of Demeter; Hades "carried off" Persephone.^® As noted above, when euphemism replaces rape, the real experience of rape disappears. Here, something else occurs too, for when rape serves such positive goals as "union, marriage, offspring," its motivations are purified. The divine plan proceeds onward as divine matings, whether voluntary and involuntary, fill the world and locate powers within it. Thus Hesiod's solution to the problem of depicting rape without depicting it is to use euphemisms, to obscure female experience, and

®®The poems are presumed to arise from a common traditional source : Richardson 137. ®®Conceming Demeter and Zeus see Orphic Hyrm 51 (Kem 1922; [Clement Protreptikos 2.15.1-2]); Johnston 1994:144 (citing Pausanias 8.42.2). Foley 105 is obscure on this point: "Rape, incest, and promiscuity are perhaps the dominant modes of procreation among divinities in the early phases of the universe. . . . Zeus and Demeter, a brother and sister, produced Persephone in precisely this fashion." 29 to affix rapes within the forward march of progress in the development of divine (male) order.

What is the Hymn poet's solution to the challenge of portraying an event without portraying it results in an expansion and modification of Hesiod's forms of e>Ç)ression. c/ The Hesiodic euphemism is retained (ipTTO^, "seized" in

line 3) , but in the longer, dramatic Hynn, periphrasis or circumlocution also take their place as the story unfolds : no one character knows the whole story, or if they do, they are not telling. The Hymn, in direct contrast to the Hesiodic passage, does not obscure "female experience" but keeps this in the foreground throughout; part of female experience is vulnerability to sexual attack.®^ ^parently the Ffymn poet found Zeus's stability less interesting than

®°Greek cosmology commemorates the reproductive role^of women. Thus Hesiod's catalog of Thecgony 240-77, the ^Hdiott, and the catalog of Odyssey 11.235-330 order females in regard to their consorts and production of offspring. Catalogue: West 1985. Rape in Odyssey 11: Doherty 1993. The desire to record women's history and l eam about their e3ç>eriences evidenced in the catalogues finds fuller and more detailed e^q^ression in the Hymn, which develops a single mating from the series. ®^Does the myth reflect reality? Brumfield 1981:227: "The rryth is not the only ancient model for marriage, but it is one of the most detailed and sympathetic expositions in ancient literature of the feelings of the women involved." Foley xi: "In my view the text that can best supplement Sappho in putting the experience of ancient women and its syntolic importance into some perspective is the Homeric I^mn to Demeter. ..." (xi) . Vulnerability : "Young maidens at play are traditionally prime targets for rape in early Greek literature." (Van Nortwick 1979:271, as cited by Tebben 1991:31. 30 the troubled psychology and vulnerability of his opponent Demeter. Neither is the rape incidental to the development of plot in the Hyim. Before 500 lines are through, and before Demeter is brought back within Zeus' control, this rape (and Demeter's response to it) transforms the order Zeus originally intended for his cosmos. But the actual physical rape is elided, and the rape victim herself is relegated to the margins ; for the majority of the poem, Persephone herself disappears and so becomes "both everywhere and nowhere."®^ The before part (the flower picking--narrated twice) is powerful and memorable; the during portion (the chariot-kidnapping) is truncated, and the after section (the response of Demeter) is the most elaborate of all. Because of the location of Hades' domain, this means that Persephone disappears while much of the after is elaborated. The poet stays above, so to speak, when the couple disappear below. Elision and mystification are hard at work, for the sudden disappearance of Hades and Persephone serves to heighten the audience's fears concerning what Hades is about to do. We will not see it, and will hear only sketchy details later; thus the imagination is left to do its worst.One thinks perhaps

^Elision: Gold 1993. a related process, the iconography of demons in antiguity remained fluid, increasing their capacity to terrify since they could not be defined (Johnston 1995). Alvarez 1993:50: "filling in the details...contain[s] the uncontainable, " and "The creature from the black lagoon. ..is 31 of the convention in tragedy of displaying the corpse but not the killing--although tragic witnesses of violence do describe what happened in gruescxne detail for the audience. Visual arts inspired by the Persephone nyth share the Hymn poet's approach: popular subjects come from before (the maiden in a meadow picking flowers, blithely unaware of what a pretty picture she makes with her robe falling to reveal one shoulder) or after (Persephone seated beside Hades in the underworld or reunited with her mother) Depiction of during actual sex or rape in classical Greek art is reserved for prostitutes and drunk men on synposia

always easier to live with, however dangerously, than the nebulous shapes created by the imagination running free. " ®^Loraux 1987; Rabinowitz 1993. ®®Before: see, e.g., Foley, Figure 1 (following p.75); or the detail of the wall painting "Primavera" from Stabiae which appears on the cover of the paperback editions of Kerenyi 1967 and Cixous 1980, and may represent Persephone (or Eurydike?) . During the kidnapping: for an example of its sanitization, see Sutton 1992:30-31 (Figure 1.12; citing B u m 1987:17) describing a rendition by the Meidias Painter of the rape of the Leukipoidai by Castor and Pollux: " [T] he Leukippidai themselves are rather calm and make no real effort to escape, their primary effort being to look pretty and pluck at their drapery with becoming elegance. This is no longer a rape, but a romantic elopement." Fantham et al. 1994:33 reproduces a fifth-century Lokrian relief with a conflicted Persephone : her body struggles to escape, but her eyes lock with those of her captor. See also Sourvinou- Inwood 1987; Sutton 1981. After: see, e.g., Clinton 1993:115-116 (the "happy ending" pictured on the Regina Vasorum) ; Fantham et al. 1994:32 (Demeter and Persephone reunited with other Olympians) . 32 ware.®® Selection is everything; the Hyim poet dramatizes the tradition that Hesiod also knew, creating a speaking cast of characters to enact and develop the bare facts. With so much detail, what is not filled in becomes significant. For exanple, TpiOŒ in Hesiod parallels the

Hymn's r p x a ^ (as mentioned above), and Hesiod's eôcûKE corresponds to 6(0KEV ("gave," line 3) in the Hymn. And no more is said. This pointed lack of elaboration leaves the action of Hades and the motivation of the Zeus-Hades alliance obscure.

H i . Displacement and Periphrasis Having discussed some narrative techniques that serve to minimize violence and purge the text of the physical act of rape, we may discern correspondent "cleansing" methods at work in the presentation of character. In order to save the motives and actions of Hades and Zeus from too unwholesome an appearance, the Hyitn poet employs the techniques of displacement (in which the actions or emotions that properly belong to one character are transferred to another) and

®®It is not always easy to distinguish between consensual sex and rape in vase painting (as elsewhere) . Female professional sex workers (hetairai) are depicted in flagrante perhaps because they were thought to have sunk too low to be shamed by such representation (being female, and slaves and/or foreigners). Shapiro 1992:57-8, 1981:136; Keuls 1985. 33 periphrasis (talking around rather than directly about a given topic) Displacement functions quite systematically in the Hymn: emotions which could merit censure as excessive or blameworthy are represented by female behaviors. For exanple, one might conceivably have imagined a Hades who felt intense desire as he captured (and later strove to keep) his bride; but the Hymn poet's Hades is a model of self-control. Overt, intense desire in the poem belongs instead to Demeter as she longs for her daughter, and to Persephone as she longs for her mother.®® Again, Hades or Zeus might have been portrayed as angry when Demeter's staunch opposition spoils their original plan; but it is Demeter in the Hymn, not Hades or Zeus, who displays anger. For example, compare Hades' enigmatic reaction to the news that Persephone will leave him, jjEiStpEv Se ava^ £vqxï>v’Ai6(û\m; 6())pUOlV (357-8)

Aidoneus, lord of the dead, smiled with his brows

^■^Displacement: Spivak 1983; Periphrasis: Silver 1991. ®®Ovid's Pluto is made to desire Prosperine : Metamorphoses 5.341 ff.; Fasti 4.417 ff. Desire in the Hymn: Demeter 201, 304; Persephone 344; together 385-90, 434-37. On mother and daughter's mutual desire see Foley 118-37; Suter 1991. 34 or Zeus' coolly strategic responses to Demeter's "fertility strike," Zax; GwrjOGv Èm l(j)pdbc5aTO 8u|jm. ' Ipiv ge Tqwrov xpuooTrrEpov mpoG (313-14)

Zeus...[saw] and pondered their p ii^ t in his heart. First he roused golden-winged Iris and

Auiop sm TO y' oocouoE popuiamoç eupixmZeuç d ç "'EpePoq xpœdppocrav ApyGujxDvniv (334-5)

When Zeus, heavy-thundering and mi^t-voiced, heard this, he sent down the Slayer of Argos to Erebos with Demeter's furious reaction to Metaneira interrupting her nighttime ritual with Demophoon: Tfi 8e xoXrDoop^ KaAAtcnHjxxvcx; Arpntip TtooSa (j)ik)v, TOv osXjrrov m iisyopoicjiv ^ k ie , XGipEOCT^ O0OCV«TpOlV 0710 80 0fjKE TlÉSoV dè 6^ovEWx3om)poq8t^KOTOOocx%|^^ atvag (251-54)

In anger at her, bri^t-crowned Demeter snatched from the flames with immortal hands the dear child Metaneira had borne beyond hope in the halls and, raging terribly at heart, cast him away from herself to the ground.

Emotions thus are transposed onto females in order to find their expression, with females carrying the burden of both extreme love and extreme rage. In general, males in the Hymn favor thought and action over emotion, while females 35 express emotions inordinately.®® In spite of their emotional distress, females perform the work of mending the comnnunity in the aftermath of violence. As John Foley observes in cases of distraught Homeric characters : "In such circumstances [of extreme grief] men take (often heedless) action; women attenpt to weave the dislocation into the larger conmunity fabric, fostering a kind of acceptance. A technique that conplements the displacement of emotion is found in the poem's original scene of violence, where attention is displaced, or diverted, from the rape by means of a periphrastic style. When Hades leaps out at Persephone,

XavE ôè eupuccyuia

Nüoiov oji^ 7 c e 8 io v qxxxsEv TDoXuSeypmv ofBcxvdcroicji Kpovou Tra^^jLXOvufjoç taoç. (16-18)

The earth with its wide ways yawned over the Nysian plain; the lord Host-to-h&ny rose up on her

®®Demeter's anger: 83, 251, 254, 330, 339, 350, 354, 410, 468; grief: 40, 50, 56, 77, 82, 90, 98, 181, 198, 436, (Persephone: 37, 362, 433, 436; Meoaneira 245-50). The excessive quality of female emotion is denoted in the poem by o^TTuqy ("insatiable," 83), Mrjv ("too much, " 362, 467) and ("incessant, " 468) . According to Donald Lateiner (1995:xix, 184, 194), Hades' smile represents a form of nonverbal behavior termed " leakage, " i.e., "accidental revelation of information, " and may be conpared to Odysseus' smile at Odyssey 20.301-2: "a private release of anger" in the form of an unreadable (bitter, deceptive, ominous, or menacing) smile.

70J., M. Foley 1995:166 n.74. 36

with his immortal horses, the celebrated son of Kronos... she is confronted with a looming Hades--and the text looms as well. A series of euphemisms, that is, periphrastic ways of indicating Hades by his powers and lineage, fill lines

17-18, while Persephone is designated merely as iff ("her").

Her textual position between the backdrop (the Nysian plain) and Hades ("the king who receives much"), coupled with her lack of epithets or name, makes her small in this construction indeed.Against the nameless girl rises a

Hades who is specifically H dXxxûvlpdç, "many-named, " and even the horses pulling his chariot receive more textual elaboration than she: they are comnemorated as 'oBavDCTOiai, irrmortal, at the precise moment when Persephone's own itmiortality is threatened by her first glimpse of death. The lines directly preceding these (6-16) are positively flowery: one sees the meadow, Persephone's bouquet, smells

■^^Persephone's name first appears in line 56. Foley 39 ad loc. (citing Zuntz 1971 and Lincoln 1979) : "This is the only time before she becomes a bride that Persephone is so named...." Hades' speech at 360 ff. may be seen as offering to Persephone epithets of her own: with Hades she will become Queen of the Dead, Sister-In-Law of Zeus, and Punisher of Wrongdoers. ’^Burkert 1983:152, 242-3, 258-64, esp. 261-2 with n.28: "To be raped by Hades, to enter into a marriage with him, means simply to die." See also Burkert 1985:161. On the theme of death as a "wedding with Hades" see Foley 1982; Joplin 1991:44-48; Segal 1981b:152-206; Rehm 1994:59-71; Buxton 1994:128 with n. 24. The locus classicus is perhaps Sophocles' Antigone, 806 ff. (see also 654, 1240-41) . 37 the narcissus (-j-oôfjrj f , fragrance, 13), and then sees

Hades' horses and chariot emerge from the chasm: these vivid sensory images occupy us, not Persephone struggling in Hades' grip. Finally, this passage gives arrple precedent for overlooking the rape. Of all sencient creatures, only Hekate, Helios and Demeter heed Persephone's voice, when moments earlier all heaven and earth saw the narcissus and wondered and rejoiced at it with Persephone (10-14; 22-39). Later, when Hades gives her the pomegranate seed, the lines describing this critical moment,

^ 1 % KOKKOV G&OKE (jlOyElV pEXlTjgm Xcd0pT| (4«j)l £ Wjlipco; (372-3)

he gave her to eat a honey-sweet pomegranate seed, stealthily passing it around her [or: peering round himself]’^ which are briefly sketched in between descriptions of Persephone's new status as consort of Hades (360-69) and her joyous return (375-89), circumlocute a sexual act, "the

’■‘On the technique of periphrasis in accounts of ritual violence against women, Daly 1978:132 observes : "we find compulsive orderliness, obsessive repetitiveness, and fixation upon minute details, which divert attention from the horror." 8 vmjjrpaç: Richardson ad loc.; Foley^ad loc. ; Allen et al. 1936:171: "Hades cast furtive (XjoGpp) glances about him to see if he were observed." Hades may be (as in the colloquial English expression) "looking out for himself." 38 giving of the seed. These lines both depict and enact circular deviousness: it is not only Hades who hides something from Persephone, "peering round himself, " but the narrator who hides something from the audience. No hint of force emerges until later, when Persephone tells her version of the story (406-433; esp. 411-13), and even then her version teems with ways to sidestep the main point and elaborate upon minor details, long lists of flowers and conpanions being only the most immediately obvious. The resultant interpretive difficulties surface in Foley:

It is difficult to find an appropriate English word to translate Hades' act o f violent abduction. ... In modem usage the wordrcpe emphasizes sexual consummation, which is uncertain in this case. On line 3, for example, 1 have translated the verb (herpcksen) as "seized" and at line 19 {harpcàsas) as "snatched"; later Demeter uses for Persephone's ejqDerience a word with even stronger connotations o f overpowering force, which 1 translated as "suffering violence" (biæomenês, 68).’®

In the end, all of these poetic strategies cohere into a single poetic statement. Periphrasis, mystification, elision, and displacement all share a common motivation and result: as Brenda Silver writes of the first, "...the circumlocution associated with periphrasis begins to suggest

’®Detienne 1979 discusses the fruits apples and pomegranates as having "aphrodisiac symbolism" (40-44, esp. 42) and serving as "erotic charms" (102 n.ll7); the pomegranate was "the fruit customarily offered to the bride on her wedding day" (50; cf. 103 n. 122) . 76 Foley 32. 39 a refusal to name its subject that enphasizes the fact of its elision.""^®

FOCUSSING ON TKE RAPE SURVIVOR l#iat Nancy Jones observes concerning William Wordsworth's Romantic poem "The Solitary Reaper" can be usefully applied to the Hyun:

The act of simplifying and idealizing an experience or object is central to poesis; Wordsworth's poem reveals a hidden but not infrequent strategy of Western poetics, namely the use of woman as a vehicle of transcendence. In pastourelle, however, a trace of the woman's song remains. If recognized, it can disrupt the metaphoric economy o f the pastourelle whereby women's bodies and voices become the currency of male artistic self-assertion and prestige.’®

In the Hymn, the character of Persephone appears to have undergone a poetic process of "simplying and idealizing." She is formally enveloped between more powerful actors in the drama of her rape (mother, father, and husband) , her experience is circumscribed by the narration, she disappears from the center of the poem, and she is identified alternately as daughter, victim, savior ("vehicle of transcendence") rather than as a character in her own right. The dread Persephone who accorrplishes curses in Homer's Iliad or gives Tiresias' shade intellectual powers in the Odyssey seems far away from this rather passive young girl

’«Silver 1991:115,

’«Jones 1991:274. 40 whose submission to Hades is but the necessary starting point for the more absorbing battle of wills between Demeter and Zeus."'® And yet, "a trace of the woman's song remains." Since Persephone is a female who undergoes rape and returns to tell her story, it is possible to view the Hymn as the fragmented story of Persephone, and to view her character as representing an archaic Greek description of a rape victim. Certain puzzles and gaps in this portrait of Persephone will begin to make more sense when viewed in this light, as they prove to belong to the poet's realistic portrayal of a raped female and the changes that take place both in her and also in those around her. For example, when Persephone disappears. Demeter takes her place in the spotlight of the Hymn, and Demeter herself acts out the consequences of the rape in Persephone's stead.We never do see Persephone so much as Demeter respond to the violent opening of the poem. Yet Hades' request to Persephone,

|jr|ôéU ÔüC50l5|JiOttVE XlV TtSplCOOlOV oXAwv. (362)

"Do not be so sad and angry beyond the rest."

79 See e.g. Iliad 9.457; Odyssey 10.494, 11.47, ®°Much of Demeter's reactive behavior consists of nonverbal "archaic mourning procedures" for which Iliad 24 is the locus classicus: hair tearing, refusal to beautify or wash oneself, and fouling the body (Lateiner 1995:33, 34 n.9, 48 n.38, 44). See also J. M. Foley 1995:164-68. M o d e m analogues for refusal to eat, depression, self- mutilation: Hilde 1978; Jack 1991; Pipher 1994. 41 reveals that the mother's obvious depression and rage above have been covertly shared by her daughter below. In a dramatic sense, Demeter is enpathizing with her daughter; in a religious sense, the traditional identification of Demeter and Persephone as conplementary goddesses finds expression here in the parallel construction of their stories.®^ Chapter Two of this study will e3p>lore Demeter's side of this story; Chapter Three will return to Persephone. This is not to exclude the rest of the Hymn or its cast of characters. The Hymn alludes to Persephone even while she is absent by creating characters that imply her existence even while she remains obscure. One of these characters is of course Demeter, but more minor characters point to the space where Persephone lately was: Demophoon recalls her, and so does Kallidike. A similar constellation appears around Demeter. Metaneira cpposes her in the poem-- literally and figuratively--and Hades bears similarities to Demeter as well. This technique of simultaneously connecting and opposing characters, may be considered a poetic technique akin to musical counterpoint. It is a

®^Persephone and Demeter as a pair: Foley 42, 118-37, esp. 125; Burkert 1985:159; Clay 1989:228. Foley 31 notes the poem's use of the Demeter-Persephone pair at beginning and end as a "framing device" or an exanple of the ring corrposition technique standard in early Greek poetry; her section on "Mother-Daughter Romance," 118-37, discusses the pair in detail and is attentive to psychoanalytic interpretations of the Mother/Maiden archetype. Cf. cults in which Hera is worshipped in triple aspect (as Girl, Fulfilled, and Separated, or Maiden, Wife and Crone): Burkert 1985:133. 42 salient feature of the poem's construction that creates one coherent framework capable of sustaining a changing cast, a vast span of the universe and a considerable length of time. As in a musical corrposition, counterpoint serves simultaneously to connect and oppose elements; here, the elements are characters. A list of some counterparts may prove useful here:

Persephone/Demeter rape victim/empathic sufferer

Persephone/Kallidike victim/virgin

Persephone/Demophoon divine/mortal kidnapped child

Hades/Zeus perpetrator/guardian

Demeter/Metaneira divine/mortal mother

Demeter/Hades female/male destroyer

Hekate/Helios advocate/apologist

Iris/Hermes unsuccessful/successful messenger

Gaia/Rhea accessory/mediator

Obviously this technique could extend to places (upper/lower world; Olytpus/Eleusis) , actions (running/ sitting ; nursing/abandoning) or images (light/dark; youthful/old) as well.^ As Charles Segal has observed, repetition and formulaic artistry give the Hyim its integrity as text; the technique of character counterpoint integrates the Hymn's

®^0n the Demophoon-Persephone pair: Felson-Rubin and Deal 1980. For the related, psychological idea of "polarities" see Arthur 1994:218-22. 43 characters with one another.®^ For exanple, as the poan joins and contrasts characters with Persephone, it presents now a reminiscence of her beauty; now an echo of her scream; then again an oblique reference to her kidnapping. Such a variety of images indeed makes her "everywhere"; like the initiate, she may disappear but does not remain in darkness forever. The Hymn remains a source of mystery. It is a text full of oblique gestures that contrive to tell a story while not telling it, or, alternatively, to tell half of the story and leave the other half to silence. But no one who enjoys trysteries would stop there and leave the other half in darkness. Ultimately, to centralize Persephone is to look very carefully at what might have seemed at first only an elision, a cipher, or an insoluble circumlocution, and to define what is there ; to demystify and de-romanticize rape; and to name the power structures presented by the Hymn--not only between characters within the poem itself, but also between the devisor of this mysterious text and its characters and audiences. Then the silent, imprisoned or •unnociced one speaks; then we catch che trace of the woman's song that remains.

®®Segal 1981. CHAPTER TWO DEMETER AND METANEIRA.: THE LIMITS OF POWER AND H4PATHÏ

METANEIRA AND DEMETER The goddess Demeter is the poet's stated central theme, but this is not a single or sinple theme, for she herself is not a unity. Just as she has a counterpart in the underworld in Persephone, she has a mortal counterpart, this one in Eleusis: Metaneira. When the Hyinn poet removes Demeter to the setting of Eleusis, this fresh context throws new light upon the goddess' situation, especially because the women among whom Demeter finds herself there contrast so greatly with what Demeter has become. In addition, the poet's focus on Metaneira, who necessarily has a mortal mother's limitations, foreshadows the end of the Hymn, where Demeter, who has come to desire one thing above all--the power to get Persephone back--fails to achieve this in any permanent sense. Neither mother can fully prevent or comprehend what the intruder does to her child.^ Metaneira's powerlessness in regard to Demophoon, which may be emblematic of the perceived incapacities of womankind in general, do not bode well for any completely successful or powerful female action in the poem. And yet Demeter's brief

^Felson-Rubin and Deal 1980:9-10 (= Foley 191) . 44 45 and deception-riddled alliance with Metaneira is crucial to Demeter's recovery both of herself and of Persephone, for it is precisely Metaneira's violent vocal and physical response to apparent abuse of her child that rouses Demeter from the abject state into which she had fallen. When Richardson considers the Eleusinian episode in the Hyim, its apparent lack of purpose leads him to conclude that the existence of another form of the myth must have influenced our present author:

This [other] form o f the legend, whereby [Demeter] leams the truth from local inhabitants o f the place where the Rape occurred, is common...and is more likely to be original than that o f theHymn, where Demetef s wanderings on earth and visit to Eleusis have no special purpose?

On this point Wilamowitz was plain: "This nyth has nothing to do with Eleusis. The interpretation presented in this chapter is intended to restore appreciation of the integrity of the Hymn's design by suggesting that in this version of the myth, Demeter goes to Eleusis not (as Richardson proposes) aimlessly, nor simply (as Clay suggests elsewhere)

^Richardson 81; the "other version" is that of Orphic fr. 51 (Kem 1922:125-26; Paus. 1.14.3); see also Clay 1989:223 n. 71. Note that Richardson writes of "the Rape," the mythic/literary construct, rather than "the rape, " the physical event behind the artistic result. ^Wilamowitz 1959:2.50, as cited by Clay 1989:223 n.69. See also Clinton 1986 (modified by Clinton 1992) . 46 in order to create an opponent to Zeus in Demophoon.'* Demeter, though unaware of this herself at first, travels to Eleusis because she has come to meet (and ultimately, to reject) a version of herself in Metaneira.

TRACING FRACTURES As we have already seen, mothers and daughters, and the two mother-daughter pairs taken together, serve as counterpoints to each other in the Hymn. The impotence of Persephone against Hades proves to be prophetic of Demeter's initial helplessness before Zeus; Kallidike's confidence and sincerity in regard to Demeter foreshadows Metaneira ' s powerful and ingenuous response to her. The poet characterizes the bond between Metaneira and Kallidike as stable and harmonious--as the natural state of the mother- daughter relationship - - and uses this stability and harmony to reveal the extent of disturbance and dissonance in the relationship of Demeter and Persephone.^ Certain symbols aid the poet in the creation of this disturbed picture. Standing opposed to the sturdy roof-beam

'‘Clay 1989:226, 238-45; further possibilities: Foley 113-15. Chodorow 1986 (drawing on psychological object- relations theory) discusses Freudian theory concerning the mourner's need to substitute for the lost love object. 5"The Mother/Daughter Romance" (Foley 118-37) concentrates on the "blissful" and "indivisible emotional bond" (118) between mother and daughter that reflects the psychological ejç>erience of the initiate in the Eleusinian mysteries (of. 137-42, "The Psychology of the Mysteries") . 47 and fragrant bed-chamber of Metaneira, those spaces which echo with her voice at the crux of the poem, is the fracture in the earth out of which the many-named Hades silently leaps :

XpcvG Se x0tt)v Gupudcyuia (16 )

The earth with its many wide ways yawned

In this chasm, which has no walls and provides no known points for orientation or boundaries for protection, in this void in which meanings, definitions, and assumed contracts no longer have the shape they did before, the wideness of possibility opens before a young girl, a gaping hole in the regular, woven fabric of life. The Nysian plain is not the kind of boundary that a house is; instead of walls, it would have a horizon; this surface meadow bounded by sky and covered with flowers would have seemed to encompass the possible world until a new possibility opens below. Within the yawning of the earth occurs the fracturing not only of prior relationships but also of the former individual personality. In his analysis of Longus' Pastorals of Daphnis and Chloe, John Winkler considered "why the mythos of Chloe is a tale specifically of rape repeatedly escaped and yet continually and disturbingly resurfacing" and likened rape's inflicted wound to "a deep, discolored bruise whose moment and manner of infliction have been erased."®

®Winkler 1990a:103-4. 48 In a similar analogy for rape, one might say that in the Hymn, within the well-built palace on the side of Metaneira and her girls, wholeness is felt and demonstrated; on the side of Demeter's daughter, in the open sky and on uncertain ground, it becomes a matter of tracing ever-widening fractures.’ Formally speaking, Metaneira is central both to her household in Eleusis and to the Hymn as a whole. Her physical position when Demeter (and we) first see her is firmly in the center of her home, TIOTO Ttopot orodBpov Tsysoç Tuka 7ioir|Tdio (186)

[she] sat by the pillar of the close-fitted roof a spot that Demeter will not allow Metaneira to concede to her when Demeter enters (190 ff) .® Textually, Metaneira ' s scream is in a pivotal position: she shrieks, strikes her

’Another metaphor appears in regard to the teenage victim in Clarice Lispector's story "Preciousness": "Where and how they 'wound' her remains unspecified, but the impact seems severe. The attack at first irtpedes the girl's inner growth; she 'falls behind' and experiences a paralysis on which the narrative dwells at length. " (As cited by Peixoto 1992:187.) Metaphors for pain: Scarry 1985:3-23, 161-80. ®Conpare Penelope's position beside the, pillar when we first see her at Odyssey 1.333, or Nausikaa's description of Arete's seat at Odyssey 6.307. Metaneira's stability and security is reflected in her house (TCUKivàç Sôpoç 280), as Demeter's lack of security is reflected in her open air migrations. Women's spaces in Classical Greek houses: Jameson 1990a and b; Walker 1983. I will frequently refer to the Odyssey in Chapters Two and Three; on specific parallels between Demeter's meeting with the girls and Odysseus' meeting with Nausikaa in the Odyssey, see Richardson 32-33, 179-80, 339-43. 49 thighs, and "speaks winged words" at the center of the poem --at lines 245-9 of the 495 lines in the poem--and thereby precipitates Demeter's return to her true identity as goddess. Metaneira's forceful behavior "unwittingly" (246, 256) rescues and restores Demeter from the shadowland of depression; it also provides a paradigm for action that Demeter will follow. At first, Metaneira shrieks, but then she becomes silent, too stunned to react fully to the unexpected result of her scream of protest: a vengeful deity appearing right in Metaneira's own megaron. During this long moment, as she is conpletely speechless and physically impotent, Demophoon lies on the floor wailing and unattended: xfiçô’oounkaYo6vax s?u)vio, ôripovS' c(())8oyyog-j&ETO%po\ov (281-2)

At once Metaneira's knees buckled For a long time she remained voiceless...

Similarly, Demeter, when she first heard Persephone screaming, after a brief period of frenzied activity lapsed into silence and assumed a low position in Eleusis (first by the roadside, then on a low stool, and finally at the hearth). For Demeter too, her first active response--in her case, questioning Helios--only brings stunningly worse news. Persephone has not merely been raped. She is now unrecoverable because Zeus, exercising a father's right in Greek society to award his daughter to a husband, has given 50 her to Hades to be his wife.® After the shock, it takes Metaneira time, and her daughters' help, to gather her senses. It takes Demeter time, and Metaneira's exanple, to gather her resources--or rather, to realize what her resources are. A scream is a form of self-assertion. However, like the striking of one's thighs (a Homeric gesture of impotent rage) , or the tearing of one's veil, a scream is a wordless form of protest. Thus Demophoon and Persephone use their voices to cry out, but their cries cannot achieve what language might have, i.e., can present no meaningful argument for change that might conpel more powerful parties to reconsider their actions. But Metaneira is mature (in command of language), mistress of her own home (with a certain authority to challenge what she sees) , and physically more capable than the "old nurse" (apparently not

®Greek marriage : Harrison 1968:1-60; Patterson 1991; Pomeroy 1988; Just 1989:40-104; Demand 1994:1-17; Redfield 1982; Sutton 1989; Finley 1955; Hague 1988; Lacey 1966; Wolff 1944; Magnien 1936a and b; Lacey 1968; Leduc 1992; V e m a n t 1980; Gould 1980. ^“Striking the thighs: Kirk et al. 1985-1993: 3.335; Lateiner 1995:87 n.6. Scream: cf. Pindar Pythian 4. 237-8, where inarticulate cries express impotence in the face of a roblem (Aietes howls at Jason's success with the fire- greathing bulls). 51 threatened with bodily harm) Therefore, after she wails inarticulately, she then bursts into meaningful speech:

Tacvov Ariiicxjxxov ^eivrjœ Ttjpi eva mXAm KpjTrm, 8e yæ v Koa KrjSea Auypa tiGrpiv. (248-9)

"Ivfy chi!d-Demophoon!-the stranger buries you deep in the fire, causing me woe and bitter cares."

Her speech, though short, is highly articulate : Metaneira calls Demophoon first by his relation to her, and then by his given name. She identifies Demeter correctly for the first time as a true outsider (2jGivr|) , explicitly names the act of violence she sees occurring, and expresses its meaning for her. By becoming a witness to what Demeter desired to accorplish in secret, Metaneira achieves Demeter ' s expulsion fron the household, and rescues her son from the intruder. Similarly, by becoming a vocal witness to what Hades desired to accotrplish covertly. Demeter recovers Persephone from her abductor. Demeter herself, once she exchanges the mortal palace for a more appropriate sacred tenple, positions herself with a speech act as well. Her devastatingly sirrple pronouncement is that

ou j.iÈ\’ yap ttot' a})aoKe GucoSeo; Oj/.u(noio Tupiv y'’ 87nfrjoEC0ca, ou Tipiv yfjg Kopïïov àvrpeiv,

^^Each of Metaneira's reasons for challenging the nurse turns out to be mistaken: Metaneira is less skillful with language, less powerful, and less physically inpressive than the Olympian goddess who suddenly appears. Perhaps Metaneira collapses then not only because of the divine epiphany, but because she is aghast at her own daring. See below. 52

Tipiv Ï6oi àj)0a?4ioîoiv énv euccmSa Kooprjv. (331-3 )

Never, she said, would she mount up to flagrant Olympus nor release the seed fl-om the earth, until she saw with her eyes her own fair-faced child.

Presumably this is what Demeter has wanted all along, but it f took her confrontation with the vocal Metaneira in Eleusis for her to formulate it in words. ' In Eleusis, Demeter must l e a m how to speak the truth again. Prior to Eleusis, the last time she ventured to speak in a straightforward manner, she spoke to Helios and irrplored him not only for information concerning Persephone, but for the respect naturally due to a goddess from a god; she outlined the sum of her knowledge and then requested that Helios' powers of perception supply her with more (64- 73) . His response to her desperation was indeed informative, and seemed initially syrrpathetic, yet it pointedly included this note: oAAa Gea KOddmoouG peyav yoov- ou8sTioG%pn pmp o^T|%ov " (82-3)

But, Goddess, give up for good your great lamentation. You must not nurse in vain insatiable anger like this. yooç, which Foley translates as "lamentation, " designates weeping or wailing, or sometimes loud, wordless keening or high-pitched wailing over the dead: it is a ritual, emotional, vocal outpouring over the corpse traditionally 53 performed by wonen.^^ Was Demeter openly weeping or wailing as she spoke? The narrator did not tell us so (although of course she is in a state of grief, ajcr{x,ejj£vr|,

50) . By calling Demeter's determined questions "great lamentation"--questions which betray her grief-stricken, distraught frame of mind and yet hardly seem worthy of the

classification |JEyaç yœç--Helios relegates her words to the

realm of female emotionality, and obscures their semantic content by suggesting that she is "wailing, " or venting herself by taking part in "lamentation." Furthermore, he suggests the uselessness of such outpouring with a triple condemnation of her emotionality--)J00|/o a W ç an^T|iov— and with

the pointedly funereal word yoog." Demeter does seem to

can signify, in certain contexts, calling on the dead to itrplore their return (Burkert, Rh.M. 1962:105). yooç in Homer as "weeping": cf. e.g. Iliad 5.156, Odyssey 4.103; as a formal mourning ritual that included women's laments : Iliad 24.723. Mourning scenes in the Iliad: 16.282 ff. (Patroklos); 24.723 ff. (Hektor) . Greek mourning ritual (including m o d e m survivals) : Holst-Warhaft 1991 or 1992 (who argues that women's yooi were (and are still) perceived as dangerous ; Alexiou 1974; Danforth 1982; Garland 1985; Havelock 1981; Huirphreys 1983; H. Foley 1993. Illustrations: Shapiro 1991; Vermeule 197.9:11, 13 (men and women), 14, 16-20. Demeter's fasting and abstention from washing as customs of mourning (and natural reactions to grief) which were imitated by initiates at Eleusis: Richardson 167. "Richardson, noting the reduplication of jibftj/ ooxcoq and adducing Odyssey 16. Ill (Odysseus criticizing the suitors), nevertheless terms Helios' speech (and Hades' speech to Persephone at 362 ff.,) "speech[es] of consolation" which begin with the advice "Do not be so discouraged" (Richardson's paraphrase : 174-5) . 54 believe that her daughter is (as good as) dead. Since she has disfigured herself, Helios may be responding more to how Demeter looks than to the content of what she says. Ironically, after Helios' speech. Demeter changes the way she looks and speaks. Demeter's tenporary abandonment, first of speech altogether, and then of truthfulness, begins here with the rebuke of Helios. Thus Helios achieves within the text what the poet achieves in the work as a whole : the obfuscation and condemnation of female experience. After all. Demeter's objections to what happened on the Nysian plain are never stated in the poem, only inplied by statements calculated to oppose her (elided) opinion. After his speech, Helios does not wait to see whether Demeter will reply to him. Her response comes to us instead through the narrator as we leam that TTivô’ oavoTspov xm Kuvrspov ucGio 0u|jov. (90)

A more terrible and brutal grief seized the heart o f Demeter.

In the silenced female, the "brutal," "savage" or "animalistic" element leaps forward into the gap left by the loss of language.

^^Nonverbal behavior is thought to overpower semantic content when these two channels of communication conflict: Lateiner 1995. ^^Ktjvrspov is related to ki^v (dog) and so literally means "doglike," i.e., "savage," "beastly," scxnethirg beyond (or beneath) rationality {LSJ; Cunliffe; Boisacq 541) . One pictures bared teeth; cf. Hecuba's desire to tear out Achilles' liver with her teeth after he kills her child {Iliad 24.212-14) . Does Demeter here becotrfâ a "bitch"? 55

A WOMAN'S PLACE

Those disadvantaged by status, gender or age...require spatial know-how to survive.^®

As protective and loudly protesting mother of Demophoon, Metaneira will conpel Demeter to cast off inactivity and despair and begin her protest in earnest, that is, to begin to express her rage overtly rather than covertly. As a mother of daughters who are safe and happy, Metaneira serves as a poetic counterpoint, or foil, for Demeter, whose daughter is neither, Metaneira's name means "with a man" or "man's conpanion, " and when Kallidike describes her, she mentions Metaneira ' s status as a wife first (155-6). In contrast with Daneter, who has no permanent consort, Metaneira is defined by being partnered, and partnered well, in a longstanding marriage with the king of Eleusis.^’ As is true of her daughter Kallidike, we hear

Richardson 177: "in Homer this is used of things that are shameful. ..as a term of censure of women...." duBois 1988:144: "the Greeks often imagined women to be secretly violent and enraged." Famine in the Hyim is a magnification (Richardson 177: "the physical correlative") of feminine rage. Women and wildness: Gould 1980; Ortner 1974; Cantarella 1987:201 n. 7. See also Griffith 1978 and 1981. Woman as predator: Rabinowitz 1992. Homeric anger in general: Lateiner 1995; Adkins 1960; Considine 1966. See also Bemardez 1988. ^^Lateiner 1995:126. ^^On "good" ^ d "bad" women (and partnership with a husband in the oTkoç as part of the definition of the former) see Buxton 1994:115 ff. (responding to and enlarging 56 of her group identity before she emerges as an individual;^® this is in direct contrast to the poet's introduction technique for Demeter and Persephone, whom we first see alone (conpare 105 ff. and 155 ff. with 39 ff. and 4 ff.) . Metaneira is a paradigm of the "good" mature woman in archaic Greek society, the woman for whom marriage and family have worked out well, and so she furthers these institutions, successfully navigating children, household, heterosexual monogamy--in sum, fulfilling the role circumscribed for her within patriarchy. The Hymn poet has even contrived to make the contrast between Demeter and Metaneira particularly striking at the moment of their first encounter: Metaneira has just achieved her crowning glory, the birth of a long-awaited and longed-for son, while Demeter is at her nadir, withered, suppressing tremendous rage, wandering, lying, and hiding herself behind her veil—

upon Gould 1980) . Metaneira speaks metaphorically of duty and obligation, (yoke), in her welcoming words to Demeter, 216-17. Her words are a variant of Kallidike's at 148 and 217; of. the gnomic utterance of Nausikaa at Odyssey 6.187-90. ^®Thus Nausikaa {Odyssey 6.84 ff., emerging from the group to face Odysseus at 139) . Metaneira is described first as an anonymous member of the group of wives "who prepare and share a husband's bed at home" (TiDpocitCvouoi 156; Cunliffe) . When Demeter first greets the girls, she wonders out loud who "of female women" they might be, a redundant expression that emphasizes their femininity (yüVoaKtSv 0r|XuT£paiCOV 119; cf. the modest goddesses at Ocfyssey 8.324) . 57 the very antithesis of the confident and fertile wife of Keleos. In spite of their vast differences, Metaneira seems to acknowledge a bond between Demeter and herself as soon as she sees this "old woman, " and welcomes her into her household. Demeter's disguise is clever; she has transformed herself into a woman whom Metaneira and her daughters will pity, because the abandoned crone lacks all that gives these Eleusinian women fulfillment. When Metaneira invites Demeter in, the Hymn poet accomplishes something quite artful : Demeter, like Persephone, is submerged, wrenched out of her rightful place, but unlike Persephone, Demeter never disappears from the poem. She "disappears" instead (in plain view of the audience) into the inner chambers of a place that is repeatedly called "Keleos' house" (96, 107, 160, 180, 184), but seens in fact barely to contain Keleos, and to be filled instead with his femle relatives and infant son. Demeter never meets the "man of the house" at all; his name merely provides the necessary backdrop of safety and status against which

^®0n the expectation that a woman in archaic Greece marry and bear children, see Demeter's wish for Keleos' daughters (135-7; of. Odysseus' wish for Nausikaa at Odyssey 6.158-60). Johnston 1995:360-64 considers evidence that childbearing was considered obligatory for inclusion within the taxon "woman" (364); see also Demand 1994; duBois 1988:39-85, 110-29; King 1983; Alexiou and Dronke 1971. 58 household events unfold.^° The house of Keleos is a woman's place. The Hymn poet, however, removes Demeter to Keleos' house for more than recovery and retreat into a womanly environment. Demeter serves as a "cat among the pigeons" in order to show how one dissatisfied female can "infect" others with trouble, no matter how kind-hearted and content they were originally. Certainly Demeter upsets life as it was in Keleos' home: at the very hearth she nearly appropriates his male heir for her own purposes, and then leaves him rejected on the ground (251-54) And as for Metaneira--because of newly awakened suspicion or curiosity, she leaves her bedchamber, alone by night, exhibiting

^°That Eleusis is ^a safe place is suggested by Kallidike at 149-55 (eipmrott 152; cf. 475) . The Hymn poet minimalizes Keleos' role: at dawn the women tell Keleos what has happened (293-5). Keleos may have had a greater role in the Orphic version preserved as Orphic frag. 51, where Eubuleus (or Keleos) and Triptolemos inform Demeter of the rape (Richardson 174; K e m 1922); of. Hyginus, Fahulae 147, where it is the child's father who interrupts Demeter's nighttime ritual (Foley 48). Cult and myths associated with Keleos, and his relationship to Demeter: Richardson 177-9, 233. Keleos ' absence is also striking because in two other Greek uses of this motif the father discovers the "magical" fire ritual: Peleus catches Thetis immortalizing Achilles, and Jason catches Medea iirmortalizing their children. Mother as initiatrix and fire ritual as initiation motif: Johnston 1996; Clay 1989:239 n.l05; Richardson 242. ^^Other versions of the myth (Orphic frag. 49.100 ff., i^xallodoros Bibliotheca 1.5.1, Rh. 4.674.) are more violent : Richardson, Foley, and Allen et al. ad loc. discuss these variants. Possible relationship between Demeter's fire ritual and the Anphidromia: Foley 50-51 {contra Clay 1989:239); Demand 1994:8-9; Parker 1983; Hamilton 1984. 59 behavior without parallel for a loyal wife in archaic Greek poetry (244) . When we last see Keleos' house, it is in an uproar (284 ff.) , and the source of trouble has been Demeter. Disguised, frustrated and angry,

YPn’i TaxÀmyEVEi èvaX iyiaoç, f ( i s tokoio apyiTTCtt ôcopcûv IS (|)i)uoc3TE(j)6cvw ^Aj)po5iTriç 101 ( - 2)

like a veiy old woman cut off from childbearing and the gifts of garland-loving Aphrodite she is (perhaps unconsciously) inimd.cal to household and family. Such is the ruin that comes to surround the female who disagrees with her male relatives' marriage transactions, or their "traffic in women. Let us keep in mind, however, the possibility of reading as "resisting readers, " the critical technique applied by Judith Fetterley to American fiction, which is equally applicable to classical texts: reading with regard for female experience.A resistant reading, in this case, might very well question the poet's enployment of Demeter as vengeful troublemaker, and seek to see beyond the sinple

^^The phrase (borrowed for the subtitle of Rabinowitz 1993) originated with Emma Goldman in 1910 (Goldman 1972; see also Rubin 1975). ^^Resistance is useful where there is a textual invitation to the woman reader to "identify against herself" in her role as object (Fetterley 1978:xii, as cited by Egger 1994a:39) . Or, as Claudine Herrmann neatly put it, "women have learned to see women through the eyes of men" (Herrmann 1976, as cited by Jardine 1985:38); or that, according to John Berger's axiom, "Men look at women. Women watch themselves being looked at." (Berger 1972, as cited by Richlin 1992a:xvi) 60 polarity between Metaneira and Demeter as "good" and "bad" females thrown together in a small space. Considered as a pair, the two exert a positive influence upon each other, although this influence embraces conflict - - indeed, even depends upon it. After the false harmony they establish at the outset is destroyed by Metaneira' s spying, and before Demeter's enraged exit, the poet depicts them performing an honest exchange, although it is not the exchange either intended at the outset. Demeter has had time and place to shelter her grief, she has put away her old identity and discovered a stronger (and angrier) one, she has perhaps failed to find a substitute love object in Demophoon, and she has been roused to take more direct action concerning the disappearance of Persephone. Metaneira has risen to the occasion in a crisis and because of her instinctively vocal and honest responsiveness, has retained her son, appeased a goddess, and incidentally acquired heroic status for her son (Ti|Ltn...(^((l)9iT0Ç oaev, 263) . The overt conflict between the mortal and iirmortal mother must not obscure their reciprocity. Demeter's rage at Metaneira was never truly meant for Metaneira, but represents a response to the loss and helplessness that the mortal woman inadvertently forces her to face.^“ Demeter calls Metaneira's intrusive act

^^The conflict between Demeter and Metaneira, the loudest, most visible and frankly expressed conflict in the poem, exemplifies the displacement technique (see Chapter One) . In actuality, the most severe conflict in the poem is 61 VTTKEtTüOV, "without ronedy" (258), and so it is. With it,

Metaneira closes the door on the facile lies of Demeter and excludes her from a narrow context for which she is too powerful: not only mortality itself, but its specifically "feminine" aspect of domesticity. Yet a domestic sphere contains its own forms of power.While Demeter leams in the Hyim that her authority in Olympian familial matters was considered negligible by her male relations, Metaneira, by every indication, rules her household in Eleusis. It is presented as unremarkable in the tfyim that without consulting Keleos, Metaneira greets a stranger, hires a domestic servant and gives promises of compensation.^® When trouble happens at between Demeter and Zeus (and then perhaps between Persephone and Hades, but it is difficult to tell; see Chapter Three), but in these cases no direct confrontation occurs. The explosion between the two females in Eleusis is the crucible in which all conflicts of the poem converge and transform into something new, as Dameter unleashes anger at Metaneira more properly directed at Hades and Zeus. Demeter may fail to find a substitute object for her love; she does find substitute objects for her anger. ^®Katz 1995; Karydas 1995 are among those who present compelling evidence for reconsideration of forms of female participation in society, especially religious and domestic participation, which have hitherto been considered "private" or negligible. (See also Lefkowitz 1986; Slater 1968.) On v.’omen as tellers of myths and thus their children's first teachers, see Buxton 1994:18-23. ^®And perhaps it was not unusual. As the modem Greek saying goes, "A man is a stranger in his own house. " Arete in the Odyssey, lives in the "house of Antinoos" noted for her intelligence and decision-making powers ; it is to her that Odysseus must make his plea (6.301-315; 7.53-77; 7.141 ff.; 7.230 ff.) . Her powers extend to the town also (ôvôt 62 night, it centers around Metaneira, who acts on her own initiative again, and concerns the women in their quarters only. Keleos, who is not present, not even as protector, is told everything in the morning (294), and is presumably brought in for this purpose, since (in the dramatic world of the poem) he could hardly have slept through the uproar and following rites of propitiation if he were on hand (see above) . Once the situation is explained to him, Keleos is as obedient to what he has learned from his female relatives as the assembly of Eleusinians will be to him (293-300) . Order and power in Eleusis are many-layered and multi faceted indeed, and some forms of power lie in female hands, within the well-kept households of its citizens. Metaneira ' s enpowerment to hire Demeter without explicit consultation of Keleos may reveal the basis of Metaneira's power. As discussed above, her sphere of influence is securely bounded by the walls of her house (and unlike her daughters we do not see her leave home) ; yet because of the harmony that exists between herself and Keleos, her power extends through him into the outside world--even, albeit indirectly, into the assembly (a/opi’iv

296). Once more, a similar case from the Odyssey presents itself. At 19.572 ff., Penelope (having been inspired by Athena) announces the contest of the bow without consulting

èbuü 7.72-4) . 63 any member of her household beforehand (let alone the beggar to whom she is speaking) . But the contest is precisely the occasion Odysseus needs, and so when she does mention it, he encourages her plan. In the case of Penelope and Odysseus, like-mindedness, or hcwophrosyne, means that they do not always need to consult each other in order to agree, because plans that the one makes naturally turn out to be agreeable to the other.Metaneira's apparently independent action of hiring Demeter may very well represent not a disregard for the wishes of Keleos, but rather her confidence that she and he think alike--that as a couple they have a certain accord, or hcxnophrosyne (although the poet does not use that word in reference to them) . On the basis of cooperation, not strife, power is distributed in Eleusis, a place constructed around healthy marital and familial connections. Here, male and female have their distinct dcxnains, and do not trespass against the other's. Demeter is far from Olynpus indeed, as she is well aware. The goddess herself acknowledged the irrportance of male and female cooperation in Eleusis when she first asked Keleos ' daughters for direction by asking what house ccvÉpoç T]5e yuvoaKog she might best approach for enployment (139) . The pleonastic phrase (which is best translated "what man and woman's house") ,

^ ^"'As Hektor says to Andromache at Iliad 6.441, T^KOttèjJoi ToSeTtdvrajjeXei,7\Svca ("All these things are in my mind also, lady") . Hanophrosyne between Penelope and Odysseus : Felson-Rubin 1994 :54-65. 64 along with the negative ex&iplum of her "pirate tale," betrays Demeter's desire for a place where males and females function together to create a stable conmunity. Another sign of Metaneira's power, again related to the notion of Eleusinian wholesomeness in the absence of male violence against females, is that Metaneira is a woman characterized by straightforward speech: with her daughters, with a stranger, and finally with her husband. Her speech has not twisted itself into lies or been constrained to silence as Demeter's has been. Metaneira tells Keleos everything without delay, an action which echoes the behavior of her daughters toward her; in Eleusis, the swiftness and accuracy of report is remarkable (171-2; 293-5) . Here there are no secrets kept and no need for suspense or time to "find the right words," for the truth reveals itself. In cotrparison with such unaffected sincerity. Demeter's silences gape, her lies seem almost brutally successful, and Persephone's later insistence on her own veracity will seem unnatural and forced (406, 416, 433) . When we examine the interaction of Metaneira and her daughters, it is immediately apparent than Metaneira is raising young women like herself, for mother and daughter echo each other's ingenuous maxims (157-8; 216-17) . They are so alike that Kallidike can confidently predict her mother's response to Demeter--much as Metaneira spoke for her husband. Finally, in their last scene, the daughters 65 imitate Metaneira as Demeter first saw her: they are holding and caring for Demophoon. It is only Derreter, who has been touched by sexual violence, who introduces to the house of Keleos silence and lies rather than fostering openness and truth,

FOOLISH METANEIRA

The poet's positive picture of "Keleos' house," the most womanly environment in the poem, includes visible affection, joking, quiet times alone, and nurturing of the young. At first glance this appears to represent the positive nature of a strictly female space. But at what price? What sort of women live in this womanly place? Certainly Demeter does not have any difficulty deceiving them. On one hand, we as audience might well sympathize with that error, because as the narrator informs us, "gods are hard for mortals to recognize" (111) and Greek literature is full of deities in disguise, some of them convincing.^® On the other hand. Demeter rebukes humans in the poem for being "misled," "ignorant," "foolish," and "incapable of foresight" because of the folly of Metaneira in failing to recognize divine favor when she sees it (243, 246, 256-8). When Demeter says, "Mortals are ignorant" (256) , she is in fact saying, "I reprove mortal ignorance in

2®Difficulty for mortals in seeing through a god's disguise: Clay 1983:15-18 (citing e.g. Odyssey 10.573-4 and 17.485-7). 66 general because this woman before me has proved its existence. " Thus the character who provides the salient example of human ineptitude in the Hyim is Metaneira. In fact, a certain lack of wit has been an element in the narrator's characterization of Metaneira all along. For exanple, when Demeter arrives,

Kupe Koprj, & 0upaç cseXjooç Geioio. t f |v ô'cttScûç x£ 5c^ 3o ç t e iSè %Xmpbv ô éo ç &ÀEV- Ef%]U3[XCd)31 (189-91)

Her head reached the roof and she filled the doorway with divine light. Reverence, awe, and pale fear seized Metaneira. She gave up her chair and bade the goddess sit down.

Metaneira simply offers Demeter a seat, never acting in accordance with that momentary reverence, awe, and pale fear accorded her for a fleeting moment--responses which are appropriate before divinity--or responding to the divine light which she has apparently just witnessed. Demeter's designation as "the goddess" here must originate from the omniscient perspective of the narrator, for Metaneira's first words make it clear that she perceives Demeter not as a deity but only as an old, if noble, woman (213 ff.) Thus when Metaneira speaks, it is not with flowing

^®Clay 1989:232: "Although Metaneira is impressed and even frightened by the stranger's appearance, she nowhere appears to suspect the old woman before her might be a god. She does, however, recognize that there is something awe inspiring and uncanny about the stranger.... " 67 corrpliments about the visitor's possible divine origin; she says XoapeTUVCtt, "Hail, lady" (213), choosing a word that designates a mortal female, not a goddess. Does she not suspect for a moment that her visitor might be divine? To choose a few examples from elsewhere in the Homeric corpus, Odysseus and Telemachos (in the Ocfyssey), and Anchises (in the Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite) have occasion to consider this hypothesis when faced with a wondrous stranger.At the very least, the rhetorical device of wondering out loud about a stranger's superhuman origins may be prudent since this will serve as propitiatory if the newcomer turns out to be immortal, and complimentary if he or she is not. The author of the Hymn, however, passes over Metaneira ' s mental process at this moment as if it were nonexistent--and so, in the narrative, it is. The kind yet rather simple Metaneira responds not to her perception of light or her initial intimations of the truth, but to her duties as a hostess: the providing of comfort and refreshment (191-211). A little later, when the "superstitious nurse" picks up Demophoon for the first time, the narrator allows Demeter's divinity to peek out for the audience:

opa (jjcovfpaoa ftjœSei défyrco k o Xjücù Xepaiv oôocvticipi • (231-232)

^“Odysseus: Odyssey 6.149 ff.; Telemachos; Odyssey 16.178 ff.; Anchises: Hymn to Aphrodite 92 ff. 68

So speaking, she took the child to her fragrant breast with her divine hands.

Attentive to point of view, we might ask, Through whose eyes are we seeing here?^^ Metaneira is not seeing a fragrant bosom, but rags; she sees mortal, not divine hands holding her son. This narrative technique of momentarily allowing the audience to see Demeter as she really is heightens the dramatic irony of the moment; it also leaves Metaneira at a disadvantage, pointedly less knowledgable than the narrator. Demeter, and the reader. Again the author of the Hynrn chooses the technique of elipsis in his portrait of a female in crisis; this time, however, she is not even aware that she is in crisis, since it is intellectual activity (rather than physical suffering) that has been erased. In order to appreciate more fully what the Hymn poet achieves here, let us compare another familiar scene from the Odyssey, also concerning failed recognition--a moment when Penelope might have recognized Odysseus, but does not: Ô* ooc ajSpfpott Suvccr' avnri outs vofjom •

^^In asking this question we attend to the "focalizer" of the passage (De Jong 1987; see Chapter Three) . Conparable examples of this technique : Oc^ssey 14.447, where Eumaios pours a drink for Odysseus "sacker of cities" (TCtoX,i7rap6cp) ; Eumaios sees a tramp while the narrator reminds us of the Trojan warrior underneath the disguise. At Odyssey 6.130 ff., the opposite effect occurs: Nausikaa's fears create the simile of the starving lion stalking his prey. 69 Tfl7«p ^A0nv«lT] VTOvèrpOJlEV. (19.478-9)

but Penelope was not able to look that way, or perceive him, since Athene turned aside her perception.

In this passage, Athena herself must intervene in order to prevent ordinarily circumspect Penelope from penetrating a disguise; since Athena deems this necessary, the audience of the Odyssey understands how perceptive Penelope must be.^^ With Metaneira, however, such precautions are not taken-- indeed they are made to seem unwarranted. No god's intrusion is necessary to prevent her comprehension, since Demeter's disguise works well enough; yet even the girls came closer to addressing the stranger properly, or perhaps to guessing her true nature when they first saw her: "You are indeed godlike" (GsoeiKsAoq otoi, 159), they said. We might wonder whether the foremost men of Eleusis, who have in their number Triptolemos "subtle in mind" (TüUiaiJriSeoç,

153) and his cohorts would have been so easily misled by Demeter; it will be they, not the womenfolk, who receive Demeter's rituals. Metaneira sits next to the pillar that

^^Although Penelope is represented as physically beautiful, her most characteristic epithet, 7iEp{(j)pcov, indicates intelligence and "might suggest her capacity to preview her options" (Felson-Rubin 1994:6). In contrast, Metaneira's epithets refer exclusively^to her looks and bearing: sh^ is "deep-bosomed" (poBü^ûvoç, 161), "well- dressed, " (èix^tûVOÇ, 212, 234, 243, 255), and "regal," (TDOTVia, 185) . Of the females in the Hyim, it is Persephone's intellegence that is mentioned: she is 6oa(l)pCL)V (359) and 7CEp%Xi)V (370) . 70 upholds her palace's roof, yet she is no Penelope, for hardship has helped to make Penelope what she is. Nevertheless, the Hymn poet has created in her a portrait of domestic, trusting, lovely, and nurturing femininity- - in sum, all that a mature wonan in Eleusis is required to be. With cortpetent and just men holding sway, avÉfxxç oiciiv eiTEcra |j£ya Kpdtioç èv6dô5e xi|i)ç , ÔîljJOü TS TüpOÜXOÜOlV, îs è K pl^liV O t TU^TpÇ eipüoxoa PoüAjpbi Koà ifeupi ô{Kpoiv. (150-52)

the men to whom great power and honor belong here, who are first of the people and protect with their counsels and strai^t judgnents tiie high walls of the city wives enjoy a sheltered existence within walls their husbands provide. The principle from Aeschylus ' Agamemnon, TioGiEi ladfecx; (177)

it is suffering that brings wisdom seems not to make its force felt on the women of Eleusis until Demeter arrives. After her advent, Eleusinian women join the other females in the Ifymn as subjects for the author's exploration of female suffering, and Demeter herself serves as the poet's illustration of Ttdiôen |idd9oc as she rises from her grief to devise a plot to counter that of Zeus and Hades. Demeter, left without a parallel for her wisdom in her counterpart Metaneira, stands alone in her strategic capability; thus she, like Penelope in the Ocfyssey, illustrates the principle that it is the rare 71 female who is clever— and that perhaps she should be watched carefully.”

THE LIMITS OF EMPATHY

Much of this poem is devoted to Demeter's responses to the rape of her daughter. As Demeter changes, does the Hyim poet aim to portray her emotions and actions as excessive and thus in need of guidance by the strong hand of Zeus?^“ Certainly an indifferent or unsympathetic response to Demeter and Persephone is inport ant within the poem itself. Zeus (and much of the natural world) ignores Persephone's scream at the opening; after the rape, Helios, Hades, and also Rhea (467-8) advise mother and daughter to stop "excessive" display of feeling. Why does the poet conpose a hymn to a pair of goddesses which depicts them as being in need of correction? For an answer, we must look first to the Homeric Hyim to Aphrodite, which in its style, language, and in its subject matter, too, bears a strong affinity with

”This theme is presented in the Odyssey through ambiguities in Penelope's own behavior, and by the distrustful stance which Telemachus and Odysseus take in regard to her (given the Clytaemnestra paradigm) . Felson- Rubin 1994 and Katz 1991 focus on Penelope as "mistress of many possible plots" (Felson-Rubin 1994:19) . Penelope's flirtation with the suitors : Austin 1975:164, 208-10. See also Winkler 1990a:129-61. ^'‘Clay 1989:9-16, 267-70 (panhellenism) ; 261-5 (the Hyim) , stresses the centrality of Zeus and the subordination of other immortals to him as the essential theological function of the longer Homeric hymns. 72 that to Demeter.Aphrodite's hymn centers around an episode which demonstrates her subordination to Zeus; Aphrodite's power is praised, but the character of the goddess herself is curbed and limited by her poet's creation.^'^ In the aftermath of the abduction, once Persephone disappears. Demeter's emotions are scrutinized, with twists of plot dependent on her changes of mood. The result is that the initial violence of Hades and Zeus seems to pale and fade into insignificance alongside Demeter's subsequent affective upheavals and reciprocal violence. As Patricia Joplin has written of the myth of child-murdering Procne and Philomela, "Within the Greek tradition, the myth was used to teach women the danger of our capacity for revenge," and this is a purpose the Hymn would serve equally we 11.^’ In response to the harm done to one child. Demeter attarpts the destruction of all humankind (305-10) ; against her mortals are pitifully &|_iEvr|va (helpless, 352) . What sanctuary she does find in Eleusis she herself disrupts in the attenpt to steal another woman's child. It stands as a challenge to our empathy as audience co consider the question. Who has

^^Richardson 42-43 (citing Heitsch 1965:38 ff.; but see 34); Allen et al. 110. ^^Limitation of Aphrodite in her Hymn: Clay 1989:155 n.7.

^’Joplin 1991:53. For the myth see Ovid Metamoirphoses 6.424 ff. 73 acted more reprehensibly. Hades or Demeter? Certainly within the text itself, the author of the Hymn allows blame to arise naturally and almost inperceptibly, as something females both accept in the form of male admonishment (from Hades and Helios) and also assign to each other (Demeter to Metaneira). In the world this text envisions, there is no such thing as lasting, wholesome female space, because females are incapable of sustaining it,^® In addition, female independence or seclusion would, in the long run, be biologically disastrous, a problem the Hymn forcefully represents by the symbolic barrenness of the earth caused by the newly barren-looking Demeter. One thing is certain: the Demeter who conplained to the girls about "men without

regard for others' feelings, controlling men" (UTCEp(j)iaXjoa;

crpdcvcopaç 131) and whose daughter disappeared at the hands

of the dark "commander" (Tic^DGrpjcmcop 31) becomes a dark and

isolated figure who demands countless deaths before the poem is over.®®

®®Either because (as the m odem justification still goes) without appropriate males they would be vulnerable to imppropriate ones, or because women are natural conpetitors with each other (as Demeter and Metaneira conpete for the child). See Chapter One. ®®Demeter as dark: lines 40-42, 182-3 ("Black Demeter": Johnston 1994:144). Parallels between Persephone and Hades: Felson-Rubin and Deal 1980 passim (Foley 190- 97) . The nurturer becomes the killer: Johnston 1995 and 1996. 74 We had cause earlier to remember Penelope as a model for Metaneira in the Hymn; it will be useful now to remember Clytaemnestra, Penelope's counterpart in the Odyssey, as a model for Demeter. Clytaemnestra, repeatedly condemned within the Odyssey, and serving as a negative paradigm for women when she occurs in ancient Greek literature, has a number of significant parallels with the goddess Demeter in the Homeric H y m n . ‘^° Each of the two mothers loses her daughter to the daughter's father (i.e., the mother's husband, respectively Agamemnon and Zeus) when the father determines to minister to his alliance with other males and to use his daughter as coin for the transaction.^^ According to both myths, when (or after) the daughter is taken by the father, the mother is given to understand that a "wedding" is taking place, but it is death instead which (or who) actually takes the maiden. In both stories, when the father deceives the mother and appropriates his daughter for his own purposes, his anomalous action is reflected in

^“Clytaemnestra in the Ocfyssey opposed to Penelope (e.g. at Odyssey 11.405-42): Felson-Rubin 1994:100-107. Clyraemnestra figures negatively in Athenian tragedy, e.g., in Aeschylus' Oresteia, Sophocles' Elektra, and Euripides' Iphigeneia in Aulis. See Joplin 1991:44-48; duBois 1988:162-65 “*^Thus Inachus saves himself from Zeus' wrath in Prometheus Bound by sacrificing lo to Zeus(640 ff.); Pandion gives his daughter Philomela to Tereus in return for military support. The transfer of women "provides the means of binding men together" : Joplin 1991:40-44, esp. 41 (citing Lévi-Strauss 1969:480-81). See Chapter One (sources on Lucretia). 75 textual confusion: marriage, rape, sacrifice, and death appear confused and mixed together/^ Emerging from the disaster of ceremony-gone-wrong or ceremony overlooked is a mother who has lost her child to the violent purposes of the child's father and now turns violent herself; a mother who has ejç)erienced abnormal family relations and now behaves toward family relations in a manner that is abnormal. At this juncture in the Hymn, Demeter leaves the conpany of the gods, appropriates Demophoon, then hides all seed to prevent reproduction (306-7) . In Euripides' Iphigenia in Aulis (1146-58), Clytaemnestra (who will murder her husband later) now claims that she was an unwilling mate to Agamemnon in the first place. As Joplin points out,

Clytaemnestra does not remind Agamemnon what the history o f their own union is until the fiction o f Iphigenia's marriage gives way to the reality of her sacrifice. This is precisely the paradoxical nature of domination: authority founded upon the suppression o f knowledge and free speech relegates both the silenced people and the unsayable things to the interstices of culture. It is only a matter of time before all that has been driven fiem the center to the margins takes on a force o f its own. Then the center is threatened with collapse. To the Greek imagination, this moment of transition was terrifying....^

"^Zeitlin 1991:289 (with ns. 34 and 35); see also below. In Euripides' Iphigeneia in Aulis, a wedding ceremony is actually trunped up; on Aeschylus' Agamemnon, see Armstrong and Ratchford 1985. In the Hymn, allusion to ceremony remains a matter of inplication: Hades is a "bridegroom" or son-in-law" (yojjPpoç 84), and reference is made to gifts (Ôcopa 369) after the fact.

^^Women who turn into vengeful creatures after the loss of a child: Olender 1990; Johnston 1995. 44Joplin 1991:47. 76 This dreadful moment of transition in the Hymn turns "honored Demeter, the greatest source of help and joy" (268- 9) tenporarily into a withholding figure who may represent "a male fantasy of female reprisal. Had Demeter not been imbued with undesirable qualities of the Clytaemnestra type, or undergone her transformation into a bringer of famine, it might have been easy for the author of the Hymn simply to play upon an audience's synpathies for a female cast beset with trouble : the Hymn follows Persephone in her traumatic transformation from playful girl to reticent wife, Metaneira from an honored seat in her household to its floor, and Demeter from Olympus to a lowly roadside and fireside in her anxious searches for Persephone and self. But sympathy is not the poet's only purpose. The rape serves as the beginning of a new order on Olympus, an order which allows for a small measure of female rebellion but insists finally on obedience. Given the necessity of Olympian organization of powers, certain poetic strategies appear in the Hymn which aim to capture the audience's empathy for those characters who further Olympian order in the cosmos (Zeus and Hadesj, and seek to limit our empathy for those who would hinder its progress (Demeter and Persephone) . The violence that appears so chaotic and brutally unnecessary to Demeter actually serves a larger ptpose which justifies its occurrence. Rape may initially

45,Joplin 1991:55. 77 Strike us as a violent or chaotic act, but in the tfymn rape serves an inportant function in the establishment of order, and we as audience are to be kept from unambiguously synpathizing with those who would undo it, i.e., those who misunderstand and oppose Zeus. Let us review briefly, and then expand, our analysis of the poetic strategies that support Zeus. First, as discussed above, the poet seeks to prevent a conpletely sympathetic response to Demeter by presenting her as a disobedient female member of an Olympic family that mirrors family structures in human society.'*'^ Secondly, an interpretation of Demeter's and Persephone's emxations as "excessive" is modeled by characters within the poem. Thirdly, Demeter's own actions in Eleusis are dubious, for we need not view Demeter as any less careless in regard to human life than Hades is in regard to Persephone. If there are, then, limits to our empathy for Demeter and Persephone, one might speak of a fracture between them and the audience that grows wider as the poem progresses. According to the text, this breach might in the end be bridged by participation in ritual and by respeccful

‘‘■'Demeter is pictured more as Persephone's mother than as having anything to do with Zeus; nevertheless it seems clear that disruption in the mietaphorical Olympian family is imagined in the poem. Real vs. fictional women in Classical sources: Pomeroy 1975: 227-30; Cantare11a 1981:24-33. 78 silence, if we are initiates (478-89), and by supplication on the part of the poet, who is also mortal (490-95). In contrast, the rift in understanding is never healed. This fracture, which formally exists outside the text, would replicate the rift within the text that begins in Persephone's meadow, and is increased as characters take sides in the conflict. If indeed Hades is a worthy mate, a "good catch," and sorrow and revenge must have their limits, then perhaps Demeter's angry claim might be directed at her by an unsynpathetic audience : KCtt où yo(p caljpaSr^ TErji; vqicECTUGV àacs0r|ç. (258 )

"You are incurably misled by your folly" or Hades' suggestion to Persephone might be given to the inconsolable Demeter : |jr|5e Ti ôüoGquoavE Air|v Tœpicùoiov o^Amv. (362 )

"Do not be so sad and angry beyond the rest".

According to this interpretation, what happens on the Nysian plain represents nothing more than Persephone's coming-of- age, and if it has happened abruptly, there are anple reasons for that. In ancient Greece, prolonged virginity was considered abnormal, and perhaps even medically pathological.Today, those who read the Hyim as an

^''Buxton 1994:116. See also Demand 1994:114-20; King 1983; Sissa 1990. 79 allegory for the adolescent female's sexual awakening (a change not necessarily readily cannunicated to or easily accepted by the mother) tend to agree with these evaluations given by characters within the poem.^® Thus readers influenced by Jungian interpretations of myth might ask metaphorically, as the poem opens, whether Demeter knows what time it is. As Froma Zeitlin observes,

...œurtship poems from antiquity on trail along with them associations o f death and mortality. Virginity is regarded as a temporal and temporary state, contrary to "nature" when the moment o f generative ripeness arrives, and the urgency to consummation is predicated on the short and feverish time of life.^®

Hades and Zeus judge Persephone to have reached her moment of "ripeness" and act in accordance with an "urgency to consummation"; Helios approves. Demeter stands alone in her apparent belief that Persephone's virginity was not "contrary to nature" but natural, since Persephone required some time yet before reaching maturity. It is doubtful that the author ræans to irrply single selfishness or mere narcissism on Demeter's part when she laments Persephone's loss. Since Demeter is in one sense "nature" herself, and

■‘®This is the primary psychoanalytical reading, which views the Persephone nyth as exploring marriage/loss of virginity, a paradoxically traumatic and positive experience for females. See Foley 120-22; Arthur 1977. y^®Zeitlin 1991:281 and n. 10. When immortals behave as if time were short, and a goddess fears for her daughter's welfare in early marriage, human society is obviously being reflected in the story. Age of menarche and acculturation to early childbirth in Classical Greece: Amundsen and Diers 1969; Demand 1994:102-20. 80 the poet begins the Hymn by attending to her power to ripen (she is oc/XxxDKOpnou, "of the bright fruit" line 4), she must be understood to be an excellent judge of ripeness. But is she nearsighted where it concerns her own "crop"? The poet precludes any easy answer to this dilenma by creating an erotic tension, a deliberate alternation, between what we might term Deimter's viewpoint ("Persephone is not ready") and Hades' viewpoint ("since I am ready she is ready" ) , or between fragility and ripeness on the Nysian plain. For example, Persephone's all-important gesture of reaching for the narcissus is ambiguous, at once indicating Persephone's youthfulness when she stretches out both hands to snatch the pretty "toy" that is this new flower (15-16) , and simultaneously implying that if the flowers are here for the picking, perhaps the "flower-faced" maiden is too (8) If we, as audience, are not compelled to empathize with Demeter--if the poet will force us to experience the limits of our own empathy--let us ask then whether even Persephone herself agrees with her mother, for some readers of the poem

^°XpuoG(i6pou, also in line 4, may refer co a "golden sword" or "golden sickle" as an attribute of Demeter. The latter meaning would make the line progress nicely from a mention of the "brightening" or ripening of crops to a reference to harvest time. Richardson ad loc.; Allen et al. ad loc. ^^Patterson 1991:54-6 and 69 n.49 considers the symbolic (as opposed to actual) role of "consent" within the Greek wedding cerenrany on the part of the bride. Girl as flower that can "blossom" in the possessor's house: Stehle 1977. 81 believe that she does not. The answer to this inquiry determines whether Demeter appropriately chanpions a wounded daughter, or, conpletely alone in her assessment of the situation (as Helios suggests), attenpts to obstruct her daughter's natural developtrent. Certainly Demeter is isolated in the text from the daughter she is trying to help. When Persephone first appears, she is described as voc3il)iv An|jrp:poç (4)

apart from Demeter.

The word vcx3(j)iv ("apart from"), placed in prominent position, looks both backward to Zeus, who gave Persephone away "apart from" Demeter (i.e., without her knowledge or consent, StOKEV, 3), and forward to Persephone, who plays

"apart from" Demeter (ttou^ouoocv, 5) . In these crucial introductory lines, both Zeus and Persephone act independently of Demeter. And is not Persephone aligned with Zeus insofar as she begins the Hyim by leaving her

^^On this issue, see Chapter Three. For now, it should be noted that Richardson asks, "Does Persephone...protest too much?" (286); and that Persephone's reaching for the narcissus has sometimes been interpreted as a metaphorical "reaching out" toward sexuality (see the Epilogue). Such a reading denies what the text actually says; the narcissus is described before Persephone picks it as a 60A0 V (deceit or snare, 8), making voluntary action nonsensical in this context. Logically speaking, one cannot be tricked into making a voluntary decision. 82 mother to join a crowd of her peers--nubile maidens?" If so, Persephone is inplicated in what occurs on the Nysian plain, as her initial willingness to wander apart from her mother for a while becomes the first stage in a larger consent to beginning a life apart from her. According to such a reading, Persephone is a girl who does not necessari2.y suspect that she is ready for marriage--but when she shows signs of independence by venturing vc^5^iv Arj)irp:poç, her male relatives read the signs and act "on her behalf. Maintaining Metaneira and her daughters as reference points will prove useful here too: Metaneira and her daughters do not happen to be together when we first encounter them, and yet the poet does not insist upon that fact by using the word v&x|)iv (or any other) in the scene by the well (105 ff.) . On the contrary; the girls are at the well in order to serve the house of their father, and although they are playful, they are not simply playing when

^^Through strategic placement of vdo(|)i(y), the author allows for a great deal of ambiguity as to the motives of all concerned. Zf. Iliad 2.346-47, where Nestor describes men as ^Axottôv / vmjjiv (3ouAjEiXùa’, "apart from the Achaians," in the sense of "differing from them in mind or disposition" (LSJ) . For further discussion of v6cRj)i(v) see Chapter Three.

^^One form of Greek wedding was staged as an abduction: Buxton 1994 with n.23. Patterson 1991: "In the context of a traditional society such as classical Athens, abduction may have functioned as an alternative to a parentally and socially approved marriage." See also Winkler 1990a:71-74; Evans-Grubbs 1989 (on Rome) . 83 we meet them. They even remember to fill their pitchers before they eagerly bound home (169-171) . From beginning to end, the audience's approval and synpathy for them remains intact. One thinks of Nausikaa in the sixth book of the Odyssey, as she eagerly anticipates the end of her virgin state and so combines laundry-washing and a playful outing with her girlfriends (lines 1-109). Persephone's "mistake," in terms of the patriarchal ideology of the poem, was to exist sinply as herself and for herself for a moment in the meadow; this will sinply not do. It will not do because for a fleeting moment she is in the service of no particular male program, and so in effect she serves no purpose at all. Yet the author of the I-fyim surely cannot blame her for this strange "offence" against patriarchy; rather, Persephone is introduced v«3(j)iv Ar)|jr|Tpoç, that is, in a way that asserts distance between Persephone and Demeter from the start, with attendant inplications of "readiness" for independent life. As stated above in Chapter One, the event (what event?) of the rape leaves us nystified in many of its crucial aspects ; here we see that Persephone's motives, and the relationship between Persephone and Demeter undergo mystification as well. Once that initial protracted scream is over, the audience is never sure to what extent, if any, Persephone herself opposes her abduction (a problem I will discuss in detail in Chapter Three) . Therefore, not only Persephone is "apart from" Demeter. The poet insists that 84 we too remain estranged from her, for if understanding is the first step in the process of eirpathy, we are kept from enpathizing with her because we are kept from fully conprehending her emotions.The only way logically to conprehend Demeter's response to Hades is to suppose that Demeter deems him an unsuitable consort for her daughter, and to suppose that if the god of the dead had been suitable, Zeus might have given her openly with Demeter's consent, and yet did not do so. However, this is a great deal of supposition. The poet never explains Zeus' choice, nor ever invites us (or allows us) to evaluate possible reasons in support of Demeter's objections. Instead, the Hymn systematically restricts our understanding of Deiæter, and therefore holds the audience at a distance from "her side of the story, " placing limits upon our empathy.

THE LIMITS OF THE BODY Metaneira's initial response to her discovery of Demeter "burning" Demophoon is a healthy vocal one (as discussed above): she calls out and slaps herself for enphasis (245) . This is an emotionally expressive, however, rather than a physically effective or efficient response to the apparent violence she witnesses. An effective response in this situation might have been, for example, to rush

^^Understanding a prerequisite for empathy: Jordan 1989; 1987; Jordan et al. 1991; Kaplan 1982. 85 forward and snatch Demophoon out of the fire; this, if successful, would have saved him from the fiery death he seemed to be suffering. It certainly would have prevented him being abandoned on the floor by an enraged Demeter. Yet at the crucial moment, Metaneira's body seems to betray her in some way so that she first slaps herself, then freezes, and then collapses. Rushing against an aggressor and vigorous snatching, unfortunately, constitute two actions females do not perform in the poem. As such Metaneira recalls Persephone, who was equally physically helpless ; she is not described as struggling against Hades when he takes her away on his chariot. Yet it seans that physical resistance would naturally accotrpany a scream that echoes for many lines (20-39) . The probable success or failure of Metaneira's or Persephone's physical action is immaterial here; the significant fact is that vigorous self-defensive actions are une:>^lored by women in the Hymn. (One thinks perhaps of the modem difficulties of teaching self-defense to women who have been trained to be " ladylike. " ) We have already considered certain restraints upon the female voice; here are commensurate limits placed upon the representation of the female use of the body. When bodies fail in this way, we are glirtpsing something significant in the poem, an issue which surfaces in modern rape trials as almost a trope: on one hand, the necessity for the victim of violence to demonstrate that a 86 Struggle took place and, on the other hand, the possible presence of strong inhibitory factors that inpede self defensive action. L. Curran expresses the situation well in his analysis of Ovid Metamorphoses 4.225 ff. (the rape of Leucothoe by Sol):

No force or threat o f force is present, but the effect is the same. She recognizes that resistance or demurrer would be futile. To many jurors in a trial today this would not constitute r ^ at all. Ovid knows better; and so does the woman, if one were to tiy to imagine a modem parallel to Leucothoe's situation, who is alone in her house when a powedully built man o f supreme self-confidence enters her bedroom and announces to her that he wants her.

Overwhelming physical force is only one mode of coercion; fear of blame or reprisal, recognition of the attacker's greater strength, or verbal threats can be devastatingly effective. All of these serve to secure submission; in Metaneira's case, when Metaneira makes Demeter angry. Demeter first rebukes her and then increases her own size (in Curran's terms, becomes a powerfully built woman of supreme self-confidence)--and Metaneira collapses.®’ Metaneira loses control of her body at the point where she feels physically threatened (not merely frightened as she did at first) and so submits to Demeter's conmands. In

®®Curran 1984:269. ®’I am not suggesting that Demeter and Metaneira relate in a way analogous to a rapist and victim, only that it does not take actual physical violence to subdue Metaneira; she is cowed by Demeter's superior physical strength and commanding voice. The episode of intimidating Metaneira signals Demeter's beginning to leam new, more authoritative, strategems in order to reassert her powers. 87 Persephone's case, the text enphasizes the element of surprise and Hades' greater powers. And even Demeter's silent withdrawal after her interview with Helios follows not only his depressing speech, but his angry shout to his horses as he stands on his chariot abo\'e her (8pOKÀf)g, 88) .

Taking these instances together, a hypothesis emerges: silent, passive submission to intimidation and to physical force is part of the poem's definition of the "female victim"--or even of the "female" in general, since females are naturally victims.^® In response to violence, Persephone, so often described and self-described as "unwilling" in mind, and "piercing" in voice, is never described as "struggling" in body. And Demeter, so often "angry" or "grieving," wastes away, disfigures her body and isolates herself instead of physically approaching or speaking with either aggressor. The Hyrm to Demeter psychologically "dismembers" females in such a way that it seems inevitable to conclude that one of the poem's underlying assumptions is that it is good poetry and good art to watch females undergo trauma and its resultant physical and psychological processes. As Elisabeth

®®Thus the Homeric warrior when defeated becomes woman like (pale, prone, and mastered); cf. Iliad 22.361 ff. Vermeule 1979:156-57. ®®The same can be said for Athenian tragedy (Loraux 1987; Seaford 1990) . Literary dismemberment: Richlin, 1992b:158. 88 Bronfen writes, "...because the feminine body is culturally constructed as the superlative site of alterity, culture uses art to dream the deaths of beautiful women. "®° To finish with our opening exanple, Metaneira: when Demeter leaves her and her mortality behind, she disappears from the poem before recovering her voice. As in an Iliadic battle scene, once Metaneira's "knees have buckled" (281), the narrative follows the victor's progress forward. She therefore remains in our memory as the first victim of Demeter's newfound rage, as a once confident woman who disappears fron view after being silenced and returned to the group identity whence she came (284-91) .

TOWARD AN OLD PSYCHOLOGY OF W3MEN As we have already seen, female characters in the Hymn are portrayed as both vulnerable themselves and dangerous to others, as susceptible to trickery, physically ineffective, and primarily useful for, and concerned with, reproduction and motherhood. Let us now add a few more characteristics to our list, characteristics which we shall discover to be in accordance with what might be termed an "old psychology of women," i.e., a limited and stereotyped version of femininity that is part of the western tradition.In the Hyim to Demeter, the female is possessed of a great capacity

®°Bronfen 1992 :xi. ®^See J. B. Miller 1986. 89 for change; she is enpathetic in regard to those around her; as a result, she is sometimes difficult to distinguish from her sisters, perhaps because she possesses an identity whose boundaries are fluid rather than stable. Unlike male characters in the poem, she changes over time and changes in accordance with her circumstance and surroundings, making her a less static (or stable) type of figure in the poem. The idea that females are changeable and interchangeable is demonstrated linguistically in the text of the Hyim at several points, where syntax renders difficult the attribution of speech or action to one particular female. (So far as I have discerned, no parallel for males exists in the text.) For example, when Persephone is carried away, the text reads

oj)pa |ÆV oùvTOttdcv xe Koà oupocvov oorepoevixx AEÜC50E 0ea Koa todvtov oyoppoov ixBuoevca OQjyag x ’ iTeXicx), Ô' tt?jiexo\xr\cépa Ksôvr^ (33-36)

So long as the goddess gazed on earth and starry heavai, on the sea flowing strong and full of fish, and on the beams of the sun, she still hoped to see her dear mother and the race o f immortal gods.

The Greek is ambiguous : does she hope to see her mother and the gods, or does she hope that her mother and the gods will see her?®^ The doubtful construction suggests mother-

®^Clay 1989:215 and n.SO; Foley ad loc.; Allen et al. (contra) . Line 37 is suspect: Richardson ad loc. 90 daughter reciprocity; it also calls into question whether Persephone is thinking in an active or a passive mode at this point. Again, when Helios is questioned about his knowledge of the rape by the ÔTaGeatûv ("most august goddess," 63), is Hekate or Demeter speaking? Positive identification of the speaker is delayed for a few lines, until she says "my daughter" (66), distinguishing Devæter fron Hekate. Or again, which daughter of Keleos is it who first hails Demeter at the roadside (112 ff.)?®^ Or which

"mother" is the subject of 7Eyr|0ei Se (j>peva (ijfnp (232) and thus

"glad in her heart" as Demeter holds Demophoon for the first time? Is it Demeter, Metaneira, or both expressed as one? In the final Eleusinian scene, (285 ff.), one daughter does this, another that... who is doing what is not inport ant in the general feminine flurry, for the daughters function again as a kind of chorus rather than as individuals. Far away in the underworld, when we read in a corrupt and vexed line that "she" was "far away planning--" (344), does this refer to Demeter, to Persephone, or perhaps to Demeter in Persephone's thoughts? The happiest exanple of the mingling of female identities comes when Demeter and Persephone reunite, and safety, happiness, and oneness tenporarily supersede any consideration of separateness:

®^The majority of commentators (and I also) assume Kallidike here because it is she who replies to Demeter at 145. 91 ‘"fiç TOüE |jèv TipoTTOcv f|po(p 6p6(()pova 0ü(jbv ^ oü ooa TuoÀ^IK^’ oülAjTXwv KfxafXiivKKxi Gl%j&n/iK%Lvcyv qj(j)aycoia(5c^^^ ogcscov ô’àmioa^eTO Gupoç

ynBocuvaç 8e Sexovro Tcap"’ oAàttàcûv sôi8[6vte.] (434-437)

Then all day long, their minds at one, they soothed each other's heart and soul in many ways, embracing fondly, and their spirits abandoned grief, as they gave and received joy between them.®^

The poem concludes on this note of unity for the mother- daughter pair, since from 483 to the end, the author alternates singular and plural verbal and adjectival forms in quick succession, referring now to Demeter alone and then to Persephone and Demeter together, or lOt Gedt / xco 6eco as they were designated in cult inscriptions, sinply "the goddesses. The contrast with the opening lines is striking:

Anpyrp' i^ op ov ciqjvnv0EOV c ^ o j i^ OEi8e iv, oaüTTivT^Gij/oapaTcxvTGijA^povTlv AîScûveÙç 1 - ( 2 )

Demeter I begin to sing, the fair-tressed awesome goddess, herself and her slim-ankled dau^ter whom Aidoneus...

There, Demeter and Persephone were named as distinct personalities, since the poet's purpose was both carefully to announce the subjects of the Hymn, and, I think, to separate them for the coming catastrophe. At the

®"*(4Kj)C)C)T}Oioo5dp£v^ (436) is used also when Demcphoon's sisters embrace him and when Hekate embraces Persephone (290, 439) . ®®Burkert 1985:159; Clinton 1993:110. 92 conclusion, they appear yoked together, since the poet's goal has become the presentation of the mother-daughter pair as "one" in their adjusted roles alongside, and subordinate to, Zeus on Olyttpus:

evOa 5e vmsrdouca Tcotpoa A li csE|avott X^ oaSdToa xe • (485-6)

There they dwell beside Zeus who d e lic ts in thunder, inspiring awe and reverence.

Epithets also provide strong evidence for the concept of feminine mutability. In accordance with his invincibility, immortality and universality, the Zeus of the Hymn is given the epithet c«j)0ixa8i6(^ ("unfailing in knowledge") His powers extend over what is unchanging; knowledge, if it is true knowledge, sensibly fits within this category. Demeter receives many conpliments to her powers, but in contrast with Zeus, no epithet of hers refers to knowledge or invincibility. Demeter is "fair-tressed, "

®®Line 321 (the epithet recurs at Hyim to J^hrodite 43 and Iliad 24.88) . è«j)0ixoç in the Hyim: Segal 1981a: 144-45. Epithets and descriptive clauses for Zeus: Dee 1994:59-78 (for Demeter, 53; for Persephone, 117) . In regard to intelligence, note that Zeus is never represented as being at a loss here (unlike Persephone, Demeter, and Metaneira) ; nor is Hades ever termed "foolish" for his only partially successful attenpt to gain Persephone permanently. It should be noted that epithets can be used somewhat ironically in the Hymn; as Segal 1981a: 116 points out, Zeus receives a double epithet "only when he has been forced to back down in the face of Demeter's 'wrath' (316, 396, 468) ." In addition, Metaneira is pa0ü(îpvoç (Segal 118: a "maternal" epithet) when she gives up her child to a nurse (161) ; Persephone is 5oa(j)pcov an d 7iEpi(}^v when Hades tricks her with the pomegranate (359, 370) . 93 "dark-robed," "honorable," "august." If we innovate and consider her in terms of knowledge, she could appropriately be called "({)0iTasîôüîa, " to coin an epithet; for if we translate Zeus' o«j)0iTaas "knowing what is iirperishable, " we see that Demeter, as goddess of fertility, "knows," or conmands, what is perishable: everything vegetable and mortal.®® She uses these powers to full advantage in the Hyim, where conflict arises from Zeus' realm of knowledge colliding with Demeter's realm of power. As a result of the clash. Demeter tenporarily exchanges immortality for mortal guise, and by necessity expands her knowledge to include a new kind of suffering: the "death" of an "inperishable" (immortal) daughter. Persephone also experiences a whole new aspect of existence: marriage/death.®® What do the males leam? Zeus and Hades are not depicted as undergoing dramatic transformation. They merely give in a little, or make the necessary conpromises, in order to at least partially preserve a marriage bond and to bring a recalcitrant female back into

®®Epithets for Demeter: Dee 1994:53. Segal 1981:114: "The whole-line formulas of address to Demeter at 54 and 75 all mark the special respect and reverence for the goddess at the point when that reverence is endangered by the infringement on her perogatives in the abduction of Persephone." ®®Marriage/death equation: Rehm 1994; Segal 1981b: 152-206; Seaford 1987; Foley 1982; Jenkins 1983; King 1983; Loraux 1987; Rabinowitz 1993 ; Dowden 1989. See also Chapter Three. 94 line. It is the female part to undergo transformation in order to accomnodate the restless reaching out and the relentless ordering tendency of the male. Demeter herself demonstrates the most powerful and visible changes : from goddess to crone, to maenad (386), and then back to Olynpian goddess. Mutability also characterizes females' relations with each other. For exanrple,^ when the mother and daughter Rhea and Demeter see each other, they are joyful:

a m a m a y ; fô o v àÀArjXoç, KO%otpr|VTO ô61419 e • (458)

[they] were glad to see each other and rejoiced at heart.

This same Demeter refused any conpany not so long ago; and yet this scene with Rhea is merely the last variation upon a scene of happy conrnunion which Demeter enacts throughout the poem with different combinations of women. lambe's jesting provides the most vivid exanple of her changeability from depression to hilarity in female conpany.®® In contrast, the author of the Hyim envisions Zeus as invariably distant and cool, and males as hardly encountering one another at a l l . ’^° The sole meeting between males which occurs in the

®®For discussion of this passage (202-5), sometimes called the aischrologia, and its possible connections with Eleusinian cult practice see Richardson 216; Foley ad loc. ''°Zeus' remoteness: even though Zeus must meet with the gods in order to direct them to appeal to Demeter, the poet avoids recounting any such meetings, referring to them only obliquely. Richardson 261-62 comments upon Zeus' method and the narrator's at lines 314-32 in the Hyim-. ". . .the poet avoids the use of direct speech by Zeus"; "The 95 poan, Hermes' visit to Hades, is brief and curt, pointedly lacking in welcoming gestures or speeches on either god's part (346 ff.) Hermes (as psychoponp) and Hades (as god of the dead) transact the necessary business communication; that is all, and Hermes is dismissed. This balanced duel between strategic powers--Hermes' careful speech to Hades and Hades' measured response (made not to Hermes but to Persephone instead, 347-56 and 360-69)--stands in direct contrast to the poet's evident delight in constructing the type of scene that features females embracing, playfully running, speeding about in fright, or in distressed disarray. Female responsiveness is depicted in the poem primarily through the function of hearing: females hear and enpathize with other), whereas males visually and mentally perceive and then take action. As her first action in the Hyim, Demeter hears Persephone : TÎ^àc^Ta^afjifürip. (39)

her goddess mother heard. but does not listen passively as the rest of the world does. She reacts. Later, the reunion scene between Persephone avoidance of direct speech also adds to the remoteness of Zeus as supreme god." Reliance upon indirect speech aligns the Hymn more with Hesiodic than with Homeric style : Richardson 41. ■^^As does Hekate (voluntarily coming forward, unlike Helios; cf. 24-27) . Does the rest of the world not hear, or not listen? The universe appreciates the narcissus (13-14); 96 and Demeter consists of Persephone telling her story to her listening mother. On the other hand, when Zeus comes to notice what is most crucial for him--that Demeter is on strike--he is not pictured as physically hearing the news, but as simultaneously noticing (seeing) and intellectually perceiving the facts. This is necessary because, as the narrator informs us. Demeter would have destroyed all men and robbed the Olynpians of sacrifice, SI |fnZEüç&vüriŒvèÔT’%)(»aoo^ (313)

if Zeus had not seen and pondered their pli^t in his heart.

The superiority of Zeus' method of information-gathering (seeing) to Demeter's (hearing and interviewing witnesses) is clear when we remember that in Homeric poetry, seeing is considered naturally superior to hearing. What is known best is that which has been seen; thus the origin of oi5a,

"I know," in the perfect tense of iSsiv, "to see." Demeter, who has seen nothing, lacks what allows Zeus (and Helios) initially to prevail; she lacks objectivity, or what might colloquially be called "distance on the issue," i.e., knowledge based on the innate farsightedness of sky gods why would it suddenly not "hear" the scream? We understand the scene better if we understand that according to the poet, no one except Demeter listens (I owe this observation about hearing vs. listening to Professor Thomas Rosenmeyer) . See Chapter Three. ’^Superiority of seeing to hearing: Clay 1983:12-15. After seeing, Zeus does hear the report of the gods (èacoucsE 334) . Distance and objectivity: Richardson finds Zeus' 97 At the moment when Zeus comes as close as he ever does to becoming a character in the poem, he "notices"--and pronptly delegates authority to the iressenger Hermes. The narrator sinply signals the audience that Zeus is apprised of the situation, though characteristically uninvolved. Is hearing not only a sign of empathy, but sometimes a sign of submission? As the Thersites episode demonstrates in the Iliad, it is the lot of the less powerful to listen (2.211 ff.). When the Eleusinians hear Keleos' orders to build a temple for Demeter, in a good example of hysteron proteran,

0 1 8e oav(/ ejuGovro Koa 8kXxx)v oaiôrpavcoç (299)

they obeyed at once and listened to his speech.

As a powerful party, Hades' response to Hermes' Zeus-ordered speech is to listen first, but then to disobey Hermes (and therefore Zeus) as much as he can, in part by making a speech himself to Persephone--who listens, but does not answer. Hearing and listening are at issue when Demeter questions Helios; she begins with a polite request that he respect, i.e. (in this context) , listen to and answer her as befits his station and hers. Most marked of all is the range of female responses to Demophoon's screams. His sisters hear and rush to his aid, but Metaneira does not remoteness suggestive: "Zeus' absence is a matter of convenience, as one might be 'out' to callers in the past" (158) . See also Richardson 28; Foley 38-9 on ènDJrrsia in the Mysteries. 98 seem to hear him (283-4) ; her tenporary lack of that most feminine sense of hearing signifies the extremity of her distress.

THE MASTER'S TOOLS In order to best Zeus, Demeter "uses the master's tools to dismantle the master's house": she abandons "feminine" mobility and sympathy and begins to employ the methods that previously characterized Zeus.’^ She stops listening, empathizing, and participating in community; in fact, she literally stops moving: drop ^cxvOr] Ari|jtfnp 8v0a fjoacdpcov èuh vdb|)iv oütdvrcov jiipvE m]8cp |aivu0ouca poÔLx^pvoio Guyoccpoc; (302-4)

Then golden-haired Demeter remained sitting apart from all the immortals, wasting with desire for her deep-girt daughter.

In a sudden turn of events. Demeter decides to use methods that the ancient Greeks would have categorized as "masculine" in order to defeat masculine enterprise. As noted above. Hades disobeys Zeus as much as he dares; Demeter directly defies Zeus' repeated appeals to her to relent. As Charles Segal observes, "When Demeter resolves the tension and does finally yield, her acquiescence

■^^See Lorde 1984; Marsh 1992:269. ■'■‘See Chapter One. 99 appropriately takes the form of a litotes, 'not disobeying' (470)" and furthermore,

In another important respect Demetefs disobedience o f [line] 324 departs from the familiar epic formula O f the fourteen times where enETtEi0ETO GüfJCDÇ occurs in the Homeric corpus, this is the only case where the subject does m t obey.’’^^

Demeter thus forsakes emotionality (and any hope of comfort in conpany) in favor of a firm plan and a stationary position. The narrator, however, undercuts her decisive action (even as Zeus' remoteness was dowrplayed) by reporting it obliquely rather than directly (331-33). Rather than casting Demeter's decision in direct speech, or devising a scene in her tenple, the poet follows this indirect report with Hermes telling Hades what has occurred. Hermes succeeds with the authority of Zeus, and with a note of finality that perfectly summarizes the situation (the perfect tense Tproa) :

fjorott,’EA e\xhvoç Kpccvobv TuoXisGpov % 3uoa. (356)

"she has taken her seat, and holds the rocky citadel o f Eleusis."

Demeter will sit and waste away, as detached and resolute as any Zeus could be; the immortals who visit her find her newly itrmune to others' feelings (305-12; 329-30) . But when Demeter becomes a motionless permanent fixture, she does not sit down just anywhere. She holds, or conmands, a strategic

''^Line 324: "Demeter's heart was unmoved." Segal 1981:147 and n.83. 100 place in the center of the city, a high and rocky position that symbolizes her new inaccessibility and resolve. In addition, she now holds a tenple of her own (a visible symbol of her power) within the Kpf^Sqivot ("veils" or "city walls, " 151) of Eleusis, the Kpn§e|iva being the garment symbolizing protection and status for females in archaic Greek literature.’® We remember that when she first arrived in town, she sat down on the ground for a while beside the well (S^ETO, 98; note the inperfect tense) . H e m e s portrays her now as having taken up a position central to the city, where she will receive, but not to listen to, appeals. When Demeter refuses to be persuaded, and when Iris comes Xiooopi^vri ("inploring, " 324) to no avail, we remember that originally Zeus sat in his much-supplicated tenple

(TCOÀiJ^OTcp£Vi vri©, 28) and refused to listen to Persephone's screams for his help. Finally, Hermes informs Hades of what Demeter is not doing, reporting that ooSèGeoîcîi/ loicyysToa (354-355)

"nor does slie go among [or: mingle with] the gods. "

Here too the author of the Hymn is attentive to formal symmetry. As Persephone spontaneously, playfully, and in her curiosity, separated herself from her group and the

76 See Chapter Three. 101 trouble began, Demeter now calculatingly separates herself and refrains from association, in order to end the trouble. Thus the poem's central character transgresses the boundaries of female behavior as defined within the early portion of the poem at the moment when she rroves into tenporary ascendency within the poem's power structure. When Hades hears Hermes' report that Demeter has taken her seat and stays inmobile on the rocky citadel of Eleusis, the poet makes Zeus perceive that moment (and no other) as worthy of, indeed requiring, a response. Whereas formerly it was necessary for Demeter to use deception (lies, secret ritual, disguise), now it is Hades' turn to use deception again. He resorts to the pomegranate trick in order to finish what he began with the narcissus. In contrast. Demeter is now acting openly and resolutely on the highest hill in Eleusis. Once Demeter refuses to move or to act, the initial gender constructs of the poem, in which the realm of mobile females cannot resist rational and directed movement by males, disappears. By the end of the Eleusis episode. Demeter has developed a successful plan to replace the plan of Zeus and Hades which formerly moved che plot (PouAriai, 9; svvEOupi, 30) Ultimately, when Zeus attenpts

’■’of. Iliad 1.5, Aiôç8^eteXeiÉtoPoüÀfj (and the will of Zeus was acconplished) ; Theogony 914, nrpisTa (Zeus' counsel) . One wishes that line 345 of the Hyim, which is likely to refer to "plans" (+.. .}ir|TicssTO PouXr|-(-) --whose?-- were intact. 102 to take charge of reproduction and fertility in the specific case of Persephone, Demeter causes him to remember what reproduction and fertility are in a much larger sense, causing worldwide devastation and cessation of births. To borrow a key phrase from Nancy Demand's discussion of Greek medical practices, "Male concern with control of female reproductivity" is pictured suffering a setback in the Hyim to Demeter.''® In the beginning, the poet made it clear that the universe obeyed Zeus' orders concerning the forging of alliances, and obeyed Demeter's commands in the realm of fertility. By the end of the poem. Demeter bests Zeus, plan for plan, once " ' To see with her eyes ' is now no longer the quest of a distraught and helpless mother, but the ultimatum dictated by a dangerous outraged divinity. Whether this change is to be considered a complete triunph remains to be seen in Chapter Three. Persephone finally returns to her mother because the goddess who knows the ways of waxing and waning also learns the ways of steadfast strategy. As Hermes ruefully tells Hades: | 4 ^ |jJTi5eToa gpyov (351)

she devises a great scheme.

^®Demand 1994:141-54. See also King 1991; it is interesting to note in this context that Demeter began in Eleusis by pretending to be a nurse. 79Segal 1981a:125. CHAPTER THREE PERSEPHONE AND KALLIDIKE: WRITING AND REWRITING THE VICTIM

Because the first scream and the last and most substantial direct speech in the Hymn to Demeter belong to Persephone, we must understand her character in order to understand the Hymn. This represents a challenge because in this poem, which opens with the rape of Persephone and closes with her version of that event, our author engages in the process of "writing the victim. Persephone is paramount; Persephone's reaction to the rape is given its due; yet (as we have already seen) this Persephone is not the dread and inpressive goddess imagined in Homer. This poetic creation is young, vulnerable, and helpless ; as a result, more than Persephone herself, Persephone as the subject of dispute cotrprises the poem's subject matter. When she does reappear and speak, she is very much in the victim's role: anxious, distressed, at once insistent about her side of the story and afraid of being branded a liar. In looking closely at how she is portrayed, this chapter will engage in "rewriting the victim," or in other words.

^"Writing the victim": Peixoto 1991:183 with n.5, who considers the idea that in certain authors, "...narrative demands a victim or, conversely, the victim demands narrative." 103 104 interpreting her experience from a new perspective, in an attenpt to resolve the difficulties inherent in the presentation of her experience.^ Persephone's story is full of secrets and contradictions; she, Hades, and the narrator create a triangle of ambiguous actions and conflicting accounts that discourage attenpts to arrive at a definitive version of the rape or her experience of it. Three factors are at work here. First, as recent work in autobiography and biography has shown, contradictions and lacunae are characteristic of accounts of women's lives.^ Second, obstacles to clarity are also cannonly found in accounts of victims of violence who attenpt to speak of their experience; the difficulty inherent in turning pain into clear language becomes a factor in such cases.^ Although the existence of Persephone is crucial to the plot, the poet saves her actual appearance for the end, after the real

^Chapter title: Re- compounds have important in feminist criticism; see, for example, "Rereading Rape," the title of the introduction to Higgins and Silver 1991; or Rich 1978 (which includes her essay "When We Dead Awaken; Writing as Re-Vision") . For modem examples of narratives refashioned from a previously silent character within the story, see, for example, Gardner 1985 {Beowulf from the monster's perspective); D. Williams 1992 (an autobiographical exanple). ^Women's autobiography : Estelle 1986; Heilbrun 1988; S. Smith 1993; S. Smith and Watson 1992; Wagner-Martin 1994.

‘‘Sc a r r y 1985 (on which see below) ; White and Epston 1990. Lionnet 1989; Folkenflick 1993. Sophocles' Philoctetes dramatizes the hero's sometimes unsuccessful attempts to speak as part of reclaiming his status as human being. See Segal 1981b:328-61. 105 climax of the poem, which is Demeter's epiphany to the Eleusinians (275 ff.). Throughout the Hyim Persephone remains second to Hades or second to her mother, and is understood to have achieved her status through them.^ Special interpretive techniques are called for when such a crucial character is presented in oblique fashion. Fortunately, paradigms do exist. Recent years have brought the field of Classics two books on the subject of Penelope in the Odyssey. In these studies, Nancy Felson-Rubin and Marilyn Katz have considered an epic that does not primarily focus on Odysseus' wife, and have written critical works that do.® In doing so, both authors (albeit in different ways) attempt to reconstruct or make explicit what in the original poem is partially veiled (like Penelope herself) and largely inplicit. The question is raised; what is the meaning of the Odyssey not for Odysseus, but for Penelope? And what meaning has Penelope for us?'' Such investigations can provide both a look at all characters from a new vantage point, and in addition, an

^Persephone ' s name is mentioned at Odyssey 11.213, 217 with Hades on one side (211) and Zeus on the other (217); Hesiod flanks her with Demeter on one side and Hades and Zeus on the other (Theogony 912 ff.) . Women in Classical Greece were identified in public (v^en absolutely necessary) by the possessive form of their father's or husband's name; Demand 1994:9. ®Felson-Rubin 1994; Katz 1991. ''For a related approach to the Iliad, see Rose 1988: the meaning of Iliad 2 not for the Achaian leaders, but for the lowly Thersites. 106 almost "archaeological" uncovering of previously unnoticed experience of peripheral characters (including females). Much like the "new" archaeology, which is increasingly able to be attentive to the daily lives of ordinary persons, this interpretive method can do much to illiminate the experience of those not directly in power.® In Penelope's case, although we lack a Penelopeia, Homer is so attentive to Penelope within the Odyssey that Katz and Felson-Rubin meet with success. In considering the Rymn to Demeter, when we turn from the central and highly visible Demeter to her less conspicuous daughter whose rape begins the poem's action, the question becomes. To what extent is the meaning of this act for Persephone recoverable from this source? The Hymn poet creates an antoiguous, mysterious Persephone, a character who disappears from the poem for approximately 300 lines (she is absent from line 39 to line 343; the poem is 495 lines long), and who tells a questionable version of the preceding action when she finally returns and speaks (405 ff. ) Penelope is less nysterious. Because she is present for a substantial portion of the Odyssey, in the words of Felson-Rubin, we can come to know something of "what she knows, what beliefs and convictions she holds, what she desires and fears, what actions she thinks are possible and

®New archaeology: Snodgrass 1987; Kardulias 1994. 107 permissible for her to take."® The submerged Persephone represents more of an enigma; Penelope may remain a puzzle to the likes of Agamemnon within the Odyssey, but Persephone in the Hyim presents a puzzle to us all. The Hymn poet's Persephone becomes increasingly conplex as the poem progresses. As she becomes more and more Hades', so to speak, she becomes less and less available to us--or, within the poem, to Demeter. Ironically, this means that the more she talks, the more vulnerable she is to misinterpretation. Even the meaning the rape might have had for her remains open to question. This chapter will analyze those strategies in the Hymn that reveal Persephone and those that discourage us from forming a conplete picture or a conplete understanding of her. An Epilogue will close this study by briefly considering what her story has contributed to the Classical tradition, one strand of which conprises traditional artistic treatments of rape.

KALLIDIKE AND PERSEPHONE The present text is not a Hymn to Persephone, but a Hymn to Demeter; therefore it is to be expected that Demeter, not her daughter, holds pride of place.In the poem, the disappearance of Persephone into the underworld

®1994;19 with n.l5. ^°There is an Orphic hymn to Persephone : 3.29 (Kem 1922:115). See Athanassakis 1977:41-42. 108 helps to acconplish her subordination to her mother. Persephone does not disappear entirely, however. As the young goddess becomes invisible and undergoes increasing nystification, her agemate Kallidike enters the poem and remains, in full view of the audience, in sunlit safety. By combining these two contrasting figures, our author creates a picture of girlhood in which Persephone represents shadow, and Kallidike light. Formally speaking. Demeter's Eleusinian encounter with Kallidike and her sisters restores to the poem the positive sides of female ejqjerience, refreshing the audience with lovely images, while the frightening experience that Persephone undergoes is hidden with her in the misty gloom of the underworld. When Persephone's childhood, carefree mobility, and nubility are cut short by the nexus of death/rape/marriage,^^ Demeter (and the audience) rediscover innocence and meadows fresh for frolicking in Eleusis. Since Kallidike and her sisters gambol in this meadow, virginity returns. When innocent maidenhood returns to the text, something that is humanly impossible is satisfied through literary fantasy, which brings in a new girl when the old one leaves. The truth about this aspect of female reality can be found in fragment 114 L.P. of Sappho:

^^"Rape, love, marriage, sacrifice, and death are all inplicated in one another through the feminine" (Zeitlin 1991:293). See also Bronfen 1992; Buxton 1994:128 with n.24. 109

7ccxp0Ev{a, 7cap0Evfo, 7I0Î pET a m i G ^ OTtoixni; Ÿ o&ETi f^(o ouic6n %o). f

[Bride;] Maidenhood, maidenhood, where have you gone and left me? [Maidaihood:] No more will I come back to you, no more will I come back.

In Sappho's approach, the bride herself speaks of her loss and anxiety for the days ahead in a new state; the Hyim does not give Persephone such an opportunity. In contrast with Demeter and Metaneira, the two halves of the Persephone-Kallidike pair never meet. Kallidike appears after Persephone disappears, and disappears from the plot (with her own family crisis) before Persephone reappears; thus they suggest, by the alternation of their situations, the alternation that Persephone is fated to undergo. Certainly Persephone and Kallidike represent the two sides of girlhood, which might be represented with the floral metaphor, the "unplucked" and the "plucked, " a metaphor to be presently explored. First, however, the poet presents their disparity in terms of two social situations: "alone" and "not alone."

SAFETY I N NUMBERS

Kallidike is introduced to the audience as part of a small "catalog of women" who encounter Demeter. During the course of the poem she shares the stage with her sisters and never leaves the safety of her grocp:

TBV 8e tô o vK eX boîo ’EXsuoiviôofo Guyocxpeç 110 IpXPiiEvoa |OE0’ uScop eurpuTov oj)pa ({«poisv XaXmoi xaÀKEUToi (j)iXot Tcpbç ôtopocia Tcottpéç, T£C5CK}(p6Ç ox; T8 Gscà KOUpn'lOV O V ^ ^OUŒXl,

KoWiiôiKri KoàKX eioiôikh Arp6 f^p&ooa KcAliG&l 0', f{ m v TTpoyEVEŒorri omooGv - (105-110)

The dau^ters of Keleos, son of Eleusis, saw her as they came to fetch water easy to draw and bring it in bronze vessels to their dear father's halls. Like four goddesses they were in the flower of youth, Kallidike, Kleisidike, fair Demo, and Kallithoe, who was the eldest of them all.

Her position within a throng of agemates represents the natural, protected state for a young girl of good birth (or in this case, a goddess) in archaic poetry. Membership in such a group is frequently cherished by young females--sane credible, some not--a few exairples being the choruses of Alkman, Nausikaa in the Odyssey, J^hrodite in her Haneric Hyim, and the heroine of Euripides' Helen.The chorus of nubile girls is a topos that Persephone herself will invoke later when her mother asks her how Hades tricked her, and Persephone responds as though she had been asked what she was up to that day, naming conpanions as though their

^^Alkman 1 and 3; Nausikaa: see above; Aphrodite : H. J^h. 117-20; Helen: Helen 164 ff., esp. 243-51. The theme of the maiden abducted while gathering flowers: Richardson 140-44. The GiCûCîOÇ of Sappho is an inport ant parallel: see Snyder 1991, 1989:28-33; Stehle 1977; Winkler 1990a:162-187, 1990b; Hal let 1979. On the nature of the group's bonds with one another, see also Fantham 1994:57-59; Calame 1995; Buxton 1994:24-26; Griffiths 1972; Page 1951. Ill numbers and purity were needed in order to absolve her of wrongdoing in the meadow (417-24). Kallidike is so much a part of the group that she has a group identity. She, or one of her sisters--perhaps Kallithoe since she is named last and is the eldest - - speaks to Demeter first, but so much as one of K eXeoio tXEUOivihoo

Guyoeipeç ("daughters of Keleos son of Eleusis," 105) that no individual name is given to the speaker. In a departure from Haneric narrative style, the text indicates that they all spoke in unison, though this must indicate like- mindedness rather than choral performance : ècfiœd^ mrapGvoa &EamEpœvraTrpOŒiu&Dv (112)

Standing near her, they spoke winged words.

Even Kallidike ' s name is a combination of two of her elder sisters' names, Kleisidike and Kallithoe, and all of the girls' names seem to have been designed with civic virtues in mind." Later, when Kallidike steps forward and is positively identified as Demeter's tourguide to Eleusis, both the folkloric motif of the youngest child being the most precocious, and her distinction as most beautiful of the daughters seems to win the day (145-46).

"Greek naming practice for feirales: Demand 1994:9; Nagy 1979; Masson 1990; Golden 1986. Fraser and Matthews 1987: Names formed with compounds of KoX(^)- are understandably popular, to judge from the Aegean island and Attic evidence (1.242-51; 2.244-55) ; KoXXiôüka is attested on Crete and Thera. 112 When the daughters accost Demeter, they speak not only as a "collective singular" or a civic-minded chorus. They also speak as females for whom patriarchy is a positive political environment, and in this way they resemble their mother Metaneira. As representatives of the city--they are the first citizens to greet Demeter--they speak as representatives of both their male -governed city and of their father : thus they are identified here fully with their patronymic and father's place of origin. Kallidike's pride in her secure and securely patriarchal city is apparent: note the prominent position of ècvsipaç ("men") at

150, followed by her own rendition of the poem's catalog of men (153-5, echoed with some modification by the narrator at 473-5) . The girls acquit themselves well of their task as informal ambassadors of Eleusis. They do not only speak well; they use phrases their mother uses (of. 147-8 and 216- 17) . They are so gracious and receptive to Demeter that although they cannot invite her to join their age-group, they tactfully suggest that she might find women nearer to her own time of life for company in town (115-17; Demeter must look very old indeed, for the girls say she will find women who are her peers, and younger women; none older) . They even remember to fill their pitchers with water before they go home to tell their mother about their discovery at the well. 113 In their opening words to Doneter, the daughters ask her a question that reveals their own character. Their first concern, after Demeter's name and origin, is this:

T i m e 8e vcx3(j)i -n^kvpc, àm m x ^ o68e ôqjoiGi TriXvoGOOtt, ev6a yüvwKEç ova [jé/apa oiadevra TTjA-iKOtt mg ou Tiep SSe Koa (Moiepca Teyoooiv, m KE oe (|)iWvTO(i f|jiEv &iei 6f|G Koa epyci); (114-117)

"Why have you walked away from the city and do not draw near its homes? Women are there in the shadowy halls, of your age as well as others bom younger, \\tio would care for you both in word and in deed."

Their question locates Demeter in relation to the city, as though the girls cannot imagine even a stranger occupying any other place than Eleusis and its homes. In questioning her choice of direction, it is Demeter's seemingly voluntary isolation that the daughters question. Keleos ' daughters, unacquainted with violence, charmingly wonder. Why, when there are people nearby, would one sit alone? Perhaps an invitation is all that is necessary, and that they readily supply. Demeter is reassured that the women in Eleusis will unhesitatingly (k e , 117) show Demeter sincere affection and respect. Thus, in addition to the obvious irony of calling Demeter MDttbt ("Mother," 147)--the appellation naming the precise source of Demeter's sorrow--or mentioning "the gods, " the daughters unerringly suggest to Demeter that she put an end to her separation from others, although they are entirely ignorant of the cause or depth of that 114 estrangement. Like Metaneira (see Chapter Two) the girls are unaware and canny at the same time. The poet keeps us appraised of the "real" situation with a series of textual reminders: for exanple, the ironic M n a occurs within the playful juxtaposition MoaaGecov (a reminder of Demeter's mother Rhea). The daughters of Keleos offer a direct challenge to the underlying theme expressed by vdb(|)iv

("apart") throughout the poem.^^ When the women of Eleusis are mentioned again, vc^3(j)iv reappears with them, but this time in a denial of isolation within Kallidike's description of her city's women, a description designed to tetrpt Demeter to accompany them: TOCDv o o c Tu; Œ Kocrà TrpcàncTüov 6mmr|v â 6oç &n|jT]oc(oa 6c ^ v (^voa|)icŒiev, ^xX^aoEÔ^ovrctt- (157-159)

"Of these not one at first sight would scorn your appearance and turn you away from their homes. They will receive you"

As we saw in Chapter Two, this theme possibly alludes to the closeness experienced by women celebrating the Thesmophoria, which excluded men. At any rate, as was also true in Metaneira's case, the challenge her daughters offer to the forces of estrangement is expressed most profoundly and

^"^vc^iv-motif: Foley 32; Segal 1981a: 132-35; Richardson 138. 115 sinply in the word yuvDttKs;, in their invitation to Demeter to join the healing corrpany of women. In her guise as crone, Demeter seems quite safe beside the well, whether she decides to enter the city or not. She will not encounter trouble as the attractive Persephone did on the Nysian plain--or as an undisguised Demeter does in other versions of the myth.^^ There are two reasons for this. First, Demeter is in Eleusis; and second, no male is depicted as desiring her at the moment. These two reasons are among those which also serve to keep Kallidike (and her sisters) safe. Kallidike, though beautiful, is not vulnerable, because as she herself explains, she lives within the safety of Eleusis; furthermore she is never alone, and finally, the only admiring attention she seems to have attracted so far is the narrator's. To hear Kallidike tell it, she is not alone in finding safety in numbers, for no Eleusinian lacks a circle to belong to within the protected circle of life in the city. "Everyone here has a spouse at home," she says:

^^Pausanias 8.25 and 8.42.2 ff. See Chapter One for Demeter's rape as parallel to Persephone's experience. Foley 42, 125 (rape by Zeus and Poseidon) ; Hades and Poseidon: Richardson 266. Demeter's rape is left undistinguished by Richardson: "In the Arcadian myth of Demeter at Phigaleia, a universal famine is caused by Demeter's withdrawal into a cavern, in anger at Poseidon, with whom she had mated, and also over the rape of her daughter." (258) R. Graves: "On the tenth day, after a disagreeable encounter with Poseidon among the herds of Oncus, Demeter came in disguise to Eleusis...." 1955:1.90. 116

TCOV TKXVTWV 0^0%0l KOlà Sc^JOCia TIOpODaWxJl (156).

Kallidike lives within the web of a contmmity that will oversee, protect, and rejoice in her life's progression (as Demeter hints, 135-7); since every man in Eleusis has a wife in his household, one day she too will join their number. In direct contrast to Kallidike's "choral" identity stands that of Persephone. The poet who presents Kallidike as a sister among sisters presents Persephone not only as apart from her mother, as we have already established, but also positions her in an uncertain physical relation to her companions. Persephone is first described:

m l Q o œ a y Kouppoi oùv ’iQkeccvoG PajBuKoAjTDiç, ocvOecx t ’ ottvufj^v p ( ^ Koa Kpckov f|0'K la ( Â à Aeiijmv’ oji ficxXoKov Kcà ayaXA,i6aç vopKicsnov 0 ’, (5-8)

as she played with the deep-breasted dau^ters of Ocean, plucking flowers in the lush meadow-roses, crocuses, and lovely violets, irises and hyacinth and the narcissus... and then, Ti 0^ è(paGajjpipoCT^ (15)

The girl marveled... and

XavE x0ràv eupud^ia (16)

The earth with its wide ways yawned. 117 Several textual clues indicate that flower-faced Persephone belongs more to the flowers around her than in the company of her playmates. First, the initial ouv indicating corpanionship seems to be contradicted by the veritable profusion of flowers that crowd around the girl, as the narrator provides, instead of a catalog of Persephone's cotrpanions, a catalog of the lush vegetation that surrounds Persephone. Then the monstrous narcissus culminating the list seems to block our view of the conpanions entirely. Zeus uses a similar strategy in Iliad 14 when he creates a golden cloud in order to surround his love scene with Hera and screen them from view: Tcnca ô^üïïo X0CÙV 5ia (jiuev vsoGr^m Tiovnv,

>jcùt 6v 0 ’ Ipcrrpvra i5e Kpckov 1^’ 6doa\6ov TTUKVOV KOtt lioXcOCOV, 0Ç OTub %8ov6g SEpyS. TO ^ AE^oraOnv, STU 8e vajÉAriv eonocvio KO(X,f|v%puoGniV' cynÀJCVoà ô'dbimTTüGv'œpooa. (347-51)

There underneath them the divine earth broke into young, fiesh grass, and into dewy clover, and crocus and hyacinth so thick and soft it held the hard ground deep away from them There they lay down together and drew about them a cloud wonderful and golden, and from it the glimmering dew descended.

Underneath Zeus and Hera the lush floral bed that includes crocus and hyacinth (two flowers in Persephone's bouquet) , helps to cushion and envelop the couple, and perhaps helps also to shield them from prying eyes. Inside her screen of flowers, Persephone is still visible to Helios--and to us— whereas Zeus and Hera with their additional cloud protection 118 are not (14.342-45) . In the opening scene of the Hywn, flowers not only create an erotic 'space apart,' but narrow the vision of the audience so that we see what Persephone sees around her. She does not seem to see Oceanids once the narcissus appears. If one were staging this scene for the theatre, dramatic realism would suggest a placement of the chorus across the stage from Persephone, rather than a position with her in their midst; otherwise it would be difficult to avoid their being amazed at the narcissus too, or their falling one and all into the chasm that suddenly opens up under Persephone's feet or making an attenpt to save her.^® The salient feature of this scene is the separation of Persephone from her groiç): according to the narrator, she, lured by that narcissus, left behind her safety in numbers, and it was only then that trouble ensued. Of course, dramatic realism is not necessarily paramount in this scene; but realism--or veracity--will remain an issue, for as we shall see presently, Persephone's own account of the meadow-scene will not agree with the segregated and narcissus-dominated version of the narrator. Precisely whom Persephone plays wish in the meadow remains uncertain, because the poet presents two contradictory lists. First, the narrator describes her

^In some versions of the myth Persephone's conpanions attempt to prevent the abduction; (e.g. in the versions of Ovid Metairorphoses 5 and Claudian) . The identity and number of her companions varies also; Richardson 73, 79-80, 83, 139, 145, 290-91. 119 conpanions as sinply "the daughters of Ocean" (5) ; but later, Persephone names the virgin godesses Artemis and Athena as also present among her playmates (they come last on her list, 423-4) . Persephone's version of the story (in contrast to the narrator's) thus places her not merely in the conpany of nubile nynphs, but flanks her with two inviolable Olynpians. In addition, when the narrator describes her conpanions, they are graced with the epithet podBüKDÀJioiç ("deep-breasted, " 5), a Homeric epithet enphasizing sexual attractiveness. The term is absent from Persephone's account.^ when we recall that in lines 22-23 the whole universe is described as enjoying the plot of Gaia, Hades and Zeus, perhaps this explains why--in the face of such a powerful opposition, Persephone painstakingly lists the name of each conpanion who witnessed the event, enphasizes the most virginal among the list, and avoids describing them as alluring creatures. By her account she went out as well chaperoned as possible ; it is not her fault

^'’Conpanions: see previous note. Immunity of Artemis and Athena to sexual desire or marriage: Homeric Hymn to J^hrodite, 7-20. (The myths concerning Actaeon and Erichthoneus respectively demonstrate that such exenptions did not make the goddesses unassailable.) See P. Smith 1981:32-38.

^®pa0DK:($Xmx; related to |3o(6ü^vdç {Ifymn 95), "used for wonen from captured cities" : Richardson 177. ^]d9ü- conpounds in the Hymn signifying maternal Metaneira and women with children in the Iliad: Segal 1981a:118-19. 120 that when Persephone's flower-like beauty distinguished her from her groi^, Hades decided to pick the bloom. Whatever the conposition of her group, in the opening lines of the Hymn Persephone is carefully distinguished from her conpanions and made to stand quite alone. A few representative depictions of female and male excellence in archaic poetry will serve to explain why. Stepping out from the group or being singled out for attention is a moment of crisis for a marriageable female in her ordinary surroundings, just as it is for a male contestant on the battlefield. For both, their coming forward might represent an opportunity for iirminent destruction, or it may result in a singular honor; but either youthful proponent risks a loss of reputation in return for taking the risk necessary to increase it. The maiden "risks" marriage (or rape or death in childbirth), the hero risks death in a duel; both might achieve fame as a postmortem benefit. Each appears in the moment of supreme beauty, something often commented upon in the text. Thus Homeric heroes scan the battlefield, appraising others in search of a worthy opponent ; thus Alkman's singers appraise each other in terms of sex- appeal. In the symbolic world of flora and fauna found within the similes and metaphors of the Homeric corpus, to be singled out can bring not success but sacrifice, or being

^^Homeric warrior: Van Wees 1992, esp. 167-258. 121 cut down, since humans are rarely represented as willing to merely stand and appreciate nature at a distance. Animals have their practical uses, and so do plants. On this point, too, Sappho is eloquent (fr. 105a L.P.):

o io v TO y^AJKU|ia?uov sp eo0stai ocKpcaih i' ucjôcoi, OKpov 8Ji’ OKpoTorcoi,AeX joBovcg 8e jjaXoSpcwrrpç, où |jccv otsc ISuvocvr’ eTOKEcGoa.

[the bride] just like a sweet apple which ripens on the uppermost bough, on the top o f the topmost; but &e apple-gatherers forgot it, or rather, they didn't forget it, but they could not reach it.

As is Aeschylus; in the Suppliants, Danaos enjoins his daughters :

Ujjioçô^ erccttvS |itn KOCToaoxpvBiv0£, E| mpocv sxpüooçvc\v&^ èacrcpeiutov ppOToîç • TEpeiv^ OTüCi^ô ^ EujwAcocroç ou&xpmg- Gfwaa; KiypcxfvcMJCR tooi T i|jjfv ; Koa KviûÔotXa TTüEpoüvra Koa TiEÔQGrnpTi (996-1000)

"I beg you not to bring me shame, you vlho have that bloom that draws men's eyes: there is no simple guard for fruit most delicate, that beasts and men, both winged and footed, savage."^

For the female, as for the apple, beauty attracts an admiring gaze, and initial inaccessability sometimes only sweetens the pursuit. For the human female, as for the orchard apple or the sacrificial animal, the perfect specimen is most desirable, and in human terms this means

20See duBois 1988:140-47, esp. 143-44. 122 most likely to be chosen and harvested/sacrificed--in a word, married. Or at least bedded. In the Iliad, Chryseis' and Briseis' outstanding qualities make them not just ordinary but valuable (and thus disputed) prizes; for the adulterous wife in Lysias' speech on the slaying of Eratosthenes, the trouble began when an Athenian rogue noticed her in a procession.At any rate, she who is noticed may become the focus of sexual interest, reverence, violence, or all three. In keeping with Greek convention, the Hymn suggests that a female has no more power than the flower or the animal does to determine which will occur, if violence is on the viewer's mind. Nor will a victim easily find a remedy for herself if the latter is the case. In contrast, the Homeric warrior (who is beautiful too) prepares for his moment in the sun. lAilike maiden, apple or heifer, he goes forward to battle ready to do his best at a task for which he has been trained. If he succeeds, the rewards will be great indeed, as Sarpedon testifies in the reknowned passage from Iliad 12:

DcOcGke, t / 11 5h vcoi TCTiLiT]|.isc50a imt^iora GÔpri XE Kpeaoiv xs i8e TiÀGioiq Sejrascxjiv ev AiKirj, Tidcvra; 5e Oæùç oi; aoopocooiv ; Koa xejjEvog vE|iopEo8a |ieya SdcvOoio Tcop’c^idoc„

koAjov (tnjxaXiTjç koo, opoupri; Tiupcxtwpoio.

^Homeric women and beauty: Cantarella 1987:26. Lysias Eratostdienes 1.6 (Just 1989:69) . 123 TO) vGv Xpf) AlKUDlOl |JCTa TtpCOTOlCSlV SOVCOÇ ^OjjEV f|6e MccxTlÇ Koaxrrcipriç àmj36Xf|Goa (310-16)

"Glaukos, why is it you and I are honoured before others with pride of place, the choice meats and the filled wine cups in Lykia, and all men look on us as if we were immortals, and we are appointed a great piece o f land by the banks o f Xanthos, good land, orchard and vineyard, and ploughland for the planting o f wheat? Therefore it is our duty in the forefront of the Lykians to take our stand, and bear our part o f the blazing o f battle..."

How could a maiden emerge victorious from a physical contest such as the Hymn imagines? Sarpedon goes forward heavily armored, and eats what he earns; Persephone goes forward expecting to pick blossoms. Her "achievement" is to be distinguished from her grocç) for possession by a male. Traditionally, the ultimate prize for a female in ancient Greece was to bear children from her union, something that can hardly be achieved through training or force of will. Her excellence, should she achieve it, is rewarded to her rather than earned, for nature and male guidance, rather than her own will or talent, holds the i;^per hand. Fortunately, there is glory to be had in rape. Thus Tyro is comforted in Odyssey 11 after an unexpected encounter with Poseidon:^

XuoE Se 7rap0Gviriv lijcovriv, kotoc 6 ' im o v ^euev. ocuTopè m p ’ eieXecscse Geo; (})iXoii^a l^pya, 53/ ^ \ y ? ■>/, V , ; / K evT^ apaoi(j)üX8ipie7roçT ajm ek t ’ ovqjoyE • Xcape, yuvoci, TiepiTtAOjJEvouS^ ^ cxdto G

^^This passage is discussed at length by Doherty 1993. 124 T^jEu; ayXjootTacvcx, è m oÔk oorcxjxiùJaoi suvoà o0(xvdrto)vo • ù 6è Toùç KOjiœiv &iTaXÀEpEvoa te. v ü v ô ’ Gp^EU Trpoq 8copa Km iox,EO ovqjrjvpç- ccüTop e y a TOI EijJi rtm Socov &ooix6cov. (245-52)

...and he broke her virgin zone and drifted a sleep upon her. But wlien the god had finished with the act of lovemaking, he took her by the hand and spoke to her and named her, saying: "Be happy, lady, in this love, and \\tien the } ear passes you will bear glorious children, for the couplings o f the immortals are not without issue. You must look after them, and rmse them. Go home now and hold your peace and tell nobody my name, but I tell it to you; I am the Earthshaker Poseidon."

Hades, since he can hardly tell Persephone, "Go home now and hold yottr peace and tell nobody my name," offers ritual incentives for Persephone to feel kindly toward him. But recompense of offspring and honors is hardly necessary; as E. Vermeule writes of the more explicitly fatal mythological encounter between Achilles and Penthesilea,

...there is pleasure in the attraction of opposites, black and white, male and female, willing and unwilling, and the underlying message from Greek painters and poets alike that, whether killed or raped, the female should be grateful for any attention the male cares to pay her.^

By the time Hades leaps, the poet has done everything possible to show that it is in response to Persephone's singular attractions, and once he leaps, her fame is secured. Rape within patriarchal political systems has served to make memorable some females who might otherwise have

^^Vermeule 1979:159. 125 remained obscure; Lucretia is a notable Roman example. Such glorification represents literary reversal, since in rape-prone societies, the threat of rape serves to teach women not to act alone, but to preserve their safety in numbers as best they can, and not to excel too much within their group, for the result could be "attention" or even "fame.In such societies, one form of control operating on women's lives is the belief that excellent women make excellent targets. When individuality and attractiveness are thought to induce rape, the causes of rape are placed squarely on the shoulders of the female target, who is available and attractive, and attention is diverted from the attacker and his motives, for his response--sinple lust--is only natural. This manner of thinking is characteristic of not only rape-prone societies, but of the artistic and political system identified as "rape culture," which has recently been defined as any culture that

“■^Further exai^les from Greek literature abound, e.g., Korinna fr. 654 iii. 12-51 FM2: the rape of the nine daughters of Asopos by Zeus, Poseidon, ^^llo, and Hermes causes the daughters to "bring forth a race / of demigod heroes" (trans. Snyder). Aside from rape, sexual "anomalies" of all kinds (from the Greek point of view, e.g., adultery, incest, homosexuality) memorialize females in classical texts. Winkler 1990c examines the opposite treatment of males ("the oversight of men's sexual behavior") in Classical Athens. 25Sanday 1986; Brownmiller 1975. 126

accepts sexual violence and the fear of violence as normal, and tliat, knowingly or not, perpetuate models of masculinity, femininity and sexuality that foster aggression, violence, and fear.“

From this definition it is imnediately apparent that despite vast differences in other respects, both archaic Greece and our own culture fall within this category. In the extreme artistic formulation of these models, rape is viewed as a conplimentary response to feminine beauty, as a means for attainment of feminine excellence, and as an acceptable if hasty form of marriage or reproduction. In other words, rape is construed as a culturally positive act whose ends justify its means. With its singular, tantalizingly vulnerable, beautifully ravished and abundantly compensated Persephone, the Hymn does suggests that rape "works out for the best, " placing the Hymn securely within the category of artifacts produced by rape culture.

UN-DEFLOWERED, UNTAMED KALLIDIKE Just before she is "plucked, " Persephone is described in an unusual metaphor as KoXuKïmôi KOi^ ("the flower-faced maiden," 8) . KoAnKCOTnôi, a corrpound of KOÀuq, which has its origin in KoAAmo) ("cover, conceal"), describes a closed flower; but since the ground under Persephone's feet covers

^^Buchwald et al. 1993, 127 and conceals Hades himself, her "deflowering" follows.^’ As Persephone loses her protected, closed quality among the

flowers, the closed bud image conveyed by k o Ax k - functions

here as a natural substitute for the concealing veil worn by women in Homer, a sign of beauty and status which can be torn or discarded in a crisis.^® In the itself, the anguished Demeter responds to her daughter's violation by tearing her own veil (KoXDppa) and donning a heavier

concealment : 6 ^ ôé liiv KpaSiTjv 6%oq ^Ào^ev, ajicj)i 8e xoatOL; ojj|3poc3ioaç K pt^iiva Scadjero %Gpoi (j)iArpi, KuovGovKO(XD|j{iaKor' ap(()oi:Gpmv pdtXEi' apav (40-42)

Sharp grief seized her heart, and she tore the veil on her ambrosial hair with her own hands. She cast a dark cloak on her shoulders...

In contrast, when Kallidike and her sisters appear, they are in possession of their intrinsic beauty and

and KO^AmcO: Frisk 1.768-69; Chantraine 1.487- 88; Boisacq 400. ^®See Chapter Two. Cf. Hekabe and Andromache at Hektor's death: Iliad 22.405-6 and 466-72; J. M. Foley 1995:165 considers their behavior as part of the "suspicion of death" pattern. See Nagler 1974:44-63; Segal 1971, 1981a:135-41. Terms and illustrations for women's headgear in Homer: Lorimer 1950:385 ff.; Abrahams 1908:34-35 (as cil^ed by Richardson 204); D. Johnson 1964: 34-38, 65-71. KpnSepvov: Frisk 2.15; Chantraine 1.581; Boisacq 514-15. Scully 1990:30-36: city as "head" of the divinity (and thus sometimes pictured with a veil) in Near Eastern and Greek thought. 128 virginity, and the poet accordingly adorns them with two floral images. First :

T^ccsape; ox; Gsoa Koupn'iov av6oç ^oucsoa ( loe )

Like four goddesses they were in the flower of youth and then, when they run to fetch Demeter home to mother :

oao oxn' T| sAoçoi n Tiopna; riopcx; (opn oXXovtf (XV ÀEiprovcx Kc>peot5ajjsvott ^ç6m (jx^pPfj, ^ ca e7UOX()|iEvoa ecxvcbv 7txu%(xg ipspo&KOV Tli^(xv Koilr|v K(xx^ opo^ixcjv, ojj(j)i §e %œx(xi mpotg oacscsDvro Kpoicriico av ^ qjoioa. ( 174-178)

Just as hinds or heifers in the season of spring bound through the meadow sated with fodder, so they, lifting the folds of their shimmering robes, darted down the hollow wagon-track, and their hair danced on their shoulders like a crocus blossom

Within the protected Kpri8e|JV€t of Eleusis, the girls do not even need to wear veils.As they run, their hair dances on their shoulders, and with the simile "like a crocus blossom" comes the reassurance that for these maidens flowery meadows are not dangerous places; they merely provide the perfect setting for their own windblown and

^®Segal 1981:136: "It is part of the change from rape to security that the flowing hair and exuberant gaiety of Celeus' daughters here (174, 178) contrast with Demeter's rent veil (40-42) when there was nothing to protect the flower like fragility of her daughter from violation (176- 8) ." (Richardson 201-4, gallantly concludes (in spite of the text) that "The girls may have been wearing a sinple head-band here." [204]). 129 pristine beauty. In this picture of beauty and virginity as natural carplements to one another, flowers are (as in the opening scene) symbolic of both of these feminine attributes. The goddess of love is, of course, aware of the connection between flowers and human beauty, a motif common in archaic literature. In her Homeric Hymn, /^hrodite uses the association to her advantage, donning bud-shaped jewelry as part of a costume designed for maximum virginal impact

tieïïA ov jjEv y a p æ crto (})QEivcnEpov TCüpoçocuyffe eixe Ô'’ Ejxiyvcxpjnotç '^iK aç koXxkc^ te (jxxsivciç, opfjoiô^ gapr; ijoocv KOXoi XPUOGIOI TKXpiD&lAoi ' CÛÇ SÈ CSEX,T^Vri (TTnGEŒvdp(|)' omXoibivÈ^joiLmETO, (86-90)

She was clothed in a robe more brilliant than gleaming fire and wore spiral bracelets and shining earrings o f blossom shape, while round her tender neck there were beautiful necklaces, lovely, golden and of intricate design. Like the moon's was tiie radiance round her soft breasts, a wonder to the eye.

Elsewhere, in a fragmentary poem of Archilochus from the Cologne papyrus, "blossoming virginity" as a girl's prize possession is reflected in the abuse given Neobule (who according to the speaker lacks both): >feopouA,ri[ (26) JA., r, p \ y / a]AJjx, ccvrip exerco ■

^“Reproductive capability is the other part of T^hrodite's message. See Barber 1994:59-61. The girdle J^hrodite wears here is possibly to be identified with the one she lends to Hera in Iliad 14. 130

oaoa TcenEipaôJ

w ]0 o ç6 ' ojiEppuriKE 7Kxp0evtiiov K]oa xop igr\ Tcpiv énfiv •

Neobule another man may take! She's [doubly] ripe...

the bloom is off her maidenhood, the charms she had are gone...^^

Floral imagery suits love poems, and although the Hyrm to Demeter is not one, its season certainly fits the mold. On the Nysian plain and in Eleusis it is springtime, when all is promise and the landscape is "ravishing. Spring is the season for young creatures as well as flowers; Kallidike is still in her bower playing, since the unseasonable domestication of young females does not mar Eleusis. Textual adornments point to springtime too: within the hinds-or-heifers simile (see below) , that is the season too. As Hesiod well knew, life is easy at such a time; as Kallidike collects easily drawn water (u5cop eôpifpuTOV, 106)

in bright vessels to take home to her father's halls, she enters a natural scene which is properly bounded and a

^^Trans. Burnett 1983:87. The poem goes on to condemn Neobule of lustfulness. Having lost her virginity, she is less desirable from the speaker's point of view, and receives no floral imagery; floral metaphors for the virginal body of the poem's addressee abound. ^^Ravishment (on Keat's u m ) : Zeitlin 1991:281-83. 131 setting she understands. Whereas flower-faced Persephone represents receptive beauty and the dangers inherent in straying from the path in springtime, Kallidike and her delightful water-gathering errand symbolize shining protected beauty in all its promise in that season. The poet distinguishes Kallidike from her sisters by her beauty; she is also conplimented with a reference to her sexual inejç)erience.^^ She is: 7iap0evoç à 5|jriç KaXA,iôiKr| KeXeoîo Guyotrpôv dSoç dp(oTr| • (145-6)

a maiden unwed, Kallidike, in beauty the best of Keleos' dau^ters.

"unwed, " or more literally, "untamed" or

"unconquered" identifies Kallidike as virginal; she has not been sexually penetrated by a male.^^ The related Sojiotp, literally "tamed, conquered, wedded one" is a Homeric word for "wife"; overall, the boundaries between "wed," "conquer, " and "rape" in the Iliad are thin. An example of the strong associations between these presumably culture-

^^The daughters are doubtless all meant to be virgins, but only Kallidike (who speaks) is specifically named as such.

345^Sojiop, 6dqivr|pi, Saiioco (and 8o(paXT|(^ : Frisk l . 345-46; Chantraine 1.250-51; Boisacq 165-66; Felson-Rubin 1994:161 n.l6. Relatives of the verb are common in periphrastic expressions for rape: Scafuro 1990. Penetration: for the argument that "virginity" was determined not by the state of a maiden's hymen, but by her social discretion and lack of pregnancy: Sissa 1990. 132 building and culture-destroying acts occurs in the following prayer, in which ôojiéîev represents the acts of conquering, kidnapping and raping all at once {Iliad 3.299-301) : ojuioxEpoi 7rp(5xEpoi unÈp opKia TuuinvEiav, co5e cs({)’ syKsjxxkx; œç (fes oivcx;, OQJtS v KOtt T8KEC0V, 0(Ao%Ol 0^ o XAd IOI SofJElSV.

"let those, whichever side they may be, who do wrong to the oaths sworn first, let their brains be spilled on the ground as this wine is spilled now, theirs and their sons', and let their wives be the spoil o f others."^®

Given these connotations, when Kallidike is distinguished as 7tC(p0EVOÇshe is identified as "intact" and as "in her proper home," as well as virginal; the "wrong" man has not gotten his hands on her--nor has the right one yet. The smallest details reinforce this picture of self-containment. She and her sisters leap down the path not like just any untamed hinds or heifers, but ones KopeocK^i^^^i <|)peva(}«pPp

(sated with fodder, 175) . In conparison, Persephone picking flowers in her meadow demonstrates appetite. Like Metaneira, a good wonan participating in a positive marriage, Kallidike is a good girl who aspires to marriage someday. For now therefore the pretty picture she makes inspires desire without providing its fulfillment. In a less innocent context, such a free and spontaneous girl

^^"Let their wives be the spoil of others": Lattimore's elegant translation characteristically avoids what I am pointing out. 133 might be admired as an expression of sexual potential for a man someday to enjoy. One of Anakreon's lyrics will serve as a sly exanple of this form of aesthetic appreciation:

m i k s 0pT|iKiT|, n Srf }j£ k)^ov 0 {4 o a i pXETKxm vT]Xaûç (jEuysiç, 5 ok^ 5e^ (2) o(jôèv eîôevüa cscxjov ;

\c 6 l TOI, KoAjCÙÇ | jÈv W TOI TOV xaA,ivov l|jpaXoi|ii, fivKxg S'* SXCÛV oTpetjpifii ( 4 ) ajj})! TEipfJOcua 5pqioo * vGv 8eÀsifJCùvd^ xe P&ncEoa Kcxxjxx xe GKipxSc3a Tcoa^Eu;, Ôe^iov Top iTüKOTEi prjv ( 6 ) OUK SXSIÇ EJTElipaxriV.

Thracian filly, why do you look with eyes askance and stubbornly flee me, and why do you think I've no skill? Understand this: I could well throw a bridle on you, and holding the reins I could turn you round the goal o f the track. But now you graze the meadows and, frisking nimbly, play, since you've no dextrous horseman, no easy rider.^

^®Trans. Rayor 1991:98. 134 The Hyrm maintains Kallidike as Persephone's opposite, and therefore as virgin; she leaves the poem as she enters it, "simultaneously desirable and taboo. Like Anakreon's "filly," the untouched virgin brims with the unreleased energy of nature, and gives vent to joyful physical e3Ç)ressions of freedom. It is only when Persephone sees promise of returning, and then does return, that her leaps are as lively (if more frenzied) as any Kallidike might make. The measure of joy and health that Persephone and her mother expect to recapture together is demonstrated by their friskiness at their reunion. When Hades tells Persephone to go and join her mother again,

KOpraxXipcûç 6 ’ avdpoiXT^ um ^oppocrog • (371)

Eagerly she lept up for joy.

When Demeter sees her, she runs forward frantically:

r|UTE [loavoç opoq KaraS ookiov (386)

she darted like a maenad down a mountain shaded with woods.

At this joyful moænt, Demeter is ominously reminiscent of the bereaved Andromache, who runs out of the house like a madwoman to hear the news of Hektor's death {Iliad 22.460). When Persephone arrives in Eleusis,

rfepcsajovri 5^ ex^coBev I m lèev c^ifiotra KotAjot] pfipoq ETjç Kox^ [ajy t ( ai m . TipoAiTtæcKX KCtt'iW)uç OAXO 0E8l[v, Ôeipjj ôe OÎ GptEOEV O|i[|)lX]ü0eîC3a'] (387-9)

^"Zeitlin 1991:283. 135

On her side Persephone, [seeing] her mother's [radiant face], [left chariot and horses,] and leapt down to run [and fall on her neck in passionate embrace].

All of these movements, like Metaneira's thigh-slapping (and perhaps Hades' smile), seem highly spontaneous or even involuntary. Thus they contribute to the Hymn's characterization of females as bodily creatures fueled by a high level of emotionality rather than by rational thought. Demeter, Andromache, and Persephone forget themselves as they rush toward a beloved other. The leaping Persephone expresses without words her hopes of recapturing life, youth and freedom (if not virginity) in her mother's arms. When Kallidike and her sisters run to fetch Demeter, the Hymn "slows down" and becomes teirporarily dense with simile.^® The running girls are conpared— not to Thracian fillies or frenzied maenads--but to hinds or heifers (174 ff.) . The image indicates not only carefree innocence, but vulnerability as well: the hind is a female wild thing that will grow up to be hunted, while the heifer is a domesticated female creature who will grow up to be milked, bred, harnessed, sacrificed, or butchered.Fortunately, how the girls run (like hinds or heifers) is balanced by where they run: these not quite domesticated daughters are

®®Marshall 1986. ®®Zeitlin 1991:289. Hunting/marriage and an erotic context for fawns: Felson-Rubin 1994:58, 155-6 n. 38 (on the clasp worn by Odysseus described at Odyssey 19.227-31) . 136 on the right track. Freed from the chore of carrying the water jars, they follow the KOiXTiv...a}ja^iTOV (hollow wagon-

track, 177) back to Demeter. This is the we 11-beaten path established by the feet of past water-bearers, i.e., the community of women who have come before them. "Hollow" graphically conveys the deep groove through the meadow worn down by the continuous work of the housekeepers of Eleusis at their daily chores. With their feet on this track, the girls adhere to the appropriate "path" that leads from virginity to marriage, rather than straying into uncut meadows as Persephone did. The daughters of Keleos, even though they are found outside the city, do not inhabit the wilderness, or act merely to please themselves. They do not pick flowers; they carry water and find domestic help for the baby. They travel the distance between city and well not only as inheritors of female tradition--and thus as intermediaries between the past and the present--but also as inheritors of the male political tradition in Eleusis: as ambassadors to the stranger from the community. They are radiant ambassadors. In a moment reminiscent of Keats' "Ode to a Grecian U m " or a mythological painting of Titian or Rubens, the daughters of Keleos lift "the folds of their shimmering robes" in order to run, and allow the 137 p œ t to show us their ankles.In a poem in which no mention whatever is made of male clothing, males are not referred to as physically appealing, male's ages are unimportant, no male is "like a calf" (and in fact, no males in the poem receive the adornment of simile at all), and certainly no male holds up his garments for the reader to peek at him as he runs.^^ This invitation to become voyeurs of the female body is another way in vAiich the Hyim constructs gender difference for the audience, and constitutes another technique not restricted to this poem, but a common feature of archaic poetry and later literature as well. In Aeschylus' Oresteia, disrobing is a key element of female representation. Iphigeneia's robes slip away as she is sacrificed; Cassandra tears off the garments J^xdIIo gave her; "masculine-minded" (avSpoPouXov, Agamemnon 11)

Clytaemnestra bares her own breast in an attempt to gain Orestes' sympathy.Females are not just female (and given to excess emotion, as we have already seen), but distinctly feminine: categorized according to their stage of life

^°Such moments exemplify artistic use of women as objects of "the gaze": Felson-Rubin 1994:146 n.l; Richlin 1992b:xvi; Kaplan 1983; Egger 1994a:36-40. ‘*^Demophoon is called v0ov0(iXoç in line 187; this may be construed as mention of his age and some physical description of a male. Hades' "smile" at 357-8 constitutes the other exception. ‘^^Choephoroi 896-88; Agamemnon 239, 1264 ff. See Griffith 1988. 138 (i.e., reproductive capacity), good to look at, and strongly associated with their bodies, especially ankles, bosoms, clothes and hair. In the Hymn, it is Demeter whose physical appearance receives most mention. Even Hades notices her garb enough to call her KUOVcmeTcXov, "dark robed, " at line

360. Persephone follows close behind. But Demeter seems to resist such attention within the text. For exanple, after the girls display their ankles and hair to advantage in the meadow. Demeter follows them home at what is no doubt a slower pace, and the narrator says that in this now-gloomy procession,

qijjà Tcen^ KDOCVEOÇ ^IVOÎOl 0EOÇ IXsXi^o TTOcscnv. (182-3)

her robe of dark hue swirled round the slender feet o f the goddess.

This robe is presumably the garment of mourning which Demeter has worn since hearing Persephone scream and tearing her original headdress (40-42) . apparently, part of Demeter's strike against reproduction is her refusal to display for the audience of the poem the fair tresses (quKOiiov, line 1) , radiant face (oppûCtaKO/ua, 387) or lovely

ankles (KoXXtotjtupou, 453) praised by the poet as

characteristic of her. After the rape therefore. Demeter

^^Demeter's first act of protest against the rape, the tearing of her veil (and donning of a heavier cloak), may represent ^ inversion of the anakalypteria. This ritual unveiling in Greek wedding ceremonies signalled the moment 139 goes into triple concealment: she retreats behind the walls of Eleusis, hides her beauty behind a disguise, and wears a long dark garment that reaches down to her feet. During this period, the Hyrm poet treats the mournful Demeter with a decorum similar to that found in Athenian fifth-century vase painting: as H. A. Shapiro observes of prudent females depicted in conventional rape scenes during this period,

Even in full flight they manage to preserve their dignity, and such a detail as the garment slipping o ff the shoulder that m i^ t have offered some small titillation is studiously avoided.''^

Demeter, having recently absorbed some lessons about exposure via Persephone, is more careful to conceal herself than are Kallidike and her sisters. Kallidike is not only comparatively free in her movements; she is also unfettered in regard to speech. As noted above, following her choral entry and Demeter's first words, Kallidike asserts herself right away:

< Dn^ 0Ea- TT|v 8 ^ djÆipGTO TcopGEvcg KotXAiôlKTI (145-6)

So spoke the goddess. To her replied at once the maiden unwed Kallidike

of public consent on the part of the bride (who lifted her own veil for the bridegroom) . Oakley 1982; Rehm 1994:141-2, See also below. ^‘‘Shapiro 1992:61. On titillation as a literary technique in Ovid (who employs expressions such as "fear itself became her" [Metamorphoses 4.230]): Richlin 1992b:162. 140 The role she undertakes is to stand in for the narrator as our authoritative guide to Eleusis; TCXLTKX fXDIXDl (149)

"To you I shall explain these things clearly"

As secondary narrator, she seems eager to explain to Demeter how her comnunity works, and naively to wish both to inpress and to reassure the stranger with the scope of her knowledge. Half-line phrases introduced by ôt^yop lend a tone of enphatic youthful confidence to the passage (147 and 159) . At the point where Kallidike begins, the audience knows of the Eleusis of this poem only that Demeter is in it, that it contains a well, an olive tree, and a man named Keleos with four daughters.Kallidike tells us the rest, and every one of her details turns out to be true, corroborated by Metaneira or by the poet in subsequent narration. She is therefore an "authoritative" speaker. Let us look more closely now at the content and style of her enthusiastic, logically ordered and rhetorically convincing speech. After Kallidike and Demeter converse, Kallidike says that they will report all to mother 6iO}JJiEpe; ("straight through," 162), a promise the girls speedily enact. The superlative 7ipom

■*^The actual site of Eleusis may not be meant: Clinton 1986, 1992. 141 belief that others will act as quickly, unreservedly, and energetically as she does, and she turns out to be right. Metaneira responds with equal alacrity (pijitjxx; note the

repetition of coKa) :

pijjjKX ôè Tîodpoç iKovro psyov ô^iov, com 5e unrpi

ewETïov, œç dÔov te Koà ekAxxdv. 8e pal' cSca e10ouco; eKi^Æue KcxldvETï'àmpovi pic50ô. (1 7 1 -3 )

swiftly they reached the great house o f their father. At once to their mother they told what they saw and heard. She bade them go quickly to offer a boundless wage.

Eleusinian swiftness and forthrightness of communication is at work again, based on individual integrity and an established network of trust. Kallidike begins her speech to Demeter with a maxim which will be nearly repeated by Metaneira (147-8, 216-17) ; daughter and mother are so like- minded that they echo one another's words even when apart. At the close of her speech Kallidike reveals her concern for family in threefold use of forms derived from the verb Tpejxo

(xpeteroa, EKÔpdpoao, and GpEJmpia, 165-168); Metaneira echoes

these phrases too (219-223) . Finally, Kallidike says that she will go home, Tcpoq ôcopofra Tcorpci, in line 160. Her

expression finds itrmediate corroborât ion in lines 171 and 180, when she does, quite emphatically, go home. She is immediately confirmed as a character who does what she says. Kallidike delivers an effectively structured rhetorical piece in which she focusses on wholes, not fragments, and on 142 cotmiunity rather than individuals. Her organized speech progresses from mortals as a whole, to the community of Eleusis, and on to her own household in orderly fashion. The middle lines of Kallidike's speech, 156-159, are the most significant, containing the central reassurance that if Demeter approaches the women of Eleusis, she will not be rejected or dishonored. Around these four lines, the speech has been outwardly constructed like a shield around its boss: bracketing the central concept are nine preceding lines about Eleusis in general (147-155) which serve to lead into her main point (the women of Eleusis), and following this section come nine lines (160-168) specifically about Keleos' house, in which Kallidike tries to persuade Demeter to go there and nowhere else. Her rhetoric is designed to entice the stranger: Kallidike begins by euphemistically calling Dene ter ' s misfortune 0ECOV...6©pa ("gifts of the gods, "

147) and concludes by offering Demeter the opportunity to

amass actual wealth described as TOCsa-.SoiT] ("such rewards

she will give," 168) . X(X3a..0oiT| inplies concrete

compensation, gifts given as a real antidote for the "gifts" gods give. With these words, Kallidike transforms "gifts" from a metaphorical burden into a real reward. Finally, Çr|À£ix50a, "she would feel envy" (168; note enjambment) , offers to transform the pitiful old outsider into an 143 honored--nay, envied— member of the comnunity. And all Demeter asked for was a job. Such confidence and rhetorical skill does not belong to Persephone who, in the aftermath of violence, instead of running to her mother and divulging what she knows, must be asked to tell her story and then (by her own confession) only reluctantly complies. Like Kallidike, she runs toward her mother; but without words on her part, is greeted first with an embrace, and then with a question:

T^cvov fir( p at i }j o i o [\ j t e tkxcjcsoo v e ip S e veo G ckx ] f%]ù)pïT; ; [poi i\%%ëifxDpzrv oqj^xo ] (393-4)

"My child, tell me, you [did not taste] food [Wûle below?] S p ^ out [and hide notWng, so we both may know.]"

Urged on by Demeter's double admonition e^oqjSo , [po]K33Ù8'],

"speak out / hide nothing" and held at arm's length until she answers (392), Persephone not only tells her story, but intersperses it with halting claims of sincerity and conpleteness :

xoiTotp syti) TOI |ir ^ Epeco vripEprmTtovra* 4 ( 0 6 )

"I will tell you the whole truth exactly, Mother."

and

iS g p æ K ca Ttovra ôii^opoiœ ç EpEEivEiç ( 4 1 6 )

"I shall tell and elaborate all that you ask." and finally,

Toora TOI o x y u p ^ ^ p aXr]8Éa Ttovr' ayopeixo. (433 ) 144 "I Speak the wdiole truth, th o u ^ I grieve to tell it."

Demeter's compassion for her daughter is clear when she urges her to speak: it appears that she asks to hear a story she already knows in order for Persephone to have the opportunity to tell it.“® Their "like-mindedness" extends this far at least. But the truth remains that Persephone answers her uneasily. Untamed and undeflowered Kallidike speaks more easily to strangers than the tamed and deflowered Persephone does to her own mother. To summarize my comparison of Kallidike and Persephone up to this point, when we first encounter Kallidike, she is confident and lucid, a speaking member of a group whose words are endorsed by her mother and the narrator and whose actions are protected by her father. In contrast, the lone and straying Persephone, en route to becoming a victim, is first encountered futilely screaming to an unresponsive world which includes her father; later she presents a version of the rape that contradicts what the narrator has already made known. Thus the Hymn poet gives the audience grounds to compare Persephone with Kallidike and come to doubt Persephone's thought processes, actions, and words. In sum, Kallidike speaks for the narrator, whereas Persephone speaks against the narrator. This discrepancy

^®I owe this observation to Professor Joseph Tebben, from a discussion on Thetis and her distraught son Achilles in the Iliad. 145 makes Persephone a conplex character. The solid yet naive Kallidike and Metaneira are easily duped and disposed of in the progress of the poem when Demeter moves beyond them and into her own tenple. In contrast, the narrator, by presenting an initially weak Persephone who proves resilient to violence and strange situations, and by making Persephone's story not only painful, but puzzling, leaves her character unelucidated at the poem's close. The Hymn comfortably contains Kallidike; it falls short of defining Persephone. Because Persephone's and the narrator's stories overlap in general content and disagree on details often thought to be insignificant, her speech has widely been considered an insubstantial contribution to the poem. This is not the case. The reader who is aware of the effects of violence on females can make much more sense of her speech, and will find significance in each instance where she deviates from the narrator's earlier account of her experience. In any case, by inducing us to doubt, our poet has made Persephone a powerful representative of the enigma that a rape victim can become in a context not prepared (or inclined) to corrprehend her.

PERSEPHONE AND THE NARRATOR Persephone's voice is not easy to hear for several reasons. First of all, the Hyim is not primarily her story, it is Demeter's. Secondly, she (and the poet) must resort 146 to metaphorical language in order to describe what she ejqjeriences. As mentioned above, there is no noun in ancient Greek for rape, and so words such as ovdcyicr),

"necessity," or yojjoç, "marriage," are used periphrastically

(and euphemistically) instead/'' Hence the most graphic words in the poem (which are spoken by Persephone) , "He put it in me violently," are weighted with symbolism--and clearly sexual in content--but still indirect. 8|iiPaA£|iOi leaves much to the imagination (412) . Nor is this accidental. According to the theory developed by the French feminist school which includes Helene Cixous, Luce Irigaray, and Julia Kristeva, females qua females struggle to express themselves with languages constructed by and for males and in service of male ideologies.^® Cixous dramatizes the experience :

He talked to me without hesitation in his own language. As if he were sure that I would understand it; that I had to hear it. It wasn't mine. It was a strange language whose pronouns came strai^t for me at every turn, pitilessly. A positive language. I couldn't say no. And he left no place in his voice for doubt. It was a voice that checked me, fii^tened me; made me want to run away, kept me willingly riveted to the bed which I couldn't leave, where I had gone to ground; buried myself; shrunk, felt m\ self getting \ ounger and forgetting.'*®

‘‘''Scafuro 1990; for exanple, the abovementioned passage from Odyssey 11, (jjiAbifpiatpya, "lovemaking, " is the euphemism for rape (11.246; see pp. 123-124). 48iiprench feminisms" : Marks 1980; Hermann 1976; Ostriker 1985; Kristeva 1986; Sellers 1994. See also Chapter One. ^®Cixous 1977, as cited by Sellers 1994:71-72. 147 The "young, " "buried" Persephone seems to exenplify this struggle. Conopounding these linguistic difficulties is the complex, or even problematic, design of the poet, who by constructing a narrator who disagrees with Persephone, contradicts her even before she speaks. Then, when she does have an opportunity to speak, the poet alternates between supplying her with too few words and too many. This section will explore these narrative strategies for mystifying and silencing Persephone. First, however, let us begin at the beginning, when the voice of Persephone first rings out in the poem, in order to see the pattern in its first formation: the erasure of Persephone's words. When Persephone's protracted scream resounds through lines 27-39, the narrator relates her thoughts : behind her piercing cries, "hope charms her heart" as long as she sees heaven, sea, and sun (33-35) . According to this narrative intuition of Persephone's thoughts, we can infer an intention: Persephone does not scream hysterically, but with a purpose, i.e., in order to alert a rescuer while still in the upper world. The narrator lends support to this idea elsewhere, informing us from the start that the hope-charmed girl actually called out using words--or so it seems from the evidence of lines 20-21: lojcnoEÔ^ op qD0ia(j)COvp KEK^jqjEvn TcocTEpa Kpovaôrjv im n o v Koa êpcrcov.

She screamed 'with a shrill voice, 148

calling on her father, the son of Kronos hipest and best

Persephone must have cried something like, "Help me, Father Zeus!" However, in a method conparable to the passage examined in Chapter Two where Helios terms Demeter ' s speech ^iEytcvyoov, emphasizing the sound of her voice and erasing the semantic content of her speech, the narrator effectively erases Persephone's words. Outside of this passage of indirect discourse, the text emphasizes, more than what she said--which stands as a reproach to Zeus, however unintended--the simple fact that she did scream, along with the shrillness and length of the sound (57, 67-8, 81, 432; the last is Persephone's own report) . Hekate, Demeter, Helios, and Persephone herself later describe her as screaming, but none of them lays any claim to understanding what she said. Even the victim later declines to recall that she called out for her father to help, having since realized that he was behind the whole thing (414) . As was true of Demeter, her typically female emotional incoherence emerges as more memorable in the text than the content of what she said. Moreover, as was true of Metaneira, her spontaneous vocal reaction to harm is loud, but ultimately ineffective. Persephone cried out in vain for Zeus, but failed to call out the one detail her mother is pictured as needing most in order to come immediately to her aid: the name of her assailant. 149 Ignoring what Persephone said begins within the poem itself. As the narrator informs us,

ouô^ Tiç oBocvdcTCûv oi3SeG vtttôv dcvOpo^v f]W)CSEV (j)COVr|Ç (22-23)

Not one o f the immortals or o f humankind heard her voice....

In this phrase, (jxavfjç (voice) must refer not to the audible sounds Persepone made, but to the actual words contained within the cry. If no one could "hear," then how did Demeter at line 39? How did Hekate and Helios? And (as already mentioned in Chapter Two) where did the universe enjoying the narcissus go? "No one heard," is logically absurd, although it has the advantage of absolving from blame all those who heard her voice. With the exception of Hekate and Demeter, the whole universe heard her vocalization; what they refused to listen to was her meaning. Hekate alone is depicted as hearing what Persphone meant to be heard, when the narrator introduces her as hearing Persephone kek:Xd|JEW|ÇTrocT^fXX("calling her father the son of Kronos," 27). Hekate's enpathic hearing is described with the verb (25) ; when Demeter hears, the verb for her perception is eicÀue (39). In Sappho's hymn to Aphrodite, these two verbs are used together in order to express the progression frcxn mere hearing to actual listening, in which the hearer enters into relationship with the heard. Sappho asks T^hrodite (1 L.P.): 150 aXAaTuiS' &9\oa7iomKdn%jpcoTa (5) TOÇ èjjoç ot&ott; moiaa th^i Ekhxc,

But come hither, if ever at another time hearing my cries from afar you heeded them...

When Demeter and Hekate join forces to begin their search, Hekate reverses exactly the narrator's claim that "no one heard her voice / listened to what she said" (ouSe Tt;...r|KOUOEV

(jxûvriç, 22-3) and tells Demeter, "I heard a voice / I

listened to what she said" ((jxBvfj; yap Tpcoixy,^ 57) . Near the close of the poem, Hekate and Demeter, Persephone's original listeners, will provide support for Persephone in her new role and ask to hear more. There Persephone's story requires no careful reading to be heard; it does require careful reading to be understood. The methods of literary analysis described and demonstrated by Irene De Jong in her study Narrators and Focalizers: The Presentation of the Story in the Iliad will be of great use here. According to De Jong, the particular character of the Iliad (or any other narrative) results in large part from narrative structures. Among these is the poet's manipulation of the poem's "linear structure, the way in which scenes follow upon one another.

=°De Jong 1987. 151 together forming a unified whole"; equally important, and less attended to, is

the poem's narrative structure, the way in which the reader gets to know its content, the events and the persons causing or ejqjeriencing those events, throu^ the mediation o f narrator(s) and fbcalizer(s).si

Seen in this way, the poet is observed creating an array of speaking characters, and the narrator stands among them. The narrator does occupy the privileged position of being the speaker whose voice need not be introduced by signals of discourse ("she said," etc.); in the fictional world the poet creates, it is just there. But each speaking character potentially directs the audience's attention. Thus all characters can pose as "secondary" narrators when they tell parts of the story; and all characters (including the narrator) direct or "focalize" the story from a unique point of view. In the Hyim to Demeter, the poet has created an unobtrusive and omniscient narrator, one who (among other things) establishes an authoritative stance by declaring the subject ("I sing, " 1), and who closes the poem just as forcefully ("but come, " 490)--after hinting at knowledge about the Mysteries that cannot be revealed to the audience.We are most aware of the narrator at these obvious points. But in between, the narrator is also

51De Jong 1987:xi; see also Felson-Rubin 1994:147 n.l7. “ (^jening and closing formulae : Janko 1981; Parker 1991; J. M. Foley 1995:160-64; Race 1982. 152 present, making subtle judgments, and indeed in being "always at our elbow" through choice of material, perspective, etc. that the poet chooses to present through the narrator's voice.Obviously the poet has also created Persephone. Paradoxically, the poet chooses to set Persephone and the narrator against one another. After the abduction, the experience Persephone undergoes with Hades is described twice within the ccxtpass of this relatively short poem, and it is up to the audience to choose which voice to believe. The narrator tells us that Persephone is abducted in lines 2-39 and then eats the pomegranate in 371-4; Persephone tells us the same thing in 406-33, but not in quite the same way. Taken together, the repetition between the two passages confirms for the audience, and for Demeter within the poem, that the abduction really took place and that its consequences are final. The differences between their accounts, however, create two conflicting versions of Persephone's experience with Hades. Persephone's own account of her rape is not unnecessary, even if it is after-the-fact. It is common narrative technique within the Homeric corpus for the narrator to inform the audience of certain events, and then for a character within the text to inform other characters of these same events. For example, in the Ifyim to Hermes, i ^ l l o explains to Zeus what the audience

“ De Jong 1987:10. 153 has already seen Hermes do (334-64). In this instance, the repetition initiates the mock "trial" Hermes must undergo before Zeus; i^llo delivers comical-sounding "charges" against Hermes which are necessarily a summary of what the narrator has already said. Repetition in Homeric narrative, however, is not always so simple; there is always room for "theme and variation" treatment, wherein speaking characters alter the original version of events presented by the narrator. The motivation behind the changes is sometimes benign: for example, as Joseph Tebben points out, in Odyssey 7, Odysseus tells Arete a "benevolent lie" about how he entered her city, a "lie" that the audience--having seen him enter during the preceding narrative--knows is not strictly true, but is designed to protect Nausikaa. In this case, a significant alteration of narrative details causes us to recognize the precarious position of Odysseus among strangers who are testing him with questions and scrutinizing his responses for possible threats to their safety.His story had better be good. Generally speaking, characters are free to innovate upon what the narrator has told the audience, and they do so; as the ever- persuasive Helen says to Telemachus at Odyssey 4. 239,

lo iK o iay a p k o co X e^ .

"What I will tell you is plausible."

^‘‘Tebben 1991:33 (citing Stanford 1950:44) . 154 a phrase which illustrates nicely the principle that it is not always easy to tell where iirprovisation on the matter of details ends and lying begins. For example, when Agamemnon comes to explain his side of the conflict with Achilles in the Iliad (19. 76-139), his stor^'' sounds substantially different from the narrator's version of the first books of the epic, since Agamemnon's recollection of the quarrel focusses less on action and more on his private, inner ejçierience during the conflict. As we shall see, Agamemnon is similar to Persephone in that when he disagrees with the narrator of the Iliad, it is because Agamemnon is portrayed as naturally privy to his own subjective experience in ways in which no observer— even the narrator - - can participate. When a speaking character tells a story different from the narrator's, and we are confronted with competing versions of a story, it can be futile to attenpt to determine which account is "true, " but useful to consider why the variations come into play at all. In the case of the Ifyim to Demeter this means considering why conflicting versions of the rape are created, since in regard to certain details, the narrator and Persephone are not in complete agreement about what happened in the meadow and afterward. Charles Segal, noting that formulaic economy would tend to produce verbatim repetition, but has not done so here, explains the different descriptions of the abduction this way: "The recollected 155 event.. .seems more vivid to the victim herself. This insightful interpretation correctly aligns the technique of our poet with that of Homer in creating (for exanple) the contrite Agamemnon, and as such serves as a sound beginning. Segal, however, considers the differences between the narrator's and Persephone's descriptions of the setting for the abduction to be confined to a matters of trifling inportance, merely a few more nynphs; Richardson concurs, noting that there are some different flowers in Persephone's list. Line 413 serves as a further focus for the debate:

OKOuoocv ôè Pni |08 7ipoar(vayKcecx3E

"[he] compelled me against my will and by force to taste it"

says Persephone. Although Segal later notes t±iat "Persephone's own words at 413 are unusual and enphatic" and that they "violate formulaic econony, ' " and sees a "motif of conpulsion" in Persephone's speech (in 413, 432), he concludes that variation between the two accounts exists because "the limited conpass of a shorter poan, may have encouraged greater reliance on subtle and sophisticated variation than on sinple repetition." Nor does Richardson satisfactorily account for Persephone's repetition or

^^Segal 1981a: 130. Segal, who is discussing the list of conpanions, continues, "... to her the conpanions are individuals, not the generalized 'daughters of Ocean.'" See below. 156 variation of the narrator's version.^ By eaganding the list of discrepancies and furthering appreciation of nynph- and flower-lists alike, I hope to demonstrate that a relative lack of critical attention to specific subtleties in Persephone's speech has led not only to unresolved problems concerning repetition and variation in the Hyim, but also to skewed interpretations of Persephone's character in the poem. These issues are susceptible to logical solutions if we attend not to the shortness of the poem, but to the realm of "character delineation."^’ Persephone's final speech to Demeter has been interpreted as insincere. Does Persephone come to harbor a secret desire to remain with Hades (at least part-tiræ)--yet hide this "fact" behind ejqjlicit and repeated denials? Richardson's feeling that Persephone "protests too much," ejqjlicitly based on a narrator/Persephone opposition, has been influential:

In Dem. 371-2 no mention of compulsion is made. Persephone presumably means that she did not want to eat, but could not help it.

^®Segal 1981a:131; Richardson 286 (ad 405-33) remains unresolved: "Such repetition and expansion is a normal feature of epic. In general, the avoids such lengthy repetitions...." Cf. 261-62 (on avoidance of direct speech by Zeus) : "the poet is perhaps diverging from normal epic convention to avoid making his narrative too long. In contrast, however, he repeats the account of the Rape in full". ^’Segal's term: 1981a: 131. 157

Does she perhaps 'protest too much' in self-defence (cf. adDem. 406)?^®

In a similar mode, when referring to Hades, Segal writes of "Persephone's resistance against her suitor" and "the seductive smell of the flower that entices the Maiden to her lover underground. " [arphasis mine]” Representative of recent scholarly opinion is the observation of Felson-Rubin corrparing Penelope's wish for death from the arrows of Artemis with Persephone's rape:

As virtual bride of death, she [Penelope] is comparable to Persephone; but unlike Persephone, at least early in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Penelope requests this gloomy outcome.®®

In this comment, Felson-Rubin does not use vocabulary more appropriate to courtship than rape, or explicitly claim that Persephone comes to opt for Hades by the end of the Hyim, but her oblique statement certainly invites this conclusion with its distinction between Persephone "early" and "late" in the poem. Ironically, those scholars who do explicitly argue that a change comes over Persephone during the course of the poem provide as texctual support for this claim the very fact that Persephone insists on the opposite. For a generation nursed on Freudian models of human psychology and behavior, Persephone says simply too many times, "I did not

” Richardson 286-7 (ad 406 and again ad 413); partially cited by Segal 1981a:131 n.56. Richardson suspects TTpoanvdyKOcroE also (ad 413) .

” Segal 1981a:131, 154. ®°Felson-Rubin 1994:35. 158 want it. " She must want it. Knowing scxnething of psychoanalysis, comrventators first incline to suspect that Persephone cannot admit that she enjoyed her sexual initiation by Hades; and then construct a Persephone who is deceptive and self-ser/ing, rather than a Persephone who has difficulty telling her story. Such interpretations cone perilously close to applying to ancient Greek literature the Ovidian dictum that when it comes to the discourse of women, "no means yes." Ann Ellis Hanson cites a fascinating medical parallel: "Soranos argues that even when a woman is forced to have sex, her subsequent pregnancy indicates that she must have experienced pleasure : 'the emotion of sexual appetite existed in them too, but was obscured by mental

®^Thus the unusual proliferation of words for "unwilling" throughout the poem to describe Persephone is noted by all conmentators, but has not led to the conclusion that she might remain unwilling. OEKODCsa first occurs in line 19 (cf. 30, 344, 413, 432) . On Richardson, see above; similarly Allen et al. 174-75 (ad 413) : "In 372 (ëScûKE (j)OcyEÎv) nothing is said of the conpulsion on which Persephone here insists. Hades did^not use force; he gave it her, and she without wanting it (a£KOiX30CV) took it against her will, and found it sweet...." (On the sweetness, see below.) Foley 130: "The Hymn tells us at first that Hades gives the pomegranate seed to Persephone 'secretly' (372). If Persephone does misrepresent this story to her mother, by saying that Hades "forced" her to eat it, her gesture may be less the product of affection for her husband. . .than of a desire to please her mother." See also 130 n.l59 on theores that "the bride may be required to [pretend to?] resist. ... ' " Throughout, Foley emphasizes the theiæs of "marriage" (positive union) and "mother/daughter romance" (happy reunion): 104-112, 118-137. 159 resolve.'"®^ In fact, the argument for mistrusting Persephone's version here is made most strongly on the basis of sources outside (and later than) the Hymn. Richardson cites J^llodoros, Virgil, and Lucan, whose versions depict Persephone as desiring to eat the pomegranate and to stay with Hades; interestingly, Lucan touches upon this issue when he depicts a technique used by ancient magicians to conpel divine cooperation, in which the magician threatens to reveal some secret that the god(s) would rather keep hidden. In the case of Persephone, the magician threatens to reveal "what you really did, Persephone, while you were below with Hades" (in contrast to what you told your mother) In contrast, so far as I have been able to determine, only two details in Persephone's speech can be justifiably adduced in support of this interpretation, and for these two details I think that a better conclusion can be drawn than the one under discussion here. In the following pages I will propose an interpretation based upon

®^Hanson 1990:315 with n. 33 (citing Soranos Gyn. 1.37). See also Richlin 1992c; Freccero 1992:227: "'Rape' is not rape if its victim can be portrayed as territory to be colonized, as 'consenting, ' as somehow 'wrong'..., nor is there rape without 'proof ' . . .and proof. . .depends, for its visibility (its representability) on the colonizer-subject ' s representation." See also Chapter One. ®^Richardson 287, citing T^llodoros 1.5.3, Virgil Georgies 1.39, and Lucan Pharsalla 6.699, where Persephone comes to "detest heaven and her mother." Magical spell: Lucan 6.739 ff.; my thanks to Professor Sarah lies Johnston for bringing this magical technique to try attention. See also Brumfield 1981:227. 160 close reading of Persephone's speech, with particular attention to those places where she and the narrator diverge. First, however, let us pause to appreciate fully the effect of the mere existence of two accounts, and the importance of Persephone's version coming in "second place." Because Persephone tells her story last, we do not hear her story in isolation. What we hear are differences, which results in Persephone sounding as if she were straying from the narrator--not the narrator from Persephone. By virtue of coming first, the narrator establishes the authoritative account. The result might be termed literary foul play; to use a courtroom analogy, the jury has been predisposed to disbelieve the witness. A comparison with Homer's Penelope will clarify this technique. In the Odyssey, the poet anticipates one of Penelope's most important speeches in the poem by having another character tell her story before she does. As a result, when Penelope tells Odysseus about her strategem of weaving and unraveling the shroud for Laertes (19.137-56), this might be news to Odysseus, but it is not news to us: Antinoos told all of Ithaka the story at the assembly in Book 2 (91- 110) In the case of Penelope and the shroud, since her

“After Penelope is finished with her version, Anphimedon tells the story again at the close of the epic (24,126-48) . Antinoos, Penelope, and Anphimedon function as secondary narrators in these passages. 161 trick was successful in holding her suitors at bay for three long years, her fame spreads with the story; when she repeats it, she (like Odysseus) helps to transmit her own k Xs o ç /® Thus her brief autobiographical moment in book 19, far from being an anticlimactic or less authoritative second telling, places the assertive Penelope in a positive light. Moreover, and trast itrportantly for the purposes of this study of violence, an important difference emerges between the suitors' and Penelope's version of the shroud episode. Penelope and her suitors disagree about the level of coercion employed in order to force Penelope to finish her weaving. All three passages agree that as the suitors urged Penelope to finish her weaving and marry, she held them off until she was betrayed by a maid and caught unraveling the shroud. However, only Antinoos and Anphimedon conclude by saying that subsequently (2.110 = 24.146),

(og TO Koa ouK &v6 yKT|ç

"against her will and by force, she had to finish it."

This is the suitors' version of the event; Penelope says nothing openly about constraint.^ Since it is the bullies

^^Felson-Rubin 1994:148 n. 20, 157 n. 49; see also Katz 1991. ®®As Felson-Rubin points out, in this particular instance Penelope's protest against the suitors' behavior is nonverbal: she says "a secret no" by unraveling the shroud (1994:27). See also Lateiner 1995:257-58 (Penelope's veils and loom as nonverbal forms of protection against the suitors) and 243-79 on "gendered weapons" of the nonverbal type for both sexes. 162 themselves who admit to bullying Penelope, when Penelope omits this detail fron her story, it merely adds to her credibility as a secondary narrator, since the guilty parties admit to greater misdeeds than she ever attributes to them. Penelope de facto is not overreacting or exaggerating what she endured; to the contrary, she actually downplays it. Perhaps she enjoys the confidence of knowing that the story is not hers alone; she need not insist on details that others will tell. She also avoids dwelling on her defeat, and focusses on her success instead, a choice of emphasis which places her in a positive light. When we conpare the cases of Penelope and Persephone, it is Persephone, not the narrator (and certainly not Zeus or Hades, who never discuss their actions), who gives the most violent account of Hades' actions within the poem. Since she has something to gain from claiming that she was coerced--namely, validation of her innocence--this brings Persephone's credibility into question. In fact, Persephone cannot win. As we saw above, Persephone's insistent tone strikes a false note for some readers ; her claim that she experienced violence at Hades' hands has seemed suspect as well, inasmuch as this is a claim unsupported by the narrator. For exanple, in the case of the pomegranate, the narrator enphasizes the secretiveness that Hades employs : .? \ «./ ^ \ ooorap o y ocütoç KOKKov eScoKE (jxxyÉiv jjEXiriS^ XjaBpp 163 ajitja 8 (371-3)

But he gave her to eat a honey-sweet pomegranate seed, stealthily passing it around her...

But Persephone (as we began to see above) describes the same event in enphatically more violent terms:

cajTOp o Xcd9pp EjjpaAs |Joi pbifjç K&Kov, fa£?iiriSe^ éScoSnv, ^OUOGCV §8 Pu] |JE TtpOOnvdtyKOOœ TtOKXXoGoa. (411-13)

"But he stealthily put in my mouth a food honey-sweet, a pomegranate seed, and compelled me against my will and by force to taste it."

Since this is the most graphic sexual imagery in the poem, and the most explicitly violent as well, the most violent version of the pomegranate feeding comes from Persephone.®’ Felson-Rubin makes an admirable distinction when discussing Persephone's version, when she terms the pomegranate scene a "force-feeding (an analogue of rape) . "®® With the exception of Felson-Rubin, so far as I can ascertain, modem

®’Even her insistence on the unexpected nature of both Hermes'^arrival and the pomegranate crick, conveyed here by C(màp...(XüTdp (411), has "been suspected" of being overly emphatic or repetitious: Richardson 286 ad loc. ®®Felson-Rubin 1994:157 n.Sl. Pomegranate as fertility symbol: Brumfield 1981:226-7; Neumann 1970:308; Kerenyi 1967:133 ff., "who points out that the pomegranate is also symbolic of death" (as cited by Brumfield 241 n.9) . DuBois 1988:53 provides an illustration of a Boeotian (votive?) figurine of a seated woran wearing a pomegranate necklace. J. M. Foley 1995:173-74 considers Hades' offering of the pomegranate an act of xenia. See also Chapter One. 164 conæntators refer to the scene as the "eating" of the pomegranate; Richardson, for exanple, sunmarizes the scene as follows: "He gives her a pomegranate-seed to eat, secretly...."®® That is, the consensus of scholarly commentary follows the narrator's wording rather than Persephone's when describing this episode. Foley actually wonders why Persephone becomes suddenly overjoyed at lines 370-71: is it because of the new status which Hades has just offered her, or because he informs her that she will return to the upper world?"'® In fact, if we approach the text with suspicions about Persephone's veracity, there is no appropriate or believable tone the poet might have given Persephone when she tells her own story. An interpretation that sittply considers Persephone an unreliable source about her own rape is reminiscent of the m o d e m courtroom with its antagonistic approach to the testimony of rape victims called to testify against the accused, and find themselves testifying on their own behalf, atterrpting to exonerate themselves from the "crime" of having "caused" a rape (her

®®Richardson, 2, 264; see also Brumfield 1981:226. Brumfield 227 : "however Kore was trapped or tricked into the clutches of Plouton, her newly awakened sexuality would tie her to him...." "'“Foley 57 (within the context of Persephone's "sexual seduction" by Hades), who concedes that "At line 411, _ Persephone affirms the first motive (she does not mention the honors) . " Hades at least has no illusions about the source of Persephone's happiness; he feeds her the pomegranate in order to keep her from leaving permanently (see below). 165 own) . As Brigitte Egger neatly put it, "The idea is that rape can always be averted by a shrewd and truly pure woman. Or perhaps Herodotus said it best when he reported the Persian attitude toward abducted females (1.4.). Wise men take no notice of such occurrences,

SfjAa Top ôn &i, ei pfj amca ePouXovio,ouk ov ipjtooÇovto.

for plainly the women would never have been carried away, had not they themselves wished it.’^

I hope to show that Persephone's speech represents an accurate account of what occurred, but from the victim's smaller and more emotionally intense point of view (in contrast to the narrator's more objective and "universal" tone). Her speech does indeed alternate between a hesitant and a defensive tone, but this is most sensibly attributed to her urgent desire to be believed by her mother when she claims that what happened was not her fault. In a patriarchal context, shall we be surprised when a raped female is depicting as overdoing this point a bit in her effort to clear herself of blame? Two details in Persephone's account illustrate Persephone's diletrma. Each offers the reader a similar opportunity for believing either that Persephone secretly

^Êgger 1994a:45 n.25. See Madigan 1989; J. E. Williams 1981; Ardener 1975; Brumfeld 1981:225-6, with notes 7 and 8. 72iTrans. Godley 1981. 166 enjoyed her ejqjerience with Hades, since her words might indicate that Persephone found certain aspects of her experience positive; alternatively, these details may indicate instead that she is taking great pains with her speech in order to keep her mother from blaming her for her role in what occurred. First, Line 412 seems a paradox: enPoXjE fooi îfjç KWKOV, |j£îT|0e’ eScûôrjv

"he put in me a pomegranate seed, a food honey-sweet"

Indications of stealth and constraint in the vicinity (Ai6d9pp, 0KCXX3OV, pirj, TtpoonvocyKOOOE) do not seem congruent with the observation, "it was sweet food." Again the poet complicates Persephone's account; one might conclude that Persephone secretly liked it (as many comnnentators have), or one might consider that she is endeavoring to explain to Demeter why she made the fatal error of eating it--aware of its taste but not its purpose. Again, at line 431 she says c / / that Hades' chariot was golden, opfjooiXP*^>OEioiai. Does the poet mean to make her slip and reveal that she was impressed in spite of herself, or to portray her as being as accurate as possible in recalling all details for her mother, as she did with her list of companions

^^The narrator notes the golden chariot at 19. In a similar vein, at 414 Persephone calls Zeus' plan to give her to Hades TilKivr^ ("shrewd") ; at 430 she refers to Hades as ava^KpocispàçTüoXxjSe^^ ("mighty lord Host-to-Many") . Is this economy or design on the part of the poet? The poet's "aggrandizing" tendency in describing the rape seems to resurface here. 167 Certainly Persephone tells Demeter more than Demeter asked to hear. Demeter merely asks whether Persephone has eaten anything below, and finishes by asking "what trick" deceived Persephone (404) . Persephone naturally answers by telling the pomegranate story, but then she goes on (after 416) to tell Demeter about her abduction too, most likely in order to substantiate her earlier claim that she was forced to eat the pomegranate seed (411-13) . In order to demonstrate force, Persephone seems to feel a compulsion to go back to the original SaÀXDÇ.’^ We do not have far to search for the cause of her anxiety. The mother-daughter bond between Demeter and Persephone has been made disjunct by the rape; their mutual embraces begin to reestablish this natural connection--and suddenly Persephone is made cognizant of her irrevocable dietary mistake. In contrast to Kallidike, who is portrayed as naturally adept at talking, the reticent and wounded Persephone makes purposeful attempts to be persuasive, rather than allowing information to tumble out naturally. Thus she repeats herself, and uses her mother's question as an opportunity to insist on her own innocence via her description of the abduction. As noted above in Chapter Two, her very emphasis

■'^The order and sense of Persephone's reply to Demeter's question has hitherto puzzled scholars : Richardson 285 (ad 403) records unsatisfactory suggestions as to a possible lacuna, "an abrupt break in the sense" and line 404 looking "rather like an afterthought on the poet's part...." 168 on truth and corpleteness, as well as her painstaking details, have indicated to some that Persephone is a suspect speaker. To my knowledge, the hypothesis for which I am arguing--that she might be urgently, anxiously, and ineptly telling the truth--has been passed over in favor of interpretations of Persephone as a willing victim. Perhaps the Persephone of the Hymn to Demeter, if considered willing when she describes herself as unwilling, threatens to become confused not so much with Ovid's coy creatures, but with another classical type: the girl who eschews criticism of male violence to such an extent that she nobly insists upon her own sacrifice or destruction for his cause. This Persephone would submit to her fate during the course of the poem because she sees her higher purpose arrive in her role as Hades' consort. So Euripides' Iphigeneia demands her own sacrifice at her father's hands; his Alcestis bravely meets death as Admetus' substitute; Aeschylus' lo gives a synpathetic account of her father turning her out of the house to be raped by Zeus.’^ The powerful image of the beautiful and willing victim elsewhere

^For the case of Iphigeneia, and her "startling transformation into a willing sacrificial victim" (Iphigeneia in Aulis 1540 ff.), see Joplin 1992:44-48 (the phrase above is on 45) . It is interesting that Aeschylus' Iphigeneia (in the Agamemnon 228 ff. [see above]) is less certain; in that version, the appearance of her willing submission, like that required of a sacrificial animal, is secured by means of ropes and stopping her mouth. Voluntary self-sacrifice in Euripides : Wilkins'1990; Foley 1985:65- 105 (on Iphigeneia) . 169 notwithstanding, it must be noted that in the Hymn, although it may be bad form, Persephone does conplain about the rape. At the crucial moment when we first see Persephone again after the abduction, the narrator portrays Persephone as reluctant to be with Hades, and yet pointedly depicts Hades and Persephone in bed together when Hermes arrives. Hermes finds lord Hades at home,

TpevD v s v ÀEXSECSC31 ouv daôovp Trapoacom

mTX dcEKOc!pfi^ |ir|Tpo; ( 3 4 3 -4 )

reclining on a bed with his shy spouse, strongly reluctant throu^ desire for her mother.

The inportance of their position lies in its indication of consuirrnation achieved. Equally inport ant, however, is Persephone's unwillingness. The beginning of this participial phrase joins Hades and Persephone, but as it draws to a close, Persephone is wishing to extricate herself. Since Hades and Demeter occupy the ends of these lines, with Persephone stationed between them, this semantic structure replicates in microcosm the central conflict of the poem. Persphone's unvocalized wish for her mother lacks not only words to convey its message, but also an effective physical component (like the actions of Demeter and Metaneira in distress discussed in Chapter Two).

■'^Richardson ad loc. translates Xexoç as "couch" ; but cf. ^6i)V for the beds of Keleos' daughters at 285. Whether the couple are in bed or reclining on a couch together "at table, " they seem to be physically intimate. 170 How, then, is Persephone's unwillingness esqjressed? Is the narrator "reading her mind"? Or are we to imagine her sitting as far away from Hades as possible, or looking away from him, or leaning away? The phrase containing 7 0 ^ ’

OCEKO^pjJE^ indicates that whether she leans or not, whether she verbalizes her "no" or not, Persephone resists her union with Hades in the Hymn, and "leans toward" reunion with her mother instead. Like Penelope unravelling her shroud, this is a "no" without words; thus the poet conveys the most crucial message concerning Persephone's point of view on her own rape in a subtle, nonverbal cue, and fails to corroborate her story elsewhere. At least two hypotheses are possible : either her view is not significant enough to warrant more attention, or the poet intends to hint at, but stop short of clarifying, Persephone's opinion. She remains a creature without positive opinions, a pawn between two characters who vigorously act, inscrutable to the end-- unless we sinply believe "her" story. Because of the secretive nature of rape, however unwilling she is imagined to have been will never be resolved; in literature as well as in life, very often it comes down to "her" word against "his." Both Persephone and the narrator agree that Hades acted Xdfepr| ("stealthily"), which is a word to be expected in a context of rape. The word is manifold in this context. First of all, the pomegranate must have been a "secret" from Persephone in the 171 sense that she seems to have eaten it without understanding what it meant. It was also secret from Hermes or Zeus (who might have forbidden the trick had they forseen it), and from Demeter--who nevertheless guesses the trick right away. As readers of the we necessarily remain in the dark about events which lie outside the poet's text. Surely the poet of the Hyrm created both narrator and Persephone to be heard, but it is undeniable that the narrator speaks in less ambiguous terms. A close examination of the abduction scene described in lines 2-39 and then again at 414-32 reveals further subtle, yet inportant, differences between the versions of narrator and Persephone. First, the narcissus. The narrator devotes fully eight and one-half lines to the lure Hades uses and its effect on Persephone: vapKlCSOOV 0^ , ov ((lUOG ÔoAoV KoXüJCCQTClSl K (X ^ Fcaa Aïoç PouAipi GotüliaoTov Yov&ovTO,cseP cxç t6 ys Tiobiv îSœGoa àOotvdcuoiç T8 08OIÇ1 ^ 0vr|TOÎç avGpcOTOiç • TOU Koàa U D ^TJÇ eKOCübv Kopa sSjETUalWKEl, fKCû5l(7U^ OÔ|jf|f 7raç5’ oupovbç UÏÏEpSe ycad T8 7100 ’ èyéXocKSE Koà oApupbv oî6po 0oÀùoor|ç T)ô^ dpo BojoPfpacT’ œp^otro x^pdiv djitjxB k o Ao v Ôfeuppo XopdV • (8-16)

...and the narcissus, which Earth grew as a snare for the flower-faced maiden in order to gratify by Zeus's design the Host-to-Many, a flower wondrous and bright, awesome for all to see, for the immortals above and for mortals below. From its root a hundredfold bloom sprang up 172

and smelled so sweet that the whole vast heaven above and the whole earth laughed, and the salty swell of the sea. The girl marveled and stretched out both hands together to take the lovely toy.

It comes as a surprise, therefore, when Persephone describes that marvelous blossom without amazement. According to her, she and the others were gathering beautiful flowers :

TioaÇofJEvi^^ av^Eaôp^TOjOEvxeipecscj^^ dc W co, litySa KpOKOv oycxvov KoaocfcOOabcx; ^ ^ u»av6ov KOtt p o ô ^ KaXuKoç Kooi XEipia, 0aupa îSæOoo, vdpa(X3OV0^ ovajm^ wg TtGp Kp&ov Gupeia OQjTop eyco SpeïïojjrjvTcept xoppom, yoaa 8^evEp0E

%(opr|OEv, TTIÔ^ Kp(xtEpbç TraXxjSei^ ( 4 2 5 -3 0 )

"we were playing and picking lovely flowers with our hands, soft crocus mixed with irises and hyacinth, rosebuds and lilies, a marvel to see, and the narcissus that wide earth bore like a crocus. As I joyously plucked it, the ground gaped fiom beneath, and the m i^ ty lord, Host-to-Many, leapt out."

Metrical gravity draws attention to the line-opening word vapKiocBOV in 428; GcxofjaiSeoGca ("a marvel to see") at the end of the previous line might at first seem to echo the narrator's admiration for the narcissus (CEj3oçto7 8 TtScnv i6ex30oa of line 10) . The apparent connection between

"wonder" and "narcissus," however, is illusory here. Persephone, as opposed to the narrator, finds the profusion of normal flowers "marvelous"--not the narcissus. Persephone's narcissus is conspicuously lacking in hundredfold blooms and a scent that the whole universe 173 enjoys. On the whole, in conparison with the narrator, Persephone seems relatively unimpressed by the narcissus.''’ Neither is Persephone aware that (according to the narrator) Gaia aided Zeus and Hades by growing this prodigy; when Persephone mentions earth (xlQcov and yoaa, 428 and 429) , she means the ground, not the goddess.’® From Persephone's perspective, the elements of aesthetic pleasure in the narcissus and of universal approbation are remarkably absent. This suggests that for Persephone, finding the narcissus was naturally not a universal experience, nor did it turn out to be a delightful one. In sum, Persephone's version (as opposed to the narrator's) undercuts Freudian and Jungian readings of the Hyim which consider the narcissus heavily fraught with phallic symbolism irresistible to a maiden. We have already seen that Persephone recalls the meadow, not the narcissus, as "marvelous. " Two further details dowrplay the significance of the narcissus in her account. Persephone says that the narcissus was "like a crocus" (428), a statement that groups the narcissus with the other perfectly natural flowers she saw that day, rather than separating it entirely from the bunch. Did it not

’’The narcissus does not appear in Ovid's versions : Richardson 72. ’®Richardson 145 discusses representations of Earth as an active personality at the abduction. 174 appear xjnusual to her? According to the narrator's earlier version, an intensely fragrant, hundred-headed flower lured Persephone over and compelled her to reach out with both hands at once to grab it (7-16) . But when Persephone describes herself picking the narcissus, she says, "as I joyously started to pluck (it) . . using the verb Speia^v, which she had used already for all the maidens picking flowers (425, 429). The difference here is one of choice and will.

According to the narrator, Persephone was playing and picking flowers (TimÇpuŒXV... 5-6; the participles signify ongoing activity), when suddenly the narcissus ended her timeless motion. She reached out to take the narcissus: m p ^ G d O ... Xapeiv, 15-16) making a conscious act defined by a precise moment of choice and change. Therefore, according to the narrator, Persephone left the female world and entered the male by making a choice--even if it was not the choice she thought it was. coped/xio... AaPeiv claims that

Persephone "forsook all other" flowers, i.e., reached for one in a way that she did not reach for any others in the meadow. Persephone contradicts the narrator, giving an account that contains no truly decisive or dramatic moment. She herself says ôpeiK^v (429), "I began to pluck it," arphasizing its sameness, and the continuity of her response 175 to it and to, for exartple, the crocuses.’® Both Persephone and the narrator enphasize the inconpleted action, representing the "suspended moment" before an act of violence in which time seems to move much more slowly than it does ordinarily. In those instances when Persephone is "more vivid" in describing the scene than the narrator is, such details do occur naturally (as Segal recognized) because of her proximity to the event. Thus as the narrator tells it, XpIvE

8e %8mv, "the earth yawned" (16), whereas Persephone says, yoaaô^ ev€p08 / xcopncsv (429-30), "the earth underneath me

(de)parted. The former is picturesque and expresses the event from a distance; the latter, with an equally powerful image, expresses the victim's sense of abandonment as secure ground disappeared fron beneath her very feet. Likewise,

Persephone's eK0op^ at 430 conveys her visual memory of

Hades suddenly emerging out of the ground toward her,

whereas the narrator's ô(XXX3EV at 1 7 is more attentive to

’®The strong adversative ocorapsyCL) (429) indicates that Persephone has since learned of its significance (cf. ocoràp o (371) for Hades) . See the discussion of ocurap...aiUTO^ in 411 above. "'Suspended moments' before violent action, like those before a rape": S. Brown 1992:207, citing Leach 1988:396-402. ^ ®^In 428 and 431, the position and metrical gravity of X,copr|OEV echoes that of v6ipKiC5C50V, emphasizing and connecting the two words within Persephone's speech (cf. 8 and 16) . 176 the arc of his purposeful leap. In each of these exartples, as was true of the taste of the pomegranate, Persephone supplies an intimate detail omitted by the narrator, a detail that conveys an impression of powerful trauma privately experienced. Finally, Hades is less imposing to Persephone than he was to the narrator. She gives Hades fewer epithets as she describes him seizing her than the narrator gave him at that moment (of. 430 with 17-18 and 31- 2) . In each case, Persephone fails (or refuses) to draw universal conclusions or aggrandize what took place. "The world" may have perceived a great event, and the narrator gives this great event voice; Persephone perceived something much more intensely focussed and frightening, and tells her story accordingly. Interestingly, the disagreement between Persephone and the narrator mirrors modem debate concerning the "historical meaning" of rape.®^ Within the poem. Hades and Demeter each explain to Persephone what the significance or consequences of her rape will be for her. As the audience, we have the narrator to explain the event to us as well; that voice has emerged as dominant in modem criticism of the poem. Persephone never directly describes the meaning of the rape, nor does she verbalize her response to it directly. Yet I hope that the preceding analysis has

®^In sum, many feminists think that rape does have such a meaning; Freccero 1992, esp. 228, discusses opposing views. See the Epilogue. 177 yielded a greater understanding of her submerged point of view.

Ultimately, the conflict between Persephone and narrator conprises the following major points. First, the identity of her companions and how far she strayed from the group; second, how amazing she found the narcissus; third, how much force Hades used in employing the pomegranate trick, and finally, how positive or negative she feels about the whole situation. Each in isolation might seem small; together, so long as we listen to Persephone's side of the story, these details prevent any readii^ of the poem as merely an aesthetically pleasing, symbolic, or romantic tale of abduction. They insist that it be read also as a rape story. Who or what speaks in the character called Persephone?®^ Is she a dissembler? Does she mirror what her mother wants to hear? Or does she represent the voice of the victim, striving to be heard and believed about an act which occurred in secrecy, and therefore has only two witnesses--participants with very different views on what occurred? The poet is not concerned wich Hades' version of the abduction or the pomegranate-feeding; certainly no character within the poem asks Hades to tell his story. Some important assumptions prevent poetic attention from

®®In asking this question I am paraphrasing Higgins and Silver 1991:3. 178 being focussed on Hades. First, rape can be the act of a "nomal" male who had a need for a female at a particular time and no desire or means for negotiating for her. Such ordinary response to desire might not compel poetic interest. Secondly, recovery from rape--as opposed to revenge for rape--has traditionally been considered a strictly female concern, belonging within the nexus of marriage and reproduction. These beliefs preclude Hades from becoming the focus of the poem. If rape is normal and has no effect on the male involved, why follow Hades? The struggle of Persephone (and Demeter) will be more intriguing. Within the world the poem imagines, a clever and powerful female manages to make certain males pay for their sexual violence by turning reproduction against them. But the poem does not go so far as to imagine that the perpetrator of a rape might examine why he did what he did. Hades maintains a silence of his own. When Persephone is silent in the underworld, her silence can be made to contain many meanings, and need not be confined to one. When she speaks in Eleusis, the conflicting versions she creates open up text too, allowing--indeed, inviting--a range of interpretations. Violence, silence, and (suspected) lies all have in common that they leave the audience to construct the truth. These spaces in the text, these elipses, silences, mysteries, and incongruities, cluster around Persephone in the Hyim to 179 Demeter. When she is silent, as Joshel writes of Lucretia in Livy:

Her silence constructs a pleasure o f terror like that o f the horror film, where the audience is held in expectation that what it fears will occur. Certainly, tension and terror cannot exist without Lucretia's silence, without her presence as an actionless body.

After, and only after, the rape, Lucretia speaks and acts....®'*

Kallidike is always envisioned doing something: greeting a visitor, caring for a baby, leaping, talking; Persephone (and Demeter) are imagined as sitting, outwardly still but full of inward thoughts lacking outward expression: Demeter in her lonely new temple, and Persephone in bed beside Hades. The audience is free to inscribe upon their silence a story of their own making, conplete with motivations. What is in the female mind? Even Freud despaired of ever knowing this. Certainly the text, with its conflicts and silences that allow possibilities rather than firm conclusions, suggests that violence results in a greater complexity and more inward existence for females. Perhaps this is because the effects of violence can be hard to see and difficult to categorize, enumerate, and sinply understand fully enough to relate as a coherent story; a female up against Zeus, Hades, and Helios--let alone the universe - -might well become silent in despair of being understood. Ultimately, this poem presents a realistic portrayal of a raped girl, who is trying to give an account

®“Joshel 1992:126-128, esp. 127, 180 convincing enough to be believed; however, it will always be possible to interpret the text as depicting a girl who is impressed in spite of herself with the new experiences she has had. To the extent that the poem portrays Persephone as covertly pleased with some aspects of the rape, the poem asserts that "no means yes," removing female speech about violence from credibility or reliability. As such, this poem represents one of the foundation texts of our own rape culture. The larger part of the problem is the nature of rape itself: performed in private, and so aversive an act that it can be as difficult to talk about as it is to determine the truth. As Elaine Scarry observes, "To have pain is to have certainty; to hear about pain is to have doubt.

T H E LACUNA

Damaged stories can represent damaged bodies.*®

Doubt surrounds Persephone. She disappears from the poem for 304 lines, whereupon such expresssions as (^ajxoL)

TjEpoEVTOC ("misty gloom, " 337) and KEi^0Eaydriç ("depths of the

earth," 340; of. 81, 402, 446, and 464) emphasize the obscurity and seclusion of her new surroundings. By a strange coincidence, time and chance have damaged the

®^Scarry 1985:13. ®®Higgins and Silver 1991:6. 181 manuscript at the scene of Persephone's return and reunion with Demeter, creating a very real lacuna beginning precisely at the place where she returns in the most irrportant manuscript containing the Regarding Persephone's disappearance as paramount to her story, Aristides observed that many literary forms celebrated the story of Persephone, phrasing his remark as follows : eu; pÉoov 7üoir|Toà Koa Xoyojtoioi Koa cuyypocjidç Tcdcvreç ujjvcaxîi Kc^v Tqv Aniirirpo; oatxxvfi 'ysvOT0Ott®®

It is a commonplace that all poets and chroniclers and historians tell how Kore the dau^iter o f Demeter disappeared®®

In other words, in the opinion of Aristides, Persephone's disappearance is taken to be the salient fact of the nyth as he knew it to have been popularized in literature. Whether in poetry or prose, ancient writers, like magicians, seem to have been adept at "making the lady disappear. In order to "rewrite the victim" then, we must be circumspect; there is a need to look around and notice what is missing. Again an analogy with archaeological method seems appropriate :

®'^0n the tear and restorative supplements, see Allen et al. xxi-xxii; Richardson 282. ®®As cited by Richardson 74. ®®Eleus. i p. 416 D., as cited by Richardson 74 n.2. ®°I owe the analogy of Ovid as magician to Richlin 1992b: 158. The disappearance motif may have special relevance for Persephone, who like the grain is hidden in the earth for part of the agricultural year (though these were likely different parts of the year) . 182 Lucia Nixon has recently called attention to gender bias in archaeology, and as Elizabeth Wayland Barber has found in her study of (highly perishable) ancient textiles, in order to study the lives of wonen in antiquity one must glean precious and scarce sources for absences as well as presences.®^ Certainly the Hyim to D&neter does not do away with Persephone, or cause her to disappear permanently. Her return is the joyous event that caps the poem and festival celebrations of her story at Eleusis and elsewhere. It is the wound that this text studiously avoids. The Ifyim poet's technique of erasing the wound contrasts greatly with Homeric methods for portraying wounding. In the Iliad, which has aptly been called "The Poem of Force, " numerous passages focus on arming, on the acquisition and use of weapons, and on the penetrating power and damage a weapon inflicts on tough armor and soft human bodies alike.There, linguistic attentiveness to instruments used to inflict pain, part of what Scarry has termed the "verbal sign of the weapon, " is of utmost significance.®"* Exartples abound in any of the "combat

®*The postscript to Barber 1994 is titled "Finding the Invisible," 286-300. See S. Brown 1993; Nixon 1994; Barber 1991. ®^Clinton 1992. Poem of Force": Weil 1945. ®^Scarry 1985:15 ff., esp. 17. 183 books" of the Iliad; one will suffice here, the wounding of Menelaos by Pandaros (4.122-26; 134-40):

6' of.K)C yXu(j)i8aç xs Ajopàv Koà vsujpa p œia • vsupfjv |j£v teX ooev, To^cp §e oiSrpov. ouTop è m ôn KUKAoTEpe; xoôv ^vev, X iy^, p i(^ VEupn ôe ^ bO%Gv, aX,xo o io to ç (125 ) o^üPeî^ koB^ qjiA ov èrciTcxecsScxi pe\m ivcov. (...) èvô^ &EŒ dpr|p&i mKpog oioxog ôià pÈv op (jaCTTTipoç sXyjXcxxo ôcaôaXiîo, (135)

Koà Ô ià 0cûpT|Koç 7tt)Xt)5oa§(0üOU fp p e ic jr o

pixpnç 0% f^v ajwpeiv Èpupa xpcx^ ^ o ço k o v ï ï o v ,

f|'^ o i Ji^EÎŒOV GpUTO ' ôicm po Sè dfcsDcro Koa xfjç, CKpOTOXOV 5^ c p ’ OKTCOÇ WypOO|Æ X p o a (jxBXOÇ • coüxiKaô"^ Gppesv odpa KEAm\t((iGg & 6(Xfiç

He drew, holding at once the grooves and the ox-hide bowstring and brought the string against his nipple, iron to the bowstave. But when he had pulled the great weapon till it made a circle, the bow groaned, and the string sang h i ^ and the arrow, sharp-pointed, leapt away, furious, to fly throu^ the throng before it. (...) The bitter arrow was driven against the joining o f the war belt and passed clean through the war belt elaborately woven; into the elaborately wrought corselet the shaft was driven and the guard which he wore to protect his skin and keep the spears off, which guarded him best, yet the arrow plunged e\ en through this also and with the very tip of its point it g ra ^ the man's skin and straighway from the cut there gushed a cloud o f dark blood.

In this passage, a very real and present weapon both represents and facilitates the very real desire of the Homeric warrior to harm his enemies. In this case, the 184 weapon even participates in human emotion; for example, it is "furious" ()J£VEoavci)V) to reach its target. Although the

arrow merely grazes its target, in this martial context broken skin, blood, slicing arrow, and the victim's actual physical pain all receive careful depiction. In addition, the wound Menelaos sustains receives full and immediate attention within the text: the poet creates a simile in its honor; Agamemnon and Menelaos reciprocally shudder with terror; Agamemnon gives the companions standing by a premature funeral speech for Menelaos; finally, the physician is summoned to relieve his brother's pain, a treatment which is applied as Menelaos stands in the middle of a circle of sympathizers (141-219). The larger significance of the wound--the breaking of the truce between Trojans and Achaeans--must wait until Menelaos himself has his due. Persephone's "wounding," the genesis of the Hyim to Demeter, remains a cipher in its text until after its larger significance--the breaking of peace between Demeter and Zeus--has been fully explored. Since the rape scene itself remains implicit, the phallus/weapon and its penetration is elided here in favor of symbolic eleiments: flowers, horses and chariot, bed and pomegranate. While blossoms, chariot and sweet pomegranate capture our attention, the actual bodies of Hades and Persephone disappear. In Iliad 4, we see Pandaros prepare the bow and hear his desire from his 185 own lips; in the Hyrm, flowers, chasm, horses, and chariot obscure Hades until the act is done. Warriors do not ordinarily engage in duels without a weapon on each side, or in contests of skill without specified equipment, rules, prizes, or finish lines (Pandaros and Hektor exenplify the tragic consequences of not following these principles). When Hades "engages" Persephone in this pitifully unequal contest, the chasm has already ruptured stable boundaries. Was there a struggle? Who knows? As the verbal sign of the weapon calls attention to symbols of eroticism and power (not painful arrows but "awesome" objects), attention veers away from the actual agent who overpowers Persephone. As Scarry writes about such diversionary tactics and their motivation in a more m o d e m context,

the relative ease or difficulty with which any given phenomenon can be verbally represented also influences the ease or difficulty with which that phenomenon comes to bepolitically represented.

Thus, for example, torture comes to be described - not only by regimes that torture but sometimes by people who stand outside those regimes - as a form of information-gathering or (in its even more remarkable formulation) intelligence-gathering.... Similarly (thou^ by no means identically), while the central activity o f war is injuring and the central goal in war is to out-injure the opponent, the fact of injuring tends to be absent from strategic and political descriptions o f war....

The act o f misdescribing torture or war, th ou^ in some instances intentional and in others unintentional, is in either case partially made possible by the inherent difficulty of accurately describing any event whose central content is bodily pain or injury."®^

®^Scarry 1985:12-13. 186 If we substitute the word "rape" for "war" and "torture" in Scarry's analysis, her ideas are enlightening not only about modem descriptions of the violence of war, but also about ancient works of art that obfuscate sexual violence. Thus when Helios terms Hades a "son-in-law," the "fact of injuring" is absent from the text; when we read that Hades smiles and "stealthily" gives Persephone the ponegranate seed, the poet seems to use a narrative voice which (if we allow for Persephone's version to stand) seems radically to "misdescribe" her experience in such a way as to deny the painful experience that rape is. The poet who wields such words of misdirection and commits such precise acts of erasure makes possible the depiction of rape as a romantic (clean, sanitized, wound-less) and ravishing event. As the ponegranate passage comes close to "stealthily" obscuring Hades behind his "sweet food, " and the abduction scene is fringed with flowers, one might wonder. How can this figure be so aversive? And if there is no cause for aversion, there is no struggle, and thus no loser, and finally no real victim. Ultimately, there is no rape at all that one can securely point to in the text. Such reticence in the depiction of violence is all the more remarkable because while Scarry's terms apply to certain modem descriptions of war, her analysis cannot be applied to Homeric texts concemed with war (or torture) . When it comes to physical violence, Homeric passages are as 187 unabashedly graphic about wounding as they are about weapons and those who wield them. Language in such contexts proliferates, resulting in a text of almost boundless invention, and apparent delight when it comes to describing heroic injuries. It is only in the context of sexual wounding (rape; i.e., "abduction, seduction, courtship, marriage, love") that Homeric convention hides the agent behind harmless symbols offered in the text in order to divert attention from the wound that rape creates. This may be because the audience of the Iliad, which was likely to have contained veterans, warriors, and young recruits alike, found battle-wounds and weaponry relevant to their own experience, but felt no comparable motivation for hearing the details of a rape.®® In addition, Iliadic rape is a form of revenge, not heroism; if the epic served a didactic purpose, its goal was to mold heroes, not pillagers— although suggestions of the pleasures of revenge and the rewards to be gained from sacking a city are by no means absent from the text. Furthermore, the suggestion of rape seems to have been inportant mostly because it urged a man to protect the women of his community. In the Iliad and on archaic pottery, women on the battlements watch the battle before Troy with fears that include the fear of rape; in

®®Ephebic or defeated soldier's fear of rape: Stanley 1993:383 n.6 (on Iliad 22.124, which he considers possibly to represent "an immature ephebes' flight from rape") . See also Chapter One. 188 tragedy, a similar fear is expressed by the female chorus in Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes:

ô}j£ûi6e ; 5e KoavcTOijJovsç < > < > euvocv caxMoXcoTOv àv5poç svkjxoüvroç (363-5)

The girls, new servants, new to misery, must endure a war captive's bed, bed o f a man successful...

The men who fight before the walls are fully aware of this particular danger to the women, and face battle-wounds in order to prevent it.®'' Hektor and Meleager, for exanple, go to war specifically in order to protect their wives from slavery to an eneny male. As Hcxneric warriors protect females on their side fron rape, Homeric poets protect their audiences from descriptions of its shameful and distasteful reality. Language fails before this contest not only because of its intrinsically unheroic aspect, but because of its physical conponents. In Homeric Greek, both phallus (the unnamed "weapon") and female genitalia (the unnamed "wound" ) fall under the category of oo5oia: intrinsically

"shameful things" or "private parts." As we have seen, when Menelaos is injured by Pandaros, the hero's inner experience is converted into clear outer signs (blood, shudders, verbal syrrpathy, onlookers,

®"Vermeule 1979:113 provides an illustration of "watchers on the walls, women and children" from a sixth- century Corinthian oinochoe. 189 medicine) which point the audience toward Menelaos' (necessarily private) physical pain, requiring us to consider, if not conprehend, what he undergoes. In contrast, Persephone's opponent leaps from nowhere out of a chasm; she irmediately disappears into the murky gloom; and her wound remains a matter of conjecture and contention, that is, a lacuna in the text that is full of suggestion, allusion and symbolism and all but lacking in clear agents, instruments, or physical pain. Thus the harm Hades does Persephone is considerably less "real" than the harm one Homeric warrior does another. The Homeric hero's wound is both feared and appreciated as a sign of valor, identity and worth. The rape wound is invisible ; it signifies nothing. The vagina itself, which in its capacity to bleed naturally resembles a wound, was (in later Greek thought at least) already a locus of female vulnerability and susceptibility to outside "influences."®® Therefore rape is something done to a surface that is--unlike armor or skin--naturally designed for penetration anyway. When texts fall silent before sexual violence (to paraphrase duBois), the woman's body itself becomes the scarcely visible tablet on which the attacker writes his own story.®® If females were listening

®®Sissa 1990. ®®duBois 1988:130-66. 190 to the Iliad and to the Hymn, one wonders what they thought.

^°°Female audiences: for Sappho as an exaitple of a female audience member challenging the Homeric ethos, see duBois 1984; Winkler 1990a:162-87; Skinner 1993. Female fantasy, interest, and participation in ancient literature (the novel): Egger 1994a and b, 1990; Montague 1992; Stephens 1994; Wiersma 1990; Wesseling 1988. EPILOGUE t e x t ü a l /s e x ü M j, v i o l e n c e

To me it's almost a genre convention at this point-like using violins when people look at each other or using women in situaticms where they are killed or sexually attacked....! don't particularly want to chop up women but it seems to work.^

While the recently published interpretive essays in Helene Foley's edition of the Hymn have focussed attention on female experience in the poem, the present study has been determined to focus on the most marginalized (and least understood) character and event of all: Persephone and her rape. Accordingly, approaches to sexual violence in Classical texts that have been proposed by Frotn Zeitlin, Amy Richlin, Lynn Higgins, Brenda Silver, and several others (many contained within the recent anthologies Rape and Representation and Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome) have been brought to bear on the Hymn. Using methodology derived from these sources, we have examined treatment of rape in the Hymn, noticing first, in Chapter One, that the act itself is removed from the text. Elision, periphrasis, and displacement serve as literary tools to circumscribe rather than to describe this particular form of violence. The Hymn was identified as possessing features

^Filtmaker Brian De Palma, as cited by S. Brown 1992:182. See also Rabinowitz 1993:31-99 (on "fetishized victims" in Euripides). 191 192 that became conmonplace in representations of rape in the Classical tradition, and as demonstrating the "art of rape" in that it artistically frames one of the most aversive acts that a human being can commit. Conpounding this process of silence and mystification, scholarly criticism engendered by the poem has largely ignored the rape as a signifier of female pain and violation, and preferred to discuss Persephone's abduction in terras raore gentle and roraantic than those enployed here. Chapter One set forth the hypothesis that by focussing primarily on the representation of female responses to violence the Hymn contains, we would discover that although the Hymn hides the actual violence and wounding of rape, it nevertheless (and perhaps inadvertently) exposes archaic attitudes that encouraged violence in this form. Thus the poem represents "textual/sexual violence, an appellation for the process whereby females leam--through literary aestheticization of female distress, elipsis of female experience, and displacement of responsibility for violence onto females--to expect victimization or invisibility. Such literary techniques also serve to shift focus away from female experience and toward the "higher purpose" of male characters, and to silence the female voice in favor of male characters' evaluations of what the female has said.

^The word-play is borrowed from the title of Moi 1985, Textual/Sexual Politics (see also Millett 1969) and from Peixoto 1992. 193 Chapter Two turned to the plot of the poem itself. There, it was seen that violence spreads frcxn the opening lines like the aftershock of an earthquake; when Persephone's scream reaches the ears of Demeter, it irrevocably changes the course of her existence. Attention to the "minor" female characters Metaneira (in Chapter Two) and Kallidike (in Chapter Three), who exemplify the wholeness and security experienced by females not confronted with rape and its consequences, revealed something of what Demeter and Persephone lost to violence. This comparison also helped to illuminate how the poet organizes females into binary categories : good and bad, safe and unsafe, productive and dangerous, alone and accompanied, virginal and victimized. The archaic belief that females are the natural prey or property of males is implicit in these categories. As Demeter listening to Helios 1earns, the poem contains a positive view of rape as comparable to hasty marriage; as Zeus noticing Demeter's response leams, the poem also portrays a fearsome female capacity for revenge - - a form of power which must be reconciled to male order for the continued "good" of Zeus' cosmos. As we saw in Chapter Two, Demeter is transformed first by grief and rage, and then turns to cunning fueled by rage. Anger on the part of females who directly or indirectly experienced violence may very well have existed in archaic Greece, but been concealed in everyday life; the myth of 194 Demeter brings this concealed possibility to our attention. Likewise, fear (perhaps well-grounded fear) of going out alone may have been cotnnonly experienced by young women, but a preference for conpany can easily be construed as "maidenly modesty" or "virtue" when it surfaces in literary texts. Eleusis is the stunning and blessed exception: here is portrayed a powerful female capacity for liveliness and community within a protected context--that is, in a community without sexual violence. This reading of the Eleusis imagined by the hymn poet supports Clinton's reading of this poem as inportant to the Thesmophoria: both poem and festival provide, or allow for, the community of women. Eleusis is Demeter's place of transformation, and Metaneira is the catalyst who spurs the grieving Demeter to rediscover her voice and unveil her retributive strategic powers. Chapter Three, moving from the Demeter-Metaneira pair to a consideration of Persephone and Kallidike, continued our examination of the effects of sexual violence within the communities the poet constructs. Kallidike stands as a symibol of what Persephone was, and as a vision of the best that a patriarchal system can offer: protection and promise for the budding young girl who will sotmeday make a willing bride. Thus she serves as a counterpart for the silent, enigmatic (and untrustworthy) Persephone, who unhappily and uneasily submits to a marriage with Hades initiated by violence. In this chapter, it was demonstrated that in 195 archaic poetry, females are not only conmonly prized for beauty, but that a beautiful female alone invites the topic of rape to surface in the text. The dutiful and conmunally- minded Kallidike, who is destined for obscurity, escapes this latter danger while the lone Persephone falls prey to it, and wins "the greatest honors" beside Hades in the underworld. Analysis of the narrator as a special kind of character whom the poet enploys in order to present information has revealed important differences between Persephone's version of the rape and the narrator's. On the one hand, rape is viewed as a culturally positive event; on the other, it is a devastating event initiating a period of grief. Zeus is the silent proponent of the former; Demeter and Persephone act out the latter point of view. The poet utilizes the voice of the narrator in order to leave us in doubt about where Persephone's sympathies finally lie. While many scholars have suggested that Persephone comes to appreciate her new position during the course of the poem, in this chapter I explored the possibility that she does not. Finally, in order to demonstrate the valorization of male suffering and the marginalization of female pain (with special attention to the immediate effects on the victims' respective communities as well), Chapter Three concluded with a corrparison of an Iliadic wounding with the rape in the Hynn. Relying upon Scarry's analysis of literary descriptions of 196 pain shows that the archaic text does not flinch from description of minute details on the battlefield. Silence and suggestion, however, replace description and celebration in Persephone's case. Thus the female wounds sustained in rape go largely unacknowledged. I have suggested that a critical look at the poem can reveal something of the Classical legacy of our own rape- prone society. In closing, I would like to look briefly at some modern inplications of Persephone's story. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter presents one of the founding myths of Western culture ; Mylonas proclaimed it "one of the favorite stories of the ancient world. Certainly the poem adheres to classical representations of gender, many of which are alive and well today. In the Hyrm, males are generally self-directed, logical in purpose, physically and intellectually powerful, and more than a match (in the end) for female power, aggression, and craftiness. Correspondingly, females are described as physically beautiful yet ineffective, highly mobile in respect to both body and emotion, enpathetic, communicative, and vulnerable. Today, alongside these cime-honored ideas about gender, rape is an increasingly common experience for women in the United States. There is now, in addition to myriad bibliographies on every aspect of the topic, a

^Mylonas 1961:3, 197 National Rape Information Clearinghouse.'* Yet the Hyrm, unlike Ovid's Metamorphoses, Greek tragedy, or Livy's Lucretia, has not previously been the subject of a conprehensive interpretation that considers its sexual violence. Indeed, the larger question. Why is Greek mythology so full of rape, has now been asked, but answered largely in symbolic terms: rape has been considered symbolic of the ravishment beauty causes its beholder; or of painful initiation into the married state; rape has been deemed a reflection of Athenian "abduction"-type wedding ritual, or the result of a pretense to resistance that a maiden had to display in order to be considered maidenly-- anything, it seems, except rape as rape. Many of the sources cited in this study do consider the resmiblance of ancient Greek marriage ritual, or the possible feelings of Greek brides in their arranged marriages, to rape; surprisingly, this has not yet led to a full exploration of the possibility that women in bronze age and archaic Greece experienced rape at levels significant enough to be registered in iryth and literature. And yet this seems a plausible hypothesis. I can only allude to it here within the confines of the present literary study. The attractive Persephone plays in a meadow for no good purpose except her own enjoyment, and is raped by an

“Operated by the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and located in Rockville, Maryland. 198 outsider who sees her and desires a wife. The poem errphasizes her physical appearance and helplessness; in the aftermath the text courts the suspicion that she was unsuitably chaperoned, removes Persephone from the center of attention, and invites us to suspect that once invisible, she came to accept or even enjoy what happened after the abduction. (And many a critic has accepted the invitation.) The rape is also pictured as an isolated event, rather than as part of a pattern of male-female interaction with conplex and far-reaching political implications. All of these features become traditional in literature after the Hymn, both classical and afterward, and their traces remain in the legal, literary and artistic representations of rape in our own culture. Although in the United States most rapes occur in woræn's own homes and are perpetrated by men known to the victim, societal blame for rape is directed at the woman "out alone" and at "strangers." Some writers considering the problem of rape from an historical or scientific point of view suggest that rape has no real "meaning, " either historically or in modern society, because it is largely perpetrated by outsiders: men of "ocher" races and classes, "loner" men with shifty eyes and without jobs, those who lack a privileged share in patriarchy, or who have no other hopes of passing on their genes.^ This "victim" and this

'Porter 1986; Thornhill et al. 1986; Frayling 1986. 199 "rapist," however, are largely fictions. But unlike Ion in Euripides' play, we have no gods to blame. When we turn to ancient Greece, solid evidence is lacking for actual (as opposed to literary) rapes in archaic times; nor are we well-informed for even the Classical and later periods.® But ancient Greek literature suggests that foreigners, barbarians, divinities, and strangers rape women, and furthermore that these outsiders are motivated by pardonable natural desire, compelled by feminine availability and appeal - -explanations that American art forms and courtrooms are fond of still. Is this lære coincidence? Both the "stranger" and the "overwhelming urge" seem to esq^ress wishful thinking about rape rather than its reality. We must use caution in order to prevent ourselves from slipping these ideas, our own cherished nyths, into our readings of Greek texts and unwittingly obscuring their meanings. I have endeavored to avoid wishful thinking in this study of sexual violence and its effects on women as demonstrated in the Hyrm. If we pose the hymn as a question, that question might be: For what do we honor Demeter? Demeter is honored in her Homeric Hyrm for rescuing her daughter from the underworld and for bestowing upon mortals the gifts of Eleusinian ritual, the changing seasons, and the practice of agriculture. The poem explores the conflict and change

®But see Cole 1984; Harris 1990. 200 which lead to an inproved situation for mortals vis a vis the gods and the natural world. But let us notice what the poem is not about. A poem whose initial action is a rape does not ask the question, What is it like to be raped? or What might rape mean to a woman? Instead, the poet uses rape to animate the poem and enploys reunion to close it (in a finish more like the "happy-ever-after" of ancient romantic novels than we might suspect occurred in real life). In between, Persephone's experience remains a matter of mystery and ambiguity in the text. The poet was concerned primarily with Demeter, after all. Because of the focus elsewhere, because of what Persephone might stand for (the soul, the initiate, the seed, adolescence itself), Persephone's rape matters; the victim herself does not. Again, reality may be reflected here. In modem accounts of rape and its social and legal ramifications, authors refer to what they graphically term a "second rape," which occurs when the victim herself, in the aftermath of the original violence, is overlooked or even blamed by those she expected to help her (relatives, medical or legal authorities), or is used as a tool in the legal process she initiated. In such cases the victim may be forgotten as those around her respond to what occurred. Modem studies indicate that she may (like Demeter), experience depression, starve or mutilate herself; she may (like Persephone), undergo questioning while her rapist does not. 201 Feminists who study rape today with the conviction that the apparently private, personal, wanton, or "insane" act of rape actually functions 1) as one method of control visited upon females in rape-prone societies and 2) as a form of insult between males who damage "each other's" women, do well to call upon the Hyim (and other Classical texts) for historical support of their theory. In this poem, not only do Persephone and the narrator disagree about whether rape is a universal or a personal event; in addition, the poet (unlike Ovid) does not trouble to supply any pretense to "lust" or (still worse) "love" on Hades' part, but pictures him as acquiring control of a female by means of rape. Finally, Hades and Zeus, the two sons of Kronos who plan the rape of a goddess related to them, are by no means "insane, " "outsiders," or desperate to contribute to the gene pool. Nor do they attempt to keep what they do a secret. Why should they? What they do is perfectly justified. The violence that appears so chaotic and brutally unnecessary to Demeter actually serves a larger pupose which justifies its occurrence: that purpose could be defined as the exchange of women and control of their reproductive capacity so essential to patriarchy, and so important a part of kinship systems in ancient Greece. In the Hymn to Demeter, despite initial difficulties, several cultural institutions increase or arise as a result of Persephone's rape. Marriage, architecture, and religious 202 ritual are among the forms increased, expanded, or founded by that event. In addition to these conpensations for violence, by the end of the poem a happy ending shrouded in allusion to the Eleusinian mysteries has replaced earlier poetic concerns with healing the conmunity from the familial disjunctions caused by Zeus and Hades. As Clay rightly emphasizes. Demeter and Persephone must be subsumed under the power of Zeus again in order for the Hyim to achieve its Olympian hymnic purpose. In the present case, the sublimation of Persephone is particularly striking because while the poet leaves Persephone "with her mother" and "beside Zeus" in order to achieve a positive ending, elsewhere in literature and visual art Persephone is pictured beside Hades or with her mother, but she is not an Olympian. The nodel of the human family, restored to its integrity, has become paramount. During the course of the story, Persephone and Demeter are taken off of the ground and away from outlying areas to be housed in stable, cultural structures. Persephone enters her husband's halls, and Demeter enters her new tenple where men can worship. It is desired of both that chus properly sheltered, they will shed their distress. By the close of the Hymn, Persephone and Demeter are connected to males by rituals too, rituals that propitiate their powers. Hades offers Persephone "power over all that lives and moves" and "the greatest honor among the gods" if she will stop being angry; Zeus' 203 messengers offer Demeter "many glorious gifts and whatever honors she might choose" if she will put aside her wrath. Propitiation brings about the solidarity among the gods and blessings for the initiate that adorn the poet's optimistic farewell. In the end, it is clear that Zeus and Hades never plotted to "hurt" Persephone. They plotted to get her "married" without much ado, and overlooked, elided, the physical body in pain--Persephone's body--in their plans. Their ideology, their picture of the world, is not imagined to have included concerns about traumatizing their young victim; or perhaps they (as other Greek sources attest) viewed sexual violence as something a female gets over fairly readily when presented with the increased status of her new position (or with offspring) ; or perhaps (and this seems most likely) female subjectivity, as opposed to the female as a passive object, did not enter their heads at all. The Hyim provides support for Susan Griffin's hypothesis that rape cannot "be rooted out from patriarchy without ending patriarchy itself," for "rape is the quintessential act of our civilization."’ As we consider the Classical legacy of the Hyrm, let me add one further exairple to Foley's collection of modem reactions to the Persphone nyth.® The following source, from the New York Times Book Review, describes two recent

’Griffin 1978:332, ®Foley 151-69. 204 editions of the Persephone story which have been written for young girls (an audience of readers not typically considered in Classical studies). In this article, the reviewer demonstrates not only that a new generation of girls is being introduced to a story derived from Classical sources, but also haw they are being introduced to it. The reviewer notes that these two new books share a common approach to the myth:

It is...obviously a stoiy of awakening sexuality; a child is stolen away finm her mother, carried into a dark and threatening country, and because she cannot resist eating from a forbidden fruit in that country, she chooses that country, chooses at least partial separation from her mother and from her childhood. (...) This aspect of sexual awareness is emphasized.... In this version, Persephone is fascinated by a blood red narcissus in the meadow, and it is when she returns at ni^ t to pick this entrancing but disturbing flower that Pluto bursts out o f frie earth and carries her off. (...) Pluto tempts her with a luscious pomegranate to awaken her appetite; she picks it \sp. Then she "is allowed to invent her own annual schedule, and it turns out that her abduction has been, in fact, an opportunity for personal growth...."®

Here, the original rape has evolved into an educational, liberating, and sensual e^geriment that the child chooses; what once was rape is now "an opportunity for personal growth." Is the problem that the authors do not know the Classical sources (the best known being the Hyrm and Ovid) , or does the problem begin with the Classical sources themselves? As Hades and Zeus l e a m during the course of the poem, from the female point of view, rape is not equivalent to a

®Klass 1994. 205 hasty marriage; nor can it be used as a tool for avoiding the considerations due to a bride of status and her family. Nor is it an act of culture, even if its nythic results can be positively represented as new rituals, a new tenple, the award of agriculture and foundation of the seasons. These symbols may conceal the reality of rape as experienced by women in ancient Greece and in modem times as well. Rape is an act of violence whose repercussions are felt in the female and male realms, and whose consequences spread until the wound is seen and healed. Rape may strike Hades and Zeus as a sinple solution for Hades' bachelorhood, but it is not that sinple. Females possess subjectivity and exist within a social context. Thus Demeter reacts, and barrenness greets males when they attenpt to wrest the power of fertility from female control. Is this a form of wish- fulfillment for ancient Greek women, whose reproductive roles were determined by men, and who had no opportunity to rescue the daughter, sister, or mother taken in an unwanted marriage? Perhaps. The rage that might have been remains a cipher; it is as unreal, or unbelievable, as the real wound, or as Persephone herself. She remains silent, perhaps disbelieved, in the mythic shadows, beside Hades or beside her mother. As the Homeric Hymn to Demeter shows, and as m o d e m research has confirmed, the transformative consequences of rape for both the victim and her community cause that act to resemble the taking of a captive in war 206 more than it resembles the union of a couple in marriage.^® The Hymn is not only a monument to Greek religious festivals, an inportant conponent of the Homeric corpus, a potent Greek myth, and a clue to Eleusinian mystery; it is the most eloquent statement to come out of ancient Greece about what is still called "The Female Fear.

^°As I write, the United Nations is endeavoring to undo the traditional definition of rape presented in this stucty", in order to redefine (and thereby prosecute) rape as a war policy in Bosnia (Leive 1995). ^^Gordon and Riger 1989. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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