Gargai Water Supply Project, Palghar District

Biodiversity Studies for proposed Gargai Water Supply Project, Palghar District

Submitted by BNHS

Core Team Principle Investigator - Dr. Deepak A. Apte, Director Co-Investigator - Rahul V. Khot, Curator

Team Dr. Swapna Prabhu - Systematic Botanist Mr. Nitesh Nikam - JRF Botanist Ms. Neha Mujumdar - Entomologist Mr. Unmesh Katwate - Fish Taxonomist Ms. Priya A.Warekar - Herpetologist Mrs. Pinal Patel - Ornithologist Mr. Saunak P. Pal - Mammalogist Mr. Noor I. Khan - GIS Expert Mr. Balaji Survase - Driver / Field Assistant Mr. Vishwas Shinde - Project Officer Mr. Rajendra Pawar - Project Officer

Contents

List of Tables ...... 4 List of Figures ...... 5 List of Abbreviations...... 8 Summery...... 9 1. Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Background ...... 10 1.2 Importance of the study ...... 11 2. Materials & Methods ...... 12 2.1 Study Area ...... 12 2.1.1 Location ...... 12 2.1.2 Topography ...... 12 2.1.3 Climate ...... 12 2.1.4 Rivers ...... 12 2.1.5 Landuse details ...... 13 2.2 Methods ...... 14 2.2.1 Flora ...... 16 2.2.2 Insects ...... 18 2.2.3 Freshwater Fish ...... 19 2.2.4 Amphibians & Reptiles ...... 19 2.2.5 Birds ...... 20 2.2.6 Mammals ...... 20 3 Results and Discussion ...... 23 3.1 Vegetation and Flora ...... 23 3.1.1 Habitats ...... 23 I. Moist Deciduous Forest ...... 24 II. Tropical Semi-EvergreenForests ...... 25 III. Degraded Moist deciduous Forest ...... 26

IV. Open scrubs ...... 27 V. Grasslands ...... 27 VI. Agricultural lands ...... 28 VII. Plantation ...... 29 3.1.2 Community Structure ...... 30 3.1.3 Socio-economically important species ...... 36 3.2. INSECTS ...... 40 3.3 Freshwater Fish ...... 51 3.4 Amphibians and Reptiles ...... 58 3.5 Birds ...... 69 3.5.1 Species richness ...... 69 3.5.2 Diversity ...... 73 3.6 Mammals ...... 76 4 Conclusion and Potential Areas for Conservation ...... 88 4.1 Vegetation ...... 88 4.2 Insects ...... 89 4.3 Fish ...... 90 4.4 Amphibians and Reptiles ...... 97 4.5 Birds ...... 98 4.6 Mammal ...... 100

Annexure…………………………………………………………………………………….…....i Annexure 1………………………………………………………………………………….……..i Annexure 2…………………………………………………………………………………….….v Annexure 3…………………………………………………………………………………….…ix Annexure 4………………………………………………………………………………….……xi Annexure 5…………………………………………………………………………………...…xiii Annexure 6………………………………………………………………………………….…...xx

Plate………………………………………………………………………………………….….xxi Plate 1…………………………………………………………………………………………...xxi Plate 2………………………………………………………………………………………….xxix Plate 3…………………………………………………………………………………….....xxxviii Plate 4…………………………………………………………………………………………..xliii Plate 5…………………………………………………………………………………………….lii Plate 6…………………………………………………………………………………………....lix Maps …………………………………………………………………………………………..lxvii

List of Tables

Table 1 Landuse Details Of The Study Site ...... 13 Table 2 Habitat types and corresponding areas sampled during study ...... 14 Table 3 Major Associations of Plants in The Study Area ...... 30 Table 4 List of Socio-economically important plant species ...... 36 Table 5 Geographical details of fish sampling sites studied across the study area...... 55 Table 6 Spatial distribution of freshwater fish species diversity recorded across the Gargai watershed...... 56

List of Figures

Map 1 Study site location and sampling map ...... 15 Figure 1 Sampling layout for vegetation study ...... 16 Image 1 Moist Deciduous forest near Amla ...... 24 Image 2 Tropical semi evergreen forest of the study area – near Quaripada ...... 25 Image 3 Degraded Moist deciduous forest near Khidse ...... 26 Image 4 Open scrub near Waganpada ...... 27 Image 5 Grassland near Bhawaniwadi ...... 28 Image 6 Agricultural fields near Gargai ...... 29 Image 7 Plantation near Quaripada ...... 29 Figure 2 Habit-wise species distribution ...... 31 Figure 3 Family wise species richness within the study area ...... 32 Figure 4 Density of trees and shrubs across the various habitats per hectare ...... 32 Figure 5 Seasonal variation in density of herbaceous dpecies across various habitats ...... 33 Figure 6 frequency of dominant tree species ...... 33 Figure 7 Diversity indices for trees across the various habitats...... 34 Figure 8 Diversity indices for Shrubs across various habitats ...... 35 Figure 9 Diversity indices for herbs during Summer (A) and Monsoon (B) across various habitats...... 36 Figure 10 Taxonomic richness of butterflies across seasons ...... 40 Figure 11 Season-wise overall butterfly diversity ...... 41 Figure 12 Habitat-wise butterfly diversity in summer season ...... 42 Figure 13 (a) Diversity indices across habitats in summer season ...... 43 Figure13 (b) Species richness in summer season ...... 43 Figure 14 (a) Habitat-wise butterfly diversity in monsoon season ...... 44 Figure 14 (b) Diversity indices across habitats in monsoon season ...... 45 Figure 14 (c) Species richness in monsoon season ...... 46 Figure 15 (a) Habitat-wise butterfly diversity in winter season ...... 47 Figure 15 (b) Diversity indices across habitats in winter season ...... 48 Figure 15 (c) Species richness in winter season ...... 48

Figure 16 : Family wise odonate species diversityDiversity, WPA species and important areas for insects in study area……………………………………………………………………………...49 Figure17 Distribution of freshwater fish sampling sites across the Gargai River….……... ……54 Figure 18 (a) Seasonal flux in native freshwater fish species richness recorded across the Gargai watershed...... 57 Figure 18 (b) Seasonal flux in native freshwater fish species richness across all the study sites of Gargai watershed. Fish sampling sites abbreviation as per Table 1...... 57 Figure 19 Diversity Indices of Reptiles in Summer ...... 63 Figure 20 Habitat-wise Species Richness of Reptiles in Summer ...... 63 Fig 21 Diversity Indices of Amphibians in Summer ...... 64 Figure 22 Species Richness of Amphibians in summer ...... 64 Figure 23 Diversity Indices of Reptiles in Monsoon ...... 65 Figure 24 Species Richness of Reptiles in Monsoon ...... 65 Figure 25 Diversity Indices of Amphibians in Monsoon ...... 66 Figure 26 Species Richness of Amphibians in monsoon ...... 66 Figure 27 Diversity Indices of Reptiles in Winter ...... 67 Figure 28 Species Richness of Reptiles in Winter ...... 67 Figure 29 Seasonal variation in species richness in habitat types ...... 70 Figure 30: Seasonal variation in abundance of birds in habitat types ...... 70 Figure 31 : Family-wise species richness ...... 71 Figure 32: Migrant and resident status ...... 72 Figure 33: IUCN Status………………………………………………………………………….72 Figure 34: Shannon-Wiener Diversit and Pielou Evenness Diversity indices of birds computed for the habitats ...... 73 Figure 35: Shannon-Wiener Diversity and Pielou Evenness Diversity indices of birds computed for the habitats ...... 73 Figure 36: Shannon-Wiener Diversity and Pielou Evenness Diversity indices of birds computed for the habitats ...... 74 Figure 37: Species Abundance ...... 75 Figure 38(a) Shannon-Wiener Diversity, Pielou Evenness and Simpson Diversity indices of mammals computed for various habitats of study area ...... 82

Figure 38(b) Species Richness of mammals computed for various habitats of study area ...... 82 Figure 39 (a) Shannon-Wiener Diversity, Pielou Evenness and Simpson Diversity indices of mammals computed for various habitats of study area ...... 84 Figure 39(b) Species Richness of mammals computed for various habitats of study area ...... 84

List of Abbreviations

2WM - Two Way Migrant A -Agriculture BD - Bio Diesel BV - Breeding Visitor BV - Breeding Visitor C - Charcoal CR - Critically Endangered DMD -Degraded Moist Deciduous forest E - Edible (Fr- Fruit/ F- l. Flower/ L - Leaves/ G - Gum/ E- Entire) , F - Fuel Fi - Fibre Fo -Fodder (G - Goat/ C- Cattle/ S- Sheep/B - Buffalo/All) G -Grassland L - Lac M - Medicine MD -Moist deciduous forest NT - Near Threatened LC - Least Concern O - Oil extraction OS - Open Scrub P -Plantation PR - (T/ Pest Resistant (T- Termites/ Mealy bugs) PV - Passage Migrant R -Resident Birds RM - Residential Migrant SE -Semi Evergreen forest T -Timber T & D - Tanning & Dyeing WM - Winter Migrant

Summery This report provids results of a year long biodiversity study covering three seasons conducted by BNHS with in 10 km radius influence zone of proposed Gargai Water Supply Project by MGCM at Palghar District of Maharashtra. The study revealed presence of 139 plants, 180 insects, 28 freshwater fishes, 9 amphibians, 20 reptiles, 140 birds and 19 mammal species with in the study area.

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

The Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai (MCGM) decided to augment present water supply to Mumbai by building dam to create two reservoirs at Gargai River basins in Thane district. Though MCGM will be undertaking EIA for the same, BNHS was approached to carry out biodiversity studies and prepare a conservation plan for 10km buffer from the boundary of Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary which includes submergence area.

The study thus undertaken by BNHS has following objectives: 1. To establish baseline data for terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity based on annual data (covering three seasons). 2. To provide a detailed ecological description of the study area. 3. To develop biodiversity maps with priority biodiversity areas 4. To map the fishing grounds, fish diversity, abundance and biomass. 5. To assess the population of selected taxonomic groups as baseline for future monitoring. 6. To document forest resources, use and causes of over-exploitation, deforestation, 7. To develop baseline for future assessment of changes that may occur overtime: a) Fish Assessment – Dominant species and their level of abundance. b) Invertebrate Assessment – Target species. including of commercial and conservation value. 8. To study structure and function of ecosystems of the study area such as: a) Forest ecosystem b) Agro-ecosystems c) Aquatic ecosystems (streams and rivers) 9. To document the values of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive use, social, ethical aesthetic and option values. 10. To document threats to biodiversity: habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts if any in the study area. 11. Identification of keystone and threatened species of the area with categorisation as per Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and IUCN Red List 10

12. Develop a conservation plan based on the one-year study and seasonal variations.

1.2 Importance of the study

River Gargai passes across Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS) and the proposed dam site is located within TWS. The protected area already has Tansa and Modak Sagar dams dividing it into fragments. In addition the proposed Gargai project will submerge 7.72 sq km of the forest. The wildlife sanctuary and the surrounding forests of Shahapur, Khardi, Vaitarna and East Wada Ranges comprise the catchment area of all the perennial rivers of this region.

The vegetation largely corresponds to the southern tropical moist deciduous forest which supports rich wildlife and also considerable tribal population that inhabit this region and largely depend on it. Besides, the ecological services provided by these forests not only to the villages in the vicinity but also the metropolitan cities nearby are indispensable.

On this background any further development within TWS or it’s surrounding area thrusts additional pressure on the alredy threatened wildlife. Besides Environmental Impact Assessment and cumulative impact assessments of multiple projects in this region, there is a need to undertake an exclusive study for documenting biological resources and local people’s dependency on them, to identiy vulnerable species and their habitats as well as plan suitable conservation stratagies for the same.

2. Materials & Methods

2.1 Study Area

2.1.1 Location The study site is located in two tehsils (Wada and Mokhada) of District Palghar and one tehsil (Shahapur) of District Thane, in the northernmost part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra. It is spread between the west coast of the Arabian Sea and the Sahyadri Mountains rows that are east of the northern District of Palghar.

2.1.2 Topography The study site forms a part of the Konkan lowlands of Maharashtra. It shares its terrain with the wide plains of Ulhas basin and hilly Vaitarna and Pinjal valley in the south together with plateaus and the slopes of Sahyadri. Undulating terrain with an elevation ranging from140 m to 480 m consists of landforms such as plateaus, small and large hillocks intersected by intricate network of streams etc. Suryamal is the highest peak within the study area as well as the two districts.

2.1.3 Climate The climate is characterised by high humidity nearly all the year round, an oppressive summer season and well distributed and heavy rainfall during the South-West monsoon season. The year may be divided into four seasons. Winter is from December to February that is followed by summer from March to June.

The district receives rainfall from South-West monsoon. The monsoon season is from June to September. During 1998-99, the highest rainfall in the district was 3538 mm in Palghar taluka, and the lowest was in Ulhasnagar taluka (1908 mm). October and November constitute the post- monsoon season.

2.1.4 Rivers The major rivers of the district are Vaitarana and Ulhas. The important tributaries of Vaitarna are Pinjal, Deharja, Surya, and Tansa, while Gargai is the tributary of Pinjal. The tributaries of Ulhas are Barvi, Bhatsa, and Kalu.

The following major water supply and irrigation projects are located in and around the study area. Surya in Jawhar Tehsil – Irrigation Project Barvi in Murbad Tehsil – Water Supply Project Upper Vaitarna in Igatpuri Tehsil – Water Supply Project Middle Vaitarna in Shahapur Tehsil - Water Supply Project Modak Sagar in Shahapur Tehsil - Water Supply Project Bhatsa in Shahapur Tehsil – Irrigation Project Tansa in Shahapur Tehsil – Water Supply Project Pinjal in Wada Tehsil – Water Supply Project (proposed) Gargai in Wada Tehsil – Water Supply Project (proposed)

2.1.5 Landuse details As mentioned earlier the study area is 10 km radius circle fron the project site (314 sq km) which includes 143.43 sq km of TWS. The land use patterns calculated are discussed in detail in procceding sections. The actual project site covers 111.19 sq km of catchment area and 7.72 sq.km submergence area Table 1.

Table1: LANDUSE DETAILS OF THE STUDY SITE

Land Type Area in sq.km Area in % Project Site Catchment Area 111.19 Submergence Area 7.72 Forest Land (RF) 5.28 61.9 Agriculture Land 2.51 29.4 Water bodies 0.60 7.1 Settlements 0.14 1.7 Total 8.53 100 Study Area within 10 km buffer Total area 314.00

Tansa WLS (RF) 143.43 (out of 320)

Source:- MGCM

2.2 Methods

Sampling

The survey team carried out several visits during the period of December 2014 to November 2015 to cover three seasons viz., summer, winter and monsoon. Stratified Random Sampling method was adopted. Entire study area was divided into a 2x2 km grid. Out of these a total of 23 randomly selected grids were sampled (Map 1). Seven types of habitats were identified in the study site viz., moist deciduous forest, semievergreen forest, degreaded moist deciduous forest, grassland, open scrub, plantation and agriculture. These habitat types and corresponding villages sampled are summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 2: HABITAT TYPES AND CORRESPONDING AREAS SAMPLED DURING STUDY

Sr.No Habitat Name of the areas sampled 1 Moist Deciduous forests Charanpada, Dahigaon Tarf Gaon, Khodare, Navapada, Ongda, Parli Range, Parli Village and Gargai dam site 2 Semi Evergreen forests Amla Gaon, Sakershet, Satronde, Quaripada, and Suryamal 3 Degraded Moist Deciduous forests Suryamal Ghat and Pachghar 4 Open scrubs Wanganpada 5 Grasslands Bhavaniwadi and Kevnale 6 Plantations Tembhe and opp Amla 7 Agricultural fields Phanas Gaon, near Ambapada and Belwada

The selected areas were sampled intensively for each taxa (flora, insects, fishes, amphibians, birds and mammals). The methods used for sampling individual taxa are provided in detail under separate heads.

2.2.1 Flora

Transect selection and marking Transects were laid in random direction along the least beaten tracts, such as fodder collection trails, wherever feasible avoiding main motorable road and permanent foot paths. The length of transect/ trails was one km. However, either in case of rugged and rough terrain or in case of small forest patch, it was highly difficult to complete the transects. Therefore, in such cases length of transect was reduced depending on size of forest patch. However, 95% of transects were of one km length.

Sample plots: Sampling within each stratum was done on either side along the trails or transects . Ten sample plots were laid along each transect, at an interval of 100m. The centre of the plot was marked using Garmin 72 GPS. Circular plots of 10m radius (area:314m2) were laid for sampling tree species. A circular plot of 5m radius (area 78.5m2) was laid within and with same centre as the larger plot for shrubs. On the outer boundary of smaller circle, four 1 X 1m quadrats were laid in cardinal direction (East, West, North and South) to enumerate herbs (Fig. 1).

FIGURE 1: SAMPLING LAYOUT FOR VEGETATION STUDY

The community structure was studies within these plots by considering parameters such as density, frequency, and diversity. For this each individual plant was identified to species

16 level and their corresponding individuals encountered within plots were recorded. The analysis was done with the formule given below.

Density - It is the number of individulas per unit area. Normally density is expressed in terms of number per hectare (ha-1). So, in context with present study Density (D) for trees and shrubs was calculated using formula,

Total number of individuals (of a given species) in all plots Density trees/shrubs (D/ha) = ------Total numbers of plots sampled X area of plot X10000

Where, area of plot for tree was 314m2 and for shrubs it was 78.57m2. The density (D) for herbs was calculated as:

Total number of individuals (of a given species) in all plots 2 Density herbs (D/m ) = ------Total numbers of plots (quadrats) sampled X 10000

Distribution maps were prepared based on the density ranking (i.e. high and low).

Frequency – It is a measure of the uniformity of distribution of a particular species within a stand; therefore low frequency indicates that a species is either irregularly distributed or rare in a particular stand. It can be defined as number of times a plant species is present in a given number of quadrats. It is usually expressed as a percentage and calculated as:

Total number of plots in which species occurred Frequency (%) = ------X 100 Total numbers of plots (quadrats) sampled

Enumeration of species: The species were counted within the sample plots. In addition to data on plants species occurred in the sample plots and GPS location of each plots were recorded. The formulae used for determining diversity were mostly common for all taxa studies and are discussed at the end of this section.

17 2.2.2 Insects Insect diversity was studied both qualitatively and quantitatively by using following methods-

Direct Searching (All Insects)

The insects were searched in all suitable habitats like vegetation, leaf litter, under logs, stones, grasses as each insect needs a specific microhabitat for survival. The active search was carried out in those microhabitats.

Insect Net (Winged insects)

More active insects require more active search; particularly butterflies, moths, dragonflies and damselflies. To capture flying insect nets were used on field.

Light trap (Night flying insects)

Many night-flying insects are attracted towards light. A 14W CFL bulb was used to illuminate a white cloth with the help of a mini-inverter. Light trapping was conducted from 8 pm to 10 pm at suitable places at the sites.

Identification

The insect which are documented or collected were identified by using standard field guides, reference books (for e.g. Dijkstra et al. 2013, Fraser 1933, 1934, 1936; Kirby 1914; Kehimkar 2008) and by comparing BNHS entomology collection.

Because relatively few groups of insects are well known, it was not possible to name many of the species collected, especially in diverse groups of small body size. In such cases taxa were sorted to morphospecies and assigned an identifying number (e.g. Genus A sp. 1) or taxa were treated at some higher taxonomic level (e. g. Family or order level).

Quantification Method

The entire study area was divided into grids of 2km*2km squares. Total twenty-three sites were surveyed for insect diversity. To study butterflies, stripe transects of 10 m width and 1 km lengths were laid in randomly in every alternate grid so that sampling is evenly spaced (Pollard 1977). Each transect was intensively searched for direct sightings. All individuals seen with in the transect limit were recorded. Transects were walked in two phases, morning phase from 7.30 a.m. to 10.30 a.m. and evening phase from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. when butterflies were active. Pace was slow but constant covering the transect in about an hour.

18 Study organisms

Order Lepidoptera including butterflies and moths and Order Odonata including dragonflies and damselflies are used as surrogates for overall biodiversity. Results are given based on population data of butterflies as they are often treated as bioindicators of ecosystem health. Sensitivity to changes in microclimate and habitat make them particularly good indicators for monitoring of natural areas undergoing change. Presence or absence of certain butterflies and odonates can provide important insights about the type of habitat. Hence their studies can prove important in conserving or while designing any management plan for specific areas.

2.2.3 Freshwater Fish Fishing surveys were carried out across the study area in project period. Watershed area of the river was mapped and sample sites were selected randomly across the watershed. Fishing surveys were carried out in day and night across all sampling points. Fishing practices were carried out by using standard fish catching techniques like cast net, hook and line, hand net and by using local traps with the help of local fishing communities. Daily fishing efforts of local fishermen across study areas were considered as valid fishing attempt to avoid excessive fishing pressure in study region. All freshwater fish habitats were carefully studied for cryptic fish species. After identification and photography fishes were released back in natural environment. Specimens were collected only in case of unidentified specimens. Fish species count was taken after each fishing attempt. Anthropogenic threats found at fishing sites were carefully documented throughout the study.

2.2.4 Amphibians & Reptiles Amphibians and Reptiles were sampled using following methods. Specimens were photographed for identification and documentation and some voucher specimens collected for identification where there was some confusion during the fieldwork.

19 Ad Hoc

Amphibians and Reptiles were searched under logs, stones, bark of trees, under leaf litter, in perennial streams, crevices between the rocks, artificial refugia as they require microhabitats to survive.

Stream Search

Amphibians were searched in any perennial stream or any moist patch in the forest.

Road Survey

A road survey was carried out at night to record any live or dead snake or any other reptile or amphibian.

Identification

Identification was done using standard field guides, reference books, and scientific papers. Specimens were compared from the available BNHS herpetofauna collection.

Herpetofauna study is still in its initial stage so identification and the taxonomy is not stable. Thus identification to species level was not possible for all species. In this case species were identified to genus level and assigned an identification number (e.g. Genus A sp.1)

2.2.5 Birds The study area is heterogeneous comprising several habitat types and microhabitats. In order to make the sampling approach representative of all habitat types, stratified random sampling approach was adopted (Buckland et al. 2004) and point count was done randomly in the sites identified during the pilot survey. The duration of the point count was 10 minutes and data was collected in the early morning and late evening. GPS location was noted for each point count. On spotting birds, details like species of birds, number of birds, distance, activity of the birds etc. were noted in the data sheet.

In order to have a complete checklist the entire area was surveyed. The list of birds was arranged family wise following Rasmussen and Anderton (2005).

2.2.6 Mammals Adequate sampling is necessary for the qualitative and quantitative estimations of mammals in the study area. Sampling was conducted using the following methods:

20 Line Transects A 2x2 km grids were laid in the study area, and randomly selected grids were sampled. A total of 23 random sites were selected for sampling in the study area. A 1 km long transect was walked both in the morning and evening in all the 23 sites to record the presence of mammals. Each transect was intensively searched for direct sightings of animals. All individuals seen with in the transect limit were recorded. Transects were walked in two phases, morning phase from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. and evening phase from 5.00 p.m. to 9.00 p.m. Animal signs like scat, pellets, track marks etc observed in the transect were also recorded. The transects were walked at a slow but constant pace.

Road Surveys

Road surveys were carried out at night to record opportunistic sightings of mammals especially nocturnal ones which are often seen on roads passing through forest patches.

During the fieldwork individual animals, animal signs such as scat/ pellets/ droppings, track marks, pugmarks etc were photographed for documentation and identification. Animal droppings, scats and pellets were also collected for record and later analysis in the lab.

Identification

Species identification was carried out with the help of standard field guides, reference books, and scientific papers. As getting a proper identification of species is always not possible just based on scat or track mark, only the group or genus is mentioned wherever necessary.

21 II. Analysis of species richness and diversity The analysis of biodiversity was carried out by calculating Shannon Diversity Index (H’), Simpson Dominance Index (D) and Pielou Evenness Index (E). These indices were adopted for their low sensitivity to the sample size (Magurran 1988)

Shannon Diversity Index (H’) = Σ piln pi

i.e. = Σ ni/N [ln (ni/N)]

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species N = Importance value of all the species

2 Simpson’s Dominance Index (D) = Σ pi 2 i.e. = Σ (ni/N)

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species N = Importance value of all the species

Pielou Evenness Index (E) = H’/ ln S Where, H’ = Shannon Diversity Index S = Total number of species

Species richness (D) was calculated according to Whittaker (1960) D = S/ log N Where, S = Total number of species in the samp N = Total number of individuals in the sample

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Vegetation and Flora

Forest meets the basic necessities of all organisms, right from availing the food and shelter to range of living beings up to serving as a corridor, important for their easy movements. Western Ghats, with great variety of flora and fauna is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world and is very well known for its species endemism (Pramod, Daniels, Joshi & Gadgil, 1997 and Watwe & Thakur, 2006). Geomorphologically Western Ghats are mapped into 3 Subgroups and ten formations. Our study site falls into Kalsubai Subgroup which is with Jawahar, Igatpuri, Neral, Thakurwadi and Bhimashankar formations (Beane et al. 1986).The total forest area of the old Thane district including today’s Palghar District is about 3463 sq. km. which accounts for the 37.10% of the total geographical area. Out of this, Shahpur has 20.62% forest area, Palghar 14.09%, Jawhar 9.99%, Wada 10.08%, Murbad 6.38%, Dahanu 12.79% and Vasai 6.56% forest area. Thus 80.51% of the total forest area spreads in these seven talukas only. In Maharashtra moist deciduous forest patches around Nasik, Thane and Nagar Haveli are vital and support a wide range of wildlife in this area.

According to the State of Forest Report provided by Forest Survey of India in 2009, in Maharashtra, Thane district shows 29.29 % decrease of in the dense forest cover, Nashik has 22.5 % and Ratnagiri has 16.45 % reduction in forest cover. Increase in the forest cover by 2.79 % is seen only in Raigad District.

Besides forests other habitats such as scrubs and grasslands and artificial landscapes such as agricultural fiels add to the regionl biodiversity. The habitats and vegetation types identified in the study area are described in detail in the proceeding sections.

3.1.1 Habitats

The natural forest vegetation types of this region is of South Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests (3B/CIa; Champion and Seth 1968) with some patches of Tropical Semievergreen Forests (2B/E4; Champion and Seth 1968) depending on the topography, the rains received and the soil conditions. Most of the semi evergreen patches occurred along the narrow stream beds and the river Gargai. Hill slopes were dominated by deciduous forest whereas plateaus occurred on the hilltops. Following seven major habitats/ vegetation types were identified the distribution of which is depicted in Map 3. 23

I. Moist Deciduous Forest

IMAGE 1: MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST NEAR AMLA

India has two well demarcated main sub-types of Moist deciduous forests, they are categorised depending upon the change in dominant tree species, edaphic factor and climate on which they thrive. North Indian Moist Deciduous Forest is found in upper parts of India and has Sal (Shorea robusta) as a characteristic species confined to north region. Teak (Tectona grandis) can be seen in both North and Southern Deciduous types. .

The study site shows the presence of South Indian Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest with trees like Teak (Tectona grandis), Dhawada (Anogeissus latifolia), Tendu (Diospyros melanoxylon), Ain (Terminalia elliptica), Palash (Butea monosperma), Murudsheng (Helicteres isora), Kalamb (Mitagyna parviflora) etc. here first storey has prominently deciduous plants followed by the second storey of mixed components (deciduous and evergreen trees).

In general, storeyed forest was having characteristic Teak, Dhawada, Ain as predominant tree species acquiring the top most storey, distributed evenly all over the area in deciduous patches, in few cases Haldu (Haldina cordifolia) was seen showing co-dominance.

Second storey of Moist deciduous forest, was seen dominated by Apta (Bauhinia racemosa), Tendu, Nana (Lagerstroemia lanceolata), Palash, Kuda (Holarrhena pubescence),

24 Murudsheng (Helecteris isora), Kala kuda (Wrightea tinctorea) etc. Few species like Kakad (Garuga pinnata), Gela (Catunaregam spinosa), Kumbhi (Careya arborea), Umbar (Ficus raceomosa), Vad (Ficus benghalensis), Alu (Meyna laxifolia), were also found acquiring the second storey.

II. Tropical Semi-EvergreenForests

IMAGE 2: TROPICAL SEMI EVERGREEN FOREST OF THE STUDY AREA – NEAR QUARIPADA

Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forest were seen forming patches in the moist valleys, streams and rivers. Vegetation includes Kakad (Garuga pinnata), Gela (Catunaregam spinosa), Bhokar (Cordia dichotoma), Kumbhi Careya arborea, Kalamb Mytragyna parviflora, Asan Bridelia retusa, Kaate sawar (Bombax ceiba), Ficus virens, Umbar (Ficus raceomsa), Vad (Ficus benghalensis), Lokhandi (Ixora brachiata), Alu (Meyna laxiflora), Kumkum (Mallotus philipiens). Kusum (Schleichera oleosa) and were present as a prominent species.

Top storey of semi-evergreen forest was found populated with Ficus benghalensis, Mytragyna parviflora and Schleichera oleosa while species like Garuga pinnata, Catunaregam spinosa, Careya arborea, Ficus raceomsa, , Lokhandi (Ixora brachiata), Meyna laxifolia, were found acquiring the second storey. Liana such as Ukshi (Calycopteris floribunda), Jasminium malabaricum,were common reaching over canopies.

25 III. Degraded Moist deciduous Forest

IMAGE 3: DEGRADED MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST NEAR KHIDSE

Due to uncontrolled and unsustanable harvesting practice of forest products, forest patches were prone to great disturbance. Lopping and felling trees, extensive collection of ground vegetation cover, natural forest fires or human induced fires are some of the reasons resulting into degradation of forests here, which has further led to fragmented patches. Transects laid in forest patches close to Panchghar and Shillotar has shown prominent degradation in deciduous patches. Holarrhena pubescence, Terminalia crenulata, Tectona grandis are some of the tree species observed at site. Disturbed areas were often seen dominated by grasses due to the openings in the canopy.

26 IV. Open scrubs

IMAGE 4: OPEN SCRUB NEAR WAGANPADA

Open scrubs consisted of trees, generally with stunted growth and wide spacing, attaining height upto 2 to 4 m. Stout shrubs and grasses dominated open areas. Terminalia crenulata, Terminalia paniculata, Wrightea tinctorea and Holarrhena pubescence were some of the species recorded in scrubs. Lannea coromandelica trees were seen intermittently growing above the average height of the scrubs

V. Grasslands Grasslands can be seen spreading anywhere on the undulating terrain. Being shade intolerant, grasses shows their dominance in open area with ample sunlight, nutrient and less number of trees. In Monsoon, along with grasses, herbs too take their charge on grasslands in the water accumulated puddles/ areas. Balsams, Ground lilies, ground orchids, are some of the herb members growing other than grasses on grassland. Kevnale and Bhawani wadi were the two sites where vast grasslands were seen.

27 IMAGE 5: GRASSLAND NEAR BHAWANIWADI

Grasslands most of the time are accounted as a waste or unproductive area/ land, but are amongst the valuable habitat supporting various important mammals, birds, insect and reptile species.

VI. Agricultural lands Agricultural lands/ Farms are human modified natural landscapes, where different crops are harvested to meet the demand of over growing Human population. In and around tansa, Rice and Nachani crops principally were seen taken by the villagers due to which both flat tops/ plateaus for Rice (Oryza sativa) and Hill slopes required for Nachani (Eleusine coracana) were preferred for cultivation. Other than rice and nachani, Amaranth (Amaranthus sp.) and Bitter guard (Momordica charantia) were also seen preferred.

28 VII. Plantation

IMAGE 7: PLANTATION NEAR QUARIPADA

Forest department has undertaken plantation to augment and restore the forest at places. Preferably low and elevated plateau’s were found having plantation of native tress supporting biodiversity and fulfilling human needs namely, Tectona grandis, Terminalia crenulata,

29 Terminalia elliptica, Lagerstromoea lanceolata, Emblica officnalis are some to name,where as in some places, sapplings of Madhuca indica, Diospyros melanoxylon, Halidinia cordifolia, were also recorded. Site sampled near by the Andheri village shows plantation of Cassia siamea and Holarrhena pubescence in addition to the other species listed above.

3.1.2 Community Structure Species composition

It refers to the set of the floral component present in the particular area with respect to the given climatic factors, further includes the typical consociation of a species or association of the certain species. As discussed earlier the common trees of the study area were Anogeissus latifolia, Butea monosperma, Terminalia crenulata, Grewia tiliifolia, Dalbergia latifolia, Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia bellerica, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Dillenia pentagyna, Haldina cordifolia, Garura pinnata, Emblica officinalis, Stereospermum suaveolens, Mitragyna parviflora, Radermachera xylocarpa, Wrightia sp., Cordia dichotoma, Schleichera oleosa, Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus strictus, Meyna laxiflora etc. Grass were dominant wherever burning had taken place. Many times typical association of plants were observed, only prominent association of species are listed below in Table 3

Table 3: Major Associations of Plants in The Study Area

Plants group co- i) Anogeissus latifolia – Diospyros melanoxylon - Lagerstroemia dominating Teak at lanceolata - Terminalia elliptica - Terminalia crenulata various quadrats/ ii) Anogeissus latifoila - Terminalia elliptica - Terminalia transects. crenulata- Lannea coromandelica. iii) Terminalia crenulata iv) Along with the above association, Garuga pinnata was seen always associated with Lannea coromandelica.

Plants community i) Anogeissus latifolia – Diospyros melanoxylon - Terminalia Dominating area in paniculata - Terminalia crenulata absence of teak or when teak population is very less Plants other than Madhuca indica, Bauhinia spp., Haldina cordifolia, Acacia catechu, dominant species, Sterculia urens, Bombax ceiba, Terminalia bellirica, Helicteres isora, frequenting most of the Mytragyna parviflora, Careya arborea, Holarrhena pubescence, Cassia sites. fistula, Wrightea tinctorea etc. are some to mention.

30 Habenaria sp., Aerides maculosa, and Oberonia sp.,were the only three orchids species were seen in the forest around Pinjal. Aerides maculosa was commonly seen at various site, Oberonia sps. was found only at Waganpada in open scrub.

Species Richness

In total 137 plants species belonging to 30 families were recorded in the study, out of which, 65 were trees (48%), 25 shrubs, woody climbers (18 %), 3 epiphytes (2%) and 44 herb species (32 %) (Fig. 2).

Trees 44

65 SHRUBS, WOODY VINES & CREEPERS

HERBS

EPIPHYTES

FIGURE 2: HABIT-WISE SPECIES DISTRIBUTION

Family Fabaceae was the richest family in terms of species comprising 6 species followed by family Rubiaceae with 5species. Bignoniaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Combretaceae, and Moraceae were recorded with 4 species each. Around 16 families were represented by only one species (Fig. 3).

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

NUMBER OF SPECIES OF NUMBER 0 Poaceae Tiliaceae Fabaceae Moraceae Meliaceae Rubiaceae Myrtaceae Ebenaceae Lythraceae Diliniaceae Sapotaceae Annonaceae Burseraceae Verbinaceae Sapindaceae Mimosaceae Rhamnaceae Apocynaceae Bignoniaceae Simoubaceae Sterculiaceae Boraginaceae Bombacaceae Simbouraceae anacardiaceae Flacourtiaceae Combretaceae Lecythadaceae Euphorbiaceae Caesalpiniaceae FAMILIES

31 FIGURE 3: FAMILY WISE SPECIES RICHNESS WITHIN THE STUDY AREA

Density

Both trees and shrubs showed similar trend in densities across the habitats with highest density in moist deciduous forests followed by semievergreen forests, degraded moist deciduous forests, open scrubs, with least in grasslands as expected. Though plantations and agricultural lands showed higher tree and shrub densities those were completely artificial landscapes (Fig. 4).

Overall herbaceous plant density was found lowest in Semi –evergreen forests and highest in grasslands. It increased across all the habitats from summer to rainy season. In moist deciduous forests, degraded moist deciduous forests, grasslands and agricultural fields density values during winter season were lower than those in summer, while in other habitats density decreased during summer.

A sudden decrease in herb density in plantation sites from winter to summer can be attributed to the burning practices and associated fires (Fig. 5).

400

300 ) -1 200

100

Density (ha Density 0

Trees Habitats Shrubs

FIGURE 4: DENSITY OF TREES AND SHRUBS ACROSS THE VARIOUS HABITATS PER HECTARE

32 6000 5000

-1 4000 3000 2000

Density ha Density 1000 0

Winter season Summer season Habitats Rainy season

FIGURE 5: SEASONAL VARIATION IN DENSITY OF HERBACEOUS SPECIES ACROSS VARIOUS HABITATS

Frequency

Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Butea monsperma and Anogeissus latifolia are more dominant and found covering about more than 60 % transects. Diospyros sp., Lannea coromandelica were present in 30 % - 40 % transects (Fig. 6).

40 30 20 10 0 … … … … Lannea Lannea Diospyros NUMBERS OF TRANSECTS OF NUMBERS Holarhoena Holarhoena Albizzia sps. Albizzia Cassia fistula Cassia Bombax ceiba Bombax Bridelia retusa Bridelia sps. Flocourtia lagerstromoea lagerstromoea Sterculia urens Sterculia Careya arborea Careya Garuga Pinnata Garuga isora Helecteris laxiflora Meyna Grewia tiliafolia Grewia Madhuca indica Madhuca Tectona grandis Tectona Erythrina stricta Erythrina Acacia catechu1 Acacia Schlicheria oleosa Schlicheria Haldinia cordifolia Haldinia Oroxylum indicum Oroxylum Dillinea pentagyna Dillinea Bauhinia racemosa Bauhinia Anogeissus latifolia Anogeissus belerica Terminalia Butea monosperma Butea Terminalia crenulata Terminalia FAMILIES parviflora Mytragyna

FIGURE 6: FREQUENCY OF DOMINANT TREE SPECIES

Diversity

Semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests were the richest habitat types with respect to species richness. Semi-evergreen forests were represented by 34 species while moist deciduous forests along with degraded moist deciduous forests composed of more than 95

33 species. However, richness of degraded moist deciduous forests may be attributed to the invasion by opportunistic species as seen by presence of some weeds. Agricultural lands contributed 16 species, grasslands 32 and plantation 17 species.

Tree species diversity as depicted by the indices namely Shannon’s index, Simpson’s index and Pielou’s Dominance index indicate the moist deciduous forests were the most diverse habitatsfollowed by semievergreen forests, degraded moist deciduous forests and agriculture. Diversity of degraded moist deciduous forests and agricultural fields was highly influenced by disturbance and biotic activities though. Open scrubs had lowest tree diversity supported by highest dominance values. Evenness values too support the high diversity – low dominance in first three habitats (Fig 7).

However, shrubs showed different trends in diversity than trees. This guild was most diverse in degraded moist deciduous forests, followed by semi-evergreen and undisturbed moist deciduous forest. Inflated dominance values in open scrub, grasslands, plantations and agricultural lands express low diversity (Fig 8).

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 Indices 0.5 0

SW Index Habitats Simpson's Index Evenness Index

FIGURE 7: DIVERSITY INDICES FOR TREES ACROSS THE VARIOUS HABITATS

34 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 Indices 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

SW Index Simpson's Index Habitats Evenness Index

FIGURE 8: DIVERSITY INDICES FOR SHRUBS ACROSS VARIOUS HABITATS

Herbaceous cover in moist deciduous forests showed considerable variations during dry and wet seasons, while semi-evergreen forests, degraded moist deciduous forests, and open scrubs did not show much difference in herb cover over two seasons. Grasslands and wet season agricultural fields were not considered in this analysis. Plantation sites showed drastic fall in diversity of herbs from summer to monsoon, as late summer fires reduced the herba cover significantly (Fig.9).

2.5 A 2

1.5

0.5

35 2 B 1.5

0.5

Simpson's Index Shannon Index Habitaits Evenness Index

FIGURE 9: DIVERSITY INDICES FOR HERBS DURING SUMMER (A) AND MONSOON (B) ACROSS

VARIOUS HABITATS

Endemic, Rare and Threatened Species

No species recorded during this study is from Rare and Threatened categories.

3.1.3 Socio-economically important species

TABLE 4: LIST OF SOCIO-ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT PLANT SPECIES

Sr. No. Botanical Names Common Names Uses TREES T, PR (T), C, F, E (G), Fo 1. Acacia catechu Khair (G,C) 2. Ailanthes excelsa Maharukh Fo (S,G), T, F 3. Albizzia lebbeck Shirish T, F, G, Fo, T&D 4. Anogeissus latifolia Dhawada Fo (A), C, T & D, G. 5. Azadirachta indica Neem T, G, M, O, F(G), E(Fr), PR 6. Bauhinia racemosa Kanchan E(L), M 7. Bombax ceiba Kaatesawawar E (Fl), M 8. Bridelia retusa Bhishmasan E (Fr) 9. Butea monosperma Palash M, F (G, B), L, C, G. 10. Careya arborea Kumbhi E (Fr) 11. Cassia fistula Amaltas E (FL) 12. Catuneregam spinosa Gela M,

36 13. Cordia dichotoma Bhokar E (Fr), Fo 14. Cordia sebstina Bhokar E (Fr), Fo 15. Dalbergia latifolia Shishav T, Fo 16. Dalbergia sissoo Rosewood T, F, Fo 17. Dendrocalamus strictus Vasu E, Fo (C) 18. Diospyros melanoxylon Tendu Patta T, E (Fr) 19. Dolichandrone falcate Medhshingi M 20. Erythrina stricta Pangara M, Fo (C, G) 21. Ficus benghalensis Banyan M, E (Fr), F 22. Ficus glomerata Umber M, E (Fr) M, Fo (G, C), L, T & D, E 23. Ficus religiosa Peepul (Fr). 24. Flocourtia sps. Taambut E (Fr) 25. Garuga pinnata Kakad E (Fr) 26. Gmelina arborea Shivan M 27. Grewia tiliifolia Dhaman G 28. Helecteris isora Murudsheng M 29. Heterophragma quadriloculare Waras M 30. Holarhoena pubescence Kurchi M, E (Fl) 31. Jatropha curcas Mogali errand BD 32. Leucaena leucocephala Subabhul M 33. Madhuca indica Mahua E (Fl), O, T, M, BD, F (S/G/C) 34. Mangifera indica Amba E (Fr), M 35. Meyna laxiflora Alu E 36. Mytragyna parviflora Kalamb M 37. Oroxylum indicum Tetu/ Shyonak M, 38. Phyllanthus emblica Motha avala M, E (Fr) 39. Schlicheria oleosa Kusumb M, L 40. Sesbania grandiflora Agasti M 41. Sterculia urens Kandol/ Ghost M,G 42. Syzygium cumini Jamun E (Fr), M, T & D, F 43. Tectona grandis Saagvan/Teak T 44. Terminalia belerica Beheda M, Fo, T & D, F, C

37 45. Woodfordia fruticosa Dhaiti M 46. Wrightea tinctorea Kala kuda T & D 47. Zizyphus mauritiana Bor E (Fr), T, Fo 48. Zizyphus nummularia Turan E (Fr), F, Fo (G) 49. Zizyphus rugosa Turan M, E (Frt) SHRUBS 50. Aeschynomene indica - E (L) 51. Hemidesmus indicus Anantmool M 52. Cryptolepis dubia Dudh-Vel M 53. Gloriosa surperba Glory Lily M 54. Abrus precatorius Gunj M, E (L) 55. Celastrus paniculatus Jyotismati M 56. Strobilanthes callosus Karvi M, Roof thatching. 57. Carissa carandas Karwanda E (Fr), M 58. Mucuna pruriens Khajkhujli M 59. Vitex negundo Nirgudi M 60. Cissus repanda Pani Bel M 61. Combretum albidum Piluki M 62. Ensete superbum Rock Banana M 63. Wattakaka volubilis Sneez wort M 64. Cassia tora Takla E (L) 65. Zizyphus rugosa Turan M, E (Fr) 66. Lygodium flexuosum Walking Fern M 67. Jasminum malabaricum Wild jasmine M HERBS 68. Ophioglossum spp. Adder’s tongue M 69. Achyranthes aspera Aghada M 70. Sida acuta Bal M 71. Sida cordifolia Bal M 72. Agave Americana Centuary plant Fi 73. Eranthemum roseum Dashmuli M 74. Blumea lacera Kakronda M 75. Celosia argentia Kurdu E (Entire)

38 76. Adiantum lunulatum Maiden Hair Fern M 77. Costus speciosus Pev/ Costha M 78. Vernonia cineraria Sahadevi M 79. Arisaema murrayi Sap kanda E 80. Sesamum indicum Sesame M, O 81. Selaginella spp. Spike moss M 82. Asplenium spp. Spleen worts M

**E = Edible (Fr- Fruit/ F- l. Flower/ L - Leaves/ G - Gum/ E- Entire) ,C – charcoal, F - Fuel, T & D – Tanning & Dyeing, G –Gum (other purpose), Fo -Fodder (G - Goat/ C- Cattle/ S- Sheep/B - Buffalo/All), M – Medicine, O – oil extraction, BD – Bio Diesel, L – Lac,T – Timber, PR (T/ Pest Resistant (T- Termites/ Mealy bugs), Fi = Fibre.

In total 86 Species (trees, shrubs and herbs) were recorded as socio-economically important species. Teak Tectona grandis, an economically important timber species is dominant all over the landscape. Other than timber species, 32 species are edible, 13 fodder plants (cattle, goats) and 52 plants were medicinally importance.

The forest cover here was under extreme pressures of fuel wood extraction and human-lit fires. Many species were represented only by the coppices due to severe felling activities by the local communities. Plants such as Anogeissus latifolia, Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Careya arborea, Grewia tiliifolia, Haldina cordifolia, Heterophragma quadriloculare, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium cuminii, Ficus glomerata, Meyna laxiflora, Diospyros melanoxylon etc. were seen preferred by local people for lopping which are very well known to serve as excellent fodder for the livestock especially goats, and cattle.

39 3.2. INSECTS

In total, 53 species of butterflies were recorded on transect (Annexure 2) whereas 70 species of the same were recorded on and off transect.

Family-wise status of butterflies

Nymphalidae was found to be the richest family in terms of species number across all the three seasons, followed by family Lycaenidae and Pieridae (Fig. 10).It is also observed from the graph that more number of species areencountered in winter season as compared to the other two seasons in all families except Hesperiidae and Riodinidae.

18 16 No.of species Summer 14 No.of species Monsoon 12 No.of species Winter 10 8

No ofspecies 6 4 2 0 Papilionidae Nymphalidae Lycaenidae Pieridae Hesperiidae Riodinidae

Families

FIGURE 10: TAXONOMIC RICHNESS OF BUTTERFLIES ACROSS SEASONS

As most of the sites in the study area consisted of moist deciduous and semi-evergreen type of vegetation, it is likely that the results could reflect more diversity in these sites due to obvious more sampling efforts as compared to the other sites. Butterflies showed a typical seasonal trend in their diversity and population. It can be compared with one of the previous studies conducted on seasonal patterns seen in butterfly abundance in India (Kunte 1997) due to similarities in type of some of the habitats as well as disturbance factors. Family Nymphalidae is the largest family of butterflies which includes some of the commonest butterfly species which breed throughout the year being polyphagous i.e. feeding on more than one larval host plant. Some of these larval host plants are available in all

40 seasons e.g. Ficus sp. Hence, Nymphalidae has been represented as the most diverse family in all seasons.

Butterfly diversity Season-wise butterfly diversity Fig. no. 2 explains the overall trend in butterfly diversity across the three seasons. Lowest diversity was seen in summer season which gradually increased in monsoon and then it is clearly observed that there is considerable increase in species number in winter season.

400 360 350 300 250 200

150 102 100 64 38 22 23 Number of of individual Number 50 0 Summer Mosoon Winter Seasons

No. of species No. of individuals

FIG 11: SEASON-WISE OVERALL BUTTERFLY DIVERSITY

If seasonal variation in the species number as well as population of butterflies is considered, summer season is mostly marked by low occurrence of species as observed here too due to less availability of resources like larval food as well as nectar plants. Gradual increase from monsoon season and peak in winter season is typically shown by butterflies due to increase in fresh vegetation which thereby leads to occurrence of various larval host and nectar plants for the upcoming generations of both monophagous and polyphagous butterfly species.

41 Season-wise butterfly diversity across habitats- Summer

Habitat-wise butterfly diversity 60 50 No. of species 40 No. of individuals 30 20 10 0

Habitats

FIG 12: HABITAT-WISE BUTTERFLY DIVERSITY IN SUMMER SEASON

Although summer season reflects the least number of butterfly species among the three seasons, different trends in species encounter are represented by different habitats. There was no sighting of butterflies in four habitats namely degraded moist deciduous, grassland, open scrub and plantation which are open and dry in this period of the year. Agriculture and moist deciduous were represented by 2 and 6 number of butterfly species respectively. Sites having semi-evergreen type of habitat showed a hike in species encounter on the other hand.

The mentioned habitats where there was no butterfly species was observed on transect are degraded habitats as compared to the other in terms of natural vegetation and high anthropogenic pressures like burning of grass, grazing etc. Zero sighting can also be due to hot and dry conditions at the time of the survey. In agricultural and moist deciduous patches, common species were seen. Sites like Sakershet and Satronde have semi-evergreen habitat and presence of stream in nearby areas. Many individuals of Spot Swordtail (Graphium nomius) were seen at Satronde. This butterfly is usually seen in high numbers in summer season as it is the breeding season of the same. It is typically seen near dried streams where its host plant Miliusa tomentosa present. Although the plant was not observed on the transect, many individuals were seen flying suggesting its presence or other Annonacae member in the nearby area.

42 Analysis using diversity indices and species richness

Diversity indices across habitats 2.5 Simpson's dominance index (D) 2 Shannon index (H')

1.5 Pielou evenness index (E)

0.5

Habitats

FIG 13 (A): DIVERSITY INDICES ACROSS HABITATS IN SUMMER SEASON

Species richness

Agriculture 19%

Semi- evergreen 52% Moist Deciduous 29%

FIG13 (B): SPECIES RICHNESS IN SUMMER SEASON

As seen from the above graphs, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous habitats were more diverse in terms of species supporting different types of species with various resources but at 43 the same time evenness value of semi-evergreen habitat was lower than that of agriculture and moist deciduous indicating uneven distribution of species. This was seen due to high number of individuals of few species like Spot Swordtail.

Monsoon

Habitat-wise butterfly diversity

40 35 30 25 No. of species 20 15 No. of individuals 10 5 0

Habitats

FIG 14 (A): HABITAT-WISE BUTTERFLY DIVERSITY IN MONSOON SEASON

Increase in number of species was seen in monsoon season in all the habitats. Highest diversity i.e. 13 butterfly species were seen at the sites having moist deciduous vegetation followed by the sites having semi-evergreen, agriculture and degraded moist deciduous type of habitat which was 11, 10 and 6 respectively.Remaining four habitats showed a gradual increase in species number as compared to summer season.

Butterfly species and individuals number start building up in the monsoon season due to increase in foliage as discussed before hence observed increase in species number in almost allhabitats is seen except Grassland, open scrub and plantation where only common species like Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona), Blue Pansy (Junonia orithiya) were found. Members of family Lycaenidae were also seen less in these habitats even though open grassy

44 patches were present. This could be due to cloudy conditions during the survey. Species like Common Crow (Euploea core), Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) and Common Leopard (Phalanta phalantha) were seen in more numbers due to more availability in their respective larval host plants. Common Crow feeds on species having milky latex such as Holarrhena antidysenterica on which caterpillars of Common Crow were observed feeding. Fresh shoots of Flcourtia indica supported Common Leopard caterpillars. Common Grass Yellow is a polyphagous species feeding on Fabaceae members, Acacia sp. and Cassia sp. These plants were abundant near paddy fields and in scrub areas.

Analysis using diversity indices and species richness-

Diversity indices across habitats 2.5

1.5

0.5

Simpson's dominance index (D)

Shannon index (H') Habitats Pielou evenness index (E)

FIG 14 (B): DIVERSITY INDICES ACROSS HABITATS IN MONSOON SEASON

Species richness

Semi- evergreen Agriculture 20% 23%

Open scrub Degraded 17% Moist Deciduous 17% Moist Deciduous 23%

FIG 14 (C): SPECIES RICHNESS IN MONSOON SEASON

In monsoon, sites having agriculture and moist deciduous type of habitat became more species-diverse than semi-evergreen due to obvious reasons of vegetation growth. Species were found more evenly distributed in agriculture, degraded moist deciduous and scrub habitats as no higher number of individuals of any particular species was found there. Like summer season, sites having semi-evergreen habitat were showing relatively high values of Shannon index indicating high species diversity but the evenness value was lower as individuals of Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) were represented in higher numbers. Plantation sites had zero values of indices as it showed presence of only one species. Lowest species richness value at such sites is due to monoculture of plants as well as disturbance such as grazing.

Winter

Habitat-wise butterfly diversity 160 140 120 100 No. of species 80 60 No. of individuals 40 20 0

Habitats

FIGURE15 (A): HABITAT-WISE BUTTERFLY DIVERSITY IN WINTER SEASON

Winter season was represented by remarkable increase in species number in almost all the habitats. Highest diversity was observed in semi-evergreen and moist deciduous habitat which was 32 and 31 respectively whilemore individuals were seen in the semi-evergreen. Following these habitats, sites having degraded moist deciduous, open scrub and grassland showed 11, 8 and 7 butterfly species respectively. Agriculture and plantation type of habitats were represented by the least number of species.

Butterfly species like Common Sailer (Neptis hylas), Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda), Chocolate Pansy (Junonia iphita), Plum Judy (Abisara echerius), Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe), Psyche (Leptosis nina), Dark Grass Blue (Zizeeria karsandra) and Gram Blue (Euchrysops cnejus) were seen in comparatively high numbers in winter season, especially in semi-evergreen and moist deciduous habitats because of wide range of resources are available e.g. larval host plants of every plant-habit, preferable host plants species, mud- puddling sites, other sources of nutrition such as tree sap, rotting fruits etc. Some of these mentioned butterflies are polyphagous e.g. Common Sailer as well as some like Common Evening Brown prefers non-nectar sources for feeding. Many species of Lycaenids and Hesperiids i.e. skippers prefer open scrub and grassland type of habitat being grass feeders and being suitable to fly over short grass feeding on seasonal herbs.

47 Analysis using diversity indices and species richness Diversity indices across habitats Simpson's 3.5 dominance 3 index (D) 2.5 Shannon 2 index (H') 1.5 1 0.5 Pielou 0 evenness index (E)

Habitats

FIG 15 (B): DIVERSITY INDICES ACROSS HABITATS IN WINTER SEASON

Species richness Semi- Agriculture Degraded evergreen 6% Moist 26% Deciduous 14%

Plantation 6% Moist Deciduous 27% Open scrub Grassland 12% 9%

FIGURE 15(C): SPECIES RICHNESS IN WINTER SEASON

In winter, Shannon index had lower value in agriculture habitat which was increased in monsoon season. This is because the grass that and other seasonal herbs grown in this area dry out soon after monsoon is over. Sites having moist deciduous and semi-evergreen habitats showed higher species richness and even distribution of butterflies. Open scrub habitat showed high species richness as well as even distribution of species as in winters this area supports growth of Acacia plants, the larval host plants of Grass Blue butterflies such as Pale Grass Blue (Pseudozizeeria maha) and Dark Grass Blue (Zizeeria karsandra).

Odonata diversity In total, 22 species of odonates were observed (Table no 2). The species were observed both on and off transect, near seasonal and perennial streams, paddy fields etc. Members of the Gomphidae family and damselflies were observed in monsoon season while members of family Libellulidae were seen throughout the seasons which is the largest family including many common species.

Most of the Odonates need fresh water for breeding. While some species can breed in water pools and marshes, some species prefer slow or fast flowing streams. In the study area, many mating pairs of various species were seen at some slow flowing streams in monsoon season. Hundreds of individuals of Wandering Glider (Pantala flavescens) were seen at some sites like Bhavaniwadi. This species is supposed to migrate over large distances from India to east coast of Africa along with monsoon currents (Anderson 2009). The congregation seen at the study sites might be the part of such migration.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Families

FIGURE 16: FAMILY WISE ODONATE SPECIES DIVERSITYDIVERSITY, WPA SPECIES AND IMPORTANT

AREAS FOR INSECTS IN STUDY AREA

In total, 183 insect species belonging to 11 orders were found (Annexure no. 2).Apart from the study organisms, order Coleoptera (beetles) was represented by highest number of species, followed by order Hymenoptera (ants, bees and wasps), Order Hemiptera (true bugs, cicadas etc) and order Diptera (flies). Coleoptera is the largest insect order having close to 4 lac described species till date. Beetles occupy varied niches like bark of trees, dung, foliage etc hence they were abundant in all habitats. Hymenopterans and Dipterans were also seen at most of the sites. Grassland and open scrub habitats were very low in terms of overall insect

diversity but supported certain groups very well e.g. ground beetles, crickets, grasshoppers, ants and termites which were generally found under the rocks to hide from unfavorable conditions of extreme heat and cold. Plantation sites like opposite Amla and Tembe showed the least diversity possibly due to limited food resources. Certain sites like Gargai dam site showed maximum number of insect orders attracted to the light in monsoon season most probably due to increased food resources.In the present study, no endemic or endangered insect species was found.

Species Protected under WPA, 1972

Several faunal species are protected by Indian law under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Butterflies are included in three schedules namely Schedule I, Schedule II and Schedule IV. In present study 5 species of butterflies are included under this law as following-

Schedule I Common Pierrot (Castalius rosimon), DanaidEggfly (Hypolimnas misippus), Crimson Rose (Atrophaneura hector) Schedule II Common Gull (Cepora nerissa) Schedule IV Gaudy Baron (Euthalia lubentina)

3.3 Freshwater Fish i) Species diversity and distribution – We studied the freshwater fish diversity of Gargai River across the seven fishing sites (Table 5). In a yearlong study period we found total 28 freshwater fish species, including 24 indigenous freshwater fishes belongs to 10 families and 21 genera and four introduced fish species (Table 6, Annexure 3). Maximum number of indigenous freshwater fish diversity was recorded from site GF7 (16 species) followed by sites GF1, GF2 and GF5 (15 species per site). Total 12 indigenous freshwater fish species were recorded from sites GF3 and GF4 (12 species per site). Site GF6 showed very low number of species richness with estimated count of total 10 indigenous freshwater fish species (Table 6). Among the 24 indigenous fish species, 21 species are exclusive freshwater inhabitants whereas three species are found to be secondary freshwater water fishes which can inhibit estuarine as well as riverine habitats. Cyprinids were found to be the most diverse and dominant fish group across all the study sites, represented by total 14 species, followed by cat fishes of the family Bagridae with two endemic species viz. Mystus malabaricus and Mystus seengtee. Fishes of the family Cyprinidae found to be more diverse with total of 14 species belongs to 12 different genera.

Among the 24 native fish species recorded across the study area, 11 fish species are known to be exclusively endemic to the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot region. Maximum number of endemic species was found at sites GF5 and GF7 (seven species per site), followed by sites GF1, GF2 and GF4 (six species per site). Study site GF6 has very low number of endemic fish species count (four species). Small population of endemic and globally threatened large barb fish species like Hypselobarbus mussullah and Tor cf. khudree have been recorded from only single localities viz. GF7 and GF1. Among the 24 freshwater fish species recorded across the study area, three fish species has been listed in IUCN Redlist of threatened species as Endangered (EN) and found to be threatened with the greater risk of extinction. We found total three Endangered (EN) fish species in the study viz. Hypselobarbus mussullah, Pethia lutea and Tor cf. khudree. Total 17 species found to be listed as Least Concern (LC) in IUCN Redlist of threatened species. The project has also provided distribution information on two Data Deficient (DD) species viz. Puntius amphibius and Puntius mahecola.

We found total four invasive fish species across the Gargai watershed area, viz. Gambusia affinis, Poecilia reticulata, Oreochromis mossambicus and Oreochromis niloticus. Maximum number of invasive fish species has been recorded from the site GF7 (four species). In addition to the habitat loss, presence introduced fish species in natural habitat is known to be 51 a major threat to local and endemic fish fauna of Western Ghats. The species like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata have been widely used in urban areas as natural mosquito controller as a remedy to prevent pathogenic diseases like malaria. However, the real of potential of these exotic fish species in controlling mosquito larvae is not well studied as compare to native insectivorous and larvevorus fishes like Aplocheilus lineatus and stream loaches like Indoreonectes evezardi. However, the potential negative impacts of invasive fishes like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata on local endemic fish species is well known. Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata are known as strong food and habitat resource competitors for native fish species like Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. In several parts of the northern Western Ghats like Pune metropolitan region and Rajgad, invasive fishes like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata have completely extirpated the population of Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. The cause of invasion is a strong completion for food and other habitat resources. It is interesting to note that in the current study we did not found any population of native species like Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi, which are among the commonly found fish species across the rivers of northern Western Ghats. The healthy population of invasive fishes like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata have been found throughout the study area except site GF1 and GF3. It is likely possible that introduction of Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata in the Gargai watershed might have actually extirpated the native population of Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. Another two invasive cichlid fish species viz. Oreochromis mossambicus and Oreochromis niloticus have been found at site GF6 and GF7.

We also studied the seasonal influence of monsoon, post-monsoon and pre-monsoon period on freshwater fish diversity of Gargai River (Table 6, Figure 18 A & 18 B). Total 18 freshwater fish species has been recorded in the monsoon period, 15 species in post-monsoon and 14 species in pre-monsoon period. The sum of species diversity has been found to be high in number in monsoon season and low in post-monsoon and pre-monsoon period. However, the pattern of change in species diversity did not found to be consistent at each study sites except the site GF2 (Figure 18 B). At the site GF1 and GF3 we did find any drastic seasonal change in fish species diversity, 11 species found in monsoon and post- monsoon period whereas 12 species recorded in pre-monsoon period. Similarly, at site GF3 nine species have been recorded in monsoon and post-monsoon period, whereas eight species have been found in pre-monsoon period. Unexpectedly, fish species diversity was found to be very low in monsoon and high in post-monsoon period at the down-stream sites like GF4, 52

GF5, GF6 and GF7. In the present study several endemic and threatened species have been reported from single localities and in a particular season. The species like Hypselobarbus mussullah, Labeo dussumieri and Mystus seengtee have been recorded only in the monsoon period at site GF7. The another iconic and Endangered (EN) large barb species like Deccan Mahseer Tor cf. khudree have been recorded from site GF1. Presence of Tor cf. khudree has been found only in the monsoon period. It is likely possible that occurrence of these species in the monsoon coincides with their migratory movement in breeding season. ii) Species inventories –

The record of Endangered (EN) species like Hypselobarbus mussullah in Gargai tributary of Vaitarana River forms the new record of this species to the region. The recent taxonomic identity and description provided by Knight et al. 2014, has helped to assess the correct taxonomic position of Hypselobarbus sp. from the study region. Knight et al. 2014 provided the description of H. mussullah from Bhira Dam, Kolad which is located in the upstream watershed area of Kundalika River. The new distribution records and population data generated through this project can help to revise the conservation assessment of H. mussullah, as the current IUCN Redlist assessment is based on old literature data.

Deccan Mahseer Tor cf. khudree is another fish we found in this study known to be threatened with greater risk of extinction in the Western Ghats. Record of Tor cf. khudree from Gargai River forms the new record of occurrence of Mahseer in west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats. Occurrence of Tor khudree in the west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats was earlier reported from Khandala, streams of Patalganga River (18.8020 N & 73.3179 E) by (Arunachalam, 2002), whereas subsequent studies failed to validate presence of Tor khudree in Patalganga River (Katwate et al. 2012). The first valid record of surviving population of Tor khudree in west flowing rivers of northern Western Ghats is recorded from Savitri River of Raigad District (Katwate & Apte 2014, Katwate et al. 2014). Occurrence of Tor cf. khudree in Gargai River clearly indicates that the west flowing rivers of Sahyadri have potential to harbour monster fishes like Mahseer. The specimen collected from site GF1 differs from Tor khudree in general appearance and body proportions so we retain the species identity in this study as Tor cf. khudree. Further taxonomic study on this species is in progress.

In this study we also found a new population of newly described fish species Pethia lutea Katwate, Katwate, Raghavan, Paingankar & Dahanukar, 2014. Distribution of P. lutea was

found at sites GF1, GF2, GF3, GF4 and GF5. Occurrence of P. lutea in Gargai watershed area could form a northernmost range extension of the species and a new record to Vaitarana River.

FIGURE17: DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER FISH SAMPLING SITES ACROSS THE GARGAI RIVER

TABLE 5: GEOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF FISH SAMPLING SITES STUDIED ACROSS THE STUDY AREA

Name of Fish Latitude Longitude Name of the Freshwater the sampling village/ land fish habitats Watershed sites mark recorded area identity GF1 19.738746° N 73.33799° E Aamla Big Waterfall, Village Pools, cascade, shallow poodles, canyons GF2 19.72959° N 73.335017° E temporary Run, cascade, stream pools, rapids overpass near Aamla Village GF3 19.722346° N 73.316333° E Khodade Run, cascade, pools and riffle GF4 19.72263° N 73.304451° E Wadpada – Run, cascade, 4km west of pools and riffle Khodade Gargai watershed areaGargai watershed GF5 19.712975° N 73.294795° E Ogada Run, shallow pools GF6 19.711382° N 73.282407° E Gargai dam Run, cascade, site small falls, pools and riffle

GF7 19.711555° N 73.264502° E Parali Main river channel, big pool

*GF- Gargai freshwater fish site

TABLE 6: SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER FISH SPECIES DIVERSITY RECORDED ACROSS THE GARGAI WATERSHED

Sampling Native fish Number of Number of Number of introduced site species endemic species threatened species fish species recorded richness found found GF1 15 6 2 - GF2 15 6 1 2 GF3 12 5 1 - GF4 12 6 1 1 GF5 15 7 1 1 GF6 10 4 - 2 GF7 16 7 1 4

Fish sampling sites abbreviation as per Table 5.

Freshwater fish species richness speciesfish Freshwater 4

2 18 15 14 0 Monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon

FIGURE 18 (A): SEASONAL FLUX IN NATIVE FRESHWATER FISH SPECIES RICHNESS RECORDED

ACROSS THE GARGAI WATERSHED

Freshwater fish species richness speciesfish Freshwater 2 11 11 12 14 10 10 9 9 8 6 10 7 9 13 9 7 9 8 9 11 9 0 GF1 GF2 GF3 GF4 GF5 GF6 GF7

Monsoon Post-monsoon Pre-monsoon

FIG 18 (B): SEASONAL FLUX IN NATIVE FRESHWATER FISH SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS ALL THE STUDY

SITES OF GARGAI WATERSHED. FISH SAMPLING SITES ABBREVIATION AS PER TABLE 5

3.4 Amphibians and Reptiles

3.4.1 Species distribution across various habitats

A) Summer

It was seen that Moist deciduous forest had the highest density for reptiles and there were not much amphibians found as they aestivate during the dry seasons. Although wherever there was water present some species were seen.

Moist Deciduous Forest

Moist Deciduous Forest include sites, Charanpada, Dahigaon Tarf Gaon, Khodare, Navapada, Ongda, Parli Range, Parli Village. Elements of semi evergreen forest were present in this habitat along the stream. These streams were perennial due to which there was presence of some amphibian species. Most of the places were dominated by Teak (Tectona grandis). The herpetofauna that was observed in this habitat were, Agamids like Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii, Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus maculatus, Hemidactylus leschenaultii, skinks like, Eutropis carinata, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis. Snakes like, Xenochrophis piscator and Echis carinatus.

Amphibians like, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis and Fejervarya spp. Most of the species found in this habitat are generalist species and do not require any particular type of habitat except for amphibians as they require water source. This habitat shows highest number of reptile species and individuals recorded.

Calotes versicolor is a generalist species and Calotes rouxii is a forest species, associated with less disturbed or undisturbed habitat. Echis carinatus is mainly known to be found on plateaus but was seen in this habitat shows that it is suitable habitat with good place for hiding and prey base.

Semi Evergreen Forest

Semi Evergreen Forest includes sites like, Amla Gaon, Sakershet, Quaripada, Suryamal. Herpetofauna recorded in this habitat include, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii, Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus maculatus, Hemidactylus leschenaultia and skinks like, Eutropis carinata, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis. There were no amphibians species found in this habitat as there were no perennial streams. Quaripada which falls under Tansa WLS showed disturbance as some of 58 the land was burnt to prepare it for agriculture. Most of the species found in this habitat are generalist species

Geckoella deccanensis which is a ground dwelling gecko, mainly inhabits semi evergreen forest and is a representative of undisturbed or less disturbed habitat.

Degraded Moist Deciduous

Degraded Moist Deciduous Forest includes sites like, Near Suryamal Ghat and Pachghar. Herptofauna includes, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii, Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii and Hemidactylus leschenaultii and skinks like, Eutropis carinata, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis.

The species found in this habitat are all generalist species.

Open Scrub

This habitat is representated by only one site that’s, Wanganpada. This type of habitat is characterized by sparse and stunted vegetation with cover of dried grass. This type of habitat is mostly seen near villages or at the base of a hill. The herpetofauna recorded in this habitat were, Agamids like, Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, skinks like, Eutropis carinata, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis.

There was a small patch which had a water body because of which there was presence of Amphibians species like, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Fejervarya spp. and Hoplobatrachus tigerinus.

Grassland

Grassland includes sites like, Bhavani vadi and Kevnale. The herpetofauna found in this habitat were, Calotes versicolor and Sitana ponticereana. Geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus maculatus, Hemidactylus leschenaultii.

Plantation

Plantation includes sites like, Tembe and Opp Amla. Majority was dominated by Teak (Tectona grandis) and Crocodile Bark Tree (Terminalia elliptica). The herpetofauna found in this habitat includes, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor and Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus leschenaultia and Hemidactylus maculatus.

Species like Lacertids, Ophisops spp. was recorded in patches which has open ground covering with grass. It prefers this kind of habitat and is a representative of open ground covered with grass.

Agriculture

Agriculture includes sites like, Belwada, Fanas Gaon and Near Ambapada. Herpetofauna includes, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Sitana ponticeriana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii and Hemidactylus leschenaultii, skinks like, Eutropis carinata, Lacertids like, Ophisops spp.

Amphibians like, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis was recorded as Belwada has small patch of moist deciduous forest along the stream. Bufonid like, Duttaphrynus melanostictus was also recorded.

B) Monsoon

The same sites that were done in summer season were repeated in monsoon too. Many species were identified up to generic level. It was seen that the reptile density was high in the moist deciduous forest and amphibian density was high in semi evergreen forest.

Moist Deciduous Forest

The herpetofauna species seen were, Agamid like Calotes versicolor and Sitana ponticereana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus Leschenaultii and Hemidactylus maculatus. Skinks like, Eutropis carinatus, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis. Chamaeleo zeylanicus was also recorded.

Snakes like, Amphiesma stolatumandBoiga trigonata which are generalist species and Xenocrophis piscator is more associated with moist habitat. Amphibians recorded were, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Fejervarya spp, Sphaerotheca breviceps and Uperodon spp are generalist species.

Semi Evergreen

Agamidslike, Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii and Calotes ponticereana.Skinkslike, Eutropis carinata, Eutropis macularia and Eutropis allapalensis.

Amphibians were seen in numbers in this habitat type. Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Fejervarya sp., Hydrophylax bahuvistara, Hoplobatrachus tigerinus, Microhyla ornata, Polypedates

maculatus, Sphaerotheca breviceps. Presence of 7 amphibian species indicate that this habitat has grass, puddles and water bodies, which is a major habitat requirement for these species.

Degraded Moist Deciduous

Herpetofauna recorded in this type of habitat were, Agamid like, Calotes versicolor, geckos like Hemidactylus brookii and Hemidactylus leschanaultii. Amphibians like Sphaerotheca breviceps

Species found in this habitat are habitat generalist and common.

Open Scrub

Herpetofauna species found in this habitat were, Agamid, Calotes versicolor and amphibians like, Fejervarya sp. Both the species found are generalist species.

Grassland

The amphibian and reptile species recorded in this type of habitat were, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Calotes ponticereana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii, Hemidactylus maculates and Hemidactylus leschenaultii, skinks like Lygosoma lineata. Two snake species, Ahaetulla nasuta and Trimeresaurus grammineus.

Three species of amphibians, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Fejervarya sp. and Sphaerotheca brevicepswere also recorded in this habitat.

Plantation

Herpetofauna species like, Agamids, Calotes versicolor and Sitana ponticereana, geckos like, Hemidactylus brookii and Lacertid like, Ophisops sp.

Amphibians like, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis and Sphaerotheca breviceps. All species found in this habitat type are generalist species.

Agriculture

Herpetofauna species recorded in this habitat were, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Calotes ponticereana.

Amphibians like, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Fejervarya sp. and Sphaerotheca breviceps were seen near streams in some sites.

B) Winter

As amphibians and reptiles are ectothermal most of them do into dormance during winter.

Moist Deciduous

Herpetofauna species that were recorded in winter in this habitat were, Agamids like, Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii and Calotes ponticereana, Skink likes, Eutropis carinata. Snakes like, Daboia russelii and Ptyus mucosa.

Amphibians recorded were, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. All the species recorded in this habitat were generalist and common.

Semi Evergreen

Reptile and Amphibian species recorded in this habitat were, Agamids, Calotes versicolor, Calotes rouxii and Calotes ponticereana, gecko recorded was Hemidactylus brookii, Skinks such as Eutropis carinatus, Eutropis macularia, Eutropis allapalensis.

Amphibian species that was found was Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis. All species were generalist.

Degraded Moist Deciduous

Species such as Calotes versicolor, Eutropis carinata and Hemidactylus brookii were seen active in this habitat. No amphibians were recorded as there were no water body.

Open Scrub

No reptile or amphibian species were recorded in this habitat as there was place for them to take shelter as the temperature rises or falls down which is very much necessary for these animals.

Grassland

Species that were found in this habitat were, Agamid like Sitana ponticereana and geckos such as Hemidcatylus brookii, Hemidactylus leschanaultii and Hemidactylus maculatus.

Plantation

Species recorded in this habitat were, Sitana ponticereana, geckos such as Hemidcatylus brookii, Hemidactylus leschanaultii and Hemidactylus maculatus. amphibians were recorded as there were no perennial water source available in this habitat.

Agriculture

Herpetofauna species recorded were, Agamid, Calotes versicolor and Amphibians, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis.

Diversity Indices(Reptiles) 2.5

1.5

0.5

0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Deciduous Simpson's dominance index (D) Shannon index (H')

FIGURE 19: DIVERSIT Y INDICES OF REPTILES IN SUMMER

Species Richness(Reptiles)

Open Moist scrub Deciduous 15% Plantation 19% 13% Semi Evergreen 17% Degraded Moist Deciduous 14% Agriculture Open grassland 13% 9%

FIGURE 20: HABITAT-W ISE SPECIES RICHNESS OF REPTILES IN SUMMER

Diversity Indices (Amphibians) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 Simpson's dominance 0.6 index (D) 0.5 Shannon index (H') 0.4 0.3 0.2 Pielou evenness index 0.1 (E) 0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Deciduous

FIG 21: DIVERSIT Y INDICES OF AMPHIBIANS IN SUMMER

Species Richness(Amphibians)

Moist Semi Evergreen Deciduous 0% 16% Open grassland Open scrub 0% 45% Agriculture 39% Degraded Moist Plantation Deciduous 0% 0%

FIGURE 22: SPECIES RICHNESS OF AMPHIBIANS IN SUMMER

The Diversity indices for reptiles reveal that Moist Deciduous and Semi-Evergreen show high diversity. In summer 18 species were identified belonging to 12 genera and 8 families. Out of which, species belonging to family Agamidae, Scincidae and Gekkonidae were more common in the rest of the seven habitats. Moist deciduous and semi-evergreen shows highest species richness.

Diversity for amphibians was poor in many habitats. Amphibian species were recorded at night only in habitat which had some perennial water bodies. The highest was in open scrub.

B) Monsoon

Diversity Indices (Reptiles) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Deciduous Simpson's dominance index (D) Shannon index (H') Pielou evenness index (E)

FIGURE 23: DIVERSIT Y INDICES OF REPTILES IN MONSOON

Species Richness(Reptiles)

Moist Open scrub Deciduous 13% 16% Plantation 12% Semi Evergreen Degraded Moist 15% Deciduous 15% Open grassland 16% Agriculture 13%

FIGURE 24: SPECIES RICHNESS OF REPTILES IN MONSOON

Diversity Indices(Amphibians) 2.5

1.5

0.5

0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Deciduous Simpson's dominance index (D)

Shannon index (H')

Pielou evenness index (E)

FIGURE 25: DIVERSIT Y INDICES OF AMPHIBIANS IN MONSOON

Species Richness(Amphibians)

Moist Deciduous Open scrub 15% 19%

Plantation Semi 13% Evergreen 23%

Agriculture Degraded Moist Grassland 14% Deciduous 11% 5%

FIGURE 26: SPECIES RICHNESS OF AMPHIBIANS IN MONSOON

As monsoon is the peak season for most of the amphibians and reptile activity. Total number of amphibians and reptile species found were 24 belonging to 19 genera and 11 families. Out of which 15 species belonging to 10 genera and 8 families represented reptiles. High species

richness was recorded in moist deciduous for reptiles. Families like Agamidae and Scincidae were found to be more common.

For amphibians, semi-evergreen recorded the highest species richness. This was because there were good number of streams in the site which is important for breeding activities of amphibians. The common family that was recorded in amphibians was Dicroglossidae. A total of 8 species belonging to 6 genera and 3 families were recorded for amphibians.

C) Winter

Diversity Indices(Reptiles) 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Simpson's dominance index Deciduous (D) Shannon index (H')

FIGURE 27: DIVERSITY INDICES OF REPTILES IN WINTER

Species Richness(Reptiles)

Moist Plantation Deciduous 24% 19%

Semi Evergreen Degraded 22% Moist Deciduous Grassland 18% 17%

FIGURE 28: SPECIES RICHNESS OF REPTILES IN W INTER

In winter many amphibians and reptiles get into hibernation or are inactive. The species which were found during this season was seen basking during early morning sunlight. There were 12 species found belonging to 7 genera and 6 families. The species diversity was seen 67

low in Semi evergreen as compared to the other 6 habitat because the other habitats had some open patches which were the reptiles were seen basking. Even though there was no diversity of reptiles seen the species richness was high in plantation and semi-evergreen. The common families that were recorded were, Agamidae, Scincidae and Gekkonidae.

Amphibian diversity was not seen as the only species which was recorded was Euphlyctis caynophlyctis, Family Dicroglossidae.

Endemism and Threatened species

Amphibians and Reptiles being very sensitive to their environment make them biological indicators in the ecosystem. Amphibians require unpolluted water to complete their life cycle and thus are indicators of the quality of habitat. Their presences in a habitat indicate that it is less disturbed or undisturbed. Most of the amphibians and reptiles are active only in Monsoon. Only few can be seen active during the dry seasons. This study was done for one year. During the study there were, 11 species of lizards, 8 species of snakes, 9 species of frogs and 1 species of chelonid were observed. Out of these Calotes versicolor was most common along with Hemidactylus brookii. In amphibians the most common species that was observed was Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis followed by Fejervarya spp.

Maximum numbers of individuals were observed in Moist Deciduous and Semi Evergreen habitat. It was also recorded that there was a fluctuation in species richness in different habitat during different seasons. This was because most amphibians and reptiles are active during monsoon but few during summer and winter.

The highest number of amphibians and reptiles were observed in Gargai Dam Site, Charanpada, Quaripada, Suryamal, Bhavanivadi, Amla Village and Sakharshet indicating that these habitats are richer in herpetofauna.

Reptile such as Geckoella deccanensis are mostly seen in less disturbed forest and its occurrence in Suryamal is an indicator of good quality habitat. Species like Hemidactylus maculatus which is a saxicolus species, which prefers rocky terrains. Therefore for long term conservation of these species and such habitat needs to be protected. Trimeresurus gramineuswhich was recorded in this study is endemic to India.

Among all the amphibians, one Hydrophylax bahuvistara which was earlier called as Hylarana malabarica is endemic to India. Apart from this an agamid, Calotes rouxii and a gecko, Geckoella deccanensis is endemic to Western Ghats. All the frogs, lizards and snakes

are included in Schedule IV of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972. Chelonid species like Lissemys punctata and Varanid species like Varanus bengalensis were recorded during an ad hoc search. These species are in Schedule I (Part II) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

3.5 Birds

3.5.1 Species richness

Moist Deciduous Forests: The highest number of species was recorded in moist deciduous forest, which is the dominant habitat of the area. In winter 58 species were recorded in this habitat, 56 species during the monsoon and 48 species in summer.

Semi Evergreen Forests: In semi-evergreen forest, more number of species were recorded during the monsoon season (39 species), with more or less the same number of species in summer and winter, viz... 32 and 33 species respectively.

Degraded Moist Deciduous Forests: In degraded moist deciduous forest. 27 species were recorded in monsoon, 25 in winter, and 20 in summer.

Open Scrubs: In open scrub, a more number of species was recorded in monsoon with 23 species, followed by summer with 16 species and 14 species in winter.

Grasslands: The maximum number of species was recorded in winter (36 species), followed by summer and monsoon with 26 and 25 species respectively.

Plantations: In plantation, the maximum number of species was observed in summer (with 21 species), followed by winter and monsoon with 19 and 17 species respectively.

Agricultural lands: In agriculture sites, more number of species was recorded in summer (29), followed by winter (28 species) and monsoon (24 species).

Seasonal variation in species richness 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon

MD SE DMD OS G P A

No Of Species

FIGURE 29: SEASONAL VARIATION IN SPECIES RICHNESS IN HABITAT TYPES

SE-SEMI EVERGREEN FOREST, MD-MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST, G-GRASSLAND, DMD-DEGRADED MOIST

DECIDUOUS FOREST, A-AGRICULTURE, P-PLANTATION, OS- OPEN SCRUB

Seasonal variation in abundance of birds 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Winter Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon Monsoon

MD SE DMD OS G P A

No Of Species

FIGURE 30: SEASONAL VARIATION IN ABUNDANCE OF BIRDS IN HABITAT TYPES

SE-SEMI EVERGREEN FOREST, MD-MOIST DECIDUOUS FOREST, G-GRASSLAND, DMD-DEGRADED MOIST

DECIDUOUS FOREST. A-AGRICULTURE, P-PLANTATION, OS- OPEN SCRUB

Maximum number of species were recorded in grassland during the monsoon with 21 species; from the same site, the least number of species was recorded in summer. Same is the 70

situation with Tembe were habitat is plantation, maximum number of species was observed in summer and minimum in winter with the score of 19 and 9 respectively. In winter 20 species which is maximum in season was recorded from 2 sites Parli gaon and Dahigaontarf Gaon both possesses Moist Deciduous forest. Bhavaniwadi is the place where less species was recorded in two seasons with 7 species each in monsoon and summer.

II. General profile of the avifauna of Gargai A total of 140 species of birds belonging to 55 families were recorded during the study (Annexure V). Accipitridae and Turdinae were the most species rich family with 7 species, followed by Stigidae and Picidae with 6 species.

Family-wise species richness

Accipitridae Turdinae Strigidae Picidae Ardeidae Cuculidae Muscicapidae Tamaliinae Sylviidae

FIGURE 31 : FAMILY-WISE SPECIES RICHNESS

There were perceptible differences in family composition during the seasons. In winter, the maximum numbers of species were from Muscicapidae and Accipitridae family. In summer more species was recorded from Picidae. In monsoon, 5 family shared 5 species each, i.e. Ardidae, Accipitridae, Cuculidae, Strigade and Picidae.

Of the 140 species of bird recorded during the study, 34 species were recorded outside the sampling area. The number of bird species recorded in point counts ranged between 7 and 21. The maximum number of species, i.e. 60 species, was recorded from Moist Deciduous Forest, which is the dominant habitat in the area. During point counts, the highest numbers of birds were encountered during winter (807 individuals), followed by monsoon (621 individuals), and least during summer (619 individuals). 71

III. Migrants and Residents Among these 140 species, 23 species were classified as winter migrant. Indian Pitta (Pittta brachyuran), Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike (Lalage melanoptera) & Europian Roller (Coracias garrulous) are passage migrant. Two Species is breeding visitor i.e. Indian black Bird (Turdus simillimus) & Jacobin Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) while Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canonus) is classified as residential migrant, rest other are residential birds. (Further information in annexure).

Migrant and resident status PV BV 2WM

FIGURE 32: MIGRANT AND RESIDENT STATUS R – RESIDENT BIRDS, BV- BREEDING VISITOR, 2WM–TW O WAY MIGRANT, PV - PASSAGE MIGRANT, WM – WINTER MIGRANT

One species, i.e. Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti), comes under the Critically Endangered (CR) category. Alexandrine Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria) is near threatened (NT) while other all species are least concern (LC).

IUCN Status CR, 1 NT, 1

LC, 138

FIGURE 33: IUCN STATUS

CR – CRITICALLY ENDANGERED NT – NEAR THREATENED LC-LEAST CONCERN 72

3.5.2 Diversity

A) Winter

Diversity Indices Winter 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Moist Semi Degraded Open scrub Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist Shannon H' Deciduous

FIGURE 34: SHANNON-W IENER DIVERSIT AND PIELOU EVENNESS DIVERSITY INDICES OF BIRDS

COMPUTED FOR THE HABITATS

The diversity indices of birds in winter revealed that semi-evergreen show high diversity followed by moist deciduous and grassland habitat. The relatively high evenness value for semi evergreen moist deciduous and grassland is due to both thehigh diversity of species and numbers of individuals for each species in these habitats.

B) Summer

Diversity Indices Summer 6 5 4 3 2 Shannon H' 1 0 Evenness Index(E)

FIGURE 35: SHANNON-WIENER DIVERSITY AND PIELOU EVENNESS DIVERSITY INDICES OF BIRDS

COMPUTED FOR THE HABITATS 73

The diversity indices for birds in summer reveal that moist deciduous, semi evergreen have high diversity followed by grassland and agriculture. Almost equal evenness value in all habitat depict that community in different habitat type does not vary much. The lowest Simpson value was in agriculture which reflects on the low diversity and dominance by a few bird species.

C) Monsoon

Diversity Indices Monsoon 6

3 Shannon H' 2 Evenness Index(E) 1

0 Moist Semi Degraded Open Grassland Plantation Agriculture Deciduous Evergreen Moist scrub Deciduous

FIGURE 36: SHANNON-WIENER DIVERSITY AND PIELOU EVENNESS DIVERSITY INDICES OF BIRDS

COMPUTED FOR THE HABITATS

V. Abundance Abundance refers to the relative representation of a species in a particular ecosystem. It is usually measured as the number of individuals found per sample. Abundance is contrasted with, but typically correlates to, incidence, which is the frequency with which the species occurs in a sample. ACFOR is an acronym for a simple, somewhat subjective scale used to describe species abundance within a given area. It’s a smaller representative sample of the population counted. This gives an estimate of coverage by each species. Percentage coveris often measured instead of individual numbers.

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

Number of Species Number 5 0 <=30% 20-29% 10-19% 5-9% 1-4% A C F O R Summer 2 12 17 10 25 Monsoon 3 10 17 20 24 winter 1 8 27 46 31

FIGURE 37:- SPECIES ABUNDANCE A - ABUNDANT C - COMMON F - FREQUENT O - OCCASIONAL R – RARE

In summer, two species were most abundant, viz., Black Drongo and Yellow-throated Sparrow, In winter, one species was abundant, i.e., Rufous Treepie. In monsoon, 3 species were abundant, viz., Black Drongo, Indian Jungle Crow and Rufous Tree Pie (Fig. 5) Rare Sightings:

Seven species of birds were seen only once during the year, namely Alexandrine Parakeet, Bay-backed Shrike, Common Kestrel, Indian Blackbird, Indian Black Ibis, Malabar Trogon and Scaly-breasted Munia.

Sightings of the Forest Owlet

Among the birds recorded, most significant, is the sighting of the Forest Owlet (Heteroglaux blewitti) The Forest Owlet is one of the 14 Critically Endangered birds of India’s and among the 83 globally threatened bird species. It is listed under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, and is, therefore, given high conservation priority by the Indian Central and State Governments. Today, the major threat to Forest Owlet is the loss and degradation of forest within which it lives, due to habitat conversion to agriculture, and the inappropriate use/management of forest.

The Forest Owlet was recorded at 4 sites among the 23 surveyed sites in the Gargai-Pinjal area, namely Parli Range, Near Ambapada, Quaripada and Amla Gaon. Considering its critically endangered status, it is necessary to get further information on the range and extent of the habitat of the Forest Owlet in the Gargai-Pinjal area, and to assess threats to its survival and formulate conservation strategies as well as awareness among local community for conservation of habitat.

3.6 Mammals

3.6.2 Distribution of Mammals Understanding the distribution of animals is important for assessing true species ranges, which in turn tells us about the specific requirements of particular species for survival. In biodiversity assessment studies this is necessary as species distribution tells us the value of the study area. Factors responsible for distribution patterns of animals are key to understanding the natural history of a species and thus serve as important information needed for conservation. Distribution can be influenced by various biotic as well as abiotic factors like avasilability of food, shelter, optimum temperature, climate etc. It is known that distribution patterns can change seasonally, in response to the availability of resources, presence or absence of completion etc. In the current study we assessed species distribution with the help of various biodiversity indices for specific habitats in two major seasons i.e. summer and winter.

A) Distribution of mammals in summer It was seen that moist deciduous forests had the highest density of mammals during the dry seasons. This can also be an artifact of the distribution of habitats in the study area. As most of the study area and surrounding forests are of moist deciduous forest, it was expected to show a higher density of mammals.In all 15 species of mammals were recorded during the summer of which 6 were rodents, 4 carnivores, 2 ungulates, 1 primate, 1 scandentia and 1 chiropteran.

Moist Deciduous Forest Of the 23 studied sites 8 are of the moist deciduous type. These include Charanpada, Dahigaon-Tarf Gaon, Khodare, Navapada, Ongda, Parli Range, Gargai dam site andParli Village. Elements of semi evergreen forest were found to be present in some sites along streams. Most of the sites in this forest type were dominated by Teak (Tectona grandis). Rodents were the most commonly found mammal group in this forest type with 5 species. A total of 10 species of mammals were recorded from this habitat in summer. Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis) was found to be the most commonly seen species in this forest type and it occurred in 5 of the 8 sites. The often-shyMadras Tree Shrew (Anathana ellioti) was recorded from 2 sites in moist deciduous habitat.The Indian Muntjac or Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak) was the only species of deer recorded from this habitat, that too from a single site. 76

Most of the species recorded from this habitat are generalist species and not known to require any specific type of habitat.

Semi Evergreen Forest The second most common habitat in the study area is of semi evergreen forest type. This habitat included 5 sites namely: Amla Gaon, Sakershet, Quaripada, Suryamal and Satronde.

This habitat was represented by a fare share of carnivorous animals with 3 species belonging to order Carnivora viz. Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Indian Grey Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi) and the Indian Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus). Of these, the Indian Palm Civet was recorded from 2 sites. The Hanuman Langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos), the only primate recorded during the study was observed in 2 different sites in the semi evergreen habitat. The Madras Tree Shrew was also recorded from 2 sites in this habitat.

Presence of a good number of small carnivores in this particular habitat signifies that the habitat might be rich in diversity of invertebrates and small vertebrates, which form a major part of the diet of small carnivores. Even though the semi evergreen forests had slightly less number of sites, the diversity was highest with 11 species occurring in this habitat.

Degraded Moist Deciduous Moist deciduous forests with a mix of open land and disturbance were classified as Degraded Moist Deciduous forest. Two sites, Suryamal Ghat and Pachghar were identified to be of Degraded Moist Deciduous type.

Even though only 2 sites were of this habitat, it showed good species diversitywith a representation of 9 of the 15 species. This habitat again had high rodent diversity with 6 species. Jungle cat was the only carnivore species recorded from this habitat. Hanuman Langur was also recorded from this habitat. Both these species were observed in the Suryamal Ghat site, which is located at the hill slopes and thus might act as a connecting corridor between higher semi evergreen and lower moist deciduous habitats.

Open Scrub This habitat is represented by only one site that is, Wanganpada. This type of habitat is characterized by sparse and stunted vegetation predominantly composed of shrubs, small trees and with cover of dry grass. This type of habitat is mostly seen near villages or at the base of a hill.

This habitat was represented by 5 species of mammals of which 3 were rodents. The Black- naped Hare was most common species recorded from this habitat. The Grey Mongoose was also recorded from open scrub habitat.

During the summer survey, three species were observed to be present in almost all the habitat types. These are the Black-naped Hare, Field Mouse and the Wild Pig (Sus scrofa). The field mouse was found to be the most generalist species as it occurred in all the habitats. Black- naped Hare was only found to be missing from agricultural habitats but occurred in every other habitat. The generalist Wild Pig was found to be missing from plantations and open scrub but was found to have a high density in moist deciduous forests.The Indian Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus sp.) was the only bat observed during the study from four different habitat types.

The Striped Hyena and Barking Deer both were recorded from a single habitat each, Grassland and moist deciduous respectively. The Palm Civet and Madras Tree Shrew both were recorded only from moist deciduous and semi evergreen habitats while the Hanuman Langur and Jungle Cat were recorded only from semi evergreen and degraded deciduous habitats.

Grassland Only two sites in the study area were of the Grassland type and they are Bhavaniwadi and Kevnale. Both these sites are located on hilltops and are Grassland plateaus surrounded by steep rocky cliffs. The dry and scrub forest specific carnivore, Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) was recorded from this habitat. During the summer study, this species was only recorded from a single site i.e. Bhavaniwadi. Live Hyena dens in the form of rocky caves were also found along the cliffs of Bhavaniwadi. According to villagers, Striped Hyena is one of the most common predators in that region and they often prey on village dogs. This was confirmed by the presence of multiple remains of dog body parts near and outside the dens. Black-naped Hare was found to be common in both the sites.

Plantation Two sites from the study area, Tembhe and site opposite Amla were identified as plantation habitats based on a high proportion of planted trees as opposed to natural forests.

Rodents like the Field Mouse (Mus booduga) and Three-striped Palm Squirrel (Funambulus palmarum) were recorded from both the sites in this habitat. The only carnivore recorded from this habitat was the Indian Grey Mongoose.

Agriculture The study area has extensive human presence and many sites signs of partial agricultural activities like abandoned fields, small fields for a part of the year etc. but the sites which had predominantly agricultural fields were identified as Agriculture habitat. We identified 3 sites in the study area, which are Belwada, PhanasGaon and near Ambapada. The only carnivore recorded from this habitat was the Indian Grey Mongoose. These animals are known to be present near human habitation, scrub and cultivated lands. Given that their diet mostly consists of insects, small birds, reptiles and rodents agriculture habitat would seem to be a preferred habitat.

B) Distribution of mammals in winter The sites that were surveyed in summer season were repeated in the winter season. During this study it was observed that the density and diversity was both highest in moist deciduous habitat. Also during the winter survey few more species were recorded which was missing from the summer list. In all 19 species of mammals were recorded during the winter of which 6 were rodents, 6 carnivores, 3 ungulates, 1 primate, 1 scandentia and 2 chiropteran.

Moist Deciduous Forest Rodents were the most commonly found mammal group in this forest type with 6 species followed by 5 carnivore species. A total of 16 species of mammals were recorded from this habitat in winter. Black-naped Hare, Three striped palm squirrel and White-tailed Bush Rat (Madromys blanfordi) were found to be equally commonly seen species in this forest type and occurred in 4 of the 8 sites. The Madras Tree Shrew was recorded from a single site in moist deciduous habitat.The Indian Muntjac or Barking Deer and the Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) both were recorded from this habitat. While the Barking Deer was recorded from a single site, the four horned antelope was recorded from 3 sites, which are Khodare, Parli village and Parli Range. The Jungle Cat was the most widespread carnivore, occurring in 3 sites followed by the Palm Civet that was recorded from 2 sites.

Semi Evergreen Forest This habitat was represented by 3 species of carnivorous animals viz. Jungle cat, Indian Grey Mongoose and the Indian Palm Civet. Of these, the Indian Palm Civet was most widespread and was recorded from 3 sites. The Hanuman Langur was observed in 2 different sites in the semi evergreen habitat. During the winter sampling, it was not recorded from any other 79

habitat. The Madras Tree Shrew was also recorded from 2 sites in this habitat. The Three- striped Palm Squirrel was also observed from 3 different sites in the habitat.

The Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus sp) was also observed from Quaripada in the semi evergreen habitat. These bats were observed to be emerging out of man made vertical tunnels going deep inside the ground at late evenings. These insectivorous bats are known to use old structures, caves etc. as their roosting place. This is the only site from where this species was recorded during the study period. In all 13 species of mammals were recorded to be present in semi evergreen habitats during winter season.

Degraded Moist Deciduous Even though only 2 sites were of this habitat, it showed good species diversity with a representation of 12 species. This habitat again had high rodent diversity with 6 species. Jungle cat, Indian Grey Mongoose and Small Indian Civet were the three carnivore species recorded from this habitat in winter. Madras Tree Shrew was also observed from near Suryamal Ghat while Four-horned Antelope was recorded in Panchghar.

Open Scrub This habitat was represented by 6 species of mammals of which 2 were carnivores. The Indian Grey Mongoose and Small Indian Civet were recorded from this habitat. The field mouse was the most common species recorded from this habitat.

During the winter survey, eight species were observed to be present in almost all the habitat types. The Black-Naped Hare and Field Mouse were recorded from all the existing habitats making them the most generalist species. The Lesser Bandicoot-Rat and White-tailed Bush Rat were present in 6 of the 7 habitat types; the former was absent in semi evergreen habitat while the latter was not recorded in open scrub. The Indian Gerbil (Tatera indica) and Three- striped Palm Squirrel were recorded from 5 of the 7 known habitat types. Wild pig was the only generalist ungulate to be found in 5 different habitat types while the Indian Grey Mongoose was the only carnivore to be so widespread.

The Hanuman Langur and Horseshow Bat were found to be restricted to semi evergreen habitat. The Palm Civet and Barking Deer both were recorded only from moist deciduous and semi evergreen habitats while the Striped Hyena and Indian Jackal were recorded only in moist deciduous and grassland habitats.

Grassland The dry and scrub forest specific carnivore, Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) was recorded from this habitat. Other then the Hyena, Indian Jackal (Canis aureus) was yet another canid carnivore recorded from this habitat. The Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica), a small scrub-preferring carnivore was also recorded from this habitat. This nocturnal species is often seen moving along open lands, rocky and thick grasses in search of prey.

Black-Naped Hare, White-tailed Bush Rat and Field Mouse were equally found to be common rodents in both the sites. Black-Naped Hare was also found to be most abundant in this habitat.

Plantation This habitat only showed the presence of rodents in the winter sampling with 6 species. Field mouse was recorded from both the sites in this habitat. No other group of mammals was observed during the winter survey from plantations.

Agriculture Rodents were the most commonly found mammal group in this forest type with 5 species. The Lesser Bandicoot-Rat (Bandicota bengalensis) was the most commonly occurring rodent and was recorded from all 3 sites. The Wild Pig was also recorded from 2 of the 3 sites, Phanasgaon and Belwada. They are known to often come close to human settlements, agricultural farms in search of food. Many villagers claim that wild pigs often cause loss and destruction of various crops thus giving rise to conflicts. The only carnivore recorded from this habitat was the Indian Grey Mongoose.

Diversity Indices, endemism and threatened mammals

A) Summer

Diversity indices across habitats 2.5 Simpson's 2 dominance index (D) 1.5 Shannon index (H') 1 Pielou evenness 0.5 index (E) 0

Habitats

FIGURE 38(A): SHANNON-WIENER DIVERSITY, PIELOU EVENNESS AND SIMPSON DIVERSITY

INDICES OF MAMMALS COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS HABITATS OF STUDY AREA

Species Richness

Open scrub Semi 13% Evergreen Plantation 19% 11% Agriculture 12%

Degraded Moist Deciduous 18% Moist Open grassland Deciduous 12% 15%

FIGURE 38(B): SPECIES RICHNESS OF MAMMALS COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS HABITATS OF STUDY

AREA

The diversity indices for mammals reveal that semi-evergreen forests show high diversity followed by degraded moist deciduous and moist deciduous habitats. The relatively high and almost similar evenness values shows that community of species doesn’t vary much in between different habitat types. In summer 15 species were identified belonging to 15 genera and 12 families. Out of which, species belonging to family Muridae were more common in the most of the seven habitats. Semi-evergreen habitat shows highest species richness for mammals in summer followed by degraded moist deciduous habitat. Even though the diversity for degraded moist deciduous is lower then moist deciduous forest, the species richness increases, as common species are more in number in this habitat. Plantation shows the lowest species richness in summer.

B) Winter

Diversity Indices for Winter 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

Shanon index (H') Pielou Evenness Index (E) Habitat Simpson (D)

FIGURE 39 (A): SHANNON-WIENER DIVERSITY, PIELOU EVENNESS AND SIMPSON DIVERSITY

INDICES OF MAMMALS COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS HABITATS OF STUDY AREA

Species Richness for Winter

Open Semi scrub Plantation Evergreen 12% 11% 17% Agriculture 12%

Degraded Moist Moist Deciduous Deciduous Grassland 19% 18% 11%

FIGURE 39(B): SPECIES RICHNESS OF MAMMALS COMPUTED FOR VARIOUS HABITATS OF STUDY

AREA

The diversity indices for mammals reveal that open scrub habitat shows high diversity followed by moist deciduous and degraded moist deciduous habitats. The very high diversity index of open scrub habitat is due to only one site of open scrub habitat. This error is also repeated in the evenness index showing a really high evenness value. Owing to a single site to compare the values have increased exponentially. The relatively high and almost similar evenness values for al other habitats shows that community of species doesn’t vary much in between different habitat types. In winter 19 species were identified belonging to 19 genera and 15 families. Out of which, species belonging to family Muridae were more common in the most of the seven habitats. Moist deciduous habitat shows highest species richness for mammals in winter followed by degraded moist deciduous and semi evergreen habitats. Plantation and grassland showed the lowest species richness.

Habitat loss and forest fragmentation are the main integral and long-term problems that threaten the biodiversity today. Poaching when coupled with habitat destruction can cause serious irreversible damage to wildlife. Habitats are mainly being lost due to our ever- increasing needs, for shelter, fodder, fossil fuels huge developmental projects etc. In todays race to survive some of these changes cannot be avoided. So it becomes even more necessary to understand the value of a place before any such activity, which in turn will help to avoid/ reduce the damage brought in by such projects.

Most mammals require vast forest stretches for acquiring food, shelter and over all survival. Accurate home range requirements of many animals are still not well known and thus suffer the most due to human-wildlife conflict, shrinking forest cover, poaching etc. Presence of mammals in a habitat thus in a way signifies the overall rich habitat. Many mammals are used as umbrella species as they are at the apex of food chain and presence of these species indicate that the lower consumers and producers are also doing well in the habitat.

This current study was carried out throughout a year in an attempt to assess the mammalian diversity of Gargai dam site and adjoining regions. Overall 19 species of mammals were recoded from the study area. In all the 23 sites the detection probability for mammals was found to be very low.

Considering that most of the study area is a mosaic of human dominated landscape and deciduous forest might have resulted in the low probability of detecting the mammals. Most of the mammals reordered were either based on indirect evidences like scat, pug marks/ hoof marks and a few direct observations. Other then the Striped Hyena (Hyaena hyaena) and

Indian Jackal (Canis aureus) no other species of large carnivore was recorded during this study. This may be a result of a low prey base density necessary for the survival of large carnivores. The Wild Pig (Sus scrofa) was the only fairly common ungulate recorded from five different habitats and nine sites. This may be due to their tolerance to human dominated landscape. They are known to often move near human settlements, agricultural lands for foraging. The Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) was also reordered from three fairly forested sites based on direct and indirect evidence. This animal in turn is very shy in behavior and escapes at the slightest disturbance. The Four-Horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) was also recorded from five different sites in three habitats. This rare schedule I species has been recorded earlier from the nearby Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary and in a study of Tansa region in 1986 this place had been recommended to be notified as a Four-Horned Antelope sanctuary. Based on personal interviews the presence of these animals was confirmed by local people. Personal interviews were also conducted to know about other mammal species found in this area. We randomly selected few local people and inquired themabout the occurrence of the various mammalian species in this area. The Striped Hyaena was only confirmed to be present in Bhavaniwadi, a flat grassland plateau on top of a hill. The rocky ridges of this plateau have a few natural caves, which were found to be used actively by Hyenas. Hyenas often prey upon the pet dogs from the villages. There have been reports of Leopard (Panthera paradus) in the study area but were unable to confirm its presence during the study period. Jungle Cat (Felis chaus)is the only species of wild cats recorded during the study period. This shy, nocturnal cat was recorded from multiple localities. This species is fairly common in deciduous and scrub forests.

Nocturnal rodents were found to be most diverse as well as abundant in the study area including the Black-naped Hare (Lepus nigricollis) and four other murids. This must be because of the presence of many agricultural sites within the study area. Only one species of primate was recorded during the study period, which is the Hanuman Langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos). Madras Tree Shrew (Anathana ellioti), Indian Grey Mongoose (Herpestes edwardsi), Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica) are some other interesting mammals recorded during the study. A list of all the mammal species recorded is given below along with their conservation status.

This study revealed that the area is under anthropogenic pressure and does not support critical habitat specialist or large sized mammalian species. Communication with the local people and field observations showed that hunting and habitat exploitation in the form of logging is

prevalent in this region. This may be the reason for very low presence of habitat specialists or large sized mammalian species in the study area.

4 Conclusion and Potential Areas for Conservation

4.1 Vegetation

Around half of the study area is occupied by the Protected Aare (TWS) and thus under forested land. Consequently the area is rich with presence of native flora and founa. Habitat diversity across the landscape makes it more diverse while disturbance to certain human dominated/ altered/ artificial habitats such as degraded moist deciduous forests, plantations, and agricultureal fields add to the overall diversity of the landscape majorly owing to invasion of weeds, exotics or naturalization of cultivated species.

The area is already facing threats; Activities such as tree felling, fuel and fodder collection, rampant man made fires in the forests for the agriculture purposes and the grazing pressure are resulting into the heavy disturbance to the existing tree cover, ground flora, seed banks in the soil and tree sapplings which may hamper the forest regeneration.Trees like Anogeissus latifolia, Tectona grandis, Bombax ceiba, Careya arborea, Grewia tiliaefolia, Haldina cordifolia, Heterophragma quadriloculare, Dalbergia latifolia, Syzygium cuminii, Ficus glomerata, Meyna laxiflora, Diospyros sp. etc. were seen preferred by local people for lopping which are very well known to serve as excellent fodder for the livestock especially for the goats and cattles, as well as for making agricultural implements.

Construction of proposed dam will bring significant area under submergence which will destroy part of protected area and reduce local diversity inevitably. However some areas best representing the major habitats of the region should be conserved to protect the diversity, and habitats for dependant fauna.

Potential areas for conservation of vegetation and flora

Owing to the terrain, vegetation type and plants species composition, of the respective area a few patches need attention within the 10 km radius area mentioned as follows :

- Rocky plateau, Suryamaal ghats, Bhavani vadi and Kevnale. - Moist Deciduous Forests of Charanpada and Ongda area and Degraded Moist Deciduous Forest near Pachghar. - Semi-evergreen patches around Amla gaon and Kauripada

4.2 Insects

Development projects like dams have various benefits like electricity generation, better irrigation facilities, flood control etc.; on the other hand they can have serious adverse effects on the surrounding area like alteration in the geography of the area, effect on socio-economic values of locals and environment etc. Effects of dam construction on the environment can be seen in various ways like in terms of altered structure of river basin, altered physico-chemical properties of water which hamper the existing life in river and can support the growth of unwanted ones like excess of algae and other flora. It can also adversely impact the population of niche-specific species (Naniwadekar and Vasudevan 2014).

Insects have the ability to survive in almost all type of habitats and in all climatic conditions except extreme hot and cold. Hence impacts of such anthropogenic activities can be prominently observed on a broader level like an ecosystem unless there are any specialized species. Also these effects can be of different magnitude on different groups among insects as per the habitat (e.g. grassland ecosystem) or microhabitat(e.g. slow or fast flowing seasonal or perennial streams, water pools) occupied by them (Schowalter 2006). In present study, all the insects species found were generalists so the effect of upcoming dam and related construction activities can be seen on the habitat level rather than species level.

To mitigate the consequences of upcoming dam, some potential sites for insects have been identified during the study where efforts for conservation of the habitats can be channelized. Although the study area is a mosaic of land cover, major habitats have been categorized depending upon the type of vegetation. The potential sites have good availability of food resources and presence of seasonal or perennial water source with which insects are highly associated. These habitats should be prioritized for conservation of present vegetation. Some other threats have also been identified such as fire and grazing. Man-made fires other than those practiced for agriculture should be checked regularly as it destroys the ground cover thereby affecting immature as well as adult insects dependent on it. Over-grazing has been identified to minimize the growth of grass and spread of weeds which are competitors to some herb species important for butterflies (Kunte 1997).

To understand post construction effects of the dam, especially on the upstream and downstream areas, long term monitoring of changes in riparian ecosystem can be very useful. Few insect groups such as odonates are very good indicators of such ecosystem as they need fresh water for breeding. Potential areas have to be identified in the upstream and

downstream areas of dam in the present study area which can be assessed for odonate diversity in the future.

Potential areas for conservation of insects

As insects inhabit several kinds of niches in the environment, different habitats and microhabitats play important role in maintaining diversity of different taxa within the insect group. e.g. riparian habitats are excellent for odonates, rocky plateaus or grasslands support different kinds of grasshoppers, crickets and ground beetles etc. Based on the results obtained during the survey for study organisms, sites having moist deciduous and semi-evergreen type of habitat are very important and considered for future management from biodiversity conservation point as wide range of species are supported in these habitats across seasons as described in the discussion part. Sites having moist deciduous habitat include Charanpada, Dahigaon-Tarf Gaon, Khodare, Parali range and Parali village whereas semi-evergreen ones include Sakershet, Amlagaon, Suryamal and Quaripada. All of these sites have either a perennial or seasonal water source. Also, there are agricultural sites having perennial stream nearby like at Belwada. These provide additional niches and food sources which make them supportive for various insect species.

4.3 Fish

Environmental issues, information base and anthropogenic threats observed –

In this study we observed several anthropogenic activities posing a direct threat to the native fish species population. Heavy load of organic pollution, construction of dams, illegal fishing by using explosives and chemical poisons, habitat destruction through the sand mining, overfishing of breeding fish stock in monsoon and presence of introduced alien fish species in natural water bodies are some of the major threats we found affecting the fish population of Gargai and Pinjal tributaries and main stream of Vaitarana River. a) Pollution in natural water bodies

In this study we observed a high degree of organic pollution at study site Tilase, in the mainstream channel of Vaitarana River. Tilase is popular for the existence of Hindu temple on the bank of Vaitarana River. Every year thousands of devotees visits the temple and carry out religious rituals on the river bank. Peak human activity was observed in the months of March and April where thousands of devotees gather to celebrate a Hindu festival, Mahashivaratri. Upstream region of the Tilase was observed as highly polluted area full of 90

drifting cloths, human waste, floating plastic and thermocol debris. We observed high degree of trematodes cyst infestation in preserved specimens of Pethia cfconchonius and Puntius mahecola which were collected from this region. Infestation of trematodes cysts in freshwater fish body is an indicator of heavy load of organic pollution in natural water bodies. Study site Tilase is also popular because of presence of community protected Mahseer Tor cf khudree population. Villagers treat the Mahseer as God’s fish and consider them very sacred therefore fishing is completely forbidden here. The viable population of monster fishes like Mahseer is surviving in the regionpurely for this faith of locals. However, rampant pollution due to floating thermocol debris and plastic is becoming a great concern for the survival of Mahseer population. Local peoples and temple authorities have observed less frequent mass death of Mahseer fishes near temple region, which is probably because of high level of pollution in upstream region during dry period. b) Illegal and destructive fishing practices Explosive/Blast fishing On several occasion we found use of explosives or blast fishing by locals as one of common illegal fishing method. Local tribal peoples use this method as an instant and large scale fishing technique. However, most of the peoples we found carrying out this kind of fishing technique were teenagers and younger community members. Involvement of old aged fishermen is very limited, and we found most of the peoples are well aware about accidental risk and lethal effect of this fishing method. Mixture of explosive components like potassium nitrate or ammonium nitrate is found to be mostly use in this kind of technique. Further, polite enquiry with locals made known that these kind of explosive components are commonly available in nearby urban market. Underwater explosions in blast fishing not just kills and stuns the big fishes but also pose a serious damage to the habitat and to the several other associated freshwater diversity including invertebrates, juvenile and small fishes. The underwater high intensity blast produces the shock waves and stuns the fish by rupturing swim bladder and eventually leads to loss of buoyancy in fish. Most of fishes just sink to the bottom of river or pond and only handful of the catch float to tempt fishermen. The explosions indiscriminately kill the large stock of fish and other wildlife and pose a direct irreversible physical damage to fish habitats. We have also found several cases where fishermen suffered from a serious and permanent physical damage due to unpredicted early explosion. There is urgent need to carry out awareness and education campaigns among locals to maintain sustainable use of freshwater fish resources.

Chemical poisoning

Another destructive fishing method we observed deploy by locals was chemical poisoning. Fishermen mostly use this kind of technique in waterlogged fish habitats like shallow pools and ponds in dry period. The chemical poisoning instantly kills the fish and other wildlife like amphibians and invertebrates like shrimps and crabs. Poisoning the fish habitats lethally damages the underwater ecosystem as well as poses a greatest health risk to wild animals, peoples and domestic live stock that depend on natural water bodies. The most commonly used chemical component we found are readily available borax or boric powder and pesticides like copper sulphate. We also witness the use of seeds and flowers of Acacia sp. as natural fish poisoning material. b) Sand mining

Sand mining practices were widely observed throughout the Gargai and Pinjal River basin. Locals mostly carry out digging and sand separation practices in pre-monsoon period in the month of January to May. Riverine landscape in Gargai River watershed is made up by basaltic boulders, pebbles, bed rock and sand. Sand mining operation usually carried out in big pools along the stream edges in flat river bed. Men and women equally participate in the extraction process. Locals remove the boulders, pebbles and collect the mixture of gravels and sand. Separation of gravels and sand usually carried out by using iron mesh platform. Sand mining operation sustains the local economy but on other side it negatively impacts the riverine fish habitats. Widespread sand mining operations across the watershed completely alters the riverine bed landscape and leads to more erosion. Most of the flat river beds serve as an excellent fish breeding habitatsto the big fishes like Mahseer. Alteration of fish breeding habitat badly affects the spawning, reproduction and survival rate of fish species. It is highly possible that sand mining operationcarried out across the watershed possibly affecting the breeding behaviour of fishes like Tor and Hypselobarbus as it is usually carries out before the summit of monsoon. c) Overexploitation of fishes in breeding season

Indiscriminate overexploitation of breeding fish population has been observed throughout the study area in early monsoon period. With the onset of monsoon and first heavy rainfall all river channels and streams rejuvenate and start flowing down-stream. This season coincides with the breeding period of many freshwater fishes in Western Ghats. We observed the upstream migratory movement of several fish species like Tor cf khudree, Garra mullya,

Salmophasia boopis, Rasbora daniconius, Parapsilorhynchus cf tentaculatus, Mastacembelus armatus etc. People usually target the fishes on bedrock slopes and in waterfall areas where fishes uses the narrow passage to climb rock and escape upstream from flow of water. The fishing practices were usually carried out by locally made bamboo traps and scoop nets. Fishes like Tor cf. khudree, Salmophasia boopis, Garra mullya, Parapsilorhynchus cf. tentaculatus, Rasbora daniconius and Mastacembelus armatus were found to be mostly targeted fish species in the fish catch. Heavy exploitation of mature and breeding fish population negatively affects the sustainability of freshwater resources. A blanket ban on freshwater fishing in breeding season is essentially needed to protect breeding fish stock and viable population of threatened fishes like Mahseer. d) Invasive fish species

Spread of invasive fish species is another biggest threat we observed to the fishes of Gargai and Pinjal River. We found total four introduced fish species across the study area. Maximum number of introduced fish species has been recorded from the site GF7 in Gargai watershed. Introduced fish species like Poecilia reticulata found to be more widely spread across the study area, except at site GF1 and GF3. Introduced fish species pose a direct threat to native fish population through competition for food and habitat resources.

The species like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata have been widely used in urban areas as natural mosquito controller as a remedy to prevent pathogenic diseases like malaria. However, the potential of these exotic fish species in controlling mosquito larvae is not well studied as compare to native insectivorous and larvevorus fishes like Aplocheilus lineatus and stream loaches like Indoreonectes evezardi. However, the potential negative impacts of invasive fishes like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata on local endemic fish species is well known. Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata are known as strong food and habitat resource competitors for native fish species like Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. In several parts of the northern Western Ghats like in Pune metropolitan region and Rajgad, invasive fishes like Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata have completely extirpated the population of endemic fishes like Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. The cause of invasion is a strong completion for food and other habitat resources. It is interesting to note that in the current study we did not found any population of native species like Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi, which are among the commonly found fish species across the rivers of northern Western Ghats. It is likely possible that introduction of Gambusia affinis and Poecilia reticulata in the study area might have 93 actually extirpated the native population of Aplocheilus lineatus and Indoreonectes evezardi. In order to avoid further damage to native fish fauna, mass eradication of invasive fish species is needed in this region. e) Mega dam construction

Blocking the flow river on small and large scale by building a wall, changing direction of flow of river and any manmade changes in hydrodynamics of river leaves irreversible negative impact on viable fish stock. Construction of dam blocks the local and seasonal migratory pathways of fish, results in population fragmentation and affects fish breeding biology, reproduction and eventually leads to loss of fish stock. Construction of dam also results in loss of suitable fish habitats because of habitat modification like turning running water habitats in to lake system, natural flood plains and running water habitats get lost, changes in flow, turbidity, nutrients content etc.

We observed several freshwater fish species carrying out seasonal upstream migration in the first heavy rainfall. Species like Pethia lutea, Hypselobarbus kolus, Hypselobarbus mussullah and Tor cf khudree which are more threatened with the risk of extinction was found to be undertaking upstream movement in the breeding period. Upstream migration movement of species like Garra mullya, Parapsilorhynchus cf tentaculatus, Rasbora daniconius, Salmophasia boopis and Tor cf khudree was observed at Gargai watershed area. While doing the night fishing in early monsoon period we found several individuals of loach species like Lepidocephalichthys thermalis and small sized hill stream minnows Parapsilorhynchus cf tentaculatus carrying out mass movement in waterfall near site GF1. Construction of dam on Gargai and Pinjal tributaries of Vaitarana will be a disaster for the surviving population of Endangered (EN) fishes like Pethia lutea, Hypselobarbus mussullah and Tor cf khudree. The study localities and suitable habitats from where population of these species has been recorded are located in the catchment area of proposed dam on Gargai and Pinjal River. Dam construction across the river channel will permanently block the seasonal migratory pathways of these fish species which will permanently hamper the fish stock in number of ways like population fragmentation, gene flow will be stop in upstream and downstream fish population, breeding movement will be stop, upstream habitats will be lost and will turn in to steady lake system, changes in hydrodynamics and water quality. In addition, dam construction will stop or slow down the downstream flow of river which will cause draught condition. Fast flowing fish habitats like cascades, runs, falls and downstream lowland habitats like natural flood plains will eventually get lost due to the ceased natural water flow. 94

In the study we have found a small population of miniature cyprinid fish, Puntius crescentus at Tilase. The population was found inhabiting downstream shallow water poodles. The miniature barb species, Puntius crescentus has been listed as Endangered (EN) in IUCN Redlist of threatened species owing to its very restricted distribution range and small population size, therefore more threatened with the risk of extinction. We did not find this species in the studied region of Gargai and Pinjal watershed area, but it is highly possible that P. crescentus should be present in downstream region, occupying some wetland habitats where Gargai and Pinjal tributaries joins the mainstream Vaitarana River. Natural flow of mainstream Vaitarana River is already reduced due to the construction of Vaitarana and Tansa reservoirs in the upstream region. Further regulation of Gargai and Pinjal tributaries will badly affect the downstream river flow characteristics. Draught condition in downstream habitats like in swamps and flood plains can extirpate the population of rare fish species like P. crescentus which can result in local species extinction, as well as it can be a catastrophe for other wildlife depends on freshwater resources like water birds, amphibians, mammals and invertebrates like insects, crabs, prawns etc. Irresponsible release invasive fish species in dams and reservoirs pose further greatest threat to the native fish population and leads to extinction of indigenous fish species.

Environmental impact mitigation measures

Construction of dam on river impact fish directly by blocking species migration in upstream and downstream directions, and by direct mortality or damage cause when fish pass through dam discharge structures. Dams directly or indirectly impact fish biodiversity, fish stocks and fisheries by modifying and or degrading the upstream and downstream aquatic environments, in number of ways including: downstream flow alteration and termination of streams runs directly in floodplains;thermal stratification of the reservoir and continuous release of cool and anoxic hypolimnion water downstream; high sediment and nutrient trapping in reservoirs; infestation of the reservoir with floating aquatic plants; ghost fishing by nets snagged on drowned trees in the reservoir; long distance recession of the shoreline during drawdown; and pesticide contamination from agriculture on the reservoir drawdown zone. Fisheries management objectives in relation to dams include: prevention of loss of endangered and or commercially important fish biodiversity; maintenance of fish stock abundance; sustainability of catch, employment and income. Fisheries management objectives include provision of bypass facilities for upstream and downstream migrations, maintenance of biodiversity in impacted environments (affluent streams, upstream and

downstream river, delta, estuary etc.). Fisheries management is really important aspect to lower the environmental impact and to achieve ultimate goal “no loss of biodiversity”.

The results we have provided from this baseline study should be considered as primary baseline data generated on freshwater fish fauna of Gargai and Pinjal tributaries of Vaitarana River. The information can be use to design further fish species monitoring and taxonomic investigation programs

Based on present study we are suggesting following mitigation measures to overcome and or reduce environmental impact on freshwater fish resources, of which some of species are already threatened with the greater risk of extinction.

Lack of baseline data on freshwater fish species diversity, distribution and taxonomic ambiguities associated with the identity of several species are some of major lacunae in defining conservation priorities for freshwater fishes of Vaitarana River. A primary baseline data generated on freshwater fish species composition of Gargai and Pinjal River can be treated as base of Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) carried out to define possible impacts of proposed dam construction projects.

In this study we found taxonomic ambiguities in several different fish species, see discussion in - taxonomic inventories. Scientifically correct species delineation through use of integrated taxonomy approach is essentially needed before finalising any fish conservation and fisheries management plans. Considering the rate at which new fish species getting described from the northern Western Ghats, there is high possibility that species recorded from Vaitarana River and its tributaries with taxonomic anomalies may actually represent genetically and morphologically distinct species groups, which are still unknown to the science. In this case, the species may show very less distribution range and they might be more threatened than expected earlier and might be expecting more urgent conservation and species recovery actions.

Taxonomic inventories study should be conducted across the entire Vaitarana River basin. In present study we have observed certain rare, threatened and endemic fish species undertaking seasonal upstream migration, almost all of them are potamodromous (migrates only in freshwater, e.g. Hypselobarbus mussullah, Tor cf khudree) fishes. Whereas, it is a known fact that fish stock in river represents members of both anadromous (migrates from sea or estuary to freshwater, e.g. Hyporhamphus limbatus) and catadromous (migrates from freshwater to sea, e.g. Anguilla bengalensis) species community. Upstream and downstream movement and

migration pattern of the fishes needs to be understood in detail. Study should highlight how many fish species undertake upstream and downstream migration in Vaitarana, their geo- coordinated migratory pathways and potential period/ timeline when fishes carryout breeding movement and or period when individuals attend particular life stage and moves. Fishery management and impact mitigation plans should be design based on the long term study results, like setting artificial upstream and downstream fish movement channels/ pathways or ladders and fish sliders or protectors at discharge outlet.

1. To induce fish movement across the wall, artificial fish spawning grounds, fish channels or migratory pathways and ladders needs to be designed. Impact of manmade blockage on fish movement can be lowered through these mitigation measures. 2. Direct release of cooler anoxic hypolimnion water in downstream should be avoided. 3. Frequent and controlled release of oxygenated water is necessary to maintain downstream water quality and flow of the river. 4. After project construction and operation phase, long term monitoring of fish species diversity is needed in upstream and downstream region to evaluate effectiveness of mitigation measures deployed. 5. To minimise and control the rate of siltation and water quality parameters of the reservoir, sand mining should be completely banned in upstream region. 6. Organic and plastic pollution in the upstream region of Tilase needs to be control. 7. Restriction on fishing is required during breeding season or in period which coincides with the mass fish migration. Artificial fish spawning grounds, upstream and downstream fish migration pathways should be protected from the poachers and illegal fishing. 8. Control of invasive fish species is necessary. Release of alien and invasive fish species in reservoir or any aquatic species including aquatic plants, mollusc, amphibians etc. should be strictly avoided and prohibited.

4.4 Amphibians and Reptiles

Reptile species like Geckoella deccannensis which is endemic to the Northern Western Ghats, Trimeresurus gramineus is endemic to India, Varanus bengalensis and Lissemys punctata which is in the Wildlife Protection Act 1972 under Schedule II were recorded during the survey.

Even though there were no rare species that were recorded during the survey, it becomes necessary to conserve the already present species. Even though amphibians and reptiles are not associated with a particular species of tree but they require micro-habitat like leaf litter and tree barks, rock crevices etc.

After the construction of dams, there will be a lot of alteration in the habitat which will specifically affect the amphibians because they require water for breeding. Dams are responsible for upstream and downstream impacts. It also affects the flow regime, water temperature, quality and sediment transport (Naniwadekar & Vasudevan, 2014; McCartney,2001). All of this has a direct impact on the amphibians as they are directly associated with water. It is necessary to protect micro habitat in the already existing habitat by further research.

Potential areas for conservation of amphibians and reptiles

The important areas for herpetofauna are, Gargai Dam site, Charanpada, Quaripada, Suryamal, Bhavanivadi, Amla Village and Sakharshet. Some amphibians were found in these sites even during summer and winter thus making these sites good for amphibian survival. Species like Euphlyctis sp. were seen breeding during summer and matting calls were heard during winter and summer. This shows that these sites have a good water source even during the dry season.

4.5 Birds

The records obtained on the diversity of birds and their distribution with respect to habitat types through this study shows the significance of the area to birds. Five of the recorded species are listed in the Global Red Data Book (IUCN 2009). Among them, one species (Forest Owlet) is Critically Endangered. High preference of birds to this site can be attributed to many factors and primarily due to the mosaic of habitat types.

Dams and associated construction activities would change land cover and thus be detrimental to species survival at this specific location. Forest loss and fragmentation negatively affect species diversity, and when forest loss and fragmentation are associated with the creation of dams and reservoirs, the altered ecosystems can have sudden species losses (Terborgh 1974; Terborgh et al. 2001; Laurance et al. 2002).

Hunting and timber extraction pressures were observed and considerable extents of habitat destruction and modification were noted. Villagers set fire to grasslands annually in the dry season for good yield in agriculture.

Undisturbed forests are very important for the survival of birds species. Opening of such forest by establishment on the dam will result in fragmentation of the forest leading to the formation of several patches. This in turn affects the bird species composition and diversity.

Diversity of birds is directly related to the diversity of plants. The lives of birds and plants are so firmly intertwined that they have developed in to symbiotic relationship. Plants provide food; shelter and nesting for birds and birds in turn provide essential service of dispersal, pollination, pest control and nutrient enrichment.

Cutting and chopping of trees are expected to destroy and displace many roosting and nesting sites of the bird. Several birds like raptors have a habit of using same nest for years together, disturbance caused to the dense forest habitat during nesting season may lead to abscond their nest.

During construction phase, heavy machinery and vehicular taraffic is belived to increase and working of machinery will also increase noise level in the study area. Though this impact seems to be temporary in nature, it will disturb the bird life in the nearby forest and substantially driving away the wildlife from their natural haunt.

Potential areas for conservation of birds

In this study area highest species richness was observed in Waganpada with 21 species which is an open scrubland. Nineteen species was recorded from Suryamal Ghat and Tembe among which Suryamal Ghat is Degraded Moist Decidious forest while Tembe is Plantation. Thus this site should be given high conservation priority.

Indian Black Bird and Malabar Trogon were sited only once thought the year from Kevnale and Khodare respectively.

Quaqripada, Parli Range and Near Ambapada should also be considered important as Forest Owlet which is critically endangered bird was sited there.

4.6 Mammal

Existing Threats observed in the study area

1. Change in land use pattern

Within the entire study area it is observed that land use pattern is rapidly changing. Wada area is developing rapidly. It is close to metro cities like Mumbai and Nashik. In other interior areas forested areas are converted in to plantaionas or agricularal areas.

2. Forest fire

Many forested areas especially close to settlements and agricultula fileds were observed damaged due to fire. These fires are mainly caused by human activities.

3. Wood Cutting

During this study it is observed that trees are been cut for fire wood and for other commercials purposes. The forest cover is shrinking rapidly. Trees are also lopped for agricultural ctivities.

4. Illegal hunting

Discussion with locals reveled that birds and animals area fequenly hunted for meat.

Potential threat due to proposed dam construction

During construction heavy machinery and vehicular traffic is believed to have impact on present atmospheric condition of the area. Though this impact would be temporary in nature it would disturb wildlife in the forest. Increase in noise level by vehicles and machines may drive away wildlife from their natural habitat.

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Haphazard tree cutting on the dam site is envisaged to damage or destroy forest vegetation. This will lead to fragmentation in the forest habitat affecting survival of the wildlife specially mammals since their corridor may be destroyed. Loss of forest cover will be expected to destroy or displace many nesting and roosting place of various birds and animals while burrowing animals are expected to affect by reduction in the ground cover.

Opening of forest for such developmental activity will increase degradation rate of the forest by constant chopping, cutting, lopping of trees resulting in destruction of forest ecosystem.

It has been observed that if and when dam is constructed human activity in the area increases and sometimes tourism is emphasised which unsurprisingly comes with littering of non- disposable and non-biodegradable solid wastes such as plastic bags, metal tins, thermocols ect. This may pilot to ground pollution and thereby changing the biochemical property of the soil.

Potential areas for conservation of mammals

This study shows that moist deciduous and semi evergreen habitats are most important and serve as a shelter for most of the species found in this region. Suryamal and Quaripada in the Semi evergreen habitat seems to how the presence of multiple species occurring in this region. Quaripada currently lies inside Tansa Wildlife Sanctuary and so it already has a protected area status. Surayamal has an interesting topography as it has an elevation gradient and so might harbor multiple habitats at different elevations. There are historical records of Tigers (Panthera tigris) to be using this hill range till 1986. In 2003 there were reports of Tigers visiting Nagla block region of Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai. Tansa and its adjoining forests were believed to be acting as corridors for these tigers. There has been no other record of tigers from this region post 2003 but Leopards are known to frequent the nearby hills. Moist deciduous forests of Parli range seems important for rare species like the Four-Horned Antelope and Indian Jackal. Grasslands of Kevnale and Bhavanivadi are important as such high elevation grassland plateaus are rare in the region and the support critical species like Hyena, Small Indian Civet etc.

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Conservation Issues

Threats observed in the study area

1. Change in land use pattern

2. Forest fire

Many forested areas especially close to settlements and agricultula fileds were observed damaged due to fire. These fires are mainly caused by human activities.

3. Wood Cutting

During this study it is observed that trees are been cut for fire wood and for other commercials purposes. The forest cover is shrinking rapidly. Trees are also lopped for agricultural ctivities.

4. Illegal hunting

Discussion with locals reveled that birds and animals area frequently hunted for meat.

Construction of dam and creation of large reservoirs has a significant effect because a land and river environment is actually transformed in to a new environment. Survival of wildlife would be alarmed due to construction of dam. Major factor that lead to the decline in the population of wildlife is the reduction of suitable habitat and fragmentation of the forest. For construction of dam there would be a need to construct roads for transporting heavy machinery and heavy vehicles like trencher, cranes, tucks etc. This may require to clear more land hence causing destruction of more trees and young saplings of various trees and shrub species. During construction heavy machinery and vehicular traffic is believed to have impact on present atmospheric condition of the area. Though this impact would be temporary in nature it would disturb wildlife in the forest. Increase in noise level by vehicles and machines may drive away wildlife from their natural habitat.

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The execution of dam is extremely labour oriented and required huge man power. Thus while construction base camp may be set up very close to the reserve or protected forest which will envisage encroachment in the forested land. Such temporary human settlements also exploit the forests by collecting firewood, fodder and various other forest products. Haphazard tree cutting on the dam site is envisaged to damage or destroy forest vegetation. This will lead to fragmentation in the forest habitat affecting survival of the wildlife specially mammals since their corridor may be destroyed. Loss of forest cover will be expected to destroy or displace many nesting and roosting place of various birds and animals while burrowing animals are expected to affect by reduction in the ground cover. Opening of forest for such developmental activity will increase degradation rate of the forest by constant chopping, cutting, lopping of trees resulting in destruction of forest ecosystem. It has been observed that if and when dam is constructed human activity in the area increases and sometimes tourism is emphasised which unsurprisingly comes with littering of non- disposable and non-biodegradable solid wastes such as plastic bags, metal tins, thermocols ect. This may pilot to ground pollution and thereby changing the biochemical property of the soil.

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107

Annexure: 1 Checklist of Plants Sr. Botanical Names Families SE AG PL MD DMD ST No. TREES 1 Acacia catechu Mimosaceae + + + 2 Ailanthes excels Simbourbaraceae + 3 Albizzia lebbeck Mimosaceae + + 4 Anogeissus latifolia Combretaceae + + 5 Azadirachta indica Meliaceae + 6 Bauhinia racemosa Casalpineae + + + 7 Bombax ceiba Bombacaceae + + 8 Bridelia retusa Euphorbiaceae + + 9 Butea monosperma Fabaceae + + + 10 Careya arborea Lecythadaceae + + + + 11 Cassia ﬁstula Casalpineae + + + 12 Catuneregaman spinosa Apocynaceae + 13 Cordia sebstina Boraginaceae + 14 Cordia dichotoma Boraginaceae + + 15 Dalbergia latifolia Fabaceae + + 16 Dalbergia sissoo Fabaceae + + 17 Dendrocalamus strictus Poaceae + + 18 Dillinea pentagyna Dillineaceae + + 19 Diospyros melanoxylon Ebenaceae + + 20 Dolichandrone falcate Bignoniacaea + + 21 Emblica ofﬁcnalis Euphorbiaceae + + + + 22 Erythrina stricta Fabaceae + + 23 Ficus asperrima Moraceae + + + 24 Ficus benghalensis Moraceae + + + 25 Ficus glomerata Moraceae + + + + 26 Ficus religiosa Moraceae + 27 Flocourtia spp. Flocourtiaceae + + + 28 Garuga pinnata Burseraceae + + + + 29 Gmelina arborea Verbenaceae + + + 30 Grewia tiliafolia Tiliaceae + + 31 Haldinia cordifolia Rubiaceae + + 32 Helecteris isora Sterculiaceae + + Heterophragma 33 Bignoniacaea + + quadriloculare Holarhoena 34 Apocynaceae + + + + antidysenterica 35 Ixora brachiate Rubiaceae + 36 Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae + + Lagerstromoea 37 Lythraceae + + + lanceolata 38 Lannea coromadelica Sapindaceae + + + + 39 Leucaena leucocephala Mimosaceae + +

i Sr. Botanical Names Families SE AG PL MD DMD ST No. 40 Madhuca indica Sapotaceae + + + + + + 41 Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae + + + 42 Meyna laxiflora Rubiaceae + + + + 43 Miliusa tomentosa Annonaceae + 44 Mytragyna parviflora Rubiaceae + + 45 Oroxylum indicum Bignoniacaea + + 46 Peltophorum roxburghii Caesalpinaceae + 47 Phyllanthus emblica Euphorbiaceae + + + 48 Pterocarpus marsupium Fabaceae + + Radermachera 49 Bignoniacaea + + xylocarpa 50 Schlicheria oleosa Sapindaceae + 51 Sesbania grandiflora Fabaceae + 52 Sterculia urens Sterculiaceae + + 53 Syzygium cumini Myrtaceae + + 54 Tectona grandis Verbenaceae + + 55 Terminalia belerica Combretaceae + + +

56 Terminalia crenulata Combretaceae + + 57 Terminalia elliptica Combretaceae + + 58 Vitex negundo Verbenaceae + + + 59 Woodfordia fruticosa Lythraceae + + 60 Wrightea tinctorea Apocynaceae + + 61 Zizyphus mauritiana Rhamnaceae + 62 Zizyphus rugosa Rhamnaceae + 63 Zizyphus nummularia Rhamnaceae + + + 64 Unidentified 1 + + 65 Unidentified 2 Boraginceae + + 66 Unidentified 3 + + 67 Unidentified 4 Fabaceae + + 68 Unidentified 5 Fabaceae + + Shrubs 1 Aeschynomene indica Caesalpinae + + + 2 Ampellocissus latifolia Vitaceae + + + 3 Azanza lampus Fabaceae + + + 4 Carissa carandas Apocynaceae + + + 5 Cassia tora Caesalpineae + + + 6 Celastrus paniculatus Celastraceae + + + 7 Cissus repanda Vitaceae + + 8 Combretum albidum Combretaceae + + 9 Cryptolepis buchnani Periplocaceae + + + 10 Ensete superbum Musaceae + + + 11 Gloriosa surperba Liliaceae + 12 Hemidesmus indicus Asclepiadaceae + + 13 Jasminum malabaricum Oleaceae + + + + 14 Loranthus spp. Loranthaceae + + +

ii Sr. Botanical Names Families SE AG PL MD DMD ST No. 15 Mucuna pruriens Fabaceae + + + Pogostemon 16 Lamiaceae + + benghalensis 17 Pureria spp. Fabaceae + + Unidentiﬁed 18 Malvaceae (Malvaceae) 19 Strobilanthes callosus Strobilanthaceae + + + 20 Unidentiﬁed Combretaceae + + 21 Watakaka volubilis Asclepiadaceae + 22 Zizyphus rugosa Rhamnaceae + Herbs 1 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae + + + + + 2 Aerides maculosa Orchidaceae + + + 3 Agave Americana Asparagaceae + 4 Alysicarpus spp. Papilionaceae + + 5 Arisaema murrayi Araceae + + 6 Asystasia violacea Acanthaceae + 7 Blumea lacera Asteraceae + + + + + 8 Bonnaya oppositifolia Scrophulariaceae + + 9 Celosia argentia Amaranthaceae + + + 10 Chlorophytum spp. Liliaceae + + 11 Costus speciosus Zingiberaceae + + 12 Cyathocline purpurea Asteraceae + + + 13 Desmodium spp. Fabaceae + + + 14 Drimia indica Vitaceae + + + 15 Eranthemum roseum Poaceae + 16 Eriocaulon spp. Eriocaulaceae + 17 Habenaria spp. Orchidaceae + 18 Hemigraphis latebrosa Apocynaceae + + 19 Hibiscus hirtus Combretaceae + 20 Hyptis suaveolens Lamiaceae + + 21 Impatiens balsamina Balsaminaceae + + + 22 Impatiens minor Balsaminaceae + + 23 Ipomoea hederifolia Convolvulaceae + + 24 Ischaemum spp. Poaceae + + + + 25 Justicia spp. Acanthaceae 26 Leucas aspera Lamiaceae + + 27 Martynia annua Pedaliaceae 28 Murdannia spp. Commelinaceae Neuracanthus 29 Caesalpineae + + sphaerostachyus 30 Neuracanthus trinervis Acanthaceae + 31 Oberonia sp. Celastraceae + 32 Ocimum spp. Lamiaceae + + 33 Polygonum glabrum Polygonaceae +

iii Sr. Botanical Names Families SE AG PL MD DMD ST No. 34 Pureria spp. Fabaceae + 35 Rungia repens Vitaceae 36 Sesamum indicum Pedaliaceae + + 37 Sida acuta Malvaceae + + 38 Sida cordifolia Malvaceae + + 39 Solena amplexicaulis Cucurbitaceae + 40 Sporobolus spp. Poaceae + + 41 Striga densiﬂora Scropulariaceae + 42 Trichodesma indicum Boraginaceae + + 43 Urena lobata Malvaceae + + 44 Vernonia cineraria Asteraceae + + + + Pteridophytes 1 Adiantum lunulatum Pteridaceae + + + 2 Asplenium spp. Pteridaceae + 3 Lygodium ﬂexuosum Gleicheniaceae + 4 Ophioglossum spp. Ophioglossaceae + + 5 Selaginella spp. Sellaginellaceae +

iv Annexure: 2 Checklist of Insect Sr. WPA Order Family Scientific Name Common Name No. Schedule 1 Blattodea Blattidae Blatta orientalis Oriental Cockroach -- American 2 Blattodea Blattidae Periplaneta americana -- Cockroach 3 Blattodea Blattidae Unidentified sp. 1 -- 4 Blattodea Unidentified 1 Unidentified sp. 2 Termite 5 Blattodea Unidentified 2 Unidentified sp. 3 Termite Six-spotted Ground 6 Coleoptera Carabidae Anthia sp. -- Beetle 7 Coleoptera Carabidae Chlaenius sp. Ground Beetle -- 8 Coleoptera Carabidae Pheropsophus sp. Bombarding Beetle -- 9 Coleoptera Cerambycidae Batocera sp. 1 Stem Borer -- 10 Coleoptera Cerambycidae Batocera sp. 2 Stem Borer -- 11 Coleoptera Cerambycidae Batocera rufomaculata Mango stem Borer -- 12 Coleoptera Cerambycidae Eucomatoceravittata -- 13 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Aspidimorphamiliaris Tortoise-shell Beetle -- 14 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Lema sp. --

15 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Oides bipunctata -- 16 Coleoptera Chrysomelidae Unidentiﬁed sp . 4 Leaf Beetle -- 17 Coleoptera Coccinellidae Coccinella transversalis Lady Bird Beetle -- 18 Coleoptera Elateridae Lanelater sp. -- 19 Coleoptera Elateridae Unidentiﬁed sp. 5 Click Beetke --

20 Coleoptera Hydrophilidae Hydrophilus sp. -- 21 Coleoptera Staphylinidae Paederus sp. Rove Beetle -- 22 Diptera Asilidae Unidentified sp. 6 Robberfly 23 Diptera Calliphoridae Calliphora sp. -- 24 Diptera Culicidae Culex sp. Culex Mosquito -- 25 Diptera Culicidae Anopheles sp. Anopheles Mosquito -- 26 Diptera Culicidae Aedes sp. Aedes Mosquito -- 27 Diptera Dolichopodidae Unidentified sp. 7 -- 28 Diptera Drosophilidae Unidentified sp. 8 -- 29 Diptera Muscidae Musca domestica House fly -- 30 Diptera Sarcophagidae Sarcophaga sp. --

31 Diptera Syrphidae Syrphus sp. -- 32 Diptera Syrphidae Unidentiﬁed sp. 9 --

33 Hemiptera Belostomatidae Lethocerus indicus Giant Water Bug -- 34 Hemiptera Cicadidae Platyplura sp. 1 Cicada --

35 Hemiptera Cicadidae Platyplura sp. 2 Cicada -- 36 Hemiptera Coreidae Serinetha sp. -- 37 Hemiptera Lygaeidae Graptostethusservus --

38 Hemiptera Lygaeidae Lygaes hospes -- 39 Hemiptera Membracidae Leptocenthussp. --

40 Hemiptera Membracidae Otinotu soneratus -- 41 Hemiptera Pentatomidae Erthesia acuminata -- 42 Hemiptera Pentatomidae Erthesia fullo -- 43 Hemiptera Reduviidae Rhynocoris fuscipes --

44 Hymenoptera Apidae Apis cerana Indian Honey Bee -- 45 Hymenoptera Apidae Apis dorsata Rock Honey Bee --

46 Hymenoptera Apidae Xylocopa sp. Carpenter Bee -- 47 Hymenoptera Formicidae Camponotuscompr essus Godzilla Ant -- 48 Hymenoptera Formicidae Crematogaster sp. Pagoda Ant --

v Sr. WPA Order Family Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No. Schedule 49 Hymenoptera Formicidae Oecophylla smaragdina Weaver Ant --

50 Hymenoptera Formicidae Pheidole sp. Harvester Ant -- 51 Hymenoptera Formicidae Tetraponera rufonigra Bicolour Ant -- 52 Hymenoptera Sphecidae Chalybion sp. --

53 Hymenoptera Sphecidae Unidentiﬁed sp. 10 --

54 Hymenoptera Vaspidae Ropalidia sp. -- 55 Hymenoptera Vaspidae Vespa sp. -- 56 Lepidoptera Arctiidae Utetheisa pulchelloides -- 57 Lepidoptera Crambidae Hellula undalis -- 58 Lepidoptera Crambidae Lamprosema sp. -- 59 Lepidoptera Crambidae Lamprosema tampiusalis --

60 Lepidoptera Crambidae Omiodes sp. --

61 Lepidoptera Crambidae Parapoynx diminutalis --

62 Lepidoptera Crambidae Sameodes cancellalis -- 63 Lepidoptera Erebidae Amata cyssea --

64 Lepidoptera Erebidae Euchromia polymena --

65 Lepidoptera Erebidae Eudocima phalonia --

66 Lepidoptera Erebidae Moci sundata -- 67 Lepidoptera Erebidae Orvasca sp. --

68 Lepidoptera Geometridae Chiasmia sp. -- 69 Lepidoptera Geometridae Dysphania percota -- 70 Lepidoptera Geometridae Scopula sp. -- 71 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Badamia exclamationis Brown Awl -- Tricoloured Pied 72 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Caladena indrani -- Flat 73 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Capronaran sonnettii Golden Angle --

74 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Imbrix salsala Chestnut Bob -- 75 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Sarangesa purendra Spotted Small Flat --

76 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Telicota sp. Palm Dart -- 77 Lepidoptera Hesperiidae Udaspes folus Grass Demon --

78 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Caleta caleta Angled Pierrot -- Schedule 79 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Castalius rosimon Common Pierrot I

80 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Catochrysopsstrabo Forget Me Not --

81 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Euchrysops cnejus Gram Blue --

82 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Freyeria trochylus Grass Jewel -- 83 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Jamides bochus Dark Cerulean --

84 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Jamides celeno Common Cerulean --

85 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Lampides boeticus Pea Blue -- 86 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Prosotas dubiosa Tailless Lineblue --

87 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Prosotas nora Common Lineblue

88 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Pseudozizeeriamaha Pale Grass Blue --

89 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Rapala arbus Common Red Flash -- 90 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Rathinda amor Monkey Puzzle --

91 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Spindasis vulcanus Common Silverline --

92 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Tarucus nara Rounded Pierrot --

93 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Zizeeria karsandra Dark Grass Blue -- 94 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Zizina otis Lesser Grass Blue --

95 Lepidoptera Lycaenidae Zizula hylax Tiny Grass Blue --

96 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Acontia nitidula -- 97 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Erebus macrops -- 98 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Grammodesgeometrica --

99 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Helicoverpaarmigera --

vi Sr. WPA Order Family Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No. Schedule 100 Lepidoptera Noctuidae Polytela gloriosae -- 101 Lepidoptera Notodontidae Dudusa sp. --

102 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Acraea violae Tawny Coster -- 103 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Danaus chrysippus Plain Tiger -- 104 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Danaus genutia Striped Tiger -- 105 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Elymnias hypermnestra Common Palmﬂy -- 106 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Euploea core Common Crow -- Schedule 107 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Euthalia lubentina Gaudy Baron IV 108 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Euthalia nais Baronet --

109 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnasbolina Great Eggﬂy -- Schedule 110 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Hypolimnasmisippus DanaidEggﬂy I 111 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia almana Peacock Pansy -- 112 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia atlites Grey Pansy -- 113 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia hierta Yellow Pansy -- 114 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia iphita Chocolate Pansy --

115 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia lemonias Lemon Pansy -- 116 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Junonia orithya Blue Pansy -- 117 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Lethe rohira Common Treebrown -- Common Evening 118 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Melanitis leda -- Brown 119 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Moduza procris Commander -- Common 120 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Mycalensis perseus -- Bushbrown 121 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Neptis hylas Common Sailer -- 122 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Parantica aglea Glassy Tiger -- 123 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Phalanta phalantha Common Leopard -- 124 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Tirumala limniace Blue Tiger --

125 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Ypthima asterope Common Threering -- 126 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Ypthima baldus Common Fivering --

127 Lepidoptera Nymphalidae Ypthima huebneri Common Fourring -- Schedule 128 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Atrophaneura hector Crimson Rose I 129 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Graphium doson Common Jay --

130 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Pachliopta aristolochiae Common Rose -- 131 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio demoleus Lime Butterﬂy -- 132 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio polymnestor Blue Mormon --

133 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Papilio polytes Common Mormon -- 134 Lepidoptera Papilionidae Graphium nomius Spot Swordtail -- 135 Lepidoptera Pieridae Belenois aurota Pioneer -- 136 Lepidoptera Pieridae Catopsilia pomona Common Emigrant --

Schedule 137 Lepidoptera Pieridae Cepora nerissa Common Gull II 138 Lepidoptera Pieridae Delias eucharis Common Jezebel -- 139 Lepidoptera Pieridae Eurema brigitta Small Grass Yellow -- Common Grass 140 Lepidoptera Pieridae Eurema hecabe -- Yellow Spotless Grass 141 Lepidoptera Pieridae Eurema laeta -- Yellow 142 Lepidoptera Pieridae Ixias pyrene Yellow Orange Tip -- 143 Lepidoptera Pieridae Leptosis nina Psyche -- 144 Lepidoptera Pieridae Leptotes plinius Zebra Blue --

vii Sr. WPA Order Family Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No. Schedule

145 Lepidoptera Pieridae Pareronia valeria Common Wanderer -- 146 Lepidoptera Riodinidae Abisarae cherius Plum Judy -- Amorphoscelis 147 Mantodea Hymenopodidae Bark Mantis -- annulicornis

148 Mantodea Mantidae Schizocephala sp. -- 149 Mecoptera Unidentified 1 Unidentified sp. 11 Scorpion Fly -- 150 Neuroptera Chrysopidae Chrysopa sp. Green Lacewing -- 151 Neuroptera Myrmeleontidae Unidentified sp. 12 Antlion --

152 Odonata Aeshnidae Anax immaculifrons Blue Darner -- 153 Odonata Calopterygidae Lestes sp. Spreadwing -- 154 Odonata Chlorocyphidae Libellago lineata River Heliodor -- 155 Odonata Coenagrionidae Agriocnemis pygmaea Pigmy Dartlet -- Senegal Golden 156 Odonata Coenagrionidae Ischnura senegalensis -- Dartlet Ceriagrion Coromandel Marsh 157 Odonata Coenagrionidae -- coromandelianum Dart 158 Odonata Gomphidae Macrogomphus sp. -- 159 Odonata Gomphidae Paragomphuslineatus Common Hook-tail --

160 Odonata Macromidae Macromia sp. -- 161 Odonata Libellulidae Aethriamantabrevipennis Scarlet Marsh Hawk -- 162 Odonata Libellulidae Bradinopygageminata Granite Ghost -- 163 Odonata Libellulidae Crocothemis servilia Scarlet Skimmer --

164 Odonata Libellulidae Diplacodes trivialis Ground Skimmer -- Fulvous Forest 165 Odonata Libellulidae Neurothemis fulvia -- Skimmer 166 Odonata Libellulidae Orthetrum glaucum Blue Marsh Hawk -- Tricolored Marsh 167 Odonata Libellulidae Orthetrum luzonicum -- Hawk Crimson-tailed 168 Odonata Libellulidae Orthetrum pruinosum -- Marsh Hawk 169 Odonata Libellulidae Orthetrum sabina Green Marsh Hawk -- 170 Odonata Libellulidae Pantala ﬂavescens Wandering Glider -- Crimson Marsh 171 Odonata Libellulidae Trithemis aurora skimmer Black Stream 172 Odonata Libellulidae Trithemis festiva Skimmer Disparoneura Black-winged 173 Odonata Platycnemidae quadrimaculata Bambootail 174 Orthoptera Acrididae Acrida exaltata -- 175 Orthoptera Acrididae Cyrtacanthacris tatarica -- 176 Orthoptera Acrididae Hieroglyphus banian -- 177 Orthoptera Gryllidae Acheta domesticus -- 178 Orthoptera Gryllidae Gryllus bimacutatus -- 179 Orthoptera Gryllidae Paranemobiuspictus --

180 Orthoptera Tettigoniidae Callimenellus apterus --

viii Annexure: 3 Freshwater Fish Fish sampling sites in Gargai watershed IUCN Sr. Species Remarks* GF GF GF GF GF GF GF Redlist No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Category ANGUILLIFORMES Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis 1 S + ------LC (Gray, 1831) CYPRINIFORMES Cobitidae Lepidocephalichthys

2 thermalis - + + + + + + + LC (Valenciennes, 1846) Cyprinidae Dawkinsia ﬁlamentosus 3 E + + - - + + + LC (Valenciennes, 1844) Devario aequipinnatus 4 - + + + + + + + LC (McClelland, 1839)

Garra mullya (Sykes, 5 - + + + + + + + LC 1839)

EN Hypselobarbus 6 E ------+ [B2ab mussullah (Sykes 1839) (iii,v)] Labeo dussumieri 7 E ------+ LC (Valenciennes, 1842) Parapsilorhynchus cf. 8 tentaculatus - + + - - - - - LC (Annandale, 1919) Pethia lutea Katwate, EN Katwate, Raghavan, 9 E + + + + + - - [B2ab Paingankar & (iii)] Dahanukar, 2014

Puntius amphibius 10 E + + + + + + + DD (Valenciennes, 1842) Puntius mahecola 11 E - - - + + + + DD (Valenciennes, 1844) Puntius sophore 12 ------+ LC (Hamilton, 1822) Rasbora daniconius 13 - + + + + + + + LC (Hamilton, 1822) Salmophasia boopis 14 E - + + + + - - LC (Day, 1874) Systomus sarana 15 subnasutus E + + + + + + + NE (Valenciennes, 1842) Tor cf.khudree (Sykes, EN 16 - + ------1839) [A2acde]

ix Fish sampling sites in Gargai watershed IUCN Sr. Species Remarks* GF GF GF GF GF GF GF Redlist No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Category Nemacheilidae Schistura denisoni 17 - + + + + + + + LC (Day, 1867) PERCIFORMES Channidae

Channa punctata 18 - - + - - + - + LC (Bloch, 1793) Cichlidae Pseudetroplus 19 maculatus (Bloch, S - - - - + - + LC 1795) Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris 20 S - + + - - - - LC (Hamilton, 1822) SILURIFORMES Bagridae Mystus malabaricus 21 E + + + + + - - NT (Jerdon, 1849) Mystus seengtee (Sykes, 22 E ------+ LC 1839)

Siluridae Ompok malabaricus 23 E + ------LC (Valenciennes, 1840) SYNBRANCHIFORMES Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus armatus 24 - + + + + + + + LC (Lacepède, 1800)

Abbreviations * S = can live in brackish and marine habitats as well, E = endemic to Western Ghats assessment region. IUCN Red list threat status, LC - Least Concern; DD - Data Deﬁcient; NT - Near Threatened; VU - Vulnerable; EN – Endangered; NA - Not Available. Fish sampling sites abbreviation as per Table 5.

x Annexure: 4 Amphibians and Reptiles

Sr. WPA IUCN Families Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No . Schedule Status Order: Anura Duttaphrynus Least 1 Bufonidae Asian Common Toad IV melanostictus Concern

2 Dicroglossidae Euphlyctis cynophlyctis Skittering Frog IV - Least 3 Dicroglossidae Hoplobatrachus tigerinus Indian Bull Frog IV Concern 4 Dicroglossidae Hydrophlylax bahuvistara Fungoid Frog IV - Indian Burrowing Least 5 Dicroglossidae Sphaerotheca breviceps IV Frog Concern 6 Dicroglossidae Fejervaryasp. Cricket Frog IV - 7 Microhylidae Uperodon sp. - IV - Least 8 Microhylidae Microhyla ornate Narrow Mouth Frog IV Concern Least 9 Ranidae Hydrophylax bahuvistara Fungoid Frog IV Concern

Common Indian Tree Least 10 Rhacophoridae Polypedates maculatus IV Frog Concern Order: Chelonia Indian Flap-shelled Least 11 Trionychidae Lissemys punctata I (Part II) Turtle Concern Order: Squamata ; Sub order: Sauria Least 12 Agamidae Calotes rouxii Forest Calotes IV Concern 13 Agamidae Calotes versicolor Garden Calotes IV - 14 Agamidae Sitana spp. Fan Throated Lizard IV - Least 15 Chamaeleonidae Chamaeleo zeylanicus Indian Chameleon II Concern Least 16 Gekkonidae Geckoella deccanensis Deccan Banded Gecko IV Concern Least 17 Gekkonidae Hemidactylus brookii Brook’s Gecko IV Concern Bark Gecko or Hemidactylus 18 Gekkonidae Leschenault’s leaf IV - leschenaultii toed Gecko Least 19 Gekkonidae Hemidactylus maculatus Rock Gecko IV Concern Least 20 Scincidae Eutropis allapallensis Schmidt's Mabuya IV Concern Least 21 Scincidae Eutropis carinata Keeled Indian Mabuya IV Concern 20 Scincidae Eutropis macularia IV - 23 Scincidae Lygosoma lineate Lined Supple Skink IV - Sub order: Serpentes 24 Boidae Eryx conicus Common Sand Boa IV -

Sr. WPA IUCN Families Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No. Schedule Status Not 25 Colubridae Ahaetulla sp. Vine Snake IV Assessed Not 26 Colubridae Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake IV Assessed Least 27 Colubridae Oligodon taeniolatus Russell’s Kukri IV Concern Not 28 Colubridae Ptyus mucosa Indian Rat Snake IV Assessed 29 Elapidae Naja naja Spectacled Cobra IV -

Not 30 Natracidae Amphiesma stolatum Buff-striped keelback IV Assessed Not 31 Natracidae Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keelback IV Assessed Bengal Monitor Schedule Least 32 Varanidae Varanus bengalensis Lizard I(Part II) Concern Not 33 Viperidae Echis carinatus Saw Scale Viper IV Assessed Not 34 Viperidae Daboia russelli Russell’s Viper IV Assessed Least 35 Viperidae Trimeresurus gramineus Bamboo Pit Viper IV Concern

xii Annexure: 5 Birds Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status Cormorants & Shags : 1 Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger WM LC Phalacrocoracidae Herons,Egrets & 2 Little Egret Egretta garzetta R LC Bitterns : Ardeidae Herons,Egrets & 3 Great Egret Egretta alba R LC Bitterns : Ardeidae Herons,Egrets & 4 Intermediate Egret Egretta intermedia R LC Bitterns : Ardeidae Herons,Egrets & 5 Eastern Cattle Egret Bubulcus coromandus R LC Bitterns : Ardeidae Herons,Egrets & 6 Indian Pond-heron Ardeola grayii R LC Bitterns : Ardeidae Swans, Geese & Lesser Whistling - 7 Dendrocygna javanica R LC Ducks : Anatidae duck Ibises & Spoonbills : 8 Indian Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa R LC Threskiornithidae Hawks, Eagles & Oriental Honey 9 Pternis ptilorhynchus R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae Buzzard Hawks, Eagles & 10 Shikra Accipiter badius R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae Hawks, Eagles & White-eyed 11 Butastur teesa R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae Buzzard Hawks, Eagles & Crested Serpent- 12 Spilornis cheela R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae eagle Hawks, Eagles & 13 Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae Hawks, Eagles & 14 Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus WM LC Buzzard: Accipitridae Hawks, Eagles & 15 Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus R LC Buzzard: Accipitridae 16 Falcons : Falconidae Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrines R LC 17 Falcons : Falconidae Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus WM LC Rails, Crakes, White-breasted 18 Gallinules & Coots Amaurornis phoenicurus R LC Waterhen :Rallidae Pheasants, Partridges, 19 Quills & Francolins: Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus R LC Phasianidae

Pheasants, Partridges, 20 Quills & Francolins: Painted Francolin Francolinus pictus R LC Phasianidae

xiii Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status

Pheasants, Partridges, 21 Quills & Francolins: Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea R LC Phasianidae Pheasants, Partridges, 22 Quills & Francolins: Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneratii R LC Phasianidae Buttonquails: Yellow-legged 23 Turnix tanki WM LC Turnicidae Buttonquail Plovers, Lapwings & Red-wattled 24 Dotterels: Vanellus indicus R LC Lapwing Charadriidae

Sandpiper & Allies : 25 Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos WM LC Scolopacidae

Ibisbill, Stilts & 26 Avocets Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus WM LC

:Recurvirostridae Pigeons & Dove: Yellow-footed Treron p. 27 R LC Columbidae Green-pigeon phoenicopterus Pigeons & Dove: 28 Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis R LC Columbidae Pigeons & Dove: Oriental Turtle 29 Streptopelia orientalis R LC Columbidae Dove

Pigeons & Dove: 30 Emerald Dove Chalcophaps indica R LC Columbidae Parakerts & Hanging- Plum-headed 31 Psittacula cyanocephala R LC Parrots: Psittacidae Parakeet Parakerts & Hanging Rose-ringed 32 Psittacula krameri R LC Parrots: Psittacidae Parakeet

Parakerts & Hanging Alexandrine 33 Psittacula eupatria R NT Parrots: Psittacidae Parakeet

Cuckoos, Malkohas & Common Hawk- 34 Hierococcyx varius R LC Coucals: Cuculidae cuckoo Cuckoos, Malkohas & 35 Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus R LC Coucals: Cuculidae Cuckoos, Malkohas & 36 Southern Coucal Centropus sinensis R LC Coucals: Cuculidae Cuckoos, Malkohas & 37 Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus RM LC Coucals: Cuculidae Cuckoos, Malkohas & 38 Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus BV LC Coucals: Cuculidae 39 Barn Owl: Tyonidae Common Barn-owl Tyto alba R LC 40 Owl : Strigidae Mottled Wood-owl Strix ocellata R LC

41 Owl : Strigidae Forest Owlet Heteroglaux blewitti R CR

42 Owl : Strigidae Indian Eagle-owl Bubo bengalensis R LC

43 Owl : Strigidae Indian Scops-owl Otus bakkamoena R LC

xiv Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status

44 Owl : Strigidae Spotted Owlet Athene brama R LC

45 Owl : Strigidae Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum R LC Nightjars : Indian Little 46 Caprimulgus asiaticus R LC Caprimulgidae Nightjar Treeswift : 47 Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronata R LC Hemiprocnidae 48 Swifts: Apodidae Little Swift Apus affinis R LC 49 Swifts: Apodidae Asian Palm-swift Cypsiurus balasiensis R LC 50 Swifts: Apodidae Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba R LC 51 Trogon : Trogonuidae Malabar Trogon Harpactes fasciatus R LC Kingfishers : Common 52 Alcedo atthis R LC Aleedinidae Kingfisher

Kingﬁshers : White-throated 53 Halcyon smyrnensis R LC Aleedinidae Kingﬁsher

Kingﬁshers : Lesser Pied 54 Ceryle rudis R LC Aleedinidae Kingﬁsher Little Green Bee- 55 Bee-Eater: Meropidae Merops orientalis R LC eater

56 Rollers : Coraciidae European Roller Coracias garrulus PV LC Coracias b. 57 Rollers : Coraciidae Indian Roller R LC benghalensis group Upupa epops 58 Hoopoes : Upupidae Common Hoopoe R LC ceylonensis

Indian Grey 59 Hornbills: Bucerotidae Ocyceros birostris R LC Hornbill

Brown-headed 60 Barbets: Coptpnidae Megalaima zeylanica R LC Barbet

Megalaima 61 Barbets: Coptpnidae Coppersmith Barbet R LC haemacephala Black-rumped 62 Woodpeckers: Picidae Dinopium benghalense R LC Flameback White-naped 63 Woodpeckers: Picidae Chrysocolaptes festivus R LC Flameback Indian Pygmy 64 Woodpeckers: Picidae Dendrocopos nanus R LC Woodpecker 65 Woodpeckers: Picidae Greater Flameback Chrysocolaptes lucidus R LC

Rufous 66 Woodpeckers: Picidae Celeus brachyurus R LC Woodpecker Yellow-fronted Dendrocopos 67 Woodpeckers: Picidae R LC Pied Woodpecker mahrattensis 68 Pittas : Pittidae Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura PV LC Calandrella Greater Short-toed 69 Larks: Alaudidae brachydactyla WM LC Lark longipennis 70 Larks: Alaudidae Rufous-tailed Lark Ammomanes phoenicura R LC

xv Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientific Name Status No. Status Swallows & Martins: Wire-tailed 71 Hirundo smithii R LC Hirundinidae Swallow Swallows & Martins: 72 Dusky Crag-martin Ptyonoprogne concolor R LC Hirundinidae Swallows & Martins: Red-rumped 73 Hirundo daurica [part] R LC Hirundinidae Swallow Swallows & Martins: 74 Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica WM LC Hirundinidae Pipit & Wagtail : 75 Tree Pipit Anthus t. trivialis WM LC Motocillade Pipit & Wagtail : 76 White Wagtail Motacilla alba WM LC Motocillade Pipit & Wagtail : Western Yellow 77 Motacilla flava WM LC Motocillade Wagtail Pipit & Wagtail : 78 Twany Pipit Anthus campestris WM LC Motocillade Cuckoo-Shrike & Large Cuckoo- 79 Minivets : Coracina macei R LC shrike Campephagidae Cuckoo-Shrike & Pericrocotus 80 Minivets : Small Minivet R LC cinnamomeus Campephagidae Cuckoo-Shrike & 81 Minivets : Orange Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus R LC Campephagidae Cuckoo-Shrike & Black -headed 82 Minivets : Coracina melanoptera PV LC Cuckoo-shrike Campephagidae Woodshrikes & Common Tephrodornis 83 Flycatchers-Shrike : R LC Woodshrike pondicerianus Vangidae 84 Bulbuls: Pycononsidae Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer R LC Red-whiskered 85 Bulbuls: Pycononsidae Pycnonotus jocosus R LC Bulbul 86 Ioras: Irenidae Common Iora Aegithina tiphia R LC

Leafbirds: 87 Jerdon’s Leafbird Chloropsis jerdoni R LC Chloropsridae Leafbirds: Gold-fronted 88 Chloropsis aurifrons R LC Chloropsridae Leafbird Southern Grey 89 Shrikes : Laniidae Lanius meridionalis R NR Shrike 90 Shrikes : Laniidae Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus R LC ‘Black-headed’ 91 Shrikes : Laniidae Lanius schach R LC Long-tailed Shrike Monarchs: Black-naped Blue 92 Hypothymis azurea R LC Monarchidae Monarch

xvi Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status Flycatcher & Chats : Asian Paradise 93 Terpsiphone paradise R LC Muscicapidae Flycatcher Flycatcher & Chats : Tickell’s Blue 94 Cyornis tickelliae R LC Muscicapidae Flycatcher Flycatcher & Chats : Red-breasted 95 Ficedula parva WM LC Muscicapidae Flycatcher Flycatcher & Chats : Asian Brown 96 Muscicapa dauurica WM LC Muscicapidae Flycatcher Flycatcher & Chats : Red-throated 97 Ficedula albicilla WM LC Muscicapidae Flycatcher Fantail-Flycatchers : White-browed 98 Rhipidura aureola R LC Rhipidurinae Fantail Thrushes, Shortwings, Oriental Magpie- 99 Robins, Forktails & Copsychus saularis R LC robin Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings, 100 Robins, Forktails & Indian Black Robin Saxicoloides fulicatus R LC Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings, 101 Robins, Forktails & Blue Rock-thrush Monticola solitarius WM LC Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings,

102 Robins, Forktails & Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros WM LC Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings, Malabar Whistling- 103 Robins, Forktails & Myophonus horsﬁeldii R LC thrush Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings, Orange-headed 104 Robins, Forktails & Zoothera citrina R LC Thrush Wheater: Turdinae Thrushes, Shortwings, 105 Robins, Forktails & Indian Black Bird Turdus simillimus BV LC Wheater: Turdinae

Babblers, Laughing Thrushes, Babaxes, 106 Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi R LC Barwings & Yuhinas: Tamaliinae Babblers, Laughing Thrushes, Babaxes, 107 Jungle Babbler Turdoides striata R LC Barwings & Yuhinas:

Tamaliinae Babblers, Laughing Thrushes, Babaxes, Tawny-bellied 108 Dumetia hyperythra R LC Barwings & Yuhinas: Babbler

Tamaliinae

xvii Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status Babblers, Laughing Thrushes, Babaxes, Puff-throated 109 Pellorneum ruﬁceps R LC Barwings & Yuhinas: Babbler

Tamaliinae Babblers, Laughing Thrushes, Babaxes, Indian Scimitar Pomatorhinus 110 R LC Barwings & Yuhinas: Babbler horsﬁeldii

Tamaliinae

Cisticolas, Prinias & 111 Plain Prinia Prinia inornata R LC Allies: Cisticolidae

Cisticolas, Prinias & 112 Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis R LC Allies: Cisticolidae Cisticolas, Prinias & 113 Jungle Prinia Prinia sylvatica R LC Allies: Cisticolidae Cisticolas, Prinias & Grey-breasted 114 Prinia hodgsonii R LC Allies: Cisticolidae Prinia 115 Warblers: Sylviidae Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius R LC Bright-green 116 Warblers: Sylviidae Phylloscopus nitidus WM LC Warbler Greenish Leaf- Phylloscopus 117 Warblers: Sylviidae WM LC warbler trochiloides viridanus Blyth’s Reed- Acrocephalus 118 Warblers: Sylviidae WM LC warbler dumetorum

119 Tits: Paridae Grey-crested Tit Parus dichrous R LC Flowerpeckers: Thick-billed 120 Dicaeum agile R LC Dicaeidae Flowerpecker Flowerpeckers: Pale-billed Dicaeum 121 R LC Dicaeidae Flowerpecker erythrorhynchos White-Eyes: 122 Oriental White-eye Zosterops palpebrosus R LC Zosteropidae Sunbirds & 123 Spiderhunts: Vigor’s Sunbird Aethopyga vigorsii R LC Nectariniidae

Sunbirds &

124 Spiderhunts: Purple Sunbird Cinnyris asiaticus R LC Nectariniidae Sunbirds & 125 Spiderhunts: Loten’s Sunbird Cinnyris lotenius R LC Nectariniidae Scaly-breasted 126 Waxbills : Estrilldidae Lonchura punctulata R LC Munia Sparrow & Yellow-throated 127 Snowﬁnches: Petronia xanthocollis R LC Sparrow Passerinae

xviii Sr. IUCN Families Common Name Scientiﬁc Name Status No. Status Sparrow & 128 Snowﬁnches: House Sparrow Passer domesticus R LC Passerinae Black-headed 129 Orioles: Oriolidae Oriolus xanthornus R LC Oriole Indian Golden 130 Orioles: Oriolidae Oriolus kundoo WM LC Oriole 131 Drongos: Dicruridae Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus R LC Greater Racket- 132 Drongos: Dicruridae Dicrurus paradiseus R LC tailed Drongo White-bellied 133 Drongos: Dicruridae Dicrurus caerulescens R LC Drongo 134 Drongos: Dicruridae Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus WM LC Starlings & Mynas: 135 Common Myna Acridotheres tristis R LC Sturnidae Starlings & Mynas: 136 Brahminy Starling Temenuchus pagodarum R LC Sturnidae Starlings & Mynas: Malbar White- 137 Sturnia blythii WM LC Sturnidae Headed Starling Crows, Jays, Treepies, 138 Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda R LC Magpies: Corvidae Crows, Jays, Treepies, 139 House Crow Corvus splendens R LC Magpies: Corvidae Crows, Jays, Treepies, Corvus macrorhynchos 140 Indian Jungle Crow R LC Magpies: Corvidae culminatus

Abbreviations BV- Breeding Visitor RM - Residential Migrant PV- Passage Migrant WM – Winter Migrant CR – Critically Endangered NR – Not recognised as a Species NT – Near Threatened LC- least concern

xix Annexure: 6 Mammals Sr. IUCN/ WPA Family Scientiﬁc Name Common Name No. Status 1 Bovidae Tetracerus quadricornis Four-Horned Antelope Vulnerable/I 2 Canidae Canis aureus Indian Jackal Least Concern/II 3 Cervidae Muntiacus muntjak Indian Muntjac Least Concern/III 4 Felidae Felis chaus Jungle cat Least Concern/II 5 Herpestidae Herpestes edwardsi Indian Grey Mongoose Least Concern/II 6 Hyaenidae Hyaena hyaena Striped Hyaena Near Threatened/III 7 Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Black-Naped Hare Least Concern/II 8 Muridae Tatera indica Indian Gerbil Least Concern/II 9 Muridae Bandicota bengalensis Lesser Bandicoot Rat Least Concern/II

10 Muridae Madromys blanfordi White tailed bush rat Least Concern/II

11 Muridae Mus booduga Field mouse Least Concern/II Semnopithecus 12 Primate Hanuman Langur Vulnerable/II hypoleucos 13 Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus sp. Horseshoe bat Least Concern/II Three-striped Palm 14 Sciuridae Funambulus palmarum Least Concern/II Squirrel 15 Suidae Sus scrofa wild pig Least Concern/III

16 Tupaiidae Anathana ellioti Madras Tree Shrew Least Concern/II 17 Vespertilionidae Pipistrellus sp. Indian Pipistrelle Least Concern/II Paradoxurus 18 Viverridae Palm Civet Least Concern/II hermaphroditus

19 Viverridae Viverricula indica Small Indian Civet Least Concern/II

xx Transect start point Transect 10 km Boundary Transect end point Transect Tansa WLS Boundary Tansa Map 2: Transacts sampled during the survey Transacts 2:

lxvii 3: Habitat Classication of the Study Area

Gargai lxviii 4: Physical Map - Surrounding Proposed Gargai Dam Site viii lxix 5: Potential Areas for Conservation of Plants lxx 6: Potential Areas for Conservation of Insects lxxi 7: Potential Areas for Conservation of Freshwater Fishes lxxii 8: Potential Areas for Conservation of Amphibians and Reptiles lxxiii 9: Potential Areas for Conservation of Birds lxxiv 10: Potential Areas for Conservation of Mammals lxxv