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Ground Stone Tools from the Copper Production Site Al-Khashbah

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Ground Stone Tools from the Copper Production Site Al-Khashbah Ground stone tools from the copper production site Al- Khashbah, Sultanate of Oman Stephanie Döpper Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Goethe University Frankfurt. Norbert-Wollheim-Platz 1, 60629 Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Email: [email protected] Abstract: Archaeological research at Al-Khashbah, Sultanate of Oman, conducted by the University of Tübingen, revealed a large Early Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE) site. During the intensive surface survey and excavations, several ground stone tools were found. Most of them came from the vicinity of monumental stone and mud-brick structures, so-called towers, and are clearly connected to copper- processing waste such as slag, furnace fragments and prills, i.e., droplets of molten copper. Therefore, it is assumed that these ground stone tools were used within the operational procedures of copper- processing. Interestingly, only the monumental towers from the first half of the 3rd millennium BCE, i.e., the Hafit period, feature larger quantities of ground stone tools as well as copper processing waste. Towers from the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE, i.e., the Umm an-Nar period, have none. Within the scope of this paper, the distribution of the different types of ground stone tools in Al- Khashbah as well as their find context will be presented. They are illustrated with drawings generated from 3D models created using digital photography processed with the software Agisoft Photoscan. Comparisons with other 3rd millennium BCE sites in Eastern Arabia show that there as well, copper- processing remains are often associated with ground stone tools. The overall variety of types seems to be rather homogeneous in the region. Keywords: Al-Khashbah; copper production; ground stone tools; Early Bronze Age; Oman; Eastern Arabia 1. Introduction In 2015, a new archaeological research project from the University of Tübingen, funded by the German Research Foundation, was launched in Al-Khashbah, Sultanate of Oman, in order to investigate the fundamental social and economic changes that occurred during the 3rd millennium BCE in Eastern Arabia (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a; b). Al-Khashbah is situated in central Oman, south of the main mountain range, the Al-Hajar Mountains, about 16 km to the north of the modern city of Sinaw in the Ash-Sharqiya governorate (Figure 1). Archaeological remains, among them more than 200 tombs and at least 10 monumental stone or mud-brick buildings, so-called towers in the archaeological terminology of the region, are spread out over an area of approximately 5 x 2.5 kilometres. Journal of Lithic Studies (2020) vol. 7, nr. 3, 24 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.3082 Published by the School of History, Classics and Archaeology, University of Edinburgh ISSN: 2055-0472. URL: http://journals.ed.ac.uk/lithicstudies/ Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence. 2 S. Döpper Figure 1. Map of Oman with Al-Khashbah and other sites mentioned in the text. Al-Khashbah (Figure 2) is long known as an important site of the 3rd millennium BCE in Oman because of its well preserved and unique rectangular building, Building IV (Figure 2), but has been only briefly surveyed (Al-Jahwari 2013; Al-Jahwari & Kennet 2010: 203–207; Weisgerber 1980: 99–100; Yule 2001: 384) prior to the beginning of the University of Tübingen’s project in 2015. Intensive pedestrian and geophysical surveys as well as excavations at selected areas were carried out during the past three seasons, mainly revealing remains of the Early Bronze Age. The pedestrian survey covered an area of more than 20 ha in total, which were field walked at 1 m spaced intervals in order to guarantee a complete coverage of the surface. In total, 18.000 objects were recorded during this survey. Besides some test investigations at Building II (Figure 2), excavations focussed on the oldest known remains at Al-Khasbhah: Building I and Building V, where five nine-week seasons have been carried out between 2015 and 2019. Within the scope of this paper, three Early Bronze Age Journal of Lithic Studies (2020) vol. 7, nr. 3, 24 p DOI: https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.3082 S. Döpper 3 monumental buildings are of particular interest. These are Building I in the western part of the site as well as Building IV and Building V in the central part of the site (Figure 2). All of them date to the 3rd millennium BCE, wherein Building I and Building V date to the earlier part of the 3rd millennium BCE, the so-called Hafit period (3100-2700 BCE), and Building IV to the later part, the so-called Umm an-Nar period (2700-2000 BCE). Other Hafit period monumental buildings in Al-Khashbah are Building VI, VIII, and IX. The buildings II, III, and VII date to the Umm an-Nar period. After the 3rd millennium BCE, Al-Khashbah was widely abandoned and only six subterranean tombs of the Wadi Suq period (2000-1600 BCE) are representing the 2nd millennium BCE. Afterwards, Al-Khashbah remains unoccupied until the Islamic period. Figure 2. Map of Al-Khashbah with Building I, Building II, Building IV and Building V (Map: Al-Khashbah Project). 1.1. Building I The area of Building I is characterized by a small elevation about 1 m in height next to a wadi. Pedestrian surface surveys revealed large quantities of slag as well as some furnace fragments in addition to many fragments of flint tools and their production debris (Figure 3). This indicates that during the Early Bronze Age the area served as a place for copper processing and the production of flint stone tools. Excavations brought to light a large mud- brick complex surrounded by ditch systems measuring approximately 80 by 80 m. Its sub- rectangular ditches are 3 m deep and 4 m wide. They encompass different mud-brick buildings, which mainly consist of small, regular rooms with combinations of mud-brick and stone walls. The overall layout and especially the function of these structures are not completely understood yet, but they can perhaps be interpreted as what is called a tower in the archaeological terminology of the region: a monumental building, circular in plan, whose Journal of Lithic Studies (2020) vol. 7, nr. 3, 24 p. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.3082 4 S. Döpper function is debated. Interpretations range from defensive structures, or keeps, for protection against hostilities (Frifelt 1976: 59; Weisgerber 1981: 198-204) to residences of elites (Cleuziou & Tosi 2007: 147), resting places at a distance of a day’s ride (Frifelt 2002: 109), market places (Frifelt 2002: 110), structures associated with irrigation (Cleuziou 2009; Frifelt 1989: 113; 2002: 104) and cultic structures (Hastings et al. 1976: 13; Orchard & Orchard 2002: 230-232; Reade 2000: 135-136). A series of 10 radiocarbon dates provide a coherent date for Building I around 2800 BCE (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a: fig. 14). Figure 3. Building I: Results of pedestrian survey (Map: Al-Khashbah Project). The extent of Building I is beyond the limits of excavation and therefore still unclear. 1.2. Building V Building V is another monumental complex from the very beginning of the Early Bronze Age, dating to the end of the 4th millennium BCE according to radiocarbon dates (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a: fig. 9). It is a round stone-built tower with a diameter of 25 m and several annexes to the south. The 2015 pedestrian surface survey revealed large amounts of slag and oven fragments from its surface. In the excavations to the south of the building and in its interior, further quantities of slag, furnace fragments and copper debris emerged (Figure 4). This clearly indicates that copper processing was the main activity carried out here. 1.3. Building IV The most famous building of Al-Khashbah is Building IV. It is seemingly unique as it is the only rectangular tower of the 3rd millennium BCE known from Eastern Arabia. All other towers investigated by archaeologists so far have a round ground plan. Its four sides are about equal in length, measuring 29.5 to 30.0 m. Here, only Umm an-Nar (2700-2000 BCE) pottery was found on the surface during the pedestrian survey, namely beige on buff domestic ware Journal of Lithic Studies (2020) vol. 7, nr. 3, 24 p DOI: https://doi.org/10.2218/jls.3082 S. Döpper 5 with a typical decoration of straight and wavy lines (Figure 5). This was complemented by a few slag and furnace fragments. Figure 4. Building V: Results of pedestrian survey (Map: Al-Khashbah Project). Northern, eastern and southern boundaries of the survey area were limited by modern constructions and the wadi, the western boundary by the artificial grid system of the Al-Khashbah project. The circular outer wall of Building V is well visible on the map, its total extent, however, is still unknown. Apart from the 3rd millennium BCE remains at the tower, about 100 petroglyphs were documented, which had been picked into the stone blocks of the walls. The motifs are numerous and range from riders on camels and horses, men with raised arms, to a variety of symbols and geometric motifs (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a: 218). Most of the petroglyphs were found on the north-eastern corner of the building, where the wall is preserved to a height of up to 2.20 m. The petroglyphs are most likely only a few hundred years old, and therefore much younger than the building itself (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a: 218). 2. Methodological framework All ground stone tools found during the pedestrian surveys or excavations in Al- Khashbah, carried out by the Al-Khashbah project since 2015 under the direction of Conrad Schmidt (Schmidt & Döpper 2017a; b), were given an ascending find number, attributed to an archaeological unit, and their find spot was located within the global UTM system using a total station or hand-held GPS.
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