titudes of the Jazz Age. But they were eginning on opening night at the also clean, handsome, and married. B Castle House, an affair which New York's elite learned While Irene bobbed her hair, smoked was attended by the Vanderbilts, the to stumble through the cigarettes, and wore loose fitting, Goulds, the Harrimans, and even Dia­ tango and the maxixe to athletic gowns, Vernon was erect, crisp, mond Jim Brady, New York's elite the music of Europe's and very British . Their dancing, learned to stumble through the tango Society Orchestra. although sensational, was actually a and the maxixe to the music of Europe's simplification of the more unrestrained eleven-piece Society Orchestra, and to hardly be said to have suffered either. and controversial ragtime dances like brave such original steps as the half­ He expanded his orchestra, performed the turkey trot, the grizzly bear, or the and-half, the innovation, and the fox­ with the Castles in a triumphant con­ bunny hug. It was their aim, the Castles trot. The latter, the most famous of the cert at the Casino, and that same fall, said, to rescue social dance from such Castle dances, was conceived by Jim accepted a contract offered him by the vulgarity and to purify it so that "no ob­ Europe and Vernon Castle after an in­ Victor Recording Company, one of the jection can possibly be urged against it itial suggestion made by W. C. Handy. first contracts ever given to a Negro on the grounds of impropriety." In By April1914 the Castles had become musician and the first ever to a Negro their 1914 book, Modem Dancing, they so fashionable in New York that the en­ orchestra. He was now such an impor­ predicted that "social reformers" tire company went on the road for a tant figure in the New York entertain­ would soon "join with the medical pro­ whirlwind tour of thirty-two major ment world that the New York Herald fession in the view that dancing is not American and Canadian cities. At each declared that Europe had " all but only a rejuvenator of good health and stop, a dance contest was held follow­ secured complete control of the cabaret spirits, but a means of preserving ing the Castle's performance, with the and dance field in the city." Europe youth, prolonging life, and acquiring winners receiving a "Castle Cup" and agreed: "Our Negro orchestras," he grace, elegance, and beauty.'' The in­ an expense-paid trip to New York, said, "have nearly cleared the field." dividual they selected to accompany where they would eventually vie with By 1915, Europe's Tempo Club, in­ them in this uplifting mission was other winners for a "national cham­ cluding more than two hundred James Reese Europe. pionship." At the final contest in members, was handling nearly $100,000 Europe began his historic collabora­ Madison Square Garden, when a worth of contracts annually. His record­ tion with the Castles sometime in the distinguished, middle-aged couple with ings and compositions were also doing fall of 1913. As Irene later remembered the memorable name of Mr. and Mrs. well, and everyone in New York it, they had good reasons for wanting Sailing Baruch foxtrotted off with first seemed to want a Jim Europe orchestra. Jim Europe's orchestra. Not only was prize, it was dear that the Castles had At one point, a dozen different cabarets it the most famous orchestra of its kind, won their battle for respectability and were advertising a Europe orchestra but Europe himself "was a skilled musi­ that "nothing short of a war could slow simultaneously. Europe and the Castles cian and one of the first to take jazz out the coming Jazz Age." (Sailing's could be seen performing of the saloons and make it respectable." brother, Bernard, was later to everywhere-in dance halls, cabarets, distinguish himself in quite a different private homes, on tour, and even on "Jim Europe was one of field.) film. By the end of the year, they had the first to take jazz out As Jim Europe's star rose alongside not only made dancing a national of the saloons and make the Castles, dissention and jealousy pastime, they had helped revolutionize it respectable." within the Clef Club increased, and in the nation's mores, and it is difficult to 1914 he broke with the organization and predict how much further their col­ Plus, "all the men in his orchestra could announced that he was president of a laboration might have taken them if read music, a rarity in those days. " new group, the Tempo Club. Despite World War I had not dramatically in­ Perhaps without realizing it, the the predominance of Europe's name in tervened. In December 1915, with his Castles, in teaming with Europe, the dance orchestra field, the demand homeland now locked in a war of attri­ became the first patrons of New York's for black musicians and orchestras was tion with Germany, Vernon Castle early jazz style; with Europe's help, now so firmly established that the Clef enlisted in the Royal Air Force. The they also became a New York-and a Club was able to survive the defection following spring he was transferred to national-institution. of its founder. Europe's career can France, where he shot down his first

ALABAMA HERITAGE. 43 German aircraft and was himself in­ jured. Though he and Irene did have an opportunity to dance together again briefly, a plane crash the following year ended his life. On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany and in the first emotional wave of patriotism which preceded the casualty reports, thirty-six-year-old Jim Europe enlisted in New York's Negro regiment, the Fif­ teenth Infantry of the National Guard. Europe was commissioned as a line of­ ficer, one of a small handful of black of­ ficers, even in the segregated black "Lieutenant Europe, I want you to organize for me the best damn brass band in the United States Army.'' regiments, and assigned to a machine­ gun company. Shortly thereafter, however, as the Fifteenth was prepar­ ing to go into its first phase of training at Peekskill, New York, Colonel William Hayward, the regiment's commander, called Europe into his office and asked him to organize a good regimental brass band. "How good?" Europe wanted to know. "Lieutenant Europe," said the colonel, leaning across his desk, "I want you to organize for me the best damn brass band in the United States Army." Europe assured his colonel that he was up to the task, but told him that such a band would need to be much larger than the regulation twenty-eight musicians; he would also need funds to hire soloists and to buy instruments. A few days later, after explaining the problem to businessman Daniel C. Reid, Hayward had the money, and Europe began organizing a band. Utiliz­ ing his contacts from the Clef Club­ Tempo Club organizations and employ­ ing an aggressive advertising campaign,

44 ALABAMA HERITAGE Lieutenant James Reese Finally, his persistence, coupled with Europe (with baton) and the increasingly critical nature of the the "Hellfighters" band, European war, paid off, and the Fif­ conquered French, teenth received orders to proceed to Belgian, and British Camp Wadsworth in Spartanburg, audiences with the novel South Carolina, where they would sounds of a syncopated undergo final training for front-line native American music. duty. The War Department's orders for (Counesy Schomburg Center for the Fifteenth, however, came at a most Research m Black Culture, The New inauspicious time: the nation was still York Public Library, Asror, Lenox reeling over a bloody affair in Houston, and Tilden Foundations) Texas, where members of the black Twenty-fourth Infantry-incensed at their treatment by the local he quickly recruited fifty excellent musi­ population-broke camp and "shot up" cians, but after a few rehearsals, he the town, killing seventeen citizens and found the clarinet section disap­ wounding scores of others. The mayor pointing. The kind of clarinetists they and councilmen of Spartanburg, where needed, he told Hayward, were no black regiment had ever trained unavailable in New York or Chicago, before, were fearful of a similar and they would have to look elsewhere. incident. When someone suggested Puerto Rico, On August 31, Spartanburg's mayor Hayward immediately ordered Europe was quoted in the New York Times as there as the Fifteenth's "recruitment of­ saying that he "was sorry to learn that ficer," and three weeks later, Europe the Fifteenth regiment had been returned with eighteen clarinet players. ordered" to his city. "With their north­ With the addition of Harlem's best em ideas about race equality," said known dancer, Bill "Bojangles" Robin­ Mayor Floyd, " they will probably ex­ son, as drum major and Noble Sissie as pect to be treated like white men. I can tenor soloist, Europe had assembled more than a great brass band; it could ''With their northern march, for sure, but it could also break ideas about race down into several dance orchestras and equality," said theater bands, and its personnel could Spartanburg's mayor, sing, dance, and do comedy. It was un­ "they will probably questionably "the best damn brass expect to be treated like band in the United States Army. " Throughout the summer of 1917, as white men.'' the Fifteenth Regiment continued basic say right here that they will not be training and watched as first the treated as anything except negroes." Twenty-seventh and then the Sixty­ Sending black troops to Spartanburg, ninth Division paraded down Fifth he said, "is like waving a red flag in the Avenue prior to departing for France, face of a bull, something that can't be Colonel Hayward agitated for the Fif­ done without trouble. " Colonel teenth to be sent into war service. When Hayward pleaded with his troops not he begged for the regiment's inclusion to respond to provocation, even to in the multi-national "Rainbow Divi­ violence, and he instructed Jim Europe sion," he was told flatly that black was to have the band ready to perform im­ not one of the colors of the rainbow. mediately as a good will gesture.

ALABAMA HERITAGE 45 trained at home; a sad commentary on great pride in the fact that the men of rhythmic music pioneered by black the state of American society at the his band served not only as musicians Americans) had the strongest impact on time. but also as combat soldiers who fought Parisians. The French military band, On New Year's Day, 1918, the Fif­ in the trenches for nearly four months Guarde Republicaine, was so taken with teenth marched ashore at Brest as an of­ of the Great War. Prior to this time, the the "Hellfighters" that they borrowed ficial unit of the American Expedi­ American Fifteenth Regiment's reputa­ Europe's orchestrations and attempted tionary Force under the command of tion had rested primarily on the fame to duplicate their sound. When they General John Pershing, and for three of its band and its celebrated leader, but failed, they insisted on inspecting the months they served as a labor unit in during the summer and fall of 1918 the Americans' instruments, believing they support of supply and engineering pro­ new 369th distinguished itself as a must be of some new design. jects for the American forces at St. courageous and effective fighting Following Europe's concerts, the de­ Nazaire. Shortly after the regiment's ar­ outfit, earning the nickname mand for black musicians in Paris rival, however, the band received "Hellfighters" and emerging after the dramatically increased, as the French orders-its fame and that of its leader Allied victory in November as one of acquired a taste for "le jazz" that has having preceded them-to entertain the the most highly decorated American remained strong to this day. The suc­ first U.S. soldiers on leave at Aix-les­ units of the war. cess of the band also spurred on other Bains. Although First Lieutenant American regiments. Tim Brymm, an Europe was a line officer whose work French newspapers called old Oef Club rival of Europe's, organ­ as a band conductor was officially con­ them the "jazziest, ized a band for the 350th American sidered secondary to his regular duties, craziest, best-tooting Field Artillery, which was dubbed the Colonel Hayward succeeded in con­ outfit in France.'' "70 Black Devils, II and which caused a vincing the army brass that Europe sensation of its own playing for Presi­ alone was qualified to lead the band. Lieutenant Europe and the dent Wilson at the Versailles peace With Jim Europe as its conductor, then, "Hellfighters" band were not with their conference. the Fifteenth Regimental Band per­ regiment during the final push to the On Christmas Day, 1918, Europe and formed at St. Nazaire and, between Rhine and victory, however. With the his band were reunited with the 369th February 12 and March 20, 1918, trav­ tide of battle turning in the Allies' favor, at Belfort, as the regiment prepared for eled over two thousand miles perform­ Colonel Hayward finally acceded to a its departure from France. At Brest, the ing for French, British, and American French request that the band be sent to band gave its last concert on the eve­ troops and for French civilians in some Paris for a single concert. Although ning of January 31, 1919, the day before twenty-five cities. Everywhere they Europe was worried about the band's the troops boarded their ships for played they were enthusiastically readiness because he hadn't conducted home. And on February 17th, the Fif­ received, and reports of their success them since early spring, their Paris con­ teenth National Guard Regiment of spread throughout the Expeditionary cert was received with unrestrained en­ New York, known in France as the Force and to the papers back home. The thusiasm. His comment later that "we 369th United States Infantry, marched American commander at Aix-les-Bains, had conquered Paris," hardly exag­ up Fifth Avenue to the cheers of a recognizing the band's value to the gerated the French reaction. News­ million New Yorkers and on to Harlem morale of this troops, succeeded in ex­ papers called them the " jazziest, where they were received with a fren­ tending their assignment there for two craziest, best-tooting outfit in France," zy of pride and joy by a quarter of a weeks, and pleaded for Europe's band, and French officials insisted that the million members of their own race. As or one like it, to be assigned to him band remain in the capital for eight ad­ Major Arthur Little later wrote, the men permanently. ditional weeks. "Everywhere we gave of the 369th had been II recruited as But on March 14, Europe and his a concert," wrote Europe, "it was a fighting men, in ridicule; trained and fellow musicians were directed to rejoin riot." Although the band relied upon mustered into Federal service, in more their unit, which had been renamed the good musicianship and well-written ar­ ridicule; sent to France as a safe political 369th U.S. Infantry Regiment and rangements in a variety of styles, their solution of a volcanic political problem; assigned to the Sixteenth Division of "jazz" numbers (a word that had suc­ loaned to the French Army as another the French Army at the front near ceeded "rag" or "ragtime" as a de­ easy way out," but they came home Givry-en-Argonne. Jim Europe took scription of the more uninhibited heroes.

ALABAMA HERITAGE 47 A month after their triumphant wound seemed minor at first, and and a new style of native American return, Jim Europe and his much ex­ Europe calmly instructed the assistant music that both stimulated and panded "Hellfighters" band embarked conductor to proceed with the eve­ reflected a major transformation in upon a world-wide tour with two con­ ning's program. At the hospitat American culture. He had overcome the certs in Manhattan. PatheRecord Com­ attacks of those who claimed that the pany soon announced an exclusive During a performance in new music was demeaning to the digni­ recording contract for the "jazz king" Boston, Europe was ty of black Americans and those who and his "famous oyerseas band," and stabbed. feared that jazz and jazz dancing were the first recordings began to appear by inherently corrupt and immoral. He the end of April. The crowds were en­ however, doctors discovered that his had achieved a popular acclaim un­ thusiastic in every city they visited, and jugular vein had been severed, and equalled by any Negro musician up to the newspapers remarked on Europe's despite their efforts, he died several that time, and he had given his race and warmth and geniality. For a man who hours later. his country something in which they had worked so hard and accomplished The entire country was shocked by could take pride. Funeral services, held so much in his thirty-eight years, the the tragedy. In the fifteen years since at St. Mark's Methodist Church in New world must have seemed, indeed, to be his arrival in New York, Jim Europe had York on May 13th, were attended by a his. And then suddenly, and tragical­ completely changed the musical life of throng of both the prominent and the ly, the career of James Reese Europe the city and had brought new prestige less so, and people wept openly as his was over. During a performance at and new opportunity to New York's bier was carried slowly through the Mechanics' Hall in Boston on May 19, black musicians. He had been in­ streets of Harlem. He was buried with Europe was stabbed by a mentally strumental in gaining national accep­ full military honors in Arlington Na­ disturbed member of the band. The tance for a new kind of social dancing tional Cemetery the following day.

48 ALABAMA HERITAGE Huge crowds line Fifth Avenue as the "Hellfighters," the Fifteenth Colored Regiment of New York's The New York Times National Guard, return JIM EUROPE KILLED reported Europe's death home in triumph from on May 10, 1919, on World War I. At the time IN BOSTONQUARREL page one , as did of America's entry into the Drummer in "Hell Fighters' " many other newspapers war, the U.S. Army had Band Alleged to Have Slashed in the country, 20,000 black including the Chicago soldiers-10,000 in four Leader with a Knife. Tribune, which noted units of the regular army WON FAME BY "JAZZ" MUSIC the irony that Europe and 10,000 in various had gone "through hell national guard units. Recruited Negro Band and Played for Gen. Pershing in France" unscathed Blacks were not accepted only to meet death "at in the Marine Corps or the and President Poincare. the hands of a fellow Coast Guard and were soldier." The man who permitted only menial BOSTON, May 9.-Lieutenant James Reese (Jim stabbed Europe, Private assignments in the navy. Europe) of New York died at a hospital here tonight Herbert Wright, a By the war's end 200,000 as a result of a wound in the neck alleged to have been inflicted by Herbert Wright, also of New York, 24-year-old drummer in blacks had served in the the "Hellfighters" band, army in all ranks from and a drummer in the ''Hell Fighters'' (369th In­ fantry) band, of which Europe was leader. The two was later judged private to captain and in mentally ill. every type of assignment engaged in an altercation at Mechanics' Hall, where except that of pilot. the band has been giving a series of concerts. (Courtesy Department of Amencan Studies, University of Alabama)

It is tempting to speculate upon what In recent years, however, Europe's edy which they themselves would write further accomplishments Jim Europe music has begun to receive the serious and direct. On May 23, 1921, two years might have attained had he lived; clear­ attention it has long deserved, and his after his death, Europe's dream of ly, he was not one to rest on his laurels, pioneering role as the initiator of a restoring authentic black artistry to the and he most certainly would be better number of important directions in mainstream of the American theater known today than he is. Europe's American and Afro-American musical was realized when Sissie and Blake's reputation has suffered in part because history has begun to be recognized. Shuffle Along, the epoch-making musical he was a truly transitional figure and, Many historians now see him as an im­ written, performed, produced, and therefore, has been difficult for portant influence on countless musi­ directed by American blacks, opened at historians to place. In their effort to cians of the Jazz Age, as an original the Sixty-third Street Theatre. Without establish the unique artistic qualities of catalyst in the development of or­ the triumph of Shuffle Along, much that American jazz, jazz historians have con­ chestral jazz, and as a primary force in has been individual and original in centrated upon the Jelly Roll Mortons, countering the return of white American musical theater might never the Fletcher Hendersons, the Louis minstrelsy to the American stage and in have happened. Few people, at the Armstrongs, and the Duke Ellingtons, preparing the way for the full time, thought it possible, but as Blake and have tended to dismiss Europe's emergence of American musical later recalled, Sissle "said we'd get eclectic music as having little relation­ comedy. there, somehow, and we did. I think ship to jazz. Historians of "serious" Along with Noble Sissie and Eubie Sissie still felt Jim Europe's hand American music have disregarded Blake, Europe had dreamed before the guiding us. " Europe as merely a popular entertainer, war of bringing black performers into and folklore specialists have had to find white theaters, with dignity, through a their untutored heroes elsewhere. combination of music, dance, and com-

ALABAMA HERITAGE 49 Contributors, Sources, and Suggested Reading Feuds, Factions, and Reform: The Conquests of Europe: Politics In Early Birmingham The Remarkable Career of James Reese Europe by Leah Rawls Atkins by Reid Badger Leah Rawls Atkins, a Birmingham native, holds a doc­ Reid Badger, associate professor of American studies torate in history from Auburn University. She has taught at the University of Alabama, holds an undergraduate at Auburn, at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, degree from the United States Naval Academy and a doc­ and at Samford University, where she was a member of torate from Syracuse University, where he specialized in the history faculty for thirteen years. In 1985, Atkins the study of late Victorian and early twentieth-century returned to Auburn University as director of the Center America. A member of the University of Alabama facul­ for the Arts and Humanities, housed in the historic ty since 1974, he has taught courses in American popular nineteenth-century cottage, Pebble Hill. music and jazz for several years and is currently study­ Atkins' illustrated history of Birmingham and Jefferson ing the impact of the South on the national culture in the County, The Valley and the Hills (Woodland Hills, Califor­ 1920s. nia: Windsor Press, 1981), traces the history of the area The author wishes to thank Mr. James Reese Europe, from settlement to the present. For more information Jr., for his assistance in compiling information for this about Birmingham's political history, see also: article. Michael A. Breedlove, "Progressivism and Nativism: The Race for For more information about James Reese Europe, the the Presidency of the City Commission of Birmingham, Alabama in "Hellfighters" band, and Vernon and Irene Castle, see: 1917," Journal of the Birmingham Historical Society, 6 Ouly 1980): 3-9. Irene Foote Castle, Castles in the Air (Garden City, New York: Double­ Charles A. Fell, "The Crash and Moratorium/' Journal of the Bir­ day, 1958). mingham Historical Society, 1 Oanuary 1960): 7-10. Vernon and Irene Castle, Modem Dancing (New York: Harper, 1914; Wayne Flynt, "Religion in the Urban South: The Divided Religious reprint, New York: Da Capo, 1980). Mind of Birmingham, 1900-1930," Alabama Review 30 (April 1977): Samuel B. Charters and Leonard Kunstadt, jazz: A History of the New 108-34. York Scene (Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1%2). Virginia Vander Veer Hamilton, Hugo Black: The Alabama Years (Baton James Weldon Johnson, Black Manhattan (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972). 1930). Carl V. Harris, "Annexation Struggles and Political Power in Bir­ Robert Kimball and William Bolcom, Reminiscing with Sissie and Blake mingham, Alabama, 1890-1910," Alabama Review27 Ouly 1974): 163-84. (New York: Viking Press, 1973). Carl V. Harris, Political Power in Binningham, 1871-1921 (Knoxville: David Levering Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue (New York: Alfred University of Tennessee Press, 1977). A. Knopf, 1981). Malcolm Cook McMillan, Constitutional Development in Alabama, Arthur W. Little, From Harlem to the Rhine: The Story of New York's Col­ 1798-1901: A Study in Politics, the Negro, and Sectionalism (Chapel Hill: ored Volunteers (New York: Covici & Friede, 1936). University of North Carolina Press, 1955). Gunter Schuller, "Europe, james Reese (1881-1919)," in The Dictionary William R. Snell, "Masked Men in the Magic City: Activities of the of American Negro Biography, Rayford W. Logan and Michael R. Winston, Revised Klan in Birmingham, 1916-1940," Alabama Historical Quarterly eds. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), pp. 214-215. 34 (Fall and Winter 1972): 206-27. Gunther Schuller, Early Jazz: Its Roots and Mrtsical Development (New C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877-1913, Vol. 9 in York: Oxford University Press, 1968). A History of the South edited by Wendell Holmes Stephenson and E. Eileen Southern, Readings in Black American Music, 2nd. ed. (New York: Merton Coulter (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951). W. W. Norton, 1983). Terry Waldo, This is Ragtime (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1976). Alec Wilder, American Popular Song: The Great Innovators, 1900-1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recorded examples of jim Europe's music can be heard on two albums in the New World Records series: "Steppin' on the Gas: Rags to Jazz, 191~1927," and "Shuffle Along. " The liner notes by Lawrence Gushee and Robert Kimbal, respectively, are especially recommended.

Leah Rawls Atkins

ALABAMA HERITAGE 51 Alabama Heritage

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