4.1 Brief Introduction...... 51 4.2 How it all began...... 52 4.3 Early History of Transatlantic Slave Trade...... 56 4.4 Choice of Black Africans as Slaves of this Trade...... 70 4.5 Spanish and Portuguese Crowns and Atlantic Enslavement of Black Africans...... 76 5. The Dutch, French and the British in the Atlantic Slave Trade...... 80

5.1 Brief Introduction...... 80 5.2 The Dutch and the Atlantic Slave Trade...... 81 5.3 The French and the Atlantic Slave Trade...... 86 5.4 The British and the Atlantic Slave Trade...... 89 5.5 Treatment of Black African Slaves in this Trade...... 100

II. Justification for Slavery and Enslavement of Black Africans...... 108

1. The Catholic Church on the Subject of Slavery...... 108

1.1 Introduction...... 108 1.2 Theological Foundation of Slavery in the Catholic Church...... 109 1.2.1 Slavery in the Views of the Apostle Paul...... 109 1.2.2 Slavery in the Household Codes of the Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles: A Preamble...... 118 1.2.3 Slavery in the Household Codes of Deutero-Pauline Letters (Col.3:22-4:l & Eph.6:5-9)...... 120 1.2.4 Slavery in the Household Code of the Pauline Pastoral Epistles (lTim.6:l-2 & Titus 2:9-10)...... 125 1.3 Slavery in the Light of Servant of God Title of Jesus Christ...... 129 1.4 Slavery and the Decrees of Church Orders and Councils...... 132

2. Early Patristic Authors and the Origin of Slavery...... 136

2.1 Brief Introduction...... 136 2.2 St. Basil of Caesarea and Slavery...... 137 2.3 St. Ambrose of Milan and Slavery...... 139 2.4 St. Gregory of Nyssa and Slavery...... 140 2.5 St. John Chrysostom and Slavery...... 141 2.6 St. Augustine of Hippo and Slavery...... 143

3. St. Thomas Aquinas and Spanish Theologians on Slavery...... 145

3.1 Brief Introduction 145 3.2 Influence of Plato and Aristotle on Aquinas’ Position on Slavery. 146 3.3 St. Thomas Aquinas and Slavery...... 149 3.4 Francisco de Vitoria and Slavery...... 152 3.5 Bishop Bartolome de Las Casas and Slavery...... 156 3.6 Domingo de Soto and Slavery...... 163

4. Slavery as Consequence for the Sin of Ham...... 166

4.1 Brief Introduction...... 166 4.2 The Myth of a Cursed Race: Curse of Ham ...... 167 4.3 Meaning of Ham...... 168 4.4 The Curse of Ham and Dark Skin-Color of Black Africans...... 171 4.5 The Curse of Ham as Justification for Enslaving Black Africans.. 180

5. Racial Justification for the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 191

5.1 Brief Introduction...... 191 5.2 Denial of the Humanity of the Black Man...... 192 5.3 The Black African Race as an Inferior Race...... 200 5.4 The Black African Race as a Race without Morality...... 206

III. The Catholic Church and Black African Enslavement...... 213

1. Early Beginnings of Church’s Involvement in the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 213

1.1 Brief Introduction...... 213 1.2 Strategical Background of the Church in the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 215 1.3 The Church and Non-Catholics in Medieval Times...... 215 1.4 The Theory of Medieval Papal Universal Authority...... 218 1.5 Crusade seen as Mission to Re-Conquer Former Christian Lands...... 227 1.6 The Position of the Church on the Right of Infidels or Pagans to Possess Private Property...... 238 2. Foundational Papal Bulls in the Enslavement of Black Africans... 249

2.1 Brief Introduction...... 249 2.2 A Background Knowledge to these Papal Bulls...... 251 2.2.1 Portuguese “Royal Marriage” with the Papacy (Padroado Real).... 251 2.2.2 Re-enactment of this Royal Relation with the Renaissance Papacy in the Conquest of West African Atlantic Coasts...... 258 2.2.3 The Conquest of Ceuta and the Papal Bulls of Crusade in Africa. 263 2.3 The Bull “Sane Charissimus” of Pope Martin V in 1418...... 268 2.4 The Bull “Dudum Cum” of Pope Eugene IV in...... 1436 275 2.5 The Bull “Etsi Suscepti” of Pope Eugene IV in ...... 1442 280 2.6 The Bull “Illius Qui” of Pope Eugene IV in ...... 1442 284

3. Papal Bulls Empowering Portugal to Reduce Black Africans to Slaves (1452-1455)...... 289

3.1 Prelude to this Empowering: The Royal Charter of 1443...... 289 3.2 Prince Henry the Navigator and the Great Event of 1444/5...... 295 3.3 Pope Nicholas V and his Approval of the Atlantic Enslavement of Black Africans...... 305 3.4 The Bull “Dum Diversas” of Pope Nicholas V in ...... 1452 309 3.4.1 Brief Introduction...... 309 3.4.2 The Bull “Dum Diversas” and Enslavement of Black Africans.... 311 3.5 The Bull “Romanus Pontifex” of Pope Nicholas V in...... 1454316 3.5.1 Brief Introduction...... 316 3.5.2 The Bull “Romanus Pontifex” and the Transatlantic Enslavement of Black Africans...... 318

4. Immediate Successors of Pope Nicholas V and Enslavement of Black Africans (1456-1514)...... 336

4.1 Brief Introduction...... 336 4.2 The Bull “Inter Caetera” of Pope Callixtus III and the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 337 4.3 Pope Sixtus IV and Enslavement of Black Africans...... 345 4.3.1 Brief Introduction...... 345 4.3.2 The Bull “Aetemi Regis” of Pope Sixtus IV and Enslavement of Black Africans...... 345 4.4 The Alexandrian Bulls of 1493 and Enslavement of Black Africans...... 350 4.4.1 Brief Introduction...... 350 4.4.2 The Bull “Eximiae Devotionis” of Pope Alexander VI in 1493.... 352 4.4.3 The Bull "Inter Caetera” of Pope Alexander VI in...... 1493 354 4.5 The Bull "Praecelsae Devotionis” of Pope Leo X in 1514...... 358 4.5.1 Brief Introduction...... 358 4.5.2 Pope Leo X and Enslavement of Black Africans...... 359

5. The Church in Defence of Those under Unjust Enslavement...... 365

5.1 Brief Introduction...... 365 5.2 Did the Church condemn Enslavement of Black Africans?...... 366 5.3 The Bull “Sicut Dudum” of Pope Eugene IV in...... 1435 367 5.4 The Bull "Sublimis Deus” of Pope Paul III in...... 1537 370 5.5 The Bull “Cum Sicuti” of Pope Gregory XIV in...... 1591 374 5.6 The Bull "Commissum Nobis” of Pope Urban VIII in...... 1639375 5.7 The Bull "Immensa Pastorum” of Pope Benedict XIV in 1741.... 377

6. Papal Bulls Condemning the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 380

6.1 When did the Church Condemn Enslavement of Black Africans? 380 6.2 The Letter “Inter Tot Ac Tantas” of Pope Pius VII in ...... 1814 388 6.3 The Letter “Etsi Perspecta” of Pope Pius VII in 1823...... 394 6.4 Pope Gregory XVI and the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 397 6.5 “In Supremo Apostolatus” of 1839 and Black ...... Africans 398

7. Resume of the Church’s Position on the Enslavement of Black Africans...... 405

7.1 Stating what is at Stake...... 405 7.2 The Church’s Silence over Black African Enslavement...... 407 7.3 The Church’s Acceptance of Slavery as a Divine Institution...... 407 7.4 The Theme of a Just Title of Enslavement...... 408 7.5 Just War Theory and Black African Enslavement...... 412 7.6 Curse of Ham as a Curse of Slavery on Black Africans...... 418 7.7 Black African Skin-Color as a Mark of their Enslavement...... 419 7.8 Papal Policy of Galley Slaves in the Papal States...... 420

IV. The Portuguese and the Evangelization of Africa...... 422

1. Portugal and the Mission to Evangelize Black Africans...... 422

1.1 Brief Introduction...... 422 1.2 Padroado Real and its Implication in Overseas Mission...... 422 1.3 Portuguese Mission in Africa: An Overview...... 428 1.4 Kongo Mission: An Example of the Portuguese Mission to Evangelize Black Africa...... 432 1.5 Using the Right of Patronage to Checkmate Papal Powers in the Portuguese Overseas Mission Lands...... 443 1.6 Portuguese Missionaries: Evangelizers or Slave Traders?...... 451

2. Friends of the Black African Victims of the Transatlantic Slave Trade...... 458

2.1 Brief Introduction...... 458 2.2 Raised but Unheard Voices of the Friends of the Enslaved Black Africans during the Transatlantic Slave Trade...... 459

V. Conclusion...... 467

VI. Zusammenfassung in deutscher Sprache...... 482

VII. Appendix...... 495

List of Abbreviations...... 548 Primary Sources...... 551 Secondary Literature...... 566 Index of Names...... 577 Index of Places...... 585