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Home , Kenneth Waltz, Robert Keohane

Robert O. Keohane: The Study of *

Peter A. Gourevitch, University of California, San Diego

n electing APSA I president, members have made an interesting intellectual statement about the study of international rela- tions. Keohane has been the major theoretical challenger in the past quarter century of a previous Asso- ciation president, , whose work dominated the debates in the field for many years. Keo- hane's writings, his debate with Waltz, his ideas about institutions, cooperation under anarchy, transna- tional relations, complex interdepen- dence, ideas, and domestic politics now stand as fundamental reference points for current discussions in this field.1 Theorizing, methodology, exten- sion, and integration: these nouns make a start of characterizing the Robert O. Keohane contributions Robert Keohane has made to the study of international relations. Methodology —Keohane places concepts, techniques, and ap- Theorizing— Keohane challenges the study of the strategic interac- proaches as the broader discpline. the realist analysis that anarchy tion among states onto the foun- and the inevita- dations of economics, game The field of international relations bly lead states into conflict, first theory, and methodological indi- has been quite transformed between with the concept of transnational vidualism and encourages the ap- the early 1960s, when Keohane en- relations, which undermines the plication of positivist techniques tered it, and the late 1990s, when his centrality of the state as the unit of testing and verification. contributions to that field are being of analysis, then with neoliberal recognized. institutionalism, which argues that Extension—Keohane broadens the Keohane's influence is not diach- even if the state is a unitary actor, subject matter of world politics by ronic, but a chronological account of institutions can overcome the ob- promoting the field of interna- his career helps place the develop- stacles to cooperation that arise tional as an is- ment of his ideas in the context of from anarchy. sue area (the formation of eco- the battles he fought at the time nomic policy), as an influence on they occurred. Keohane is perhaps state behavior (the impact of eco- most well known for his insistence Peter A. Gourevitch, professor of po- nomic interests within and be- that institutions shape behavior in litical science at University of California, tween states), and as a type of important ways. This interest in in- San Diego, has published extensively in the reasoning (especially microeco- stitutions is readily apparent in his field of international political economy and nomics). earliest publications, a series of In- comparative politics. His books include Pol- ternational Organization articles on itics in Hard Times: Comparative Re- Integration-Through his theoriz- the General Assembly of UN (1967, sponses to Economic Crises (1986) and 1969a, 1969b, 1969c), which were The Pacific Rim: Challenges to Policy and ing, methodology, and extension, Theory (1989). He was a member of the Keohane helps merge the study of related to the work he did for his APSA Council from 1990 to 1992. In international relations with the Ph.D at Harvard, where he went 1994, he was elected to the American discipline of by after graduating summa cum laude Academy of Arts and Sciences. insisting that it can use the same from (IL) in 1961.

PSOnline www.apsanet.org 623 During the early 1970s, Keohane cific patterns of power and influ- international relations in general. began to develop the field of inter- ence. The definition of country Subsequent editors Peter Katzen- national political economy. This interests, the influences on countries stein and Steven Krasner substan- marked a major break and innova- from actors within them, and the tially broadened its base of contribu- tion, for the field had been domi- way countries interact flows through tors, circulation, and editorial board nated by security studies and a hier- a network of relationships only some members, but that is another story. archy of importance in which of which pass through the formal IO as we know it today took shape economic goals and institutions of the under the leadership of Keohane. influences on policy nation-state. Some of In the 1970s, Keohane published a were less significant Keohane's "com- these networks are number of papers and book chapters than military goals embodied in formal in political economy, dealing with and influences. plex interdepen- institutions at the topics such as inflation, energy, mul- Turning to eco- dence" phase international level, tinational corporations, trade, and nomic policy, Keo- like IMF or IATA, tariffs. Throughout this work, one hane saw that this served as no less but most are not, can see concern with institutions, arena involved the than the foundation being comprised of transnational politics, and domestic interaction of politi- very influential pat- politics. In retrospect, one can iden- cal actors within for a new subfield, terns of norms or tify in work done during Keohane's states in behaviors relationships, which "" phase a that cut across international politi- John Ruggie called number of diverse themes that could states. The unitary cal economy, and a "regimes." Instead of lead in different directions. The con- actor model of in- interactions among cept itself was complex: It served as ternational relations, serious alternative unitary states con- no less than the foundation for a or "realism," that to realist thinking cerned primarily with new subfield, international political dominated the field national security de- economy, and a serious alternative at that time had no in international fined in military to realist thinking in international good way of ac- relations. terms, Keohane and relations. counting for these Nye saw multiple Keohane's work emerged in an influences and rela- issue areas, the intellectual milieu in which several tionships. breakdown of hierachy among issue challenges to realism were surfacing. In place of the unitary actor-real- areas (military no longer dominant), One strand of critique questioned ist model, Keohane, writing with his the declining utility of force, the im- unitary actor assumptions by stress- Harvard colleague , pro- portance of international regimes ing the importance of domestic poli- posed a model in which nations con- and the fragmentation of authority tics (parties, interest groups and do- ducted "transnational relations." in each state. Instead of interna- mestic political institutions) in Oil firms, coffee growers, airlines, tional "relations," Keohane and Nye shaping state behavior. Another banks—all of these involve firms, saw international "interactions." The strand stressed international society associations, and interest groups that major statement of these themes or networks that cut across state have a massive impact upon the is- was pubished as Power and Interde- boundaries. A third considered the sue area involved. National govern- pendence (1977a). influence of culture and ideas. Com- ments are players in a policy arena, During the 1970s, Keohane plex interdependence and transna- but their control is by no means ex- worked to restructure the institu- tional relations were composite con- clusive or total. Prices and market tions articulating the field of inter- cepts that contained several shares may be shaped by forces of national relations itself. Specifically, elements of these challenges to real- which governments have little con- he became editor of International ism, and which could be taken in trol and each influences what gov- Organization and transformed it. different directions. Keohane, and ernments do. Two Keohane-Nye When Keohane took over, IO was a the field, faced some important publications were especially influen- general-interest journal for students choices about where to go. tial statements of these themes: of international institutions. Its arti- Keohane's choice had very signifi- "Transgovernmental Relations and cles were a mixture of topical re- cant consequences for the field. International Organizations" (1974a) search, description, and opinion. While he has returned to examine and Transnational Relations and Keohane shifted the focus toward ideas and domestic politics in recent World Politics (1972a). social science research articles based years, in the late 1970s Keohane Continuing to question the unitary on sound methodology and capable decided to confront head-on the state, Keohane and Nye developed of verification. He also instituted a core assumption of realism: the way the concept of "complex interdepen- stiff peer-review process with the actors behave in a condition of anar- dence." Countries deal with multiple help of a team of university-based chy. That is, while other challengers issue areas-economics, environment, faculty from several disciplines. Un- of realism sought to devalue the role migration, and culture, to name but der his editorship, IO became the a "system" plays in determining the a few. In each of these areas, there leading journal of international po- behavior of the system's constitu- may be more than one dimension- litical economy, and one of the ma- ents, Keohane wanted to reformu- oil, cars, finance—each with its spe- jor research journals in the field of late scholars' understanding of the

624 PS September 1999 system itself. He set aside the con- about the behavior of others and U.S. (e.g., the fall from troversy over unitary actors and do- find it costly to obtain such informa- 50% of world GNP to 20%, the mestic influences to refashion how tion. Building a positive argument, emergence of other economic and we think about actors altogether. In Keohane argued that institutions can military poles) would not lead inevi- so doing, he focussed his energy on ease these problems: they can share tability to conflict, as the realist the- the work of Kenneth Waltz. Waltz information, reduce transaction orists expected. The international had just published his major theoret- costs, provide incentives to trade institutions created during hegemony ical statement, The- concessions, provide could, Keohane argued, persist and ory of International mechanisms for dis- grow. They provided solutions to Politics (1979), Throughout his pute resolution, and problems of cooperation and, which laid out in a supply processes for thereby provided benefits in trade, very careful way the career, Keohane has making decisions. economic growth, and security. Be- core premises of sustained an inter- Institutions can in- cause of those benefits, these institu- realist thinking: the crease cooperation tions would not easily be threatened primacy of system in est in problems of even when no coer- or dismantled by those who wanted shaping the behav- methodology and cive power exists. them to continue. Thus, cooperation ior of the units in it, Institutions may in- could take place even without a the constituent ele- the linkage be- crease iteration, that dominant power, or hegemon, to ments of a system, is the number of in- solve all the collective action prob- and the logic of ac- tween international teractions among lems. Some have read Keohane as tion in anarchy that relations and the units. This further making a modified realist argument leads nations into encourages coopera- here: Hegemony created institutions conflict, however study of politics tion, because the capable of persisting after the hege- pacific their initial more broadly. more actors are able mon declines. Keohane actually saw intentions. As most to observe each the institutions as more powerful realists before him, other, the more they than that. Even without a hegemon Waltz saw conflict as the inevitable are able to assess the willingness of as first mover, nations can form in- outcome of "self-help" actions states the other to comply with cooperative stitutions able to provide the foun- take in defense of their national in- agreements. In these ways, institu- dations for cooperative behavior. terests. tions are able to encourage coopera- That current institutions did arise In challenging Waltz, Keohane tion under anarchy. Keohane during American hegemony was a accepted the importance of system showed conflict to be a pole on a historical fact that may have some in shaping state behavior. Where continuum, not an inevitable out- important influence on their cre- Waltz saw conflict, however, Keo- come. ation and persistence but, at least hane saw the possibility of coopera- By international institutions, Keo- theoretically, such institutions can tion. That cooperation produces hane does not mean a government, come into being without such a benefits superior to conflict has not with a police, army, and courts to leader. been challenged by different system punish. Rather, he means a type of Keohane's book and an edited theorists; the collective gains from organization, formal or informal, to volume titled Neorealism and Its coordination outweigh the solo ben- which nations belong because they Critics (1986) quickly became canon- efits of conflict. The divergence has want to, because they see the benefit ical statements in international rela- always been over whether coopera- of cooperation and seek to over- tions. The quarrel between Keohane tion will occur. Under the right con- come the obstacles to collective ac- and Waltz defined the debate over ditions, Keohane argued, units can tion that inhibit collaborative action how to understand "system" in inter- devise strategies of cooperation even (Keohane and Martin 1995a). From national relations for over a decade. in the absence of a strong sovereign GATT and the WTO to the Euro- Students engaged in, often heated, to punish defectors. Keohane turned pean Union, to agreements on air- discussions of NLI (neoliberal insti- to economics, the work on institu- lines, the mails, and the environ- tutionalism ) vs. Realism. Disserta- tions associated with Coase and Wil- ment, a vast network of cooperative tions and papers detailing institu- liamson, to game theory, and to arrangements have arisen that fall tions and how they operated flowed. work of theorists of strategic interac- between the rubric of nation-state This quarrel also defined the bat- tion like Schelling and Axelrod, all and international super-state. These tle lines of criticism in the field. of which examine carefully how ac- arrangements and the cooperation Three lines of inquiry may be noted tors behave in different structurally among them are not captured by as challenges to the centrality of the defined situations in the absence of traditional models of international Keohane-Waltz debate. First, the external authority and direct com- relations. Their existence is the key domestic politics school, whose munication. This work showed that dependent variable for Keohane and members generally were sympathetic under the right conditions, coopera- his account the major explanation of to Keohane's critique of Waltz, com- tion could be a productive strategy. their existence and efficacy. plained that by moving the debate Keohane showed that cooperation (1984a), Keo- toward system arguments—coopera- often fails because of coordination hane's major work in this branch of tion vs. conflict by unitary states un- problems. Actors lack information research, argues that the erosion of der anarchy—the domestic politics

PSOnline www.apsanet.org 625 elements of international politics uation of interests, the actual pros- reasoning based on political econ- were being neglected. These writers pects for cooperation, and the impli- omy and the security studies tradi- wanted to continue the disaggrega- cations for public policy. tion. A current project with Judy tion of the unitary state, which Keo- Keohane has engaged energeti- Goldstein, Miles Kahler, and Anne- hane had begun in the 70s, by ex- cally in these debates, vigorously Marie Slaughter examines the ploring how domestic politics shapes arguing the importance of institu- boundary between politics and law states' perception of their position in tions and their impact on behavior. to understand what processes lead the world. Position in the interna- At the same time, he has, in the 90s, to the legalization of disputes man- tional system was open to rival inter- turned to some of the themes raised agement and what processes push pretations. Conflicts occurred within in these critiques, or more precisely, toward political mechanisms. Evi- countries over national interests, returned to them. Many of these dent in much of Keohane's writing is threats, goals, objectives. The resolu- issues had been part of his agenda a special interest in U.S. foreign pol- tion of these quarrels turns on do- on transnational relations and com- icy, from the beginnings of the na- mestic politics, where domestic in- plex interdependence, which he laid tion to the present. terest groups, institutions, parties, aside in the 80s to focus on the im- Throughout his career, Keohane ideas, and culture can all play a role. portant quarrel over how to under- has sustained an interest in prob- Keohane notes countries can coop- stand the nature of the international lems of methodology and the link- erate if they want to. For these crit- system. Now, all the while continu- age between international relations ics, the issue of whether they want ing a major focus on institutions, and the study of politics more to cooperate turns on domestic poli- Keohane explores several dimen- broadly. With Gary King and Sidney tics, on whether there is support at sions of politics toward which a Verba, he published Scientific Infer- home for cooperation, and whether careful understanding of institutions ence in Qualitative Research (1994a). the supporters are able to prevail in must lead. With Judy Goldstein, This quickly became a major state- policy debates. Keohane considers how ideas shape ment of positivist ideas in the field, Scholars in the second school, , within countries, in arguing as it does for integrating the constructivists and sociological theo- domestic politics, and between states subject matters of international rela- rists, complained that both Keohane (Ideas and Foreign Policy 1993a). In tions with methodologies used in and Waltz neglected nonrationalist Internationalization and Domestic other fields of the discipline. Imme- and nonmaterial aspects of the in- Politics (1996a), Keohane, with diately placed on reading lists of all teraction of units. Keohane ac- , integrates the issue of kinds, this book has become another cepted, after all, Waltz's assump- international institutions with do- touchstone in the field, defining con- tions that states were utility mestic political support. As argued troversies over methodology particu- maximizers; what he disputed was in this book, countries seek coopera- larly in areas where there are often what maximization under anarchy tion if there is political support at a limited number of cases (World led to. But neither one paid much home to do so. They invest in insti- , for example), and substantial attention to culture, ideas, values, tutions if domestic actors seek gains interest in process (how certain deci- the internalization of norms, the from doing so, and institutions are sions were made). constitutive elements of identity, or strong if the actors support the gains Having helped transform the field the tissue of human exchanges and to be obtained. of international relations, Keohane cultures that structure interaction. Keohane has continued the inter- accepted an invitation to join his Some constructivists stayed at the est in applied policy cases that successors at International Organiza- system level and offered a model of marked his earliest research on the tion in editing a 50th anniversary the strategic interaction of unitary economy, trade, and resources. issue of that journal. The editors' states being shaped by the cultural Books edited with Peter Haas and coauthored introduction provides a and cognitive understandings each Marc Levy (1993b), with Elinor Os- comprehensive statement of their internalized from a global system of trom (1994b), and again with Marc view of the evolution of the field cultural construction. Other con- Levy (1996b) explore international over the past decades, and the arti- structivists developed an understand- environmental policy, examining the cles provide analyses of major issues ing of culture as a part of domestic obstacles to collective action in an and concepts (1998c, 1999b). politics, and processes, an element issue area that requires it and how In addition to his editorial work, in the way people within countries institutions can deal with these Keohane has promoted the develop- interpret the world. problems. Works on Europe, edited ment of ideas in a variety of other A third school, consisting largely with Stanley Hoffman (1991) and ways. He has encouraged the work of security specialists, attacked Keo- Hoffman and Nye (1993c) study the of younger scholars through coau- hane's stress on institutions, on the impact of changing U.S.-Soviet rela- thoring and mentoring. His advisees, way these operate, and on the ne- tions on Europe, the world's densest who include Vinod Aggarwal, Jon glect of security issues, generally, arena of international institutions. A Aronson, Terry Karl, Lisa Martin, and in relation to the functioning of recent volume edited with Helga Tim McKeown, Helen Milner, An- institutions, specifically. Some spe- Haftendorn and Celeste Wallander drew Moravsick, Beth Simmons, cialists in this camp are realists who (1999a) looks at security relations, David Yoffee, and , agree rather more with Waltz, while seeking to link together two histori- have moved successfully through others disagree on agenda, the eval- cally separate currents of research, university ranks.

626 PS September 1999 Married to a very prominent pro- Keohane's list of honors is long: political science, in general, have fessional woman, Nannerl Keohane, president of the International Stud- been transformed by his accomplish- the current president of Duke Uni- ies Association; winner of the 1989 ments. For three decades, he has versity, the former president of Grawemeyer Award for Ideas Im- defined the issues of debate, the , a past professor proving World Order; recipient of concepts, and the vocabulary ("trans- at Stanford and Swarthmore, and a fellowships from the Guggenheim national relations," "complex inter- specialist in political theory, Robert Foundation, the Center for Ad- dependence," "neoliberal institution- has sought to encourage the ad- vanced Study at Stanford, the Social alism," "cooperation under vancement of women in the field. Science Research Council, the Ger- anarchy," "the politics of interna- He has moved several times to assist man Marshall Fund, and the Coun- tional environmental policy," ideas his wife's career: from Stanford to cil on Foreign Relations. and domestic politics in interna- Brandeis, then from Harvard to "Reason is the servant of the pas- tional relations, and methodology of Duke. Keohane's first teaching job sions," wrote David Hume. Perhaps, political inquiry). His concepts have was at Swarthmore. In 1997, he re- but energy is the motor of accom- entered our language. Agree or dis- ceived the first Mentorship Award plishment. Keohane is a most ener- agree, no one writes in this field from the Society for Women in In- getic individual. The fields of inter- without reference to Keohane's ternational Political Economy. national relations, in particular, and ideas.

Notes

* Thanks for comments on an earlier draft while close in some ways to the rationalism of characteristics of human cognition and infor- to David Lake and Lisa Martin. both Waltz and Keohane, has pioneered a mation processing in shaping decision-making 1. Indeed, the nomination of line of reasoning neither of them has ex- and events, but that will be the subject of to follow Keohane marks another intriguing plored-the impact of perception and the next year's essay on the president! step in the evolution of this field, for Jervis,

Selected Publications

1999a. Imperfect Unions: Security Institutions 1997b. "Problematic Lucidity: Stephen Kras- gimes: Towards a European-American Across Time and Space, edited with Helga ner's 'State Power and the Structure of Research Programme." In Haftendorn and Celeste A. Wallander. Foreign Trade.'" World Politics 50(Octo- and International Relations, ed. Volker Oxford: Oxford University Press. ber). Rittberger. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1999b. Exploration and Contestation in the 1996a. Internationalization and Domestic Poli- 1993e. "Institutionalist Theory and the Real- Study of World Politics, edited with Peter tics, edited with Helen V. Milner. Cam- ist Challenge after the Cold ." In Neo- J. Katzenstein and Stephen D. Krasner. bridge: Cambridge University Press. realism and Neoliberalism: The Contempo- Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (Also ap- 1996b. Institutions for Environmental Aid: Pit- rary Debate, ed. David Baldwin. New peared as a special issue of International falls and Promise, edited with Marc A. York: Press. Organization.) Levy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1993f. "Sovereignty, Interdependence, and 1999c. "Ideology and Professionalism in In- 1996c. "Lessons for Environmental Aid: Poli- International Institutions." In Ideas and ternational Institutions: Insights from the tics, Lessons, and Opportunities," with Ideals: Essays on Politics in Honor of Stan- Work of Douglas C. North." In Taking Barbara Connolly. Environment 38(June). ley Hoffmann, ed. Linda B. Miller and Mi- Economics Seriously: A Conversation be- 1995a. "The Promise of Institutionalist Theo- chael Smith. Boulder: Westview Press. tween Nobelist Economists and Political ry," with Lisa L. Martin. International Se- 1993g. "The Diplomacy of Structural Change: Scientists, ed. James Alt, , curity 20(Summer): 34-46. State Strategies and Multilateral Institu- and . New York: Russell 1995b. "An Institutional Approach to Alli- tions." In Diplomacy, Force and Leader- ance Theory," with Celeste A. Wallander. ship: Essays in Honor of Alexander L. 1998a. "Beyond Dichotomy: Conversations CFIA Working Paper, Spring. George, ed. Dan Caldwell and Timothy J. between International Relations and Fem- 1994a. Scientific Inference in Qualitative Re- McKeown. Boulder: Westview. inist Theory." International Studies Quar- search, with Gary King and Sydney Verba. 1991. The New European Community: Deci- terly 32(March): 193-98. Princeton: Press. sion-Making and Institutional Change, ed- 1998b. "International Institutions: Can Inter- 1994b. Local Commons to Global Interdepen- ited with Stanley Hoifmann. Boulder: dependence Work?" Foreign Policy dence, edited with Elinor Ostrom. Thou- Westview. llO(Spring): 8296. sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers. 1990a. "International Liberalism Reconsid- 1998c. "International Organization and the 1993a. Ideas and Foreign Policy, edited with ered." In The Economic Limits to Modern Study of World Politics," with Peter J. Judith Goldstein. Ithaca: Cornell Univer- Politics, ed. John Dunn. Cambridge: Cam- Katzenstein and Stephen D. Krasner. In- sity Press. bridge University Press. ternational Organization 52(Fall). 1993b. Institutions for the Earth: Sources of 1990b. "Multilateralism: An Agenda for Re- 1998d. "Power and Interdependence in the Effective International Environmental Pro- search." International Journal 45(Fall): Information Age," with Joseph S. Nye. tection, edited with Peter M. Haas and 731-64. 77(September-October): Marc A. Levy. Cambridge, MA: MIT 1989a. International Institutions and State Pow- 81-95. Press er: Essays in International Relations Theory. 1998e. "When Does International Law Come 1993c. After the Cold War: State Strategies and Boulder: Westview. Home?" Houston Law Review 35(Fall): International Institutions in Europe. 1989- 1989b. "Closing the Fairness-Practice Gap." 699-713. 1991, edited with Joseph S. Nye and Stan- Ethics and International Affairs 3(April): 1997a. "International Relations and Interna- ley Hoffman. Cambridge, MA: Harvard 101-16. tional Law: Two Optics." Harvard Interna- University Press. 1989c. "The Rhetoric of Economics as tional Law Journal 38(Spring). 1993d. "The Analysis of International Re- Viewed by a Student of Politics." In The

PSOnline www.apsanet.org 627 Consequences of Economic Rhetoric, ed. 1982a. "The Demand for International Re- Integration," with Joseph S. Nye Jr. In Arjo Klamer, Robert McCloskey, and gimes. " International Organization Handbook of Political Science, ed. Nelson Robert Solow. Cambridge: Cambridge 36(Spring). W. Polsby and Fred I. Greenstein. Read- University Press. 1982b. "International Agencies and the Art of ing, MA: Addison-Wesley. 1989d. "International Relations Theory: Con- the Possible: The Case of the IEA." Jour- 1975b. "The Multinational Firm and Interna- tributions of a Feminist Standpoint." Mil- nal of Policy Analysis and Management tional Regulation," with Van Doom lennium: Journal of International Studies l(June). Ooms. International Organization 29(Win- 18(Summer): 245-53. 1982c. "State Power and Industry Influence: ter). 1988. "International Institutions: Two Ap- American Oil Policy in the 1940s." Inter- 1975c. "International Economics and Interna- proaches." International Studies Quarterly national Organization 36(Winter). tional Politics: A Framework for Analy- 32(December): 379-96. 1981. "Responding to the 'New Protection- sis," with C. Fred Bergsten and Joseph S. 1987a. "Power and Interdependence Recon- ism': Strategies for the Advanced Devel- Nye Jr. International Organization 29(Win- sidered," with Joseph S. Nye Jr. Interna- oping Countries in the Pacific Basin," with ter). tional Organization 41(Fall). David B. Yoffie. In Trade and Growth of 1975d. "International Organization and the 1987b. "The Dynamics of Negotiated Protec- the Advanced Developing Countries in the Crisis of Interdependence." International tionism," with Vinod K. Aggarwal and Pacific Basin, ed. Wontack Hong and Organization 29(Spring). David B. Yoffie. American Political Science Lawrence Krause. Seoul: Korean Develop- Review 81 (June): 345-66. 1974a. "Transgovernmental Relations and ment Institute. 1986a. Neorealism and Its Critics, ed. New International Organizations," with Joseph York: Columbia University Press. 1980a. "New Trends in International Politics S. Nye Jr. World Politics 27(October). 1986b. "Reciprocity in International Rela- and Economics." In Southeast Asia in a 1974b. "The Complex Politics of Canadian- tions." International Organization 40(Win- Changing World, ed. Shigekazu Matsu- American Interdependence," with Joseph ter). moto. Tokyo: Institute of Developing S. Nye Jr. International Organization 1985a. "Achieving Cooperation under Anar- Economies. 28(Fall). chy: Strategies and Institutions," with 1980b. "The Theory of Hegemonic Stability 1973. "World Politics and the International . World Politics 38(Octo- and Changes in International Economic Economic System," with Joseph S. Nye Jr. ber): 226-54. Regimes, 1967-1977." In Change in the In The Future of the International Eco- 1985b. "The International Politics of Infla- International System, ed. Ole Holsti, Ran- nomic Order, ed. C. Fred Bergsten. Lex- tion." In The Politics of Inflation and Eco- dolph Siverson, and Alexander L. George. ington, MA: Heath. nomic Stagnation, ed. Charles Maier and Boulder: Westview. 1972a. Transnational Relations and World Poli- Leon Lindberg. Washington, DC: The 1980c. "The Concept of the National Interest: tics, edited with Joseph S. Nye Jr. Cam- Brookings Institution Press. Uses and Limitations," with Alexander L. bridge, MA: Press. 1985c. "Two Cheers for Multilateralism," with George. In Presidential Decisionmaking in 1972b. "The Multinational Enterprise and Joseph S. Nye Jr. Foreign Policy 60(Sep- Foreign Policy: The Effective Uses of Infor- World Political Economy." International tember): 148-67. mation and Advice, ed. Alexander L. Organization 26(Winter). 1984a. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Dis- George. Boulder: Westview. 1972c. "The U.S. Multinational Enterprise cord in the World Political Economy. 1979. " Foreign Economic Pol- and the Nation-State." Journal of Com- Princeton: Princeton University Press. icy Toward Other Advanced Capitalist mon Market Studies 11 (September). (Japanese edition, 1998.) States: The Struggle to Make Others Ad- 1971a. "The Big Influence of Small Allies." 1984b. "The World Political Economy and just." In Eagle Entangled: Contemporary Foreign Policy, Spring. the Crisis of Embedded Liberalism." In Issues in American Foreign Policy, ed. Ken- 1971b. "Coalition Theory and the Security Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capi- neth Oye, Donald Rothchild, and Robert Council: Some Notions About Institu- talism: Studies in the Political Economy of J. Lieber. New York: Longman's. tional Change." In The United Nations: Western European Nations, ed. John Gold- 1978a. "American Policy and the Trade- Problems and Prospects, ed. Edwin A. Ped- thorpe. New York: Oxford University Growth Struggle." der. St. Louis: Center for International Press, for the Social Science Research Studies, University of Missouri. Council. 3(Autumn). 1978b. "Economics, Inflation and the Role of 1969a. "Institutionalization in the United Na- 1984c. "Theory of World Politics: Structural tions General Assembly." International Realism and Beyond." In Political Science: the State: Political Implications of the Mc- The State of the Discipline, ed. Ada W. Cracken Report." World Politics 31(Octo- Organization 23(Fall). Finifter. Washington, DC: American Polit- ber). 1969b. "Lilliputians' Dilemmas: Small States ical Science Association. 1978c. "The International Energy Agency: in International Politics." International 1983a. "Associative American Development, State Influence and Transgovernmental Organization 23(Spring). 1776-1860: Economic Growth and Politi- Politics." International Organization 32(Au- 1969c. "Who Cares About the General As- cal Disintegration." In The Antinomies of tumn). sembly?" International Organization Interdependence, ed. John Gerard Ruggie. 1977. Power and Interdependence: World Poli- 23(Winter). New York: Columbia University Press. tics in Transition, with Joseph S. Nye Jr. 1967. "The Study of Political Influence in the 1983b. "Perspective: Political Threats to the Boston: Little, Brown. (2nd ed., 1989.) General Assembly." International Organi- International Economic System." In Man- 1976. "Not 'Innocents Abroad': U.S. Multina- zation 21(Spring). aging International Risk, ed. Richard tional Corporations and the U.S. Govern- 1966. "Political Influence in the General As- J. Herring. New York: Cambridge Univer- ment." Comparative Politics, January. sembly." International Conciliation sity Press. 1975a. "International Interdependence and 557(March).

References

Waltz, Kenneth Neal. 1979. Theory of Interna- tional Politics. New York : Random House.

628 PS September 1999