192 Technical Review Junel 2011

The Australian Wine A W R I Research Institute

Technical Review

No192 June 2011

Registered by Australia Post PP 531629/00034 Table of contents

In this issue 1 Technical notes 5

‘Big Science’ for wine research: Metabolomics and Bioinformatics at the AWRI 5

Is Proctase the right enzyme for protein stabilisation of white wines? 9

Current literature 12 AWRI publications 44 AWRI extension and roadshow calendar 51

Editor: Michael Major, Michael Major Media All enquiries: Rae Blair; email [email protected] Copyright: Reprints and quotations of articles published herein are permitted on condition that full credit is given to both The Australian Wine Research Institute Technical Review and the author/s, and that the date of publication and issue number are stated. Acknowledgment: The production and distribution of Technical Review is partially financed by The Thomas Walter Hardy Trust Fund. ISSN 0816-0805

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‘Big Science’ for wine research: Metabolomics and Bioinformatics at the AWRI ...... 5

Is Proctase the right enzyme for protein stabilisation of white wines? ...... 9

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Current literature (circle the required papers)

192.01 [0.80] 192.02 [1.20] 192.03 [0.90] 192.04 [0.70] 192.05 [0.90] 192.06 [1.50] 192.07 [1.10] 192.08 [1.70] 192.09 [0.90] 192.10 [0.70] 192.11 [0.90] 192.12 [0.30] 192.13 [0.20] 192.14 [0.80] 192.15 [0.40] 192.16 [1.20] 192.17 [0.70] 192.18 [0.50] 192.19 [0.30] 192.20 [1.10] 192.21 [0.20] 192.22 [0.30] 192.23 [0.40] 192.24 [0.40] 192.25 [0.30] 192.26 [0.80] 192.27 [0.50] 192.28 [0.70] 192.29 [1.20] 192.30 [0.80] 192.31 [0.30] 192.32 [1.10] 192.33 [0.20] 192.34 [0.10] 192.35 [0.20] 192.36 [0.80] 192.37 [0.20] 192.38 [0.50] 192.39 [0.10] 192.40 [1.00] 192.41 [0.20] 192.42 [0.20] 192.43 [0.10] 192.44 [0.50] 192.45 [0.60] 192.46 [0.90] 192.47 [0.50] 192.48 [0.80] 192.49 [0.80] 192.50 [0.60] 192.51 [0.90] 192.52 [0.20] 192.53 [0.70] 192.54 [0.50] 192.55 [0.50] 192.56 [0.40] 192.57 [1.00] 192.58 [0.60] 192.59 [0.30] 192.60 [0.30] 192.61 [0.30] 192.62 [0.70] 192.63 [0.20] 192.64 [1.00] 192.65 [0.80] 192.66 [0.60] 192.67 [0.30] 192.68 [0.40] 192.69 [0.50] 192.70 [0.20] 192.71 [0.80] 192.72 [1.60] 192.73 [0.70] 192.74 [0.60] 192.75 [1.10] 192.76 [0.50] 192.77 [0.90] 192.78 [4.60] 192.79 [1.00] 192.80 [0.30] 192.81 [0.70] 192.82 [0.80] 192.83 [0.40] 192.84 [0.50] 192.85 [4.50] 192.86 [0.80] 192.87 [0.90] 192.88 [0.80] 192.89 [0.50] AWRI publications (circle the required papers)

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4 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 In this issue

TECHNICAL NOTES ‘Big Science’ for wine research: Metabolomics and Bioinformatics at the AWRI Researchers at the AWRI now have access to a range of technologies that enable ‘Big Science’ approaches to its wine yeast and bacteria research projects. In a wine context, one of the most important of these approaches is Metabolomics (see article); and the glue that holds the various biological Big Science technologies together, and enables us to make sense of the massive datasets generated is Bioinformatics (see article). Both Metabolomics and Bioinformatics facilities, along with the requisite expertise, are now housed in, and managed through, the AWRI.

Is Proctase the right enzyme for protein stabilisation of white wines? Proctase was used for removing the haze forming proteins from white grape juice. Proctase is a food grade, inexpensive protease active at wine pH and at high temperature. Proctase greatly reduced the protein content of grape juice when added during fermentation or in combination with heat treatments of clarified juice.

CURRENT LITERATURE Oenology Juice and wine handling (page 12) Influence of microoxygenation on reductive sulfur off-odors and color development in a Cabernet Sauvignon wine Study of wine tartaric acid salt stabilization by addition of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC): comparison with the ‘protective colloids’ effect Effect of wine micro-oxygenation treatment and storage period on colour-related phenolics, volatile composition and sensory characteristics Accurate oxygen management in wine bottling Monitoring oxygen uptake and consumption during microoxygenation treatments before and after malolactic fermentation The Chardonnay way Microbiology (page 15) Effect of growth temperature on yeast lipid composition and alcoholic fermentation at low temperature Sequential inoculation with a non-Saccharomyces yeast and a Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast Analysis and composition (page 16) Volatile compounds and sensory attributes of wine from cv. Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) grown under differential levels of water deficit with or without a kaolin-based, foliar reflectant particle film Determination of phenolic compounds of grape skins during ripening by NIR spectroscopy

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 1 Marketing and packaging (page 17) Factors affecting wine closure selection Carbon footprint of glass packaging Environment (page 17) Aeration techniques applied in the treatment of winery effluent Sensory (page 18) Identification of confusable odours including wines: appropriate labels enhance performance

Viticulture General (page 19) Vineyard biodiversity – vive la différence! It is possible to predict Sangiovese wine quality through a limited number of variables measured on the vines Vineyard variability in Marlborough, New Zealand: characterising variation in vineyard performance and options for the implementation of Precision Viticulture Non esistono più le mezze potenze Grapegrower interview: Patti Fetzer Annual growth cycle of a grapevine Recycling CCA posts – a reality at last? Costs and benefits of hang time Aplicación de la espectroscopia NIR en el sector en Australia Comparing the costs of biodynamic and conventional viticulture in Australia: a recent study Berry temperatures: correct measurement Biodynamics and the limits of rationalism Optical sorters hasten harvest Links between mechanical properties of grape berries during ripening and extractability of their skin anthocyanins Vine improvement and varieties (page 23) Verdejo Mencía Godello Albariño Treixadura Callet Prieto Picudo Recognition and genotyping of minor germplasm of Friuli Venezia Giulia revealed high diversity The origins of Sauvignon Grapegrower interview: Deborah Golino Bianco d’Alessano — behind the wine that triumphed at the Alternative Varieties Wine Show Chateau Grand Traverse: meet a focused Riesling leader The big V Las variedades tintas suponen el 52.3% del total del viñedo Potencialidad de las variedades minoritarias de la D.O.Ca. Rioja Prospection and identification of grapevine varieties cultivated in north Portugal and northwest Spain Characterization of Vitis vinifera L. subspecies sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi in the Ebro River Basin (Spain)

2 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Microsatellite database of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars used for wine production in Portugal Modern wines from ancient Greek grapes Performance of the cv. Pinot Noir under pedoclimatic conditions of the Valais area, Switzerland Pests and diseases (page 28) Evaluación de la sensibilidad en distintas viníferas blancas Effectiveness of stilbenes in resistant Vitaceae Field evaluation of grapevine rootstocks inoculated with fungi associated with Petri disease and esca Protocol: management of eutypa dieback in grapevines Studies on the infestation by Eutypa lata of grapevine spring wounds Is IPM dead? Grapevine leafroll disease control in South Africa Methods to detect and identify bunch rots Systemic damage in leaf metabolism caused by esca infection in grapevines Water and nutrition (page 31) Effects of juice pH and potassium on juice and wine quality, and regulation of potassium in grapevines through rootstocks (Vitis): a short review The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 1): irrigation volumes, plant water stress and vigour The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 2): yield, water use efficiency and wine quality Practical guidelines for the measurement of water potential in grapevine leaves Effects of leaf position on blade and petiole mineral nutrient concentration of Tempranillo grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) The changing face of irrigation Riego por goteo en variedades blancas de Castilla y León Goteo aéreo y subterráneo en cuatro variedades tintas de vid Vineyard management systems (page 34) Mechanized canopy management: Fresno State trials show yield, quality, cost benefits La vigne ‘en lyre’ sur le terroir savoyard Native plants offer cover too Mechanization of vineyards Ballerina trellis system for sustainable increased production Physiology and biotechnology (page 35) Auxin treatment of pre-veraison grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries both delays ripening and increases the synchronicity of sugar accumulation Berry development – an overview. Part 1. Morphology and anatomy of a berry Allometric and biochemical responses of grapevines subjected to drought and enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation Estimation of vineyard water status (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo) from the developmental stage of the shoot tips Effect of pre- and post-veraison water deficit on proanthocyanidin and anthocyanin accumulation during Shiraz berry development Balance of photosynthetic active radiations in vineyard: method and applications Suitability of pre-dawn and stem water potential as indicators of vineyard water status in cv. Tempranillo

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 3 Climate and soils (page 39) Practices for sustainable viticulture. Part 1. Soil preparation for a proper root system Projecting the impacts of climate change on the phenology of grapevine in a mountain area Assessing under-vine soil surface temperatures Identifying reserve-quality soils in vineyards Influence of soil salinity on sensory characteristics and volatile aroma compounds of Nero d’Avola wine Climate predictions for Tasmania in 2100 Sostenibilità ambientale sempre a portata di click

Wine & Health Epidemiology (page 42) Alcohol-related negative consequences among drinkers around the world Genetics (page 42) Evaluating a cognitive model of ALDH2 and drinking behavior The investigation into CYP2E1 in relation to the level of response to alcohol through a combination of linkage and association analysis Association of alcohol intake with pancreatic cancer mortality in never smokers Public health policy (page 43) Australian governments’ spending on preventing and responding to drug abuse should target the main sources of drug-related harm and the most cost-effective interventions

AWRI publications (page 44) Protein evolution during the early stages of white winemaking and its relations with wine stability The seven ages of wine Comparison of inorganic and organic nitrogen supplementation of grape juice – effect on volatile composition and aroma profile of a Chardonnay wine fermented withSaccharomyces cerevisiae yeast Therapeutic value of wine: a clinical and scientific perspective Malolactic fermentation Ripening-induced changes in grape skin proanthocyanidins modify their interaction with cell walls Effects of transporting and processing Sauvignon Blanc grapes on 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol precursor concentrations Application of a modified method for 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol determination to investigate the relationship between free thiol and related conjugates in grape juice and wine Evolution of 3-mercaptohexanol, hydrogen sulfide, and methyl mercaptan during bottle storage of Sauvignon Blanc wines. Effect of glutathione, copper, oxygen exposure, and closure-derived oxygen A comprehensive reevaluation of small-scale congress mash protocol parameters for determining extract and fermentability Whole-genome comparison reveals novel genetic elements that characterize the genome of industrial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Controlling the highs and lows of alcohol in wine Two-dimensional correlation analysis of the effect of temperature on the fingerprint of wines analysed by mass spectrometry electronic nose Harnessing AWRI’s yeast and bacterial research to shape ‘next-gen’ Chardonnay part 1: ‘wild’ and ‘non-conventional’ yeast

4 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Technical notes ‘Big Science’ for wine research: Metabolomics and Bioinformatics at the AWRI

Metabolomics – the concept and its application to the wine industry Technically, the term metabolomics refers to the comprehensive analysis (qualitative and quantitative) of the complete set of all low molecular weight metabolites, the metabolome, which exist within a biological system (Oliver et al. 1998; van der Werf et al. 2005; Mashego et al. 2007; Villas-Boas et al. 2007). The key word in this definition is ‘comprehensive’. Unlike traditional reductionist approaches or targeted metabolite analysis, which tend to focus on a handful of metabolites known to the researcher, metabolomics broadens the scope, allowing scientists to look at things in a more a holistic way; to see the bigger picture.

Wine itself is a complex set of several interacting ‘metabolomes’; grape, yeast, bacteria, and oak metabolites contribute to wine chemical composition shaping a wine’s final characteristics. Metabolomics approaches in wine research, therefore, have the ability to provide a much greater understanding of how variables, such as environmental conditions and genetic variation of vines, yeast and bacteria, shape the sensory attributes of wines and distinguish the best vintages from the ‘also-rans’. Most importantly, greater information can be converted into greater knowledge which will ultimately lead to greater control for winemakers.

The nuts and bolts of Metabolomics The metabolome consists of hundreds to thousands of metabolites that have very diverse chemical and physical properties (Dunn et al. 2005; Saghatelian and Cravatt 2005). Due to this large diversity and its complexity there is no one single instrument or method that is able to detect all metabolites with the necessary precision, resolution and sensitivity, therefore a suite of complementary analytical methods and instrumentation is required (van der Werf et al. 2005). Currently ‘comprehensive’ metabolomic analysis is achieved through a combination of mass spectrometry (MS) coupled to different chromatographic separation techniques, such as liquid chromatography (LC) or gas chromatography (GC) or NMR (Roessner et al. 2000; Börner et al. 2007; van der Werf et al. 2007). These analytical chemistry techniques generate vast amounts of data that quickly overwhelm efforts of manual interpretation, requiring specialised, sophisticated computing resources and high level expertise that come under the banner of Bioinformatics (see accompanying section below).

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 5 AWRI Metabolomics Facility In 2008, through funding via Bioplatforms Australia (BPA): an organisation established to provide services and scientific infrastructure in the specialist fields of genomics, proteomics, metabolomics and bioinformatics, the AWRI established the South Australian node of Metabolomics Australia. The AWRI-Metabolomics facility has a platform that provides both GC/MS and LC/MS analysis, designed to detect metabolites from several chemical classes and sample matrices. The facility is committed to developing and providing service on a broad range of biological species, with particular expertise in microorganisms, volatile secondary metabolites, sensometabolomics and the food and beverage industry.

Over the past three years, the AWRI-Metabolomics facility has provided service to academic and commercial parties from a range of fields, including many directly connected to the Australian wine sector. Due to the success of the Metabolomics Australia and, in particular, the AWRI-Metabolomics facility, further funding has been awarded, which will allow the facility to increase its capability and capacity over the next two years.

Current offering and new developments The AWRI-Metabolomics facility provides a wide range of metabolomic analyses, from global fingerprinting to fully targeted metabolite analysis; including the analyses of many volatile wine-relevant compounds, such as esters and higher alcohols. The AWRI-Metabolomics facility has recently developed a rapid and inexpensive GC/MS ‘fingerprinting’ method for the analysis of wine volatiles. It combines unique instrument parameters with sophisticated statistical analysis and provides greater options to winemakers and researchers to screen a much larger number of different winemaking treatments that was not possible previously. Additionally, a similar rapid and inexpensive LC/MS ‘fingerprinting’ method exists for the analysis of non-volatile compounds. In combination with established targeted and newly developed ‘profiling’ methods, the AWRI-Metabolomics facility is now able to provide researchers and commercial clients in the wine and yeast industries with access to a variety of cutting edge metabolomic analysis.

AWRI-Bioplatforms Australia Bioinformatics: converting data into information In parallel with the funding of the AWRI-Metabolomics facility, a new Bioinformatics node has been added to Bioplatforms Australia network. This node will be located at, and managed by, the AWRI. The Bioinformatics team, comprising of three computer scientists/ bioinformaticians, will support ᾿Omics platforms across South Australia, including the AWRI-Metabolomics Facility, and beyond.

6 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 What is Bioinformatics? Technological advances over the past 20 years or so have enabled biologists to collect massive datasets on the biochemistry, genetics and physiology of living organisms (including grapevines and wine microorganisms). Biologists now routinely: sequence the entire genetic make-up (the genome) of an organism; take a snapshot of a large part of the protein content (the proteome) of cells, tissues, organs or whole organisms, and, as discussed above, determine the metabolite content (the metabolome) of a living system. However, the massive and often complex datasets generated from ᾿Omics experiments would be of little value without the means of storing, processing, interrogating and integrating them. This is where Bioinformatics comes in; it provides the means of making sense of the plethora of information that biologists can now gather.

Bioinformatics, as a discipline, arises from a marriage between informatics (mostly computer based) sciences and the questions faced within biology. This covers a diverse arena of both technological and scientific focus. It includes, for example, shedding light on biomolecular structures from a mass spectrum, sorting and collating millions of partial DNA sequences into a complete genome, and creation of data mining tools that enable researchers to couple fresh experimental results with vast repositories of existing biological knowledge. The big advances in bioinformatics usually happen when an expert in one specialty, either within biology or computational sciences, gains enough expertise in the complementary discipline to connect a biological problem with an informatics solution. But the initial connection is only part of the battle, the next task is to bridge the gap to non-experts and make solutions accessible as broadly as possible.

BPA has recognised this final challenge requires a type of bioinformatics focused on building bridges within the scientific community and is supporting a team of three bioinformatics scientists to work out of the AWRI for that very goal. The team’s efforts will include applying bioinformatic methods to support platforms and projects run at BPA’s nodes in South Australia including: AWRI-Metabolomics Australia, Proteomics Australia (housed at the University of Adelaide) and Genomics Australia (housed at the Waite Precinct but will also support BPA activities elsewhere). Additionally, the team plans to drive outreach initiatives providing awareness, access and training to the wider scientific community.

One wine-relevant initiative that will benefit enormously from the services provided by the AWRI-BPA Bioinformatics team is the AWRI-driven Wine Yeast Systems Biology project, which provides an opportunity to accomplish multiple goals of the bioinformatics team within a single project. This study requires combining results from Genomics,

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 7 Proteomics and Metabolomics to construct a comprehensive model of myriad interacting biomolecules contributing to the process and product of wine fermentations. This will lead to better informed strategies for wine yeast strain development programs. And beyond the development of the model itself, the bioinformatic pathway taken to integrate and analyse the diverse and complex data inputs will provide a ready case study from which to build both introductory and advanced ‘how to’ tutorial lessons.

References Börner, J., Buchinger, S., Schomburg, D. (2007) A high-throughput method for microbial metabolome analysis using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Anal. Biochem. 367: 143–151. Dunn, W.B., Bailey, N.J.C., Johnson, H.E. (2005) Measuring the metabolome: current analytical technologies. Analyst 130(5): 606–625. Forster, J., Famili, I., Fu, P., Palsson, B.O., Nielsen, J. (2003) Genome-scale reconstruction of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Metabolic Network. Genome Res. 13: 244–253. Katona, Z.F., Sass, P., Molnár-Perl, I. (1999) Simultaneous determination of sugars, sugar alcohols, acids and amino acids in apricots by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A. 847: 91–102. Mashego, M.R., Rumbold, K., Mey, M.D., Vandamme, E., Soetaert, W., Heijnen, J.J. (2007) Microbial metabolomics: past, present and future methodologies. Biotechnol. Lett. 29: 1–16. Oliver, S.G., Winson, M.K., Kell, D.B., Baganz F. (1998) Systematic functional analysis of the yeast genome. Trends Biotechnol. 16: 373–378. Roessner, U., Wagner, C., Kopka, J., Trethewey, R.N. and Willmitzer, L. (2000) Simultaneous analysis of metabolites in potato tuber by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Plant J. 23: 131–142. Saghatelian, A., Cravatt, B.F. (2005) Global strategies to integrate the proteome and metabolome. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 9: 62–68. van der Werf, M.J., Jellema, R.H., Hankemeier, T. (2005) Microbial metabolomics: replacing trial-and-error by the unbiased selection and ranking of targets. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 32: 234–252. van der Werf, M.J., Overkamp, K.M., Muilwijk, B., Coulier, L., Hankemeier, T. (2007) Microbial metabolomics: toward a platform with full metabolome coverage. Anal. Biochem. 370: 17–25. Villas-Boas, S., Roessner, U., Hansen, M., Smedsgarrd, J., Nielsen, J. (2007) Metabolome Analysis: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey.

Meagan Mercurio, Coordinator – AWRI-Microbial Metabolomics [email protected] Wade Hines, Bioinformatician Paul Chambers, Research Manager – Biosciences

8 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Is Proctase the right enzyme for protein stabilisation of white wines?

Introduction During the storage of bottled white wines, residual heat-unstable grape proteins can become insoluble and form haze. To prevent this occurring, the proteins are commonly removed before bottling via bentonite addition. However, bentonite fining has some drawbacks such as wine volume loss and disposal costs, as well as perceived effects on wine flavour and quality (Waters et al. 2005). Proteases potentially represent an excellent alternative to bentonite, but so far none has shown sufficient activity under winemaking conditions. Several authors have investigated the effects of the addition of microbial proteases to wine, but in each study the enzymes were not able to degrade grape haze-forming proteins effectively because of the protein’s high resistance to proteolysis and the unfavourable conditions for the enzyme activity under winemaking conditions.

We came across a food grade protease recently, Proctase, that is well characterised and inexpensive. Proctase is an aspergillopepsin active at wine pH and at high temperatures (60- 70°C) and is marketed in Japan as a digestive drug for humans. We have shown recently that the temperatures at which the heat unstable wine proteins (thaumatin-like proteins [TLPs] and chitinases) unfold are between 55 and 62°C (Falconer et al. 2010). Since unfolded proteins are more easily cleaved by enzymes, and Proctase would still be active at those temperatures, there seemed an excellent chance that heat treatment, coupled with enzyme addition, could result in significant protein degradation.

In this article, we report our preliminary investigations undertaken on a laboratory scale. These results showed such promise that we are undertaking currently a 1000 L pilot-scale trial. The outcomes of the pilot-scale trial will be reported separately at a later date.

Heat and Proctase treatment of juice Results showed that the efficacy of Proctase was maximised when used in combination with short heat treatments of the juice. The heat treatments were performed in a heating block for 1 minute and, after heating, samples were cooled down by immersing the sample tubes in ice for 3 minutes.

Protein degradation by Proctase was already seen in samples from heat treatments of 65°C for 1 minute, and further degradation occurred with temperatures up to 75°C, while at 80°C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 9 the protein reduction was lower. It is likely that the temperature needs to be high enough to allow the substrate proteins to unfold and be susceptible to proteolysis (i.e. 65°C) but not so high as to slow down the enzyme activity (i.e. 80°C). Proctase worked at concentrations as low as 1 mg/L, while 10 mg/L in combination with heating at 70°C for 1 minute yielded a protein reduction of 90%, with heat stable proteins (as invertase and lipid-transfer proteins) mostly accounting for the remaining 10%. The enzyme activity was not hindered by the addition of

40 mg/L SO2. Heat alone also reduced the protein concentration in the juice by about 50% at temperatures higher than the melting point of heat unstable wine proteins (65-70°C).

Proctase during fermentation The effectiveness of Proctase during cellar temperatures was also assessed by adding the enzyme to juice before fermentation, without any heat treatment. Small-scale fermentations (250 mL each) of Chardonnay juice containing no Proctase or 15 mg/L Proctase were conducted in triplicate at 20°C. All fermentations reached completion within the normal time frame of 10 days. The protein content of the wine fermented with Proctase was 30% lower than the control. Thaumatin-like proteins were the main class affected, and it appears that the enzyme itself was still present after fermentation. Preliminary results suggest that the enzyme might continue its action during subsequent stages of wine processing, so that the final protein reduction could be higher than the one observed here.

Conclusion Proctase showed good activity at normal winemaking temperatures. The Proctase was still present in the wine after fermentation and so further protein reduction could occur in the subsequent stages of wine processing. The action of Proctase was maximised when combined with short heat treatments. The fact that heat unstable proteins are unfolded at 55-62°C was exploited to favour the Proctase action. Under these conditions the enzyme showed excellent activity and almost eliminated completely the heat-unstable wine proteins. So far, the answer to the title of this paper seems to be yes, but further studies are underway to determine the effects of these treatments on physicochemical and sensorial characteristics of white juices treated on a larger, more industrially relevant, scale. Pilot-scale work is being undertaken in collaboration with Peter Godden, Paul Smith, Ella Robinson and Richard Muhlack of the Industry Application Team at the AWRI. Preliminary results are consistent with those obtained in the laboratory-scale experiments, with protein reductions as high as 90% with heating in combination with Proctase.

10 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 References Waters, E. J., Alexander, G., Muhlack, R., Pocock, K. F., Colby, C., O’Neill, B. K., Høj, P. B., Jones, P. (2005) Preventing protein haze in bottled white wine. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 11: 215–225. Falconer, R. J., Marangon, M., Van Sluyter, S. C., Neilson, K. A., Chan, C., Waters, E. J. (2010) Thermal stability of thaumatin-like protein, chitinase and invertase isolated from Sauvignon blanc and Semillon juice, and their role in haze formation in wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58: 975–980.

Matteo Marangon, Research Scientist [email protected] Liz Waters, Research Manager – Biochemistry

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 11 Current literature

Copies of all articles listed in this section are available for private study on

request from the AWRI. Please use the request form provided in the centre pages of this issue. Currently a service charge of A$7.00 per request is applicable, plus a supply charge of 10¢ per page, plus postage will apply (inclusive of GST).

In compliance with copyright legislation, abstracts are reproduced here exactly as originally printed.

Oenology Juice and wine handling

192.01 Nguyen, D.-D., Nicolau, L., Dykes, S.I., Kilmartin, P.A. Influence of microoxygenation on reductive sulfur off-odors and color development in a Cabernet Sauvignon wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 457–464; 2010.

The effect of microoxygenation on the composition of a red wine was investigated, where oxygen was applied at both low and high rates (5 and 20 mg/L/month) through a diffuser or via permeation through polyethylene tanks. A control with no oxygen was also included. Each treatment was performed in triplicate, using a commercially made Cabernet Sauvignon wine, in nine 300-L stainless-steel and three 300-L polyethylene tanks at 16°C over 16 weeks. Spontaneous malolactic fermentation occurred simultaneously with the microoxygenation treatments. The results indicated that microoxygenation enhanced the wine color development, in which effects on pigments resistant to SO2 were more marked in the first half of the trial and more obvious influences on color density were seen during the second half of the trial. Microoxygenation, as applied in this study, did not show any effect on the desirable varietal thiol 3-mercaptohexanol, yet led to some decreases in the concentrations of undesirable off-odors, including a lowering in the concentration of methanethiol without an increase in the concentration of dimethyl disulfide. Changes in the concentrations of other reductive sulfur compounds, except the thioesters, were also affected by oxygen and further by the influence of spontaneous malolactic fermentation, indicating the complicated interactions of these compounds in the wine matrix.

© Reprinted with permission from Nguyen, D.-D., Nicolau, L., Dykes, S.I., Kilmartin, P.A. Influence of microoxygenation on reductive sulfur off-odors and color development in a Cabernet Sauvignon wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 457–464; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

12 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.02 Gerbaud, V., Gabas, N., Blouin, J., Crachereau, J.-C. Study of wine tartaric acid salt stabilization by addition of carboxymethylcellulose (CMC): comparison with the ‘protective colloids’ effect. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 44(4), 231–242; 2010.

Abstract not available for reproduction

192.03 Cejudo-Bastante, M.J., Pérez-Coello, M.S., Hermosín-Gutiérrez, I. Effect of wine micro-oxygenation treatment and storage period on colour-related phenolics, volatile composition and sensory characteristics. LWT 44(4), 866–874; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.10.015

192.04 Ferrarini, R., Casarotti, E.M., Nicolis, E., Ciocchetta, S. Accurate oxygen management in wine bottling. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 26–32; 2011.

This study determined optimal conditions to provide an appropriate inertization (protecting wine from oxidation) of different types of bottles by varying the sparging parameters. A method of measurement was developed that can be applicable on all bottle filling machines where monitoring of oxygen pickup is desired. The variables that can influence the oxygen content in this phase of the process have been identified and evaluated: inertization with inert gas before filling, and set-up of the filling machine for bottling with different bottles. The data have been processed, determining the best filling conditions and correct setup in order to obtain an oxygen increase of less than 0.2 ppm.

© Reprinted with permission from Ferrarini, R., Casarotti, E.M., Nicolis, E., Ciocchetta, S. Accurate oxygen management in wine bottling. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 26–32; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 13 192.05 Durner, D., Ganss, S., Fischer, U. Monitoring oxygen uptake and consumption during microoxygenation treatments before and after malolactic fermentation. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 465–473; 2010.

Dissolved and headspace oxygen concentrations were monitored during microoxygenation (MOX) treatments before and after malolactic fermentation (MLF) of Pinot Noir. The implementation of a noninvasive, fluorescence-based measurement system allowed precise oxygen determination in red wine and in the gaseous headspace above the wine surface. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations increased up to 1 and 0.5 mg/L in the second half of pre-MLF and post-MLF MOX experiments, respectively. Untreated control wines showed maximum DO concentrations of only 0.1 mg/L at the end of the pre-MLF and post-MLF MOX trials. For both pre- and post-MLF MOX experiments, the measurement of DO was sufficiently sensitive to discriminate between untreated control and oxygenated wines. Furthermore, different levels of applied oxygen dosages could be differentiated using DO monitoring. Except for the end of post-MLF MOX treatments with high oxygen dosage, no DO gradients were observed within the tanks, suggesting appropriate oxygen distribution during the treatment periods. The novel concept to compare the rate of applied oxygen with DO lead to the expression of the oxygen consumption rate. Plotting this parameter together with the applied oxygen dosage allowed for the assessment of the balance between the ingress and the consumption of oxygen. During pre-MLF and post-MLF MOX treatments, the oxygen consumption rate was consistently ±10% of the applied oxygen dosage. However, wines receiving oxygen post-MLF reacted more sensitively to an elevated oxygen dosage than those treated pre-MLF.

© Reprinted with permission from Durner, D., Ganss, S., Fischer, U. Monitoring oxygen uptake and consumption during microoxygenation treatments before and after malolactic fermentation. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 465–473; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

192.06 Hatcher, M., Hickin, B., Hutton, D., Swift, D., Tuckwell, D., O’Dea, J. The Chardonnay way. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 87–101; 2011.

Some of the producers behind the wines in this issue’s tasting of $14–19 Chardonnays reveal how they’re growing and handling the variety in the winery as they battle the popularity of Sauvignon Blanc.

14 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Microbiology

192.07 Redón, M., Guillamón, J.M., Mas, A., Rozès, N. Effect of growth temperature on yeast lipid composition and alcoholic fermentation at low temperature. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 232(3), 517–527; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.springerlink.com/content/b368619643773w35/

192.08 Raynall, C., Wardrop, F., Ortiz-Julien, A., Languet, P., Dumont, A. Sequential inoculation with a non-Saccharomyces yeast and a Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 43–59; 2011.

According to recent research, certain non-Saccharomyces yeasts have interesting sensory influences on winemaking. Lallemand’s research on the aromatic potential of non-Saccharomyces yeasts, combined with optimization of the production of these yeasts in dry form, now allow a winemaker to take advantage of fermenting with non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts while maintaining control over the fermentation process. These new tools combine biodiversity, reliability, and qualitative advantages.

© Reprinted with permission from Raynall, C., Wardrop, F., Ortiz-Julien, A., Languet, P., Dumont, A. Sequential inoculation with a non-Saccharomyces yeast and a Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 43–59; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 15 L Analysis and composition

192.09 Ou, C., Du, X., Shellie, K., Ross, C., Qian, M.C. Volatile compounds and sensory attributes of wine from cv. Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) grown under differential levels of water deficit with or without a kaolin-based, foliar reflectant particle film. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58(24), 12890–12898; 2010.

The volatile composition and sensory attributes of Merlot wines produced from vines under differing levels of water stress, with or without a foliar, kaolin-based particle film, were analyzed by stir bar sorptive extraction−gas chromatography−mass spectrometry (SBSE−GC−MS) and sensory evaluation. Vines were irrigated over consecutive vintages with 100, 70, or 35% of their estimated water requirements (ETc), or 35% until color change then 70% until harvest (35−70%

ETc). Neither of the treatments consistently influenced ester concentrations or their relative amounts, though their concentrations varied from year to year. However, deficit irrigation had an effect on the concentration of terpene alcohols and norisoprenoids. Wines produced from vines under water deficit contained higher amounts of citronellol, nerol, geraniol, and β-damascenone, but linalool and β-ionone were not affected by deficit irrigation. Particle film did not affect volatile composition in the wine. Untrained panelists in 2007 and 2008 distinguished between wines from vines that received 100 or 35% ETc and between wines from vines that received 35 or 35−70% ETc. Trained sensory panelists detected differences among wines for aroma, flavor, taste, and mouthfeel; however, significant interactive effects between particle film application and vine water status hindered interpretation of independent main effects.

© Reprinted with permission from Ou, C., Du, X., Shellie, K., Ross, C., Qian, M.C. Volatile compounds and sensory attributes of wine from cv. Merlot (Vitis vinifera L.) grown under differential levels of water deficit with or without a kaolin-based, foliar reflectant particle film. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58(24), 12890–12898; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Chemical Society.

192.10 Ferrer-Gallego, R., Hernández-Hierro, J.M., Rivas-Gonzalo, J.C., Escribano-Bailón, M.T. Determination of phenolic compounds of grape skins during ripening by NIR spectroscopy. LWT 44(4), 847–853; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2010.12.001

16 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Marketing and packaging

192.11 Macku, C., Reed, K. Factors affecting wine closure selection. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 34–42; 2011.

Today, producers and consumers can choose from many types of wine closures. Wine packaging has evolved from the days when the product was transported, stored, and sold in Egyptian amphorae or medieval wooden barrels. For the last ten years, three types of wine closures have clearly dominated the market: natural corks, synthetics, and screw caps or screw tops (also known as Roll On Tamper Evident or ROTE). Other types of closures are also available, such as Vino-Seal, and Zork. This article focuses on the first three types of closures and establishes useful comparisons between the three systems.

192.12 Scripter, J. Carbon footprint of glass packaging. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 61–63; 2011.

O-I is attempting to be as clear as possible in measuring and reporting its carbon footprint data by taking a complete — or ‘cradle-to-cradle’ view — of the carbon footprint of its glass containers. Only by looking at each and every step of the life cycle of each packaging material can accurate carbon footprint comparisons be made. The first complete carbon footprint study in the packaging industry, O-I’s lifecycle report provides some important new insights into the carbon footprint of glass packaging.

Environment

192.13 Hulsman, A. Aeration techniques applied in the treatment of winery effluent. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 40–41; 2010.

This article reviews several oxygen injection techniques such as Venturi diffused aeration, surface aeration and fine bubble diffused aeration.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 17 L Sensory

192.14 Russell, A.M.T., Boakes, R.A. Identification of confusable odours including wines: appropriate labels enhance performance. Food Qual. Pref. 22(3), 296–303; 2011.

This study examined how the effectiveness of training people to identify confusable odour samples depends on the kind of label used in the task. In Experiments 1–3 participants were required to identify three compound odour samples (AX, BX and CX) containing a common element, Citral (X), using a multiple-choice test (A vs B vs C) on each trial. Participants given appropriate labels for the stimuli (Appropriate condition) performed better than participants who produced their own labels, but only in the first training block (Experiment 1). Participants given appropriate labels also performed better than participants trained to give inappropriate (Experiment 2) or irrelevant labels (Experiment 3). Subsequently, wine samples of similar discriminability to the compound odour samples (Experiment 4) were used as stimuli in the same kind of identification task. Novices were able to apply descriptors and grape names, e.g. ‘Shiraz’, at a level above chance (Experiment 5), but not as well as the Appropriate groups in Experiments 1–3. The procedure provides a measure of the degree to which a particular label or description is appropriate.

© Reprinted with permission from Russell, A.M.T., Boakes, R.A. Identification of confusable odours including wines: appropriate labels enhance performance. Food Qual. Pref. 22(3), 296–303; 2011. Copyright 2011 Elsevier Science.

18 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Viticulture General

192.15 Bekkers, T. Vineyard biodiversity – vive la différence! Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 42–45; 2011.

Drawing on his experience in ‘natural farming’ techniques, particularly biodynamics, the author presents his thoughts on biodiversity, declaring that now is the time for Australian producers to embrace organic or biodynamic practices not just for the sake of wine quality and the environment, but potentially to maintain a presence on retail shelves where they are vying for space with an increasing number of their European counterparts with a credible environmental story to tell.

192.16 Bucelli, P., Costantini, E.A.C., Storchi, P. It is possible to predict Sangiovese wine quality through a limited number of variables measured on the vines. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 44(4), 207–218; 2010.

Abstract not available for reproduction

192.17 Bramley, R.G.V., Trought, M.C.T., Praat, J-P. Vineyard variability in Marlborough, New Zealand: characterising variation in vineyard performance and options for the implementation of Precision Viticulture. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 72–78; 2011.

Background and Aims: Vineyards are variable. However, to date, no spatial analysis of vineyard variability has been conducted in New Zealand. We were interested to quantify variability in a Marlborough vineyard and to produce a spatial platform onto which modelled information on phenology and juice composition could be integrated. Methods and Results: A combination of remote and proximal sensing of vine vigour, direct measurement of trunk circumference, yield mapping and high resolution electromagnetic induction (EM38) soil survey was used to examine vineyard variability in a 5.9 ha Marlborough vineyard planted to Vitis vinifera L. cv. Sauvignon Blanc. Yield variation was little more than twofold, in spite of substantial variation in vine vigour which was associated with variation in the land (soil, topography) underlying the vineyard. Conclusions: A focus on tools that facilitate enumeration of variation in vine vigour may offer the greatest value to Marlborough practitioners interested in adopting Precision Viticulture approaches to grapegrowing and winemaking. EM38 soil survey appeared to be useful for describing vineyard soil variation, but because the soils that predominate over the alluvial Wairau Plains in Marlborough are shallow and stony, very low values of apparent electrical conductivity (ECa) over a narrow range were observed. However, ECa was closely correlated with trunk circumference, an index of vine vigour. In contrast to Australian studies, neither ECa, plant cell density (derived from remotely sensed imagery) nor trunk circumference were good predictors of grapevine yield. It C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 19 L is hypothesised that this is largely a reflection of differences in vine training systems (hand cane pruning in Marlborough vs mechanical pruning in Australia) and the greater degree of selection of buds when vines are hand pruned. Significance of the Study: This is the first such study conducted in New Zealand and provides results that contrast with similar studies conducted in Australia. Nevertheless, the maps produced are expected to provide a valuable platform for a follow-up study aimed at understanding spatial variation in vine phenology and juice composition. The study also highlighted the power of kriging as a means of interpolating useful vineyard maps from relatively sparse, unevenly distributed sampling data.

© Reprinted with permission from Bramley, R.G.V., Trought, M.C.T., Praat, J-P. Vineyard variability in Marlborough, New Zealand: characterising variation in vineyard performance and options for the implementation of Precision Viticulture. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 72–78; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

192.18 Corradi, C. Non esistono più le mezze potenze. Vignevini 37(11), 36–40; 2010.

[Italian] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.19 Daniel, L. Grapegrower interview: Patti Fetzer. Wines Vines 92(1), 70–72; 2011.

An interview with Patti Fetzer of Patianna Organic Vineyards who provides some insights on organic viticulture in Mendocino County, California.

192.20 Goussard, P. Annual growth cycle of a grapevine. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 166–176; 2010.

The annual growth cycle of a grapevine is characterised by the following specific main categories of growth and developmental stages (phenology), namely: (i) dormancy, (ii) bud break, (iii) shoot, leaf and flower cluster development, (iv) flowering, (v) berry development, (vi) berry ripening until ready for harvesting, (vii) leaf ageing with the onset of autumn colours and (viii) complete shoot lignification followed by leaf drop. Each of the above mentioned main phenological stages is characterised by several albeit specific development patterns, the detail of which is best revealed under the proverbial magnifying glass. The objective with the compilation of this photo series was to portray comprehensively the particulars involved in the entire spectrum of the annual grapevine growth cycle over several months in Wynboer. The photos are not intended to reflect a single grapevine or even cultivar although, where applicable, the cultivar name is mentioned.

20 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.21 Hoare, T. Recycling CCA posts – a reality at last? Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 46–47; 2011.

A cost-effective method for recycling discarded copper chromium arsenate (CCA) wooden posts may be just around the corner.

192.22 Mitham, P. Costs and benefits of hang time. Wines Vines 92(2), 50–52; 2011.

Hang time is helpful for ripening grapes, but for taxation and enological reasons, more isn’t necessarily better. High sugar concentration can complicate fermentation, and a longer hang time often means costlier grapes. Hang time should work in tandem with fermentation and barrel programs.

192.23 Riquelme, M.T. Aplicación de la espectroscopia NIR en el sector en Australia. Sem. Viti. 3.335, 2804–2807; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.24 Santiago, I., Johnston, L. Comparing the costs of biodynamic and conventional viticulture in Australia: a recent study. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 61–64; 2011.

The authors present data from a study they conducted where they surveyed growers using biodynamic practices and compared their costs with the costs of operating conventional vineyards.

© Reprinted with permission from Santiago, I., Johnston, L. Comparing the costs of biodynamic and conventional viticulture in Australia: a recent study. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 61–64; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

192.25 Smart, R. Berry temperatures: correct measurement. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 96–98; 2011.

Grape berry temperatures are an increasingly important subject of discussion and articles in the wine business. This is understandable, as recent heat wave conditions have caused crop damage and loss of quality — in both California and Australia, for example. This article addresses the confusion surrounding the proper measurement and interpretation of berry temperatures both in scientific and popular writings.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 21 L 192.26 Smith, C. Biodynamics and the limits of rationalism. Wines Vines 92(1), 130–137; 2011.

Biodynamics has attracted a large number of high-caliber players and survived its first decades in good health. Amid cries of ‘hoax’, Rudolf Steiner’s system tests our mettle as trained scientists and calls into question what we truly know and can know. BD is the new kosher. Its practices combine mystical flavor with good common sense.

192.27 Ulrich, T. Optical sorters hasten harvest. Wines Vines 92(1), 32–36; 2011.

Optical sorters got significant tryouts in California during the 2010 harvest. Using electronic vision, they can remove more MDG than hand sorting with a pace three times quicker and a cost of about $140 per ton. Optical sorters require careful calibration, but winemakers at Clos Pegase and Gundlach Bundschu were pleased with their results.

192.28 Zouid, I., Siret, R., Mehinagic, E., Maury, C., Jourjon, F. Links between mechanical properties of grape berries during ripening and extractability of their skin anthocyanins. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 360–366; 2010.

The understanding of the mechanical behavior of winegrapes during ripening and its impact on the release of anthocyanins is important for wine quality control. The characterization of the mechanical proprieties of grape berries appears to be an essential parameter for understanding grape ripening, owing to its key role regarding the main compounds responsible for wine quality such as anthocyanins. Nevertheless, few studies have been conducted on wine grape texture analyses. The evolution of the mechanical properties of Cabernet Franc grapes belonging to three different vineyards during ripening was studied by performing rheological tests (compression and puncture tests) and correlating these changes with their degree of ripeness and with skin anthocyanin extractability. Results show that differences in the easiness of anthocyanin extraction could be linked to differences in the mechanical behavior of berries and that the extraction yield of anthocyanins from grapes could be predicted by their rheological properties.

© Reprinted with permission from Zouid, I., Siret, R., Mehinagic, E., Maury, C., Jourjon, F. Links between mechanical properties of grape berries during ripening and extractability of their skin anthocyanins. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 360–366; 2010. Copyright 2010 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

22 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Vine improvement and varieties

192.29 Anon. Verdejo. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 304–315; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.30 Anon. Mencía. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 128–135; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.31 Anon. Godello. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 105–107; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.32 Anon. Albariño. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 41–51; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.33 Anon. Treixadura. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 300–301; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.34 Anon. Callet. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 72–72; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.35 Anon. Prieto Picudo. Sem. Viti. Guía de vinos (supplement), 180–181; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.36 Crespan, M., Fabbro, A., Giannetto, S., Meneghetti, S., Petrussi, C., Del Zan, F., Sivilotti, P. Recognition and genotyping of minor germplasm of Friuli Venezia Giulia revealed high diversity. Vitis 50(1), 21–28; 2011.

The wealth of vine varieties that used to exist in Friuli Venezia Giulia has been progressively lost. In order to ascertain the current situation regarding vine germplasm in the region, between 2001 and 2008, a wide-ranging study was conducted of recovery, conservation and molecular characterization with microsatellite markers (SSR) of accessions of minor germplasm at risk of erosion or extinction. A total of 178 accessions were analyzed and 93 varieties identified. Of these, 44 are already registered in the Italian Catalogue, 8 have been imported and are well-known C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 23 L foreign varieties even if not registered in the Italian Catalogue, 38 are potentially autochthonous and of these only 15 are described or at least cited in the literature; there are no hypotheses on the remaining three. In order to obtain information on possible genetic similarities, three types of software were used to process the molecular data, but only Structure allowed the existence of two principal groupings to be hypothesized for some of the presumed Friuli autochthons: one that gravitates around ‘Prosecco’ and the other around ‘Refoscone’.

© Reprinted with permission from Crespan, M., Fabbro, A., Giannetto, S., Meneghetti, S., Petrussi, C., Del Zan, F., Sivilotti, P. Recognition and genotyping of minor germplasm of Friuli Venezia Giulia revealed high diversity. Vitis 50(1), 21–28; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

192.37 Bisson, J. The origins of Sauvignon. Prog. Agric. Vitic. 127(23-24), 459–460; 2010.

[French] The white French grapevine cultivar Sauvignon found in Bordeaux and Loire Valley vineyards grows today in France and in some foreign countries. In the past, Sauvignon was considered as an ancestral cultivar of central France. Molecular genetics, applied by two Austrians researchers, suggested this cultivar could be a cross between Chenin and Savagnin (Traminer) but French specialists using similar techniques believe Sauvignon is actually a seedling of Savagnin but the other parent is still unknown. After some discussion on the different colored grapes forms and on cultural comportment, a short bibliography is examined. Finally, the aromatic chemical constitution of Savagnin and Sauvignon vines should be compared.

192.38 Daniel, L. Grapegrower interview: Deborah Golino. Wines Vines 92(2), 44–48; 2011.

The director of Foundation Plant Services at the University of California, Davis, Deborah Golino discusses new grape clones and varieties available to the United States wine industry.

192.39 Kargas, M. Bianco d’Alessano — behind the wine that triumphed at the Alternative Varieties Wine Show. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 60–60; 2011.

Riverland-based Salena Estate made a clean sweep of last years Australian Alternative Varieties Wine Show winning the trophies for Best Wine of the Show, Best Italian Varietal and Best White Wine for its Ink Series 2010 Bianca d’Alessano. We asked winemaker Melanie Kargas to share her tribulations and triumphs with the variety.

© Reprinted with permission from Kargas, M. Bianco d’Alessano — behind the wine that triumphed at the Alternative Varieties Wine Show. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 60–60; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

24 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.40 Heald, E., Heald, R. Chateau Grand Traverse: meet a focused Riesling leader. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 64–73; 2011.

This article shares the viticultural and winemaking experiences of northern Michigan winery Chateau Grand Traverse in producing a dry Riesling wine.

© Reproduced with permission from Heald, E., Heald, R. Chateau Grand Traverse: meet a focused Riesling leader. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 64–73; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

192.41 LeMire, D. The big V. WBM February, 22–23; 2011.

In this article, the author shares his insights on Vermentino, a white winegrape variety gaining a considerable amount of interest lately.

192.42 López, A. Las variedades tintas suponen el 52.3% del total del viñedo. Sem. Viti. 3.341, 257–258; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.43 Lumbreras, J. Potencialidad de las variedades minoritarias de la D.O.Ca. Rioja. Sem. Viti. 3.337, 63–63; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.44 Martín, J.P., Arranz, C., Castro, I.D., Yuste, J., Rubio, J.A., Pinto-Carnide, O., Ortiz, J.M. Prospection and identification of grapevine varieties cultivated in north Portugal and northwest Spain. Vitis 50(1), 29–33; 2011.

A broad prospection of grapevine plants was carried out in northwest Spain and north of Portugal during the period from 2002 to 2009. It included zones located in Galicia as well as in the provinces of Leon, Zamora and Salamanca in Spain and the region delimited by the right side of the Douro river and the spanish border in Portugal. A total of 669 accessions were sampled, studied and identified, both by using the six microsatellite loci included in the OIV descriptors list, plus ampelographic characters. As a result of the study a total of 53 different grapevine varieties were identified. Most of them correspond to minor varieties that are present in the zone. In many cases the same variety was detected in both countries, although denominated with different names that are synonymous. The molecular markers that were analyzed are those included in the OIV 801 to 806 descriptors, and correspond to the following loci: VVS2, VVMD5, VVMD7, VVMD27, C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 25 L ssrVrZAG62 and ssrVrZAG79. Allele sizes of the studied varieties are recorded. Relationships among these varieties seem to be possible. Recommended priority names for the studied varieties both in Spain and in Portugal are listed, in order to avoid misidentifications and reduce the incidence of homonymies.

© Reprinted with permission from Martín, J.P., Arranz, C., Castro, I.D., Yuste, J., Rubio, J.A., Pinto-Carnide, O., Ortiz, J.M. Prospection and identification of grapevine varieties cultivated in north Portugal and northwest Spain. Vitis 50(1), 29–33; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

192.45 Ocete, R., Arroya-Garcia, R., Morales, M.L., Cantos, M., Gallardo, A., Pérez, M.A., Gómez, I., López, M.A. Characterization of Vitis vinifera L. subspecies sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi in the Ebro River Basin (Spain). Vitis 50(1), 11–16; 2011.

A wild grapevine population of 76 vines of Vitis vinifera L. subspecies sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi was found along the Iregua river valley (Northeastern Spain), located in the Ibérica mountain-range. The characterization of this phytogenetic resource was based on an ampelographic description of the male and female individuals and an evaluation of their sanitary state. This shows that the imported North American downy and powdery mildews are the main pathogens, but no symptoms caused by phylloxera on roots were found. Different degrees of infestation caused by Eryophid mites, Colomerus vitis and Culipitrimerus vitis, were also registered on leaves. On the other hand, the red wines obtained show an alcoholic degree situated between 8.5 and 10.8, pH around 3.5 and a high intensity of colour, between 10.2 and, 11.3. The vinegar had only 3.5° of acetic acid. Its phenolic composition is similar to those reported from red and Sherry vinegars produced from cultivars. The genetic analysis based on 18 samples, using 16 nuclear microsatellites, shows a low genetic diversity (He = 0.45). This might be due to inbreeding caused by mating among siblings in this isolated population. The genetic comparison with the allowed cultivars of this Guarantee of Origin showed two distinct gene pools. So it indicated that there is no genetic contribution of these native vines to current instead of actual local varieties. It is necessary to preserve this phytogenetic resource to be used in breeding programs and to restore its destructed habitats by human different impacts.

© Reprinted with permission from Ocete, R., Arroya-Garcia, R., Morales, M.L., Cantos, M., Gallardo, A., Pérez, M.A., Gómez, I., López, M.A. Characterization of Vitis vinifera L. subspecies sylvestris (Gmelin) Hegi in the Ebro River Basin (Spain). Vitis 50(1), 11–16; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

192.46 Veloso, M.M., Almandanim, M.C., Baleiras-Couto, M., Pereira, H.S., Carneiro, L.C., Fevereiro, P., Eiras-Dias, J. Microsatellite database of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars used for wine production in Portugal. Ciência Téc. Vitiv. 25(2), 53–61; 2010.

Six nuclear microsatellite loci (VVMD 5, VVMD 7, VVMD 27, VrZAG 62, VrZAG 79 and VVS 2) were chosen to study the differentiation of 313 grapevine cultivars officially authorized for wine production in Portugal (Portaria n° 428/2000, Diário da República n° 163, 17th July 2000). These loci were found to be highly informative and therefore constitute a useful marker set for

26 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 the discrimination of the targeted cultivars. This study allowed for the detection of 244 distinct genotypes as well as for the identification of synonyms in 40 cultivars, where 2 to 6 (synonymous) cultivars represent seventeen genotypes. The remaining 29 cultivars are distributed in 11 distinct sets, where each set displays identical SSRs profiles. However, these should be considered as distinct cultivars considering that these differ in berry colour. Taken together, the results of this work will contribute to improve the management of the Portuguese Grapevine National Collection as well as give a good technical support for the update of the list of cultivars officially authorized for wine production in Portugal (Portaria n° 428/2000). Furthermore, it will also be a useful for the control of plant material in the future. The SSR database will be available at the web page of Instituto Nacional de Recursos Biológicos (INRB) www.inrb.pt

© Reprinted with permission from Veloso, M.M., Almandanim, M.C., Baleiras-Couto, M., Pereira, H.S., Carneiro, L.C., Fevereiro, P., Eiras-Dias, J. Microsatellite database of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) cultivars used for wine production in Portugal. Ciência Téc. Vitiv. 25(2), 53–61; 2010. Copyright 2010 Estação Vitivinícola Nacional.

192.47 McGourty, G. Modern wines from ancient Greek grapes. Wines Vines 92(2), 75–79; 2011.

A review of a number of red and white winegrape varieties used by Greek wine producers.

192.48 Zufferey, V., Spring, J.-L., Verdenal, T., Viret, O. Performance of the cv. Pinot Noir under pedoclimatic conditions of the Valais area, Switzerland. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 376–383; 2010.

During 2005, 2006 and 2008, the research station Agroscope Changins-Wädenswil ACW studied physiologic and agronomic behaviour of Pinot Noir under several pedoclimatic conditions of the Valais area. Eleven plots were set up with homogeneous material of Pinot Noir cultivar, and grapes were vinified with the aim of carrying out chemical and sensory analysis. The three vintages were characterized by low to moderate water constraint and abundant nitrogen nutrition of vines. In the absence of pronounced water restriction, budburst as well as development of shoots mainly depended on temperature according to the altitude of sites. Vines planted in higher water reserve soils showed more important vigour and higher nitrogen content in leaves and must. Anthocyanin content was higher in wines when moderate water restriction occurred during ripening phase of grapes. Sensory analysis on wines confirmed the positive influence of both moderate water constraint and cooler temperatures during grape maturation. Wines issued from vines grown on soils with lower water reserve were preferred thanks to superior tannic intensity and stronger colour. Wines coming from vines grown at higher altitudes were appreciated for their subtle fruity bouquet.

© Reprinted with permission from Zufferey, V., Spring, J.-L., Verdenal, T., Viret, O. Performance of the cv. Pinot Noir under pedoclimatic conditions of the Valais area, Switzerland. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 376–383; 2010. Copyright 2010 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique. C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 27 L Pests and diseases

192.49 Boso, S., Alonso-Villaverde, A., Gago, P., Santiago, J.L., Martínez, M.C. Evaluación de la sensibilidad en distintas viníferas blancas. Sem. Viti. 3.335, 2745–2752; 2010.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.50 Gindro, K., Alonso-Villaverde, V., Voinesco, F., Spring, J.-L., Viret, O. Effectiveness of stilbenes in resistant Vitaceae. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 352–357; 2010.

[French] Leaves of differentVitis vinifera L. cultivars, susceptible (Chasselas) or resistant to downy mildew (Solaris and 2091), as well as the immune Muscadinia rotundifolia were inoculated with Plasmopara viticola. Samples were examined by microscopy for their ability to synthesize toxic compounds towards downy mildew at infection sites (stilbenic phytoalexins). In the susceptible Chasselas, P. viticola completes its life cycle with the production of functional haustoria as the cultivar produces mainly the non toxic piceide. The development of downy mildew is different in each of the other three resistant grape cultivars. In Solaris and 2091, the development is stopped after the formation of haustoria and is correlated to the synthesis of respectively δ-viniferin and pterostilbene. In M. rotundifolia, downy mildew development stops immediately after germ tube penetration (without functional haustoria formation). Stilbenes are here produced exactly at the infection sites. Their concentration is at least 20 times higher than in the three other cultivars. The relevant role of stilbenes in mildew resistance ofVitis spp. is discussed.

© Reprinted with permission from Gindro, K., Alonso-Villaverde, V., Voinesco, F., Spring, J.-L., Viret, O. Effectiveness of stilbenes in resistant Vitaceae. Rev. Suisse Vitic. Arboric. Hortic. 42(6), 352–357; 2010. Copyright 2010 Association pour la mise en valeur des travaux de la recherche agronomique.

192.51 Gramaje, D., García-Jiménez, J., Armengol, J. Field evaluation of grapevine rootstocks inoculated with fungi associated with Petri disease and esca. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 512–520; 2010.

One-year-old grapevine rootstock cuttings of 41B Millardet Grasset, 140 Ruggeri, 161-49 Couderc, 1103 Paulsen, and 110 Richter were inoculated with pathogens associated with Petri disease and esca of grapevine to determine the effects of fungal infection on percentage of cuttings emerging from dormancy, shoot weight, and disease severity. The cuttings were vacuum-inoculated with spore suspensions of either Cadophora luteoolivacea, five species of Phaeoacremonium, or Phaeomoniella chlamydospora and planted in two field sites in March 2008. Most of the fungal pathogens caused a significant reduction in the percentage of cuttings emerging from dormancy and shoot weight and a significant increase in disease severity in all grapevine rootstocks except 161-49 Couderc. Rootstocks 110 Richter and 140 Ruggeri were greatly affected by fungi associated with Petri disease and esca. In general, Pa. chlamydospora and Pm. parasiticum caused the greatest reduction in percentage of cuttings emerging from dormancy and shoot weight and the highest increase in disease severity. Regression analyses showed a significant correlation between

28 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 percentage of cuttings emerging from dormancy and disease severity and between shoot weight and disease severity in almost all rootstocks inoculated with Pa. chlamydospora.

© Reprinted with permission from Gramaje, D., García-Jiménez, J., Armengol, J. Field evaluation of grapevine rootstocks inoculated with fungi associated with Petri disease and esca. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 512–520; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

192.52 Halleen, F. Protocol: management of eutypa dieback in grapevines. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 4–5; 2010.

Eutypa dieback is caused by the fungus Eutypa lata. Symptoms are mostly noticed when plants are 7–10 years old, although infection would have occurred at an earlier stage.

192.53 Lecomte, P., Bailey, D.J. Studies on the infestation by Eutypa lata of grapevine spring wounds. Vitis 50(1), 35–41; 2011.

Natural infestation and controlled inoculations of grapevine (mostly on the cultivar ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’), were conducted in Bordeaux vineyards from 1998 to 2004 to evaluate the susceptibility to E. lata of spring wounds caused by the removal of either excess buds or excess suckers. Natural infestation was assessed across a range of sites to quantify and compare the relative risk of spring and winter pruning wounds to contamination by E. lata. Infestation caused by inoculation of wounds was examined in one site using either 100 (lower inoculum density) or 1000 (higher inoculum density) ascospores per wound. Wounds were allowed to incubate at the wound site for either two weeks or one year before isolations. For natural colonisation of wounds, a low level of infestation of spring wounds (average 2.1%) was detected, less than those for winter pruning wounds (average 13%). A similar trend was detected in trials involving inoculation of spring and winter pruning wounds despite infestation with identical levels of inoculum. No difference in recovery rates of E. lata was found between spring wounds caused by the removal of buds or suckers. A longer incubation period significantly increased the mean efficiency of recovery. We conclude that spring wounds may pose a significant risk to the colonisation of grapevine by the pathogen E. lata, albeit less than that of winter pruning wounds, suggesting a secondary role in the epidemiology of Eutypa dieback.

© Reprinted with permission from Lecomte, P., Bailey, D.J. Studies on the infestation by Eutypa lata of grapevine spring wounds. Vitis 50(1), 35–41; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

192.54 Ohmart, C. Is IPM dead? Wines Vines 92(1), 124–128; 2011.

Integrated pest management is a sustainable approach to managing pests in a way that minimizes economic, environmental and health risks. A big challenge is to discover what is causing a pest’s C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 29 L birth rate to exceed its death rate, so that its population exceeds the economic threshold. Our farming systems are ecologically unstable, and pest problems are inevitable. IPM is by far the best long-term approach to managing pests.

192.55 Pietersen, G. Grapevine leafroll disease control in South Africa. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 14–18; 2010.

This article presents a comprehensive overview of grapevine leafroll disease control in South Africa.

192.56 Samuelian, S.K., Greer, L.A., Savocchia, S., Steel, C.C. Methods to detect and identify bunch rots. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 565, 19–22; 2011.

This research paper, by the National Wine and Grape Industry Centre, aims to improve the tools growers use to correctly identify the wide range of berry rot diseases. Knowing how to identify the disease is the first vital step in employing fast and effective control and management strategies. Results from the latest Hunter Valley research suggest real-time diagnosis is available and could also lead to new findings in the epidemiology of these pathogens.

© Reprinted with permission from Samuelian, S.K., Greer, L.A., Savocchia, S., Steel, C.C. Methods to detect and identify bunch rots. Aust. N.Z. Grapegrower Winemaker 565, 19–22; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles Pty Ltd.

192.57 Valtaud, C., Thibault, F., Larignon, P., Bertsch, C., Fleurat-Lessard, P., Bourbouloux, A. Systemic damage in leaf metabolism caused by esca infection in grapevines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 101–110; 2011.

Background and Aims: Esca is a devastating wood-decay disease that affects major grape- producing areas around the world. Xylem pathogenic fungi produce a systemic effect on the development of foliar symptoms and glutathione metabolism in presence of oxidative species. This study focuses on sugar variations in Vitis vinifera leaves, in particular in early events occurring in esca. Methods and Results: Biochemical, cytochemical and molecular methods showed that in esca-infected grapevines, photosynthetic pigment content did not vary significantly in leaves from apparently healthy canes (AC-AL), but decreased in leaves without symptoms on symptomatic canes (SC-AL). Starch grains were more abundant in AC-AL than in SC-AL containing wide plastoglobuli and numerous tannins. The starch level increased early, and then decreased with esca development. Fructose increased early by more than threefold, being the predominant soluble sugar in leaves with advanced esca symptoms. Conclusions: In response to damage induced by fungal infection, defence reactions such as fructose increased early and developed in esca leaves

30 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 to scavenge reactive oxygen species and protect plant tissues. Significance of the Study: Esca infection leads to an early production of fructose involved in defence.

© Reprinted with permission from Valtaud, C., Thibault, F., Larignon, P., Bertsch, C., Fleurat-Lessard, P., Bourbouloux, A. Systemic damage in leaf metabolism caused by esca infection in grapevines. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 101–110; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

Water and nutrition

192.58 Kodur, S. Effects of juice pH and potassium on juice and wine quality, and regulation of potassium in grapevines through rootstocks (Vitis): a short review. Vitis 50(1), 1–6; 2011.

In warm irrigated regions of Australia (such as Sunraysia), pH of grape juice often tends to be high (e.g. > 3.8). A high juice pH is undesirable for the production of quality wines as it results in wines of low quality for example, reduced colour stability and poor taste. Such a high juice pH is typically associated with a high concentration of K in the juice, depending on the scion, rootstock and location. Potassium is an essential nutrient and plant genotypes, including grapevines, differ in the accumulation of K in plant and/or plant parts. This difference in the accumulation of K by genotypes can be exploited to manipulate the concentration and content of K in plants, berries in particular for example, through selection and use of low K accumulating rootstocks to overcome the high pH affects. This paper briefly reviews the effects of juice pH and K on juice and wine quality, and the role and effect of rootstocks in the regulation of K in grapevine. This will provide a basic knowledge about the current research and key future research needed for the maintenance of acceptable quality of grape juice and wine through use of rootstocks.

© Reprinted with permission from Kodur, S. Effects of juice pH and potassium on juice and wine quality, and regulation of potassium in grapevines through rootstocks (Vitis): a short review. Vitis 50(1), 1–6; 2011. Copyright 2011 Institut für Rebenzüchtung Geilweilerhof der Bundesanstalt für Züchtungsforschung an Kulturpflanzen.

192.59 Lategan, V., Howell, C. The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 1): irrigation volumes, plant water stress and vigour. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 19–21; 2010.

Water is an important natural resource throughout the world. New irrigation strategies and methods are constantly being researched and tested, to save water while ensuring optimal production and quality of agricultural crops. The objective of the study was to determine whether the PRD irrigation strategy could be implemented successfully under South African conditions. In the 1990s the irrigation concept of partial rootzone drying (PRD) on wine grapes began to receive attention in Australia. This concept entails that one half of a grapevine’s roots gets irrigated at a high frequency, while the other half is left to dry out. After a period of 7, 14 or 21 days, depending on the water retention ability of the soil, the half that was previously irrigated, are allowed to dry out and vice versa. Research has shown that shoot growth is limited due to high concentrations of abscisic acid (ABA) which is produced in the roots on the dry side. The PRD concept did not C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 31 L impact on plant water stress, but saved water when compared to conventional irrigation. From this research it appears that PRD could possibly be implemented on alluvial soils where grapevines tend to grow vigorously in an attempt to restrict vigour.

© Reprinted with permission from Lategan, V., Howell, C. The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 1): irrigation volumes, plant water stress and vigour. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 19–21; 2010. Copyright 2010 Wineland Publications.

192.60 Lategan, V., Howell, C. The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 2): yield, water use efficiency and wine quality. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 22–24; 2010.

South Africa as a country has limited water resources for agricultural use. It is therefore crucial to find ways in which acceptable yields and quality may be produced despite using less irrigation water. In this regard the benefits of partial rootzone drying (PRD) mean that more or the same amount of grapes may be produced with less water. Consequently it is possible to obtain a higher yield and greater water use efficiency (WUEP) with PRD compared to conventional drip irrigation. This concept entails that one half of a grapevine’s roots be irrigated at a high frequency while the other half dries out. After an interval of 7, 14 or 21 days – depending on the water retention capacity of the soil – the half that was previously irrigated is dried out and vice versa. It was found, however, that PRD did not impact on the plant water status or vegetative growth of Merlot/Ramsey on fertile, alluvial soil compared to conventional drip irrigation. The objective of the study was to determine whether the PRD strategy may be successfully applied under South African conditions to improve yield, WUEP and quality.

© Reprinted with permission from Lategan, V., Howell, C. The partial rootzone drying (PRD) of Merlot in the Breede River Valley (part 2): yield, water use efficiency and wine quality. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 22–24; 2010. Copyright 2010 Wineland Publications.

192.61 Myburgh, P. Practical guidelines for the measurement of water potential in grapevine leaves. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 11–13; 2010.

Water potential does not tell a grower how much to irrigate, but is a useful aid for making decisions concerning the timing of irrigations to achieve a specific wine quality objective. The correct protocol should be followed to obtain reliable and repeatable results.

© Reprinted with permission from Myburgh, P. Practical guidelines for the measurement of water potential in grapevine leaves. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 11–13; 2010. Copyright 2010 Wineland Publications.

32 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.62 Romero, I., García-Escudero, E., Martín, I. Effects of leaf position on blade and petiole mineral nutrient concentration of Tempranillo grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 544–550; 2010.

Concentrations of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B were monitored throughout the season in leaf blades and petioles sampled at three different positions on the shoot of Tempranillo (Vitis vinifera L.) grapevines. Petioles had higher concentrations of K, Mg, and Zn, whereas N, P, Ca, and micronutrients other than Zn were more abundant in leaf blades. Seasonal trends were identified for macronutrients, with decreasing patterns for N, P, and K, while Ca and Mg increased through the season. Minor differences in nutrient concentration were observed in leaf blades and petioles opposite basal and distal clusters. These results provide guidelines for the sampling of representative tissues for nutritional diagnosis of Tempranillo after veraison. However, differences among leaves opposite basal clusters and those placed four nodes beyond the second cluster suggest that these younger leaves are not useful for nutritional diagnosis using reference concentrations obtained for basal leaves.

© Reprinted with permission from Romero, I., García-Escudero, E., Martín, I. Effects of leaf position on blade and petiole mineral nutrient concentration of Tempranillo grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 544–550; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

192.63 Rowley, M. The changing face of irrigation. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 65–66; 2011.

Statistics show how Australia’s winegrape growers have responded to the recent drought conditions.

192.64 Yuste, J., Yuste, J.R. Riego por goteo en variedades blancas de Castilla y León. Sem. Viti. 3.341, 246–255; 2011.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.65 Yuste, R., Alburquerque, M.V., Yuste, J. Goteo aéreo y subterráneo en cuatro variedades tintas de vid. Sem. Viti. 3.335, 2775–2782; 2010.

[Spanish] Abstract not available for reproduction

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 33 L Vineyard management systems

192.66 Rieger, T. Mechanized canopy management: Fresno State trials show yield, quality, cost benefits. Vineyard Winery Manage. 32(2), 38–43; 2011.

Mechanized canopy management can improve yields and grape quality in vineyards that have declined due to excess vegetative growth and inadequate canopy management. When used in combination with reduced deficit irrigation, it can improve grape quality and save water. Equipment and tools are available for mechanized pruning, shoot thinning and leaf removal in both sprawl and vertical shoot positioning (VSP) trellis systems. Mechanized pruning and canopy management can save growers significant labor costs.

© Reprinted with permission from Rieger, T. Mechanized canopy management: Fresno State trials show yield, quality, cost benefits. Vineyard Winery Manage. 32(2), 38–43; 2011. Copyright 2011 Vineyard and Winery Services, Inc.

192.67 Dupraz, R. La vigne ‘en lyre’ sur le terroir savoyard. Prog. Agric. Vitic. 127(23–24), 455–457; 2010.

[French] Abstract not available for reproduction

192.68 Mitham, P. Native plants offer cover too. Wines Vines 92(2), 54–57; 2011.

Using native plants as cover crops helps lower vineyard environmental impacts, and they are as effective as conventional mixes. Many native species are difficult to obtain commercially, but a few growers in Washington are using them. Native species enhance biodiversity as an indirect benefit.

192.69 Mitham, P. Mechanization of vineyards. Wines Vines 92(1), 64–68; 2011.

Machine pruning can virtually eliminate manual labor, cutting costs and reducing the risk of worker injuries. Mechanized leaf removers can be tailored to tasks. Options exist that address exchange rate volatility for purchasing imported equipment.

34 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.70 Mellet, J. Ballerina trellis system for sustainable increased production. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 25–26; 2010.

For wine grape producers it is a daunting challenge to farm profitably given the current economic conditions. Medium to low price bulk wine especially, has proven to be extremely challenging. The profit margin on these products is low, and innovation is required to be successful. The premium for quality is low and therefore sustainable high production is the only viable way to be profitable. Two producers in the Montagu area, Jean-Pierre de Villiers and Karel du Toit, have been especially successful in achieving sustainable high production. The biggest obvious innovation is their adaptation of the ballerina trellis.

Physiology and biotechnology

192.71 Böttcher, C., Harvey, K., Forde, C.G., Boss, P.K., Davies, C. Auxin treatment of pre-veraison grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries both delays ripening and increases the synchronicity of sugar accumulation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 1–8; 2011.

Background and Aims: Pre-veraison auxin treatments can delay grape berry ripening, but there is little information about their effects on berry development and wine composition. The aim of this study was to further investigate these effects and explore the practical implications of delaying ripening. Methods and Results: Treatment of pre-veraison Vitis vinifera L. cv. Shiraz berries with 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) significantly delayed ripening as measured by the accumulation of total soluble solids (TSS) and anthocyanins. The onset of the post-veraison phase of berry size increase was delayed in NAA-treated fruit, but these fruit were significantly larger than Control fruit at harvest. NAA-treatments significantly increased the synchronicity of berry sugar accumulation. GC-MS analysis of wine headspace volatiles showed significant, but largely small, differences in the concentration of 19 compounds. No significant difference in sensory properties was found between replicate small-scale wine lots made from Control and NAA-treated fruit. Conclusions: Auxin treatment delayed berry ripening, increased the synchronicity of sugar accumulation between berries, increased berry size and changed the levels of some volatile compounds, but did not affect wine sensory properties. Significance of the Study: We propose that NAA sprays might be used to delay grape berry ripening and increase the synchronicity of sugar accumulation, and therefore ripening, without deleterious effects on wine quality. This may be useful in controlling winery intake and fruit composition.

© Reprinted with permission from Böttcher, C., Harvey, K., Forde, C.G., Boss, P.K., Davies, C. Auxin treatment of pre-veraison grape (Vitis vinifera L.) berries both delays ripening and increases the synchronicity of sugar accumulation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 1–8; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 35 L 192.72 Deloire, A. Berry development – an overview. Part 1. Morphology and anatomy of a berry. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 104–119; 2010.

This ten-part article discusses at length the development of a grape berry with sections on morphology and anatomy of a berry; growth; water; seeds; hormones; sugars; organic acids; phenolic compounds; aromatic compounds; and minerals, nitrogen and lipids.

© Reproduced with permission from Deloire, A. Berry development – an overview. Part 1. Morphology and anatomy of a berry. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 104–119; 2010. Copyright 2010 Wineland Publications.

192.73 Doupis, G., Chartzoulakis, K., Beis, A., Patakas, A. Allometric and biochemical responses of grapevines subjected to drought and enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 36–42; 2011.

Background and Aims: The aim of this study was to evaluate differences in adaptive responses in grapevines (Vitis vinifera L. cv Soultanina) exposed to either drought, enhanced ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation or the combination of the two environmental stresses. Methods and Results: Results indicated pronounced effects on allometric parameters in plants exposed to the enhanced UV-B radiation. The combined application of drought and enhanced UV-B radiation considerably affected shoot growth rate and leaf dry weight. Guaiacol peroxidase (GPX, EC 1.11.1.7), ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), superoxide dismutase (SOD, 1.15.1.1) and catalase (CAT, 1.11.1.6) activities increased significantly in the enhanced UV-B radiation treatment. Drought resulted in a significant increase in proline concentration, while the exposure of plants to enhanced UV-B radiation resulted in the production of UV-B absorbing compounds (UVabs). Conclusions: Under drought conditions proline accumulation seemed to be the main mechanism of adaptation contributing to plant’s antioxidant defence. On the other hand, under enhanced UV-B radiation, the accumulation of the UV-B absorbing compounds and the increase in antioxidant enzymes activities constitute the main mechanisms of grapevine adaptation. Significance of the Study: The data obtained indicate the occurrence of two different mechanisms of adaptation in response to the stressor applied. Furthermore, the patterns of proline and UVabs concentration changes under stress conditions suggest that the biosynthesis of these two compounds might follow competing metabolic pathways.

© Reprinted with permission from Doupis, G., Chartzoulakis, K., Beis, A., Patakas, A. Allometric and biochemical responses of grapevines subjected to drought and enhanced ultraviolet-B radiation. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 36–42; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

192.74 Martinez-de-Toda, F., Balda, P., Oliveira, M. Estimation of vineyard water status (Vitis vinifera L. cv. Tempranillo) from the developmental stage of the shoot tips. J. Int. Sci. Vigne Vin 44(4), 201–206; 2010.

Abstract not available for reproduction

36 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.75 Ollé, D., Guiraud, J.L., Souquet, J.M., Terrier, N., Ageorges, A., Cheynier, V., Verries, C. Effect of pre- and post-veraison water deficit on proanthocyanidin and anthocyanin accumulation during Shiraz berry development. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 90–100; 2011.

Background and Aims: Water deficit is known to influence berry development as well as flavonoid metabolism. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of pre- and post-veraison water stress on the proanthocyanidin and anthocyanin accumulation on berry samples selected at comparable physiological maturity, especially after veraison while avoiding sugar influence. Methods and Results: Three irrigation treatments were applied by a drip irrigation system on three rows of 30 vines from an experimental Shiraz vineyard. Pre-veraison water stress had no effect on total proanthocyanidin accumulation but increased accumulation of all anthocyanins except malvidin and p-coumaroylated derivatives, whereas post-veraison water stress enhanced the overall anthocyanin biosynthesis, particularly malvidin and p-coumaroylated derivatives. Conclusions: Pre- and post-veraison water stress affected the anthocyanin composition differently, suggesting a differential regulation of the genes involved in the last steps of anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway. Significance of the Study: The study identifies the effect of pre- and post-veraison water stress while avoiding sugar influence on anthocyanin accumulation which could be maximised since both stresses differently impacted hydroxylation and methylation of anthocyanins.

© Reprinted with permission from Ollé, D., Guiraud, J.L., Souquet, J.M., Terrier, N., Ageorges, A., Cheynier, V., Verries, C. Effect of pre- and post-veraison water deficit on proanthocyanidin and anthocyanin accumulation during Shiraz berry development. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 90–100; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

192.76 Sánchez-de-Miguel, P., Junquera, P., Baeza, P., Lissarrague, J.-R. Balance of photosynthetic active radiations in vineyard: method and applications. Prog. Agric. Vitic. 127(23-24), 461–465; 2010.

This study describes a simple and rapid method for calculating the absorbed radiation (Ra) in the vineyard for the Photosynthetic Active Radiations (PAR). The methodology of Varlet-Grancher et al. (1989) was used to take into account plant and soil through four radiation components: incident, transmitted through the plant, reflected by the ground and reflected by soil and plant grouped together. Besides this, an approximation to Ra through the balance of intercepted radiation (Rit), a measure which is faster to take since it does not consider the reflected radiations, was validated. At the stage of maturation the four components of Ra were measured onto a VSP trellis oriented N-S in the Madrid region (Spain), one on a cv. Tempranillo (2003) and another on a cv. Cabernet Sauvignon (2005). Ra measured throughout the day was 3 to 5% higher than Rit. Thus, Rit is a correct simplification of Ra which reduces the execution times therefore allowing an increase in the number of repetitions. It also allows to easily estimate the leaf area index (LAI).

© Reprinted with permission from Sánchez-de-Miguel, P., Junquera, P., Baeza, P., Lissarrague, J.-R. Balance of photosynthetic active radiations in vineyard: method and applications. Prog. Agric. Vitic. 127(23-24), 461–465; 2010. Copyright 2010 Sté Le Progrès Agricole et Viticole. C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 37 L 192.77 Santesteban, L.G., Miranda, C., Royo, J.B. Suitability of pre-dawn and stem water potential as indicators of vineyard water status in cv. Tempranillo. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 43–51; 2011.

Background and Aims: Irrigation management requires the collection of up-to-date information that allow growers to make rapid decisions, water potential being one of the most used parameters in irrigation scheduling. The goal of this research was to determine whether predawn (Ψpd) and stem (Ψs) water potential can be used equally well, quantifying the effect external factors have on the relationship between them. Methods and Results: Ψpd, mid-morning (Ψs-m) and noon (Ψs-n) stem water potential were measured at seven cv. Tempranillo vineyards. Climatic conditions, vine growth and fruit load affected daily water potential dynamics. A greater decline of Ψs occurred when temperatures were higher and there was no dew formation, as well as under larger canopies and fruit load. While the relative impact of these variables on water potential was not particularly high, it was by no means negligible. Conclusions: Data collected in this study did not favour Ψpd, Ψs-m or Ψs-n as a preferred measure to evaluate plant water status. It is important to remark that similar Ψpd values do not necessarily indicate the same level of deficit, and that similar Ψs values do not always mean similar water availability. Therefore, a straightforward interpretation of Ψpd and Ψs can sometimes be misleading. Significance of the Study: The results obtained provide significant explanation to the lack of agreement in the literature regarding the most suitable time to measure water potential. Vineyard managers and scientists should select it according to the level of stress expected, climatic conditions and irrigation frequency.

© Reprinted with permission from Santesteban, L.G., Miranda, C., Royo, J.B. Suitability of pre-dawn and stem water potential as indicators of vineyard water status in cv. Tempranillo. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 43–51; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

38 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 Climate and soils

192.78 Archer, E., Hunter, J.J. Practices for sustainable viticulture. Part 1. Soil preparation for a proper root system. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 120–165; 2010.

Soil is the medium in which vine roots grow. Its supply of water and nutrients as well as its penetrabillty, dictates the size, composition (i.e. individual root size as well as the ratio of different root sizes), distribution (horizontally and vertically) and the functioning of the root system for the lifespan of the vineyard. Proper preparation of the soil and a well-developed root system are probably the most important tools by which to combat the negative effects of stressful environmental conditions and envisaged global warming on vine performance. Creating the best possible water reservoir as well as nutrient source would provide the vine with a chance to sustain viable yield and grape and wine quality over a lifespan of at least 25 years.

© Reprinted with permission from Archer, E., Hunter, J.J. Practices for sustainable viticulture. Part 1. Soil preparation for a proper root system. Wynboer Technical Yearbook, 120–165; 2010. Copyright 2010 Wineland Publications. 192.79 Caffarra, A., Eccel, E. Projecting the impacts of climate change on the phenology of grapevine in a mountain area. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 52–61; 2011.

Background and Aims: The strong link between climate and grapevine phenology suggests a potentially stronger impact of climate change on viticulture in climate-limited areas, including mountain zones. The aim of this work was to evaluate the potential effects of climate change on grapevine phenology and viticultural suitability in a mountain region. Methods and Results: Climatic projections were applied to phenological models to determine the effect on stages of budburst, flowering and veraison for Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay. Calibration and validation of the models had been previously carried out in the same alpine region. The output of the general- circulation climatic model HadCM3, run with two different Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change emission scenarios, was statistically downscaled to 10 locations in different agricultural sites in Trentino, Italian Alps, some of which are presently unfit for viticulture due to climatic limitations. Results yielded a trend of phenological advance, with interesting differences among phases and sites. Simulated advance was more pronounced at higher elevations, and larger for veraison than for spring phenophases. Conclusions: As a consequence of the considerable warming projected by future climate scenarios, some mountain sites at about 1000 m were expected to fall within areas climatically suitable for viticulture before the end of this century. Nevertheless, noticeable differences from present conditions are not expected within a short timescale.Significance of the Study: These projections, suggesting a more pronounced phenological response at higher elevations, may support the development of adaptation strategies aimed at maintaining the profitability of mountain viticulture even in times of global change.

© Reprinted with permission from Caffarra, A., Eccel, E. Projecting the impacts of climate change on the phenology of grapevine in a mountain area. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 52–61; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology. C

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 39 L 192.80 Kennedy, U., Baddeley, D., Dunn, G., Wheaton, A. Assessing under-vine soil surface temperatures. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 52–54; 2011.

There is increasing interest in the influence of temperature on winegrape quality, particularly in the canopy. With a number of studies highlighting the impact of the under vine environment on vine canopy and bunch temperature, a pilot study in Queensland’s Scenic Rim has investigated the use of infrared imagery to assess under vine soil surface temperature.

192.81 Rahn, B. Identifying reserve-quality soils in vineyards. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 19–25; 2011.

Non-invasive soil technologies can be successfully employed to both improve the design of new vineyards and management of existing vineyards. Separating the soil units in a vineyard can improve sub-block vineyard uniformity, efficiency of vineyard inputs, help better manage your vineyard and identify reserve wine potential in your vineyards. This article presents two case studies from Californian vineyards.

192.82 Scacco, A., Verzera, A., Lanza, C.M., Sparacio, A., Genna, G., Raimondi, S., Tripodi, G., Dima, G. Influence of soil salinity on sensory characteristics and volatile aroma compounds of Nero d’Avola wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 498–505; 2010.

The influence of soil salinity on the chemical composition, volatile aromatic compounds, and sensory characteristics of Nero d’Avola wine was examined. Data on vineyard productivity, such as grape yield, are also reported. Physicochemical parameters were determined on the samples analyzed. Solid-phase microextraction was used for the extraction of aromatic volatile compounds, followed by capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Sensory analyses were performed by visual inspection, smelling, and tasting. Statistical analysis showed that most of the physicochemical parameters and volatile constituents, both primary and fermentation aromas, were influenced by the soil salinity. The composition differences observed among the samples had little influence on the sensory characteristics; the increase in soil salinity enhanced color intensity, purple reflexes, salty, citrus, and fruit in the aroma. Results indicate that Nero d’Avola vine may be well suited to increased soil salinity, even given reduced plant productivity.

© Reprinted with permission from Scacco, A., Verzera, A., Lanza, C.M., Sparacio, A., Genna, G., Raimondi, S., Tripodi, G., Dima, G. Influence of soil salinity on sensory characteristics and volatile aroma compounds of Nero d’Avola wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 61(4), 498–505; 2010. Copyright 2010 American Society for Enology and Viticulture.

40 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 192.83 Smith, M. Climate predictions for Tasmania in 2100. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 48–51; 2011.

This article summarises a presentation given by University of Tasmania climate analyst Dr Greg Holz entitled Climate Futures for Tasmania where he previews what lies ahead as the island’s wine industry approaches the year 2100.

192.84 Tosi, L. Sostenibilità ambientale sempre a portata di click. Vignevini 37(11), 72–76; 2010.

[Italian] Abstract not available in English.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 41 L Wine & Health Epidemiology

192.85 Graham, K., Bernards, S., Knibbe, R., Kairouz, S., Kuntche, S., Wilsnack, S.C., Greenfield, T.K., Dietze, P., Obot, I., Gmel, G. Alcohol-related negative consequences among drinkers around the world. Addiction 106(5), 1–45; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03425.x/ abstract

Genetics

192.86 Hendershot, C.S., Witkiewitz, K., George, W.H., Wall, T.L., Otto, J.M., Liang, T., Larimer, M.E. Evaluating a cognitive model of ALDH2 and drinking behavior. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(1), 91–98; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01325.x/ abstract

192.87 Webb, A., Lind, P.A., Kalmijn, J., Feiler, H.S., Smith, T.L., Schuckit, M.A., Wilhelmsen, K. The investigation into CYP2E1 in relation to the level of response to alcohol through a combination of linkage and association analysis. Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res. 35(1), 10–18; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2010.01317.x/ abstract

192.88 Gapstur, S.M., Jacobs, E.J., Deka, A., McCullough, M.L., Patel, A.V., Thun, M.J. Association of alcohol intake with pancreatic cancer mortality in never smokers. Arch Intern Med. 171(5), 444–451; 2011.

Background: An international panel of experts characterized the evidence linking alcoholic beverage consumption to pancreatic cancer as limited. Primary concerns include inconsistent results from underpowered studies, residual confounding by smoking, and the question of whether the association varies by type of alcoholic beverage. Methods: The association of alcohol intake with pancreatic cancer mortality was examined using data from the Cancer Prevention Study II, a prospective study of US adults 30 years and older. Alcohol consumption was self-reported on a 4-page questionnaire in 1982. Based on follow-up through December 31, 2006, there were 6847 pancreatic cancer deaths among 1,030,467 participants. Multivariable-adjusted relative risks (RRs)

42 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were computed using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, marital status, body mass index, family history of pancreatic cancer, and personal history of gallstones, diabetes mellitus, or smoking. Results: The RRs (95% CIs) of pancreatic cancer mortality associated with current intake of less than 1, 1, 2, 3, and 4 or more drinks per day compared with non-drinkers were 1.06 (0.99-1.13), 0.99 (0.90-1.08), 1.06 (0.97-1.17), 1.25 (1.11-1.42), and 1.17 (1.06-1.29), respectively (P<.001 for trend). Consumption of 3 or more drinks per day was associated with pancreatic cancer mortality in never smokers (RR, 1.36; 95%CI, 1.13-1.62) and in ever smokers (RR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.06-1.27). This association was observed for consumption of liquor (RR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.10-1.57) but not beer (RR, 1.08; 95% CI, 0.90-1.30) or wine (RR, 1.09; 95% CI, 0.79-1.49). Conclusion: These results strengthen the evidence that alcohol consumption, specifically liquor consumption of 3 or more drinks per day, increases pancreatic cancer mortality independent of smoking.

Public health policy

192.89 McDonald, D. Australian governments’ spending on preventing and responding to drug abuse should target the main sources of drug-related harm and the most cost-effective interventions. Drug Alcohol Rev. 30(1), 96–100; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2010.00197.x/ abstract

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 43 L AWRI publications

1275 Vincenzi, S., Marangon, M., Tolin, S., Curioni, A. Protein evolution during the early stages of white winemaking and its relations with wine stability. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 20–27; 2011.

Background and Aims: Grape proteins are responsible for the appearance of haziness in white wines during storage after bottling. However, only a few studies have approached the analysis of the fate of must proteins throughout the alcoholic fermentation. This study aimed to systematically investigate the daily variations in protein type and content during the fermentation in order to understand its influence on hazing potential and to attain some basic information to improve the practical management of grape proteins involved in the hazing of white wines. Methods and Results: The evolution of total soluble protein and individual protein fractions was studied in samples taken before, during and after alcoholic fermentation of a white grape must. The results were then related to variations in protein instability as measured by the heat test. Both the quantity of soluble protein and the protein instability increased during fermentation and then decreased after 1-month storage of the wine. Protein composition did not vary during fermentation as assessed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and anion exchange chromatography (AEC). However, variations in the relative proportions of the six protein fractions obtainable by AEC were noted in the different samples. The contribution of each AEC protein fraction to wine instability was determined by considering both the intrinsic instability and the relative quantity of each of the individual protein fractions in the wine. It was demonstrated that the grape thaumatin-like protein VVTL1, as identified by mass spectrometry, showed the largest increase during fermentation and accounted for almost 40% of the heat-induced haze of the final wine. Moreover, the decreased protein instability noted after one month storage of the wine could be attributed to the stabilizing effect of polysaccharides released by the yeast cells. Conclusions: The quantity and relative proportion of soluble proteins vary during and after the alcoholic fermentation, as does their heat instability in wine. Grape VVTL1, constituting a large proportion of the total proteins in wine, seems to play a major role in protein haze formation. The release of yeast polysaccharides is related to an increased heat stability of total wine protein, despite the increase in the relative proportion of their most unstable component VVTL1. Therefore, the hazing potential of a white wine seems to be affected by variations in the relative proportions of its macromolecular components occurring in the early stages of winemaking. Significance of the Study: This study addressed for the first time the issue of the protein changing during the fermentation of white wine. The results obtained here offer useful information to aid understanding of the contribution of individual proteins to white wine instability, which can be applied for the improvement of the winemaking process.

© Reprinted with permission from Vincenzi, S., Marangon, M., Tolin, S., Curioni, A. Protein evolution during the early stages of white winemaking and its relations with wine stability. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res. 17(1), 20–27; 2011. Copyright 2011 Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology.

44 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 1276 Pretorius, I.S. The seven ages of wine. Fine Wine and Liquor 11, 64–68; 2011.

[Chinese] The Australian Wine Research Institute, in this article, looks back on the history of wine research and makes some predictions for its future.

1277 Torrea, D., Varela, C., Ugliano, M., Ancin-Azpilicueta, C., Francis, I.L., Henschke, P.A. Comparison of inorganic and organic nitrogen supplementation of grape juice – effect on volatile composition and aroma profile of a Chardonnay wine fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Food Chem. 127(3), 1072–1083; 2011.

Inorganic nitrogen salts, and to a growing extent organic nitrogen preparations, are widely used to ameliorate a nitrogen deficiency in wine fermentation, but the impact of nitrogen supplementation on perceived wine sensory profile is essentially unknown. Supplementation of a low nitrogen Chardonnay grape juice with either ammonium nitrogen or combined amino acid and ammonium nitrogen showed that the type of nitrogen and concentration in the range 160–480 mg N/l had a substantial impact on the formation of yeast volatile compounds and perceived wine aroma. Addition of amino acid and ammonium nitrogen increased both acetate and medium chain fatty acid esters to a greater extent and decreased higher alcohols to a lesser extent than ammonium nitrogen alone whereas ammonium nitrogen substantially increased ethyl acetate and acetic acid. Low nitrogen wines were rated relatively low in floral/fruity aroma descriptors, while moderate nitrogen wines showed a good balance between desirable and less desirable attributes, whereas high nitrogen produced either an acetic/solvent character or highest ratings for floral/fruity attributes, depending on nitrogen type. These results show that amount and type of nitrogen supplement can substantially modulate Chardonnay wine volatiles composition and perceived aroma.

© Reprinted with permission from Torrea, D., Varela, C., Ugliano, M., Ancin-Azpilicueta, C., Francis, I.L., Henschke, P.A. Comparison of inorganic and organic nitrogen supplementation of grape juice – effect on volatile composition and aroma profile of a Chardonnay wine fermented with Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast. Food Chem. 127(3), 1072–1083; 2011. Copyright 2011 .

1278 Stockley, C. Therapeutic value of wine: a clinical and scientific perspective. In Joshi, V.K. (ed) Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations, Volume 1: Introduction to Vine and Wine: Asiatech Publishers, Inc; New Delhi: 146-208; 2011.

Abstract not available for reproduction

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 45 L 1279 Bartowsky, E. Malolactic fermentation. In Joshi, V.K. (ed) Handbook of Enology: Principles, Practices and Recent Innovations, Volume 2: Principles and Practices: Asiatech Publishers, Inc; New Delhi : 526-563; 2011.

Abstract not available for reproduction

1280 Bindon, K.A., Kennedy, J.A. Ripening-induced changes in grape skin proanthocyanidins modify their interaction with cell walls. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(6), 2696–2707; 2011.

Proanthocyanidins were isolated from the skins of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes at different stages of grape development in order to study the effect of proanthocyanidin modification on the interaction with grape cell wall material. After veraison, the degree of proanthocyanidin polymerization increased, and thereafter was variable between 24 and 33 subunits as ripening progressed. Affinity of skin cell wall material for proanthocyanidin decreased with proanthocyanidin ripeness following veraison. A significant negative relationship (R2 = 0.93) was found for average proanthocyanidin molecular mass and the proportion of high molecular mass proanthocyanidin adsorbed by skin cell wall material. This indicated that as proanthocyanidin polymerization increased, the affinity of a component of high molecular mass proanthocyanidins for skin cell wall material declined. This phenomenon was only associated with skin proanthocyanidins from colored grapes, as high molecular mass proanthocyanidins of equivalent subunit composition from colorless mutant Cabernet Sauvignon grapes had a higher affinity for skin cell wall material.

© Reprinted with permission from Bindon, K.A., Kennedy, J.A. Ripening-induced changes in grape skin proanthocyanidins modify their interaction with cell walls. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(6), 2696–2707; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

1281 Capone, D.L., Jeffery, D.W. Effects of transporting and processing Sauvignon Blanc grapes on 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol precursor concentrations. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(9), 4659–4667; 2011.

The effects of different processing treatments on thiol precursor concentrations have been investigated through studies involving transportation of machine-harvested Sauvignon Blanc fruit and assessment of different applications of antioxidants, along with juice preparation and enzyme inhibition experiments. The influence these trials had on S3- -cysteinylhexan-1-ol (Cys- 3-MH) and 3-S-glutathionylhexan-1-ol (Glut-3-MH) concentrations in juices is discussed. Very interesting findings included the large increase in precursor concentrations after transportation, particularly for Cys-3-MH, and the limited formation of Glut-3-MH when grape proteins were precipitated during processing. The various results provided information about the ability to modulate precursor concentrations depending on the processing technique employed. Additionally, a conjugated aldehyde, which is the obvious missing link between the reaction of (E)-2-hexenal and glutathione in the formation of Glut-3-MH, has been tentatively identified for the first time. Deuterium-labeled 3-S-glutathionylhexanal (Glut-3-MHAl) was produced through the addition

46 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 of labeled (E)-2-hexenal to grapes, followed by grape crushing, and detected in the juice by HPLC- MS/MS, along with the corresponding labeled Glut-3-MH.

© Reprinted with permission from Capone, D.L., Jeffery, D.W. Effects of transporting and processing Sauvignon Blanc grapes on 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol precursor concentrations. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(9), 4659–4667; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

1282 Capone, D.L., Sefton, M.A., Jeffery, D.W. Application of a modified method for 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol determination to investigate the relationship between free thiol and related conjugates in grape juice and wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(9), 4649–4658; 2011.

A method has been developed for determining 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol (3-MH) in wine and grape juice using gas chromatography with conventional electron ionization (EI) mass spectrometry. The limit of quantitation of 40 ng/L was achieved with excellent precision using stable isotope dilution analysis (SIDA) combined with headspace solid-phase microextraction (SPME) of derivatized 3-MH. This method was used in combination with HPLC-MS/MS analysis of the individual diastereomers of 3-S-cysteinylhexan-1-ol (Cys-3-MH) and 3-S-glutathionylhexan- 1-ol (Glut-3-MH), which are known precursors of the volatile thiol 3-MH. Commercial and small-lot winemaking trials were evaluated to determine the concentrations of precursors and free 3-MH at various stages of grape processing and winemaking. Five Sauvignon Blanc clones were also assessed for precursors and free thiol during ripening, revealing the presence of 3-MH in the unfermented juices and a stark increase in precursor concentrations in the latter stage of ripening. Additionally, differences due to sample freezing and mode of juice preparation were revealed for the precursors, and a set of commercially available wines was analyzed to investigate the amounts of precursors and free 3-MH in Sauvignon Blanc and other white wine varieties. There was seemingly no relationship between precursor concentrations in juice and 3-MH concentrations in wine. This was somewhat understandable, because the formation of precursors appears to be a dynamic process affected by a multitude of factors, beginning with grape ripening and continuing during vinification.

© Reprinted with permission from Capone, D.L., Sefton, M.A., Jeffery, D.W. Application of a modified method for 3-mercaptohexan-1-ol determination to investigate the relationship between free thiol and related conjugates in grape juice and wine. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(9), 4649–4658; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 47 L 1283 Ugliano, M., Kwiatkowski, M., Vidal, S., Capone, D., Siebert, T., Dieval, J.-B., Aagaard, O., Waters, E.J. Evolution of 3-mercaptohexanol, hydrogen sulfide, and methyl mercaptan during bottle storage of Sauvignon Blanc wines. Effect of glutathione, copper, oxygen exposure, and closure-derived oxygen. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(6), 2564–2572; 2011.

The effects of wine composition and postbottling oxygen exposure on 3-mercaptohexanol (3-MH), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and methyl mercaptan (MeSH) were investigated. A Sauvignon Blanc wine with initial copper concentration of 0.1 mg/L was treated with copper sulfate and/or glutathione (GSH) prior to bottling to give final concentrations of 0.3 and 20 mg/L, respectively. The wines were bottled with a synthetic closure previously stored in either ambient air or nitrogen to study the effect of the oxygen normally present in the closure. Bottled wines were stored for 6 months in either air or nitrogen to study the effect of oxygen ingress through the closure. Copper addition resulted in a rapid initial decrease in 3-MH. During storage, a further decrease of 3-MH was observed, which was lower with GSH addition and lowered oxygen exposure. H2S accumulated largely during the second 3 months of bottle storage, with the highest concentrations attained in the wines treated with GSH and copper. Lower oxygen from and through the closure promoted H2S accumulation. The concentration of MeSH was virtually not affected by the experimental variables at 6 months, although differences were observed after 3 months of storage. The implications for wine quality are discussed.

© Reprinted with permission from Ugliano, M., Kwiatkowski, M., Vidal, S., Capone, D., Siebert, T., Dieval, J.- B., Aagaard, O., Waters, E.J. Evolution of 3-mercaptohexanol, hydrogen sulfide, and methyl mercaptan during bottle storage of Sauvignon Blanc wines. Effect of glutathione, copper, oxygen exposure, and closure-derived oxygen. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59(6), 2564–2572; 2011. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.

1284 Evans, D.E., Goldsmith, M., Dambergs, R., Nischwitz, R. A comprehensive reevaluation of small-scale congress mash protocol parameters for determining extract and fermentability. J. Am. Soc. Brew. Chem. 69(1), 13–27; 2011.

Abstract available online at http://www.asbcnet.org/journal/abstracts/2011/ASBCJ-2011-0111-01. htm

1285 Borneman, A.R., Desany, B.A., Riches, D., Affourtit, J.P., Forgan, A.H., Pretorius, I.S., Egholm, M., Chambers, P.J. Whole-genome comparison reveals novel genetic elements that characterize the genome of industrial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genetics 7(2), 1–10; 2011.

Human intervention has subjected the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to multiple rounds of independent domestication and thousands of generations of artificial selection. As a result, this species comprises a genetically diverse collection of natural isolates as well as domesticated strains that are used in specific industrial applications. However the scope of genetic diversity that was captured during the domesticated evolution of the industrial representatives of this important

48 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 organism remains to be determined. To begin to address this, we have produced whole-genome assemblies of six commercial strains of S. cerevisiae (four wine and two brewing strains). These represent the first genome assemblies produced from S. cerevisiae strains in their industrially used forms and the first high-quality assemblies for S. cerevisiae strains used in brewing. By comparing these sequences to six existing high-coverage S. cerevisiae genome assemblies, clear signatures were found that defined each industrial class of yeast. This genetic variation was comprised of both single nucleotide polymorphisms and large-scale insertions and deletions, with the latter often being associated with ORF heterogeneity between strains. This included the discovery of more than twenty probable genes that had not been identified previously in the S. cerevisiae genome. Comparison of this large number of S. cerevisiae strains also enabled the characterization of a cluster of five ORFs that have integrated into the genomes of the wine and bioethanol strains on multiple occasions and at diverse genomic locations via what appears to involve the resolution of a circular DNA intermediate. This work suggests that, despite the scrutiny that has been directed at the yeast genome, there remains a significant reservoir of ORFs and novel modes of genetic transmission that may have significant phenotypic impact in this important model and industrial species.

© Reprinted with permission from Borneman, A.R., Desany, B.A., Riches, D., Affourtit, J.P., Forgan, A.H., Pretorius, I.S., Egholm, M., Chambers, P.J. Whole-genome comparison reveals novel genetic elements that characterize the genome of industrial strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. PLoS Genetics 7(2), 1–10; 2011. Copyright 2011 .

1286 Varela, C., Chambers, P.J., Coulter, A., Dry, P.R., Francis, I.L., Gawel, R., Muhlack, R., Henschke, P.A., Stockley, C.S., Herderich, M.J., Pretorius, I.S. Controlling the highs and lows of alcohol in wine. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 6–18; 2011.

Amid a continuing ‘hot’ and intense public debate about alcohol abuse, taking control of alcohol concentration in wine has become a priority for the wine sector worldwide. Despite a growing body of evidence indicating the health benefits of responsible, light to moderate wine consumption compared with other alcoholic beverages, wine is still much criticised in public discussion about alcohol abuse. The challenge for the wine sector is how best to manage the ‘dark side’ of alcohol worldwide and the ‘bright side’ of wine and society. Over the past couple of decades, average alcohol concentration in wine has risen from 12.4–14.2% v/v. In contrast, consumer studies show that there can be a preference for lower-alcohol wines. Producers and researchers are now developing new ways to reduce alcohol in some wine styles. Getting the balance right between alcohol concentration and body with positive fruit flavours can be surprisingly difficult. Options include changes to: viticultural practices (reducing leaf area, increasing irrigation in the pre-harvest period); fermentation and winemaking practices (selecting lower Brix grapes, use of yeast strains with lower fermentation efficiency); wine processing technologies (alcohol removal, lowering relative humidity for lengthy barrel maturation); and carefully considering consumer preferences when making higher alcohol wines.

© Reprinted with permission from Varela, C., Chambers, P.J., Coulter, A., Dry, P.R., Francis, I.L., Gawel, R., Muhlack, R., Henschke, P.A., Stockley, C.S., Herderich, M.J., Pretorius, I.S. Controlling the highs and lows of alcohol in wine. Pract. Winery Vineyard 32(1), 6–18; 2011. Copyright 2011 Practical Winery and Vineyard Incorporated.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 49 1287 Cozzolino, D., Cynkar, W., Dambergs, R., Smith, P. Two-dimensional correlation analysis of the effect of temperature on the fingerprint of wines analysed by mass spectrometry electronic nose. Sensors and Actuators B 145(2), 628–634; 2010.

This study demonstrates the application of two-dimensional correlation analysis to evaluate the effect of different temperatures on the headspace of wines analysed using a mass spectrometry electronic nose instrument in order to obtain their fingerprint. We have demonstrated that for a complex sample matrix such as wine, selection of an optimum sampling temperature of the headspace will be critical. Additionally, it was observed that small changes in headspace temperature can have a significant effect on the classification or fingerprint of wines analysed. Overall, the fingerprint of the red wine volatiles collected from the headspace seems to be less affected by temperature, while white wines are more affected by changes in volatile compounds present in the wine matrix. It was highlighted that both wine types had different behaviour in response to temperature changes in the headspace. The practical implication of this study is that care in the selection of the optimal temperature should be exercised when obtaining the MS fingerprint of wines using headspace.

© Reprinted with permission from Cozzolino, D., Cynkar, W., Dambergs, R., Smith, P. Two-dimensional correlation analysis of the effect of temperature on the fingerprint of wines analysed by mass spectrometry electronic nose. Sensors and Actuators B 145(2), 628–634; 2010. Copyright 2010 Elsevier Science.

1288 Curtin, C.D., Bellon, J.R., Bartowsky, E.J., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J., Herderich, M.J., Pretorius, I.S. Harnessing AWRI’s yeast and bacterial research to shape ‘next-gen’ Chardonnay part 1: ‘wild’ and ‘non-conventional’ yeast. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 15–20; 2011.

Australian Chardonnay is primed for a comeback. After rejection by so-called ‘ABC’ consumers who preferred anything but Chardonnay, there is growing speculation that Australia is reversing the trend, tempting markets with ‘CBA’, or ‘Chardonnay’s back again’. But, there is more to Australia’s new or ‘next-gen’ Chardonnays than mere persistence. Fresher, lighter-bodied, less oaky and more textured, the Chardonnays now entering the market are higher in complexity and ‘minerality’ with hints of so-called ‘struck-match-flint’ attributes. To help winemakers create such characters, the AWRI has developed a fermentation toolkit. Using the best science available, the toolkit offers better understanding and know-how regarding the application of selected commercial yeast, ‘non- conventional’ yeast and ‘wild’ yeast. It also offers expertise regarding malolactic fermentation and nutrients to help winemakers create more refreshing, crisp and livelier styles. The toolkit has been refined through conventional sensory studies as well as consumer group profiling. To win back consumers, however, Australia’s ‘next-gen’ Chardonnays also require appropriate marketing. The AWRI sees an opportunity for ‘CBA’ styles to transcend all market price points together with a clearer style guide to meet the expectations of target consumer groups.

© Reprinted with permission from Curtin, C.D., Bellon, J.R., Bartowsky, E.J., Henschke, P.A., Chambers, P.J., Herderich, M.J., Pretorius, I.S. Harnessing AWRI’s yeast and bacterial research to shape ‘next-gen’ Chardonnay part 1: ‘wild’ and ‘non-conventional’ yeast. Wine Viti. J. 26(1), 15–20; 2011. Copyright 2011 Winetitles.

50 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011 AWRI extension and roadshow calendar

June 2011 Technical Review 192 June 2011 Advanced Wine Assessment Course 21 - 24 June 2011, Adelaide August 2011 Technical Review 193 August 2011 AWRI Seminars: Fleurieu Zone - South Australia. Location: McLaren Vale. Date: TBA. North East Victoria Zone - Victoria. Locations: Bendigo & Rutherglen. Date: TBA. Central Victoria Zone - Victoria. Locations: Bendigo. Date: TBA AWRI Workshop Queensland. Location: Toowoomba. Date: TBA Gippsland Zone - Victoria. Locations: Gippsland. Date: TBA Wine Assessment Hunter Valley Zone - New South Wales. Location: Hunter Valley. Date: TBA. September 2011 AWRI Seminar: Lower Murray Zone - South Australia. Locations: Renmark & Mildura. Date: TBA AWRI Workshop Lower Murray Zone - South Australia. Locations: Renmark & Mildura. Date: TBA October 2011 Technical Review 194 October 2011 AWRI Workshops Central Victoria Zone – Bendigo, VIC Port Phillip Zone – Geelong, VIC Western Victoria Zone – Avoca/Pyrenees, VIC AWRI Seminar: Limestone Coast Zone – Coonawarra, SA Mount Lofty Ranges Zone – Clare, SA

For further information, please contact Virgina Phillips on (08) 8303 6687 or [email protected].

* Details subject to change without notice. Please visit the AWRI website to view the most up to date copy of this calendar at www.awri.com.au/events/calendar/. All information was accurate at time of compilation.

June 2011 Technical Review No. 192 51 The Technical Review is published bimonthly by The Australian Wine Research Institute. It is available free of charge to Australian grape and wine sector members paying a levy under the Wine Grapes Levy Act, however, other interested organisations and individuals may subscribe to Technical Review.

Subscription rates for 2011/2012 • All subscriptions are due on 1 July • Those wishing to subscribe part way through the financial year will be invoiced for subsequent issues up to and including the June issue of that year • Issues published for the current year and prior to the date of subscription, can be ordered separately • Back issues (not the current year) can be ordered separately

12-month subscription from 1 July 2011

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive)

Standard A$90.00 Student* A$50.00

Posted overseas

Standard A$105.00 Student* A$70.00

Subscription after 1 July 2011 up to 30 June 2012

Rate per current year issue

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive) Standard and Student A$15.00

Posted overseas Standard and Student A$20.00

Rate per back issue

Posted to Australia (GST inclusive) Standard and Student A$13.00

Posted overseas Standard and Student A$15.00

*proof of full time student status required.

Cheques and money orders should be made out in Australian currency, payable to ‘The Australian Wine Research Institute’ and forwarded to:

Library Technician The Australian Wine Research Institute PO Box 197, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064 Australia

Please direct all subscription enquiries to the AWRI Information Services team. Phone: (08) 8303 6626 | Fax: (08) 8303 6628 | Email: [email protected]

Produced by Michael Major Media Pty Ltd Printed by Openbook Howden

52 Technical Review No. 192 June 2011