setting mayhavehadonthis literature. thehistorical whatimpact determine to Christianityinanattempt version to Jewish anti- these examinetherelationbetween senseto tions wasremarkable,itmakes sion. During this century, Christians made exceptional efforts at con ten- and conflict expulsion of1492,interreligious ofintense wasaperiod to voluntary ornot. werestillconsideredJews,since they whethertheirsinofconversion was dressing notonlyJews, Judaism, whowerestillloyalto butalsoconversos, produc against Christianity,lemicists had written 1391, but after the pace ofsuch anti- homes. exile fromtheirIberian ofJews ofexpulsion,largenumbers oftheedict wake choseconversion over convert orunderduress.Inthe Christianityatthistime,eitherwillingly to Indeed,many persuasion. aries, publicdisputations,andliterary Jews did Jews, includingthreatsofmurder, usingavarietyoftactics, rovingmission- anti- ning with finalonehundredyearsof lifeontheIberian begin- Peninsula, Jewish The i J e n L wi This century was marked as well by the composition ofnumerousJewish aswellbythecomposition centurywasmarked This Christian polemical treatises.Even­Christian polemical 1391, before ofJewish anumber - po C 5 Daniel J.Lasker i sh Ant hr tion increasedgreatly. Jewish authors of thesetreatisesweread- The ght of i Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical Christian polemical treatises and thephenomenonofmass con- ­Christian polemical st ­Jewish riotingandmurdersin 1391 the andconcludingwith ia 2 Since- composi therelative abundanceofthesepolemical i Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers n - Ma ­C i hr ty ss University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 i st C 1 onvers ia n Po l i em on i cs

verting

not for distribUtion 104 1391 authorsareasfollows: First, we should enumerate which treatises will be examined. The pre- First, examined. The be which treatises will we should enumerate 1391: after authorswrote following The 2. 3. 1.

Hebrew translation. inthevernacular, Religion),originallywritten to survivingonlyin tions, - decades.Oneofthesecomposi as aChristianformorethantwo ofthe1391 Christianityinthe wake to riotsandlivingoutwardly Abner ofB 1391, itagreatdealafter mented theapostate to includingresponses of Tudela, writingʾEven began New Testament. new religionandthatpresent- arguethatJesusof Christianityto offoundinga hadnointention Duranemployshisknowledge Christiantheologicalliterature. to by theaccessDuranwouldhavehad— great erudition in Christianity,onstrates perhaps made possible ha- Kelimmat ofChristianity. beliefs the rationallyimpossible otherone, The hisfathers,”“like hehadadopted hisancestors, sinceincontrastto It is a satirical letter, praising his friend for not being ostensibly friend David Bonjorn. the addressee of the epistle, his erstwhile ca. 1393), triggered byhisconversion wasspecifically andthatof tury, anti- two wrote de Bonafide). Duran,mid- ben Profiat Duran(Isaac Moses ha- Reuben’s Mil Jewishthe mostprominentmedieval treatises,Jacob polemical ben of Matthew. versionofone asanupdated wasintended book The Shem Tov ibnShaprut. IbnShaprut(ca.1340– ha- Faith),ʾemunah (Aidto inHebrew, written andʿEzer anti- two wrote Moses ha- Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical ʾIggeret altehika- Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers ­Kohen fourteenth- late ofTordesillas. This urgos / Alfonso de Valladolid andaHebrewurgos /Alfonsode Valladolid translation ḥamot ha- University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 (The DisgraceoftheGentiles, ca.1397), (The ­goyim dem- part ii Christian polemics between 1375 between Christian polemics and1379: ʿEzerha- ­ 5 3 Christian treatises, despite having converted­Christian treatises, despite ­shem (Wars in1170. written oftheLord), ʾ

avotekha (EpistleBeN around theforcedconversions fourteenth century to early fifteenth cen- earlyfifteenth centuryto fourteenth ­ day Christianity is a distortion ofthe ­day Christianityisadistortion boḥan (Touchstone) in1385 butaug- ­ Levi; Christianname,HonoratusLevi; ­as anominalChristian— ot like Yourot like Fathers, after 1405),anative ­after century writer ­century writer (Aid ­dat 4 ­ ­ ­

not for distribUtion j ewish anti-

6. 8. 4. 5. 7.

anti- cifically anti- and notChristianity,spe- fulfillsthedefinitionofadivinereligion.A cludes subtlecriticismofChristianity. arguesthatonlyJudaism, Albo them. ing andthenrefutingtheassumptionsthatlaybehind firstexplain- Christiandoctrines, consistsofananalysis often book inHebrew. alreadyexisted of polemic ofthistype number Crescas’s ha- Biṭṭul philosophicalpolemic, which arenolongerextant. The lemical treatises in the vernacular (probably Catalan), the originals of Hasdai Judah ben Crescas.Crescas(1340– wrote wrote physicianHayyim Iberian IbnMusa. (ca.1380– This an anti- but he also wrote Solomon b underthetitleKeshet u-magen(BowandShield).Hisseparately son, Patriarchs), acommentaryonPirkei Avot. werepublished These the1391 Algeriaafter to from Iberia riots,includedanti- Simeon Zemah ben Duran.Duran(1361– theological work,Seferha- mid- to fourteenth (late Joseph Aparticipantin the DisputationofTortosa, Albo. Albo Disputation ofTortosa. Santa Fe, the andinitiated Christianity, Gerónimo became de Pablo’sled to conversion. Eventually himselfconverted Lorki to Christianity, theargumentsthat be refutingwhatheconsidersto understand why alearnedJew Pablo like convinced wouldbe by himself the upon hadconvertedChristianityandtaken Halevi, thelatter to after tury, hisformerteacher, epistleto apolemical wrote Solomon Joshua mid- Lorki, Lorki. t it wasbasedonbiblicalproof Hebrew, renderingthesecondworkinto didnotbother latter since Hebrew into translated byJoseph ShemTov ben in1451,butthe (and anti- (Obligatory War),(Obligatory againstJoshua Lorki. Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical ­noṣ Aristotelian andanti- ­Aristotelian ­c hristian (The RefutationoftheChristianPrinciples,ca. 1398), (The erim was ae va- Magen ­Muslim) passagesinhisMagen Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers en Simeon Duran (ca.1400– Christian section is found in book 3, chapter 25. 3,chapter isfoundinbook ­Christian section (Shield and Sword) partly in response to the ­romaḥ (ShieldandSword) to partlyinresponse p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 ole aePbod Santa Maria. to attempts Lorki name Pablo de m i 7 c fifteenth centuries) wrote a philosophical/ centuries) wrote ­fifteenth s ­ʿ ­ ­Maimonidean philosopher,- po two wrote fourteenth century to early fifteenth cen- earlyfifteenth centuryto fourteenth Iqqarim ( Christian polemic, ­Christian polemic, exts, andJoseph feltthatasufficient ), whichin- ofPrinciples Book The 9 ­1467), inAlgeria, wasborn (The Shieldofthe ʾAvot (The 1410/11), an innovative ­1410/11), aninnovative 1444), who emigrated ­1444), whoemigrated Mil ḥemet ­ca. 1460) Christian ­

8 6 Mi ʿ iqqarei ṣvah 105

not for distribUtion 106 the polemical enterprise during this period, both intheirexaminationof both duringthisperiod, enterprise the polemical and thelike— (CrescasandDuran’sdoctrines ), useofthevernacular(Crescas), Disgrace (Duran’sof satiricalpoems Epistle andBonafed),closeanalysesofChristian innovations— innovative features. These their ostensibly worksareremarkablenotonlyfortheirquantitybutalsosomeof These

11. 10. 9.

ogy” oftreatises, ogy” the expulsion from Spain. In Italy,after a “messianic tril- he wrote Italy thedeathofhisroyalpatron,andwasexiledto Castileafter to was written to promote Christianity. promote to was written what heclaimedwastheChristianmisunderstandingthatthiswork andcommentaryonProfiatDuran’stroduction Epistle,combatting author(ca.1400– , thisIberian Refutation Joseph ShemTov. ben histranslationofCrescas’s Inadditionto his fellowJews theargumentsofapostates. answersto with arguments ofNicholas ofLyra (d.1349) supply andpartlyinorderto as AbrahamBibago in Derekh included anti- ofotherJewish works.Anumber Other authorsandliterary writers Disputation ofTortosa. ofrabbinic passagesadducedbyGerónimointerpretations atthe Salvations ofHis(The Messiah), arefutationoftheChristological ofwhichwasYeshu polemical liefs, themostdirectly ʿot Isaac Abarbanel.Abarbanel(1437– to Davidha- to sible thatHoda e Sant Jordi, Judaism. returnto encouraginghimto de the converso Solomon to Francescpoet ashortletter Bonafedwrote (Doubts) concerning the story ofJesus.entitled Sefeiqot(Doubts)concerningthestory to proselytizeamongtheJews.to and ahalfatthedisputationwhilemissionariesweregiven freerein munity, morethanayear spend sinceitsleadershipwasforced to disputation. Tortosa wasparticularlytraumaticfortheJewish com- ofthispublic in Hebrew theofficialLatinprotocol inadditionto shortJewish accountsoftheDisputationTortosatwo (1413– Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical indicate that Iberian Jewish thatIberian ­indicate authors invested heavilyin Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers Nasi, inorigin. isalsoIberian ­ University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 Christian passages in their nonpolemical works,such ­Christian passagesintheirnonpolemical part ii ʾ at - ofChristian be variousaspects which attacked baʿal 13

(The Litigator’s Admission), attributed din (The around theforcedconversions 17 ʾ The Path of Faith). (The emunah ­1508) inPortugal, wasborn fled 11 He ashorttreatise alsowrote ca. 1480) wrote alongin- ­ca. 1480)wrote 16 Inaddition,thereare including theuse ­ 12 15 - Itispos 10 meshiḥo 14 The The ­14)

not for distribUtion duction coveredalmostallfieldsof duction knowledge,includedmuchanti- Jewish Christian material inhisphilosophicalworkKitābal- Christian material The Book of Beliefs andOpinions)inotherworks. ofBeliefs Book (The Jews think— to accustomed havebeen ing, IdiscusswhetherthemultipleJewish anti- ary threat and the production ofJewish anti- ary threatandtheproduction conclusions. shouldprompt arethinkingofthesetwo and contents, duringthefinalcenturyof produced with theirnewformats Iberia, Jewish tives. and thatmo- this explanation is inhas need ofits revision own apologetical Jewish anti- ofthe cal, oreconomic.Ihavearguedthattheexplanation for theexistence missionary threatsintheirvariousmanifestations,whetherliterary, physi- rative thatJewish merelyofChristian criticismofChristianityisafunction nar Myfirstconclusionisthequestioningofaccepted lemical literature. inmy majorconclusionsIhavecometo - researchonpo questiontwo into ofthesetreatisescalls mentation. Itwouldseem,therefore,thattheevidence theirargu- bringoriginal approachesto to Christianity andintheirattempts j . the Priest of Nestor Book Hebrewanonymous into wastranslated asThe treatisethateventually from writing anti- come Christians.Yet Jews theabsence of suchaChristianthreatdidnotstop Jews, persuade to which Christians attempted in one way or another,- be to theJewstainly noplaceunderIslamforanorganizedChristianmission to in by the first medieval by thefirstmedieval philosopher,Jewish Dāwūdal- countries whenJews suchworks,mostnotablythose to compose began first Although wehavemany thisrule, examplesofexceptionsto adifferentdhimmi religion. couldnotchangeto convertwas to Islam;they to with theirownreligion,onlylegaloption (dhimmis) weredissatisfied of Jewish anti- prominent exampleofwhichcomesfromtheIslamicworld.Ifnon- changed little in the nearly two thousandyearsofthedebate. changed littleinthenearlytwo reaction to Christian provocation. to reaction lows thatifJews openly, Christiandoctrines attacked in itmusthavebeen of otherreligionsleftJews alone,thenJews wouldleavethemalone,itfol- ewish anti- Let me discuss first the relationship between theChristianmission- between mediscussfirst the relationship Let 18 My second conclusion has been thatJewish- Mysecondconclusionhasbeen Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical Christian polemical genreassolelyaJewish­Christian polemical defensivemeasure ­c hristian Christian polemic intheabsenceofamissionarythreat,­Christian polemic a Christian treatises.Itwas in theninth century in Islamic ­ Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers 23 In the tenth century, In the tenth Saadia Gaon, pro- whose literary p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 ole m i c s 20 Nevertheless, we have many examples or at least to state— ­or atleastto ­ Christian writings.Since many Christian polemical treatises ­Christian polemical ­ Christian polemics have Christian polemics ­ Muqammaṣ, ­ʾ amānāt wal- 24 that if members ­that ifmembers 21 Anti- 19 therewascer Inthefollow- 22 ­Christian ­ Muslims ­ʾ andthe i ʿtiqādāt 107 - - ­

not for distribUtion 108 to Christian pressure, it certainly can be. The examples ofthirteenth- The Christianpressure,itcertainlycanbe. to Jewishalthough themedieval critiqueofChristianityisnotnecessarily tied activity. moreliterary pressurebroughtabout similar:greater be to Thus sure. dental. It would seem that, indeed, Jews Christian pres- to were responding iscertainlynotcoinci- polemics written hadnotproduced areas thathitherto Sefer Yosef ha- ance oftheaccountDisputationParis, Joseph Nathan ben Official’ almostsimultaneousappear theNorthern The into repertoire. European polemic thegenreofwritten ary critiquesofChristianityandintroduced public disputationsofParis, 1240,andBarcelona,1263), Jews liter turnedto century, Christiananti- ofintense anotherperiod never notimplythatsuchaconnection output does aChristianthreatandJewish polemical between connection of anecessary treatises?Andtheansweristhus: thelack ofpolemical and theproduction situation inIberia thehistorical astrong correlationbetween like what looks non- favorwith win to trying or perhaps the proliferation of such critiques in post- pressure with Christianmissionary to critique ofChristianityisnotnecessarilyconnected defensive. toregardalland henceitisdifficult attacksonChristianityaspurely Jewish ChristianthreatandJewish aperceived attacksonChristianity,tion between side stimuli— that Jewscorrect out- without engaged in thecriticism of Christianity even Niṣṣaḥon century ItalianJews atleastfifty- wrote in Judaeo- workswritten wasastandardfeatureoftheJewish Karaite polemic sectarian their communities. thoughtherewasnomissionarypressureupon criticized Christianityeven anti- thatarepartofmodern- those territories throughout Christian missionary activity of intensive a major focus tuted Although at this time and place, Jews hardly consti- they were ghettoized, the Christian mission. The questionarises:How canonereconciletheviewthatJewish The Christian treatises cannot be explainedasmerelyaJewish­Christian treatisescannotbe to response 27 The case in late fourteenth- caseinlate The Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical (The Old Book of Polemic), Old Book and a yashan (The Arabic in the tenth and eleventh centuries. As noted, theseauthors centuries.Asnoted, andeleventh ­Arabic inthetenth ­ (The Book ofJoseph Book theZealous),meqanne (The theanonymous ­such asthethreatofmassconversion, economiccompetition, Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers 25 Many centurieslater, seventeenth- University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 26 part ii We see, therefore, that there is no necessary correla-

andfifteenth- ­ around theforcedconversions six anti- ­ ­ Christian rulers— ­day Italy. Such of alargenumber ­Christian treatisesinHebrew. century Iberia would appear wouldappear ­century Iberia existed. In the thirteenth Inthethirteenth existed. few other related texts in texts few other related ­Jewish (e.g.,the activity ­1391 If I am Iberia? ­ andeighteenth- ­how doIexplain ­century all s - - ­

not for distribUtion inforce my contention that the motives for the production of Jewishinforce my that the motives for the polemi production contention differences between between Judaism andChristianity.differences in developments to definethe theologyandtheneed Jewish reflected they theory. Sometimes Jewish attacksonChristianityweredefensive,butoften explainedbyonecomprehensive werecomplexandcannotbe cal literature tenth- Northern andfifteenth- Europe j such offensive adopted presumably,serious provocation; Jewish otherwise authorswouldnothave a to seenasaresponse been argumentation againstChristianshasoften useofcoarselanguage or vulgar theacerbityof theseworks.The greater thethreat, aChristianthreatistheassertionthatgreater to response the A corollaryofthetheory that Jewish anti- composition anditsHebrewcomposition translation, and death. Christian centuries,assumesJesus’s hislife originsandmocks illegitimate theearly andprovenancebutelementsofwhichgobackto of uncertaindate Jewish of the New parody Testament, history, theoriginsofChristianity. probablygoingbackalmostto the Thus own day. sharpness of itslanguage, which, Shem Tov inhis was inappropriate wrote, ofthe butalsobecause itignoredrabbinicliterature notonlybecause date composition Jacobibn ShaprutinhisTouchstonerewrite Reuben’s to ben attempted 1170 carefulinhislanguage.ShemTov be to is certainlynottheonlypolemicist aChristianaudienceinmind).But with theorize thatitwaswritten Crescas oneofthereasonsthatsome hardlyanemotion insight(perhaps cal, with - , isdryandtechni Refutation was murderedinthoseriots.But hiswork,The ofthe1391wake Hasdai riots,itwould havebeen Crescas, whoseonlyson expressangeratChristiansinthe to expected one whomighthavebeen Iftherewereany treatisesdemonstrates. an examinationoftheenumerated - written atatimeofChristianpressureonJews,written isverynasty, butthisstyle Christian missionarythreat. Incontrast, ofPolemic OldBook theAshkenazi , tion, birth,andinfanc vulgar in their descriptions of female anatomy and the indignities of gesta- ewish anti- We discussed. worksbeing ofthepolemical atthetone shouldalsolook ­century Iraq and seventeenth- 30 Incontrast, Jewish vulgarity concerningChristianityhasalong 31 Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical The aforementionedanonymous ninth- The ­c Wars. By oftheLord ShemTov’s wasoutof time,thisbook hristian Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers y, ofany independently werewritten direct andthey language. p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 ole m century Iberia, when juxtaposed to ninth- to whenjuxtaposed ­century Iberia, i c 29 s Yet not hold, thisas generalization does and eighteenth- ­ Toledot Yeshu of Jesus), Life Story (The , are particularly the Priest Nestor Christian polemics are always a Christian polemics ­ 28 ­century Italy, merely re- ­century Judaeo- ­Arabic and ­ 109 -

not for distribUtion 110 Judaism. Christianthreatto orthenatureofaperceived mine byitselftheexistence todeter issufficient of Christianitynorthestyleinwhichitispresented Inshort,would haveappreciated. ofaJewish neithertheexistence critique ever, Duran’s ofwhatrhetoric afunction hisstylemaysimplybe audience 1390s lifeasasecretJew; frustrationswith mayrepresenthispersonal how- as an attack on Christian doctrines; Duran’sas an attack on Christian doctrines; ofthe , which Gentiles Disgrace all newandwereexemplified bymore- them.Incontrast,are basedupon Joseph’s wereapparently lastfourmethods andmostJewish ofsacredtexts, works interpretation polemical the correct egories, Joseph writ Christianity andtheprinciplesofphilosophy. Inhisdiscussionofthesecat- (5)attacksonChristianprinciples,and(6)comparison between doctrines, theNew Testament between Christian contradictions and contemporary (4)analysisofthe (2) rabbinicexegesis,(3)attacksonChristiandoctrines, ha- gumentation (darekhei Duran’scommentary to sixdifferent ofar Epistle,hecites tactics Jewish Shem Tov’s his to taxonomy treatises,intheintroduction ofpolemical afewinnovations.Infact, quite inJoseph be cussion, thereseemto ben rest iscommentary. Jesus ofNazareth bytheprophetsorwashenot?The theMessiah predicted and Christianity, unchanging:Was havebeen ofthedebate, andthecontents Judaism religions,thebasicdivisionbetween Christianity asseparate but hecannotsavehimself that Jesuspossibility was the Messiah (e.g., Matt. 27:42: “He saved others, sand years.Ever sincetheNew Testament Jews portrayed asdenying the oftheJewish-tents thisconclusion. notalter does Iberia use ofrabbinicexegesis.E Nahmanides’s accountoftheDisputationBarcelona,asanexample , as an example of argumentation on the basis of biblical exegesis, and Lord suchasJacob compositions, classical polemical Reuben’s ben Wars ofthe the context ofitscomposition. the context to the way Ashkenazi may simply bereflect connected and not Jews wrote Yet attheJewish ifwelook underdis- worksfromtheperiod polemical reconsideristhatthecon- to secondconclusionthatIwouldlike The Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical 33 Evidence fromthefinalonehundredyearsof presence in Jewish Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers ­ Christian debate have been constant for nearly two thou- constantfornearlytwo have been Christian debate es that the first two types are represented bywell- arerepresented two types es thatthefirst University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 part ii xegetical arguments are those that concentrate on xegetical argumentsarethosethatconcentrate ­vikuaḥ) againstChristianity: (1)biblicalexegesis, ”), even before onecould talkofJudaism before ”), even and 32 The cuttingirony ofDuran’s The worksinthe

around theforcedconversions ­ modern works:Joshuamodern Lorki’s Epistle, known ­ - -

not for distribUtion Jewish innovations— Twelfth-position. argue against the Christian to for new tactics looked Iberia medieval in late Jesus. al- used morethanfivehundredyearsearlierbyDāwūd al- tion notoriginallypresentintheNew Testament. argumenthadbeen This argue thatChristianityasheknewitwasaninvenuses thesesourcesto - knowledgeofChristiansources,andhe extensive Gentiles demonstrates sarcasm— lar andbitter theuseof vernacu- sion oftheologicalandphilosophicalprinciplesto were deployed. asthesenewtactics sidesremainedthesameeven of thetwo useofthevernacular, literature, goals strategic sarcasm.The bitter andeven Christiantheological referencesto learnedanalysesof Christianbeliefs, with and fifteenth- the Talmud fourteenth- andforcedJews late inpublicdebates; participate to use of rational arguments, and thirteenth- the argumentsofJewish- also hadlivedpartofhislifeasaChristian.Echoingwhat mayhavebeen and Duran’s philosophicalprinciples. to Epistle,dedicated trines; Crescas’s, whichdiscussestheprinciplesofChristianity; Refutation theNew Testament between outcontradictions - points andChristiandoc j Duran’sThus ṭ between distinction literature, to persuade Jews persuade to literature, Judaism, thatChristianityhadsuperseded rabbinic andreferencesto centuries, suchaspublicdebates and thirteenth and notcontent. Just inthetwelfth usingnewtactics asChristiansbegan the mass conversions to in response 1391written after of form are a matter of1391;in thewake tactics. newpolemical alsoinnovated they Jewsthen, thatnotonlydidIberian therenewedChristianthreat to respond some scholars see this as an indication that he wrote foraChristianaudience some scholarsseethisasan indication thathewrote ifDuran didnotknowtheworkofal- even Paul inJewish Christians),hasdeeproots andlater anti- followers),andthema and hisimmediate ewish anti- ­Muqammaṣ Looking deeper Looking I wouldargue,however, thattheseinnovationsinJewish works polemical Hasdai inthevernacular, hispolemics Crescaswrote andasmentioned, 36 Maimonides Yemen asimilarobservationinhisEpistleto makes . Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical ­c century Jews attempted to undermine the Christian arguments ­century Jews underminetheChristianarguments to attempted claimedthatChristianitywastheinvention ofPaul andnotof hristian century Christians started defending their religion with the the defendingtheirreligionwith ­century Christiansstarted Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers , however, like thatlooked thosetactics weseethateven from the attacks on Christian doctrines and discus- from theattacks on Christian doctrines ­ ­ Christians who had survived into the Islamic period, theIslamicperiod, Christians whohadsurvivedinto were notsonew. Duran’s Asnoted, ofthe Disgrace ­ p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 ole m i c s o ʿ im , “the mistaken ones”, “themistaken (namely, Jesus ­Muqammaṣ century Christians discovered ­century Christians discovered ṭʿ im , “thedeceivers” (namely, directly. ­ Christian polemics, Christian polemics, Muqammaṣ ­ 34 Itwouldseem, 35 , who , who Jews 111 37 ­

not for distribUtion 112 In Arabic- readers. potential of making their ideas accessible to of languagea function was the choice readership, so too the needs of the intended according to tone would seemthat, ofargumentationandthe justasauthorschosethetype ence. Crescas’s wasMoses predecessorinthistactic ha- immediate Even Christianaudi- theuseofvernacularis noindicationofanintended oneotheranti- he wrote , theRefutation tise designed for a Christian readership. Also, in addition to asaformofworshipGod, foranacademictrea- tended hardlyappropriate Jews and notChristians.For thathisworkwasin- instance,Crescaswrote the reinforcesthistheory.book Ihavearguedthattherearemany reasonswhy “princesandnobles” the that herefersto thathewrite whohadrequested them why of explaining to the intention Jewswith did not convert. fact The (Spanish, Portuguese, Italian,Yiddish, andothers). Hebrew,ous vernacularsthanwith in thevernacular wrote thepolemicists whenmany period, early modern Jews thevari- weremorecomfortable with whypolemical, wasone treatisenotsufficientforaChristianreadership? Christians ratherthanJews, andnot andhismotivationwasexplanatory Hebrew. itinto vive, sincenoonetranslated audiencewas If his intended more comfortable with thevernacularthanw more comfortablewith was theculturalassimilationthatprecededthem,inwhichJews hadbecome thatoneofthereasonsformassconversionsIt isverypossible inIberia were Jews whowereincapableofunderstanding his arguments in Hebrew. lar. Moses there explicitlythathewaswritinginthevernacularbecause noted oneinHebrewTordesillas, polemics, andoneinthevernacu- two whowrote Averroes’s by substantiated criticismofreligionasincapable ofbeing Averroism. medieval intheshadowoflate lemicists whowrote Recognizing notthemessage. therefore, themediumisdefinitely Jews for Jesus and Jews for Judaism In the world of polemics, demonstrates. now,tinues even ontheinternet, especially of ofthewebsites asaperusal would not be amenable to vulgar attacksonChristianity. amenableto would notbe offendthesensitivitiesoftheir arecarefulnotto readerswho Jewish pected, countries today, Jewish ex inEnglishand,asmightbe write polemicists was intended forJews wasintended andthattheprincesnobleswere Refutation If weconsidermoreclosely the useoflanguageinJewish it polemics, - Another putativeinnovationwastheideologyofphilosophical po Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical speaking countries, Jews­speaking inArabic;the theirpolemics wrote Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 part ii Christian treatiseinthevernacularthatdidnotsur ­

around theforcedconversions ith Hebrew. 39 InEnglish- 40 The debate con- debate The Kohen of ­ ­ speaking speaking 38 - -

not for distribUtion false religion. Jews thatJesus Messiah wasnottheanticipated andthatChristianityisa persuade their fellow to Lord bytrying quiver forfightingthewarsof Jewish philosophicalargumentsareonemorearrowintheir polemicists, . For substanceandaccident like terms Aristotelian substantiation employing suchasScholasticin lightofphilosophicaldevelopments, defensesoftran- their viewssubject. revise also had to Christian theologians and polemicists viewsofthe same thosebasedonAristotelian followers oftheKalamto discussions oftheTrinity int theJewish changeissimilarto transitionfrom innovation.This complete and the sensitivitiesofa philosophically trained readership rather than a inphilosophy developments accountthelatest into take argumentation to human. In this argument, unsurprisingly Godincarnation inwhichanincorporeal become onfleshand cantake ofadivinetrinityinwhichGodas theexistence threeandoneor isboth such impossibilities, the statusofdivinereligion,whicharebasedonlogical plagues inEgypt, themanna,andlike— suchasthepartingofRedSea,based onnaturalimpossibilities, the Albo, andothers. Albo, Durans, work inwhichrationalargumentswereusedbyCrescas,thetwo istheframe- foradivine religion,butChristianityisnot.candidate This truedivinereligions— possibly distinguishbetween was to solution thiscriticism.Their aframeworkthatwasnotvulnerableto into placethosearguments hadto ofrationalarguments;they just acollection philosophical reasoning,theseJewish offermorethan hadto polemicists j apostasy, prevent were writing in order to polemicists Iberian then judging threat— sage thesameasthatofotherJewish whodidnotfaceaChristian polemicists wastheirmes- had precedentsinearlierJewish sotoo literature, polemical theircoreligionists.Butof Christianityto justassomeoftheirinnovations provideaconvincing to critique search forinnovativeargumentsandtactics from the Torah of Moses the Gospel to threat led them to of Jesus. This threat, athreatthathad,indeed,succeededintransferring Jewish loyalty theircomp write to were motivated Iberia conversion Christianity, to that Jewish it appears medieval in late thinkers ewish anti- If one looks, therefore,atJewishIf onelooks, anti- ­namely, ChristianityisfalseandJesus wasnottheMessiah. Ifthese Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical ­c 42 hristian 41 Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers Here seenasacaseoffine- again,thiscanbe p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 ole m erms of the attribute theories oftheMuslimerms oftheattribute i c s Christian polemics inlightofmass Christian polemics ­ , Judaism alegitimate be issaid to ositions by a perceived Christian ositions byaperceived and patently false candidates for falsecandidates ­and patently ­ which may be which maybe ­ tuning 113

not for distribUtion 114 Notes success. Jews choseChristianityoverexilein1492,hadlimited who eventually they conversionby howwidespread century, wasinthefifteenth among especially and theIsraelScience Foundation (1754/12). bytheI-COREProgramofPlanningandBudgeting researchwassupported Committee This 2. 3. 1.

In addition,itiswell- Christianity, figuresarelacking. exact it isclearthatmany Jews converted to 419– Adversus, Schreckenberg, Diechristlichen and theJewish isfoundin response Rabbi MosesHa- Hebrew areavailableinShamir, texts The werewritt new religion,they undermining theiracceptanceof of conversosthehope addressed to with were designation. Ifthepolemics aneutral converso be ismeantto JewishIberian converts Christianity; to referto ofwaysto areanumber There considered here. notbe theirsituation will were expelled, this century, too they andeventually Muslimspressure onIberian during Sefarad.” AlthoughtherewasChristian and Ashkenaz example, Sadik, “Between anti- mostlyfromIberia; missionary literature, would not be possible on Iberian soil. onIberian possible would notbe Judaismthe knowledgethatreturnto theJews—Christian missionto Jewish converts partofthe became the converts. ofthesesincere Anumber result oftrueconvictionontheside expulsion) andhowmany werethe threats ofmurderandtheimpending were theresultofChristianviolence(i.e., knowhowmanyto oftheseconversions account offifteenth- history, seeBaer, oftheJews. An History For inJewish ofthisperiod areview Jewish legislationandpapaldecrees; ­ 571. It should be noted thatalthough noted ­ 571. Itshouldbe Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers ­Kohen. ­century Christian nigh impossible ­nigh impossible University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 part ii en despite en despite ­see, for

around theforcedconversions

10. 9. 6. 8. 4. 5. 7.

Albo, Albo, Landau, Lasker, Berlin in1880– Moritz andrepublishedin Steinschneider (Secret Faith, 215). thatthisattributionis“unlikely” writes Niclós Albarracín,ProfiatDurán.Kozodoy Heb. 8 and theanti- Murciano, “Simon Zemah ben Duran”; edition ofKeshet u-magenisavailablein Jerusalem byMakor in1969– ae va- Hayyim ibnMusa, Magen first inLivorno1762– workswerepublishedtogether, two The . Refutation translation: Lasker, Hasdai Crescas’ short anti- theauthorofanother may alsohavebeen be- and inFrimer andSchwartz, Hagut Frimer, “CriticalEditionofEbenBohan”; inpart consulted work, butitcanbe isnofulleditionofIbnShaprut’sThere ʾ in Kobler, LettersofJews, 276– English translationoftheepistleisfound see Kozodoy, SecretFaith. Apartial Talmage, Polemical Writings.OnDuran, by edited workshavebeen two These Mil Judah Rosenthal.See Jacob Reuben, ben Reuben’sben b Šem ṬobIbnŠapruṭ.AneditionofJacob Isaac”; ben tov andNiclós Albarracín, anshei ʾ ­Ṣeil ha- ḥamot ha- Sefer ha- o 787, National LibraryofIsrael, Biṭṭul ʿ Answers to Evil to aven (Answers People); see Apologetische Schreiben . Apologetische ­ʾ Eimah; Garshowitz, “Shem Christian treatise,Teshuvot­ be- Islam section was edited by was edited ­Islam section ­shem. ­ʿ ha- iqqarei 3:217– , ikkarim ook is available, edited by isavailable,edited ook ­81. ­63 andthenin ; ­noṣerim ­Romaḥ, MS ­82. Duran ­45. ­ 70. Another ­

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ewish anti- 19. 16. 18. 14. 12. 17. 15. 13. 11.

Regev, “Sefeiqot.” and publishedinJerusalem 1969– Jerusalem, copiedbyAdolf Posnanski Bibago, of IsaacAbarbanel.” Abarbanel’s Stance;Lawee,“Messianism seeLawee,Isaac these compositions, Abarbanel, Duran, and publishedinJerusalem 1969– Jerusalem, copiedbyAdolf Posnanski this workwaswritten. andwhenexactly attribution iscorrect Olmo, “Edicióncrítica.” Itisunclearifthe in theDisputationofTortosa. See Lara Moses ha- Another probablefifteenth- the account. See Rock.” Hames, “OnThis and notinCret inIberia thetreatisewaswritten believes “Admission ofGuilt,” anditishewho Harvey J.Hames itthus: translates Christian Polemics.” Crusades”; andLasker, “Jewish Anti- Polemics”; Lasker, ofthe “Impact of years:Lasker, “Jewish- overthecourseofanumber have written See, articlesI forexample,thefollowing Christianity.” See Lasker, “Jewish Critiqueof Y hispano.” thankYosi to Iwouldlike Valle “Atalaya Rodríguez, deljudaísmo the accusationswaspublishedby in manuscript, butthepartthatincludes accusations againsttheTalmud isstill Hebrew refutationofGerónimo’s Halberstam, “Vikkuaḥ Tortosa.” A ibn Verga, Yehudah Shevet , For Hebrew accountsofTortosa, see . by PaciosDisputade Tortosa López, waspublished Latinprotocol The ve- JewishIberian isSeferAḥituv polemic Nasi, Jordi- Talmage, “Francesc de Sant Heb. 8 israeli for discussing this text with me. with israeli fordiscussingthistext , attributed to Mattathias to ­Ṣalmon, attributed ben ­Solomon.” Hoda o 757, National LibraryofIsrael, Iggeret ʾ Derekh ʾ Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical ­Yitzhari, whowasaparticipant ʾ at Yeshuʿot meshiḥo.On ­c hristian BaʿalDin.Mycolleague Al TehiAl Ka- e, wheretheauthorplaces emunah. Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers ­Christian ­ʾ p University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 Avotekha, MS 94– ­century ole ­107; m ­70. ­70. i c ­ s

26. 29. 20. 28. 24. 22. 25. 23. 27. 21.

Lasker, “Saadya Gaon onChristianity.” Lasker, “Jewish Anti- me.See treatiseswith polemical also sharethislistof were kindenoughto andGerhardDániel Dobos Langer, who byKároly conducted research project centuriesiscontainedina eighteenth by ItalianJews and intheseventeenth of anti- areas specific is acorrelationbetween whetherthere question remainsasto Mazur, ConversionCatholicism to . The Jewish converts. See, forexample, century, andthereweresomeItalian untiltheeighteenth sixteenth the late missionizing sermonsinRomefrom Jews hearChristian wereforcedto Critique ofChristianity.” in Islamiccountries,seeLasker, “Jewish On Jewish againstChristianity polemics polemics with the level ofmissionary thelevel with polemics ofthe the tone correlate to An attempt Jewish anti- of thenondefensivemotivationsbehind Christianity,” fora discussionofsome See Lasker, “Jewish Critiqueof Jewish- Niṣṣaḥon yashanareavailableinBerger, andanEnglishtranslationof text Judah Rosenthal’s Hebrew edition.The of SeferYosef ha- See Lasker, “Joseph Nathan.” ben text The Hebrew anti- me.Anenumerationof issue with Emily Michelson fordiscussingthis the Jewish output. polemical Ithank Saadia Gaon, Kitābal- . the Priest andStroumsa,PolemicLasker ofNestor See. Stroumsa,DāwūdIbnMarwān RelationsatBen- Interreligious fortheStudyofConversionCenter and bythe developed databasebeing The Lasker, “Jewish CritiqueofChristianity.” See thesourcesadducedinmy article, three religionsintheIslamicworld. examples ofconversions andfromall to documenting University hasbeen hita Debate. ­Christian Jewish­ and missionaryactivity Christian polemics. ­ Christian polemics written written Christian polemics ­ ­meqanne isavailablein Christian Polemics.”­ ­ʾ . Seeamānāt ­Gurion 115

not for distribUtion 116

36. 30. 34. 32. 35. 33. 37. 31.

Christians.” seePines,connection, “Jewish and Lockwood, Ya and Lockwood, ū al- YaKaraite ʿqūb contained inearlyChristianliterature. rabbinic passagesandinreferences incertain isreflected of thismockery Meerson andSchäfer, Toledot Yeshu. Some 7. Niclós Albarracín,ŠemṬobIbnŠapruṭ, Kromann, ShieldandSword. pressure onJews isofferedby Trautner- Light, 104. See alsoLerner, Maimonides’ Empiresof bythetenth- isreported This Chazan, Duran, Critique ofChristianity.” Philosophical Truth”; Lasker, “Jewish See Lasker, “Popular Polemics and Lasker, “Joseph Nathan.” ben 137. For Jewish- apossible Polemical Encounters. Christians,Jews,andMuslimsinIberiaBeyond Polemical 22– Iggeret, Daggers ofFaithDaggers . Edited byMercedesGarcía-ArenalandGerardWiegers ­Qirqisānī; seeChiesa ʿqūb al- ­26. University Park,PA,2019,pp.103-116 part ii ­Qirqisānī, ­Christian ­century

around theforcedconversions ­

40. 42. 39. 38. 41.

Philosophical Polemics. Philosophical seeLasker,Christian polemics, Jewish On theJewish useofphilosophy inanti- See Lasker, “Averroistic Trends.” The lastmajorJewish anti- The Crescas’ Polemical Activity.” , 8– Refutation Seewas nottranslated. Crescas, previously,As noted thesecondtreatise 560– Karaitica, See Walfishwith Kizilov, Bibliographia it). refute to Christians whowished English (byJews), andLatin(by into Dutch, Ladino,Yiddish, Dutch, into German, 1594. Subsequently, itwastranslated Abraham ofTroki, around completed Isaac Strengthened), bytheKaraite isḤ polemic . Christianity Wyschogrod, Jews andJewish exampleisBergerand A good izzuq ­10, 84;Lasker, “R.Hasdai ­63. ʾ (FaithEmunah ­Christian

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