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Changes in Land Cover and Subsequent Effects on Lower Fraser Basin Ecosystems from 1827 to 1990

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Changes in Land Cover and Subsequent Effects on Lower Fraser Basin Ecosystems from 1827 to 1990 Changes in Land Cover and Subsequent Effects on Lower Fraser Basin Ecosystems from 1827 to 1990 C. A. BOYLE data, air photos, and other historical material for the area, Civil and Resource Engineering estimates of land cover were made for the years prior to University of Auckland 1827 and for 1930 and 1990. The area of coniferous forest Private Bag 92019 changed from 71% prior to 1827 to 50% in 1930 to 54% in Auckland, New Zealand 1990. However, prior to 1827, only 27% of the forest would have been immature (,120 years old), while 40% would L. LAVKULICH* have been immature in 1930 and 73% of the forest was im- H. SCHREIER mature in 1990. The amount of wetland area decreased from E. KISS 10% to 1% of the study area while urban and agricultural Resource Management and Environmental Studies area increased to 26% of the study area by 1990. The 436E 2206 East Mall changes in land cover have had adverse effects on soil, wa- University of British Columbia ter, and air quality; aquatic life; and plant and animal popula- Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z3 tions. Estimates of changes in net primary production and organic soil carbon suggest a decline over the past 170 ABSTRACT / European settlement began in the Lower Fra- years, although the latter rate of decrease has slowed since ser Basin (LFB) in western British Columbia in 1827 and has 1930. As human populations in the Lower Fraser Basin con- impacted the basin ecosystem in a number of ways, espe- tinue to increase, the quality of air, water, and soil will con- cially affecting the vegetation. Using previously published tinue to decline unless measures are taken. As part of the three year interdisciplinary research linkages to the global systemic environmental changes. project on the ecosystem of the Lower Fraser Basin The relationships between deforestation, afforestation, (LFB) at the University of British Columbia, one of the agricultural development and the role of the terrestrial fundamental questions lay in defining the ecosystem biosphere as a CO2 regulator are poorly understood, yet structure and function as it existed historically and as it of common usage in modeling alternative futures of operates today. Human activity has had a significant global change. The significance of land-use cover impact on the land cover and has changed forest changes as it relates to ecosystem composition and composition and age and wetland areas in many parts of structure, nutrient cycling, and the distribution of the world. Our ability to change land cover has in- nutrients, water, and contaminants between soil, air, creased markedly in recent decades. Meyer and Turner and water has been the focus of several studies as (1992) indicate that between 1700 and 1980 there has reported by Houghton and Skole (1990) and Turner been a 400% increase in cropland and an approximate and others (1993). 30% decrease of forestland, globally. The rate of conver- As forest ecosystems are replaced with farms and sion of land capable of producing biomass to urban urban landscapes, water, soil, and air quality usually development is also increasing. In a report edited by degrade. Organic debris is no longer as abundant and, Turner and others (1993) on the topic of land use and consequently, the organic and nutrient content of the global land-cover change, they state that, although soil begins to drop (Sedell 1990). Moreover, forest land-cover changes occur on relatively small spatial mammals, reptiles, and avians are displaced by species scales of fields or small regions, these discrete changes that thrive in open grassland conditions (Crow 1990). have resulted in what they term as globally cumulative Streams are affected by the increase of eroded soil, changes. Cumulative land-use changes have consider- causing the suspended solids level to increase, increas- able impact on both the local or regional setting and ing the amount of silt on the streambed and affecting fish habitat (Schreier and others 1991). The loss of KEY WORDS: Human impact; Land cover; Net primary productivity; woody debris in the stream also reduces the amount of Organic carbon in soil fish habitat and allows the stream to flow faster, increas- ing its erosion of banks (Sedell 1990). Loss of leafy *Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. debris affects the nutrient content of the water and, Environmental Management Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 185–196 r 1997 Springer-Verlag New York Inc. 186 C. A. Boyle and others consequently, the growth of aquatic organisms (Sedell threatened. The boundary of the area was selected to 1990). Loss of shading also affects the stream tempera- encompass the basin and the major towns and commu- ture and, consequently, fish habitat (Schreier and oth- nities that comprise the lower mainland, excluding ers 1991). lands north of Lions Bay, Stave Lake, and Pitt Lake, With continued logging of forests, the forest ecosys- since there are few communities in these mountainous tem is also affected. The loss of old-growth forest regions. Those portions of the lower mainland water- decreases the mass of woody debris left on the forest sheds that drain into the Fraser River were also in- floor and the amount of carbon stored by the ecosystem cluded. It is recognized that the study area is influenced as well as the carbon in soil (Harmon and others 1990). by and influences the surrounding areas by other Reducing woody debris, especially in size, also reduces factors such as atmospheric processes. the habitat available for vertebrates (Triska and Cromack The elevation of the study area ranges from sea level 1979). Nutrients in the soil also decrease with contin- to 1500 m, but the population is centered along the ued logging activity (Boyle and others 1973, Aber and Fraser river floodplain where the elevation ranges from others 1979, Swank and Waide 1979). The large trees 1 to 175 m above sea level. The area consists of a low also store large amounts of water and nutrients inter- floodplain running west–east, bounded by mountains nally, thus providing a buffer against environmental on the north and extending to the US border on the stress (Waring and Franklin 1979). The decrease of south. East of Chilliwack, mountains also limit the valley woody debris in forest streams also reduces the habitat to the south. A total of 30 watersheds are contained in available for aquatic organisms and directly influences the region, five of which are larger than 100,000 ha. All the size of fish populations (Triska and Cromack 1979). have been extensively logged, developed, or cleared for Overall, continual logging has significant effects upon agriculture and none are pristine (Moore 1991). the forest ecosystem. Moreover, in areas where old- The majority of the study area is classified as lying growth forest flourished, as in the LFB, hundreds of within the Coastal Western Hemlock Biogeoclimatic years are often required to regrow the forest. It is Zone (BC Ministry of Forests 1988). Lower forested areas therefore important to consider forest age as a factor are classified as coastal temperate forest (Moore 1991) when examining human impact. and include western hemlock (Tsuga heterphylla), west- Although there is ongoing research to examine the ern red cedar (Thuya plicata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga state of ecosystems in the LFB, there has been no effort menziessi), balsam fir (Abies balsamea), Sitka spruce (Picea to link changes in land cover to present ecosystem stichensis), and yellow cypress (Chamaecyparis nootkaten- conditions. Moreover, it is essential to understand what sis), with black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera), alder changes are occurring overall to ecosystems and ecosys- (Alnus rubra), and willow (Salix spp.) growing in for- tem components (air, water, soil, biota) in order to ested swamps. understand possible future consequences of current Europeans first arrived in the Lower Fraser Basin in human activities in the LFB. This paper will, therefore, 1827, building and settling near Fort Langley. Although examine changes in land cover (including forest age) some clearing and planting of land took place near the due to human activity, and assess the effects of changes fort, it was not until the 1850s and the gold rush that in land cover on water, soil, air, and biotic components settlers began moving into the area. Dense forest, of ecosystems in the LFB. swampy lands, and hoards of mosquitoes slowed the settlement and development in the basin (Borden 1968, Perry 1984). Commercial logging was initiated in the Methods early 1800s with the cutting of spars for ships (McCombs and Chittenden 1990), and the Vancouver area was Study Area logged until the 1880s, when the focus of the logging The LFB lies in southwestern British Columbia, industry shifted to the east and north. Diking of the encompassing the Fraser Valley from Hope to Vancou- river banks, initiated in the 1860s, reduced flooding and ver. The study area covers a region of approximately allowed for agricultural development of the wet lowland 828,000 ha along the LFB, from Vancouver to Hope, areas, but it was not until the railway was built in 1885 British Columbia (Figure 1) Population and industrial that settlement increased dramatically in the basin (Roy growth in the basin is among the most rapid in North 1966). Subsequent railways also provided transporta- America (Hutton and Davis 1991). However, growth is tion for logs and lumber to the Fraser and tidewater limited geographically due to the surrounding moun- ports, enabling the logging industry to flourish in the tains and ocean and, consequently, the quality of the basin (Porter and others 1995). A forest fire swept the environment and the current way of life in the basin are area from the east of Langley to Matsqui Prairie in 1868 Land Cover Changes in the Lower Fraser Basin 187 Figure 1.
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