DOCSLIB.ORG

Direct Democracy and Women's Political Engagement

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Direct Democracy and Women's Political Engagement Direct Democracy and Women’s Political Engagement Jeong Hyun Kim Louisiana State University Abstract: What are the conditions that promote gender equality in political participation? In this article, I propose that the presence of direct democracy expands gender equality in political participation by signaling the system’s openness to women’s voice, confirming their political competency, and highlighting their stake in political decisions. To test this argument, I leverage a quasi-experiment in Sweden in the aftermath of the introduction of universal suffrage, where the type of municipal political institutions was determined by a population threshold. My findings lend strong support to the effect of direct democracy on the political inclusion of women. I find that the gender gap in electoral participation was smaller in municipalities using direct democracy than in similarly sized municipalities that only had representative institutions. Replication Materials: The data, code, and any additional materials required to replicate all analyses in this arti- cle are available on the American Journal of Political Science Dataverse within the Harvard Dataverse Network, at: https:/doi.org/10.7910/AGIMGY. cross the world, women’s engagement in poli- the political environment affects gendered patterns tics tends to lag behind that of men. Although of political behavior. Recently, the historical political A the gender gap in turnout has disappeared in economy literature has drawn attention to the role of many countries (Inglehart and Norris 2000; Quaranta institutional context by investigating how proportional and Dotti Sani 2018; Smets and Van Ham 2013), re- representation (Skorge 2018a) and heightened party search demonstrates that women still participate less fre- competition (Corder and Wolbrecht 2016) have increased quently in other forms of political activities, such as mak- women’s turnout relative to men’s in the early twentieth ing campaign contributions, joining a political organi- century. zation, or persuading others to vote (Burrell 2004; De- This article illuminates an alternative institutional sposato and Norrander 2009; Fraile and Gomez 2017; mechanism that narrows the gender gap in participation: Inglehart and Norris 2003). Women’s lower propensity direct democracy. In broader terms, direct democracy to engage in politics raises normative concerns, and refers to political processes that allow ordinary citizens it has important policy consequences. Given that men to directly decide on laws rather than select representa- and women tend to hold divergent political preferences tives to make decisions on their behalf (Matsusaka 2005). (Alvarez and McCaffery 2003; Gottlieb, Grossman, and The most widespread forms of direct democracy include Robinson 2016), lower levels of political participation citizen initiatives, in which citizens vote on fellow citi- among women can produce policies that are systemati- zens’ policy proposals, and referendums, in which citi- cally biased against women’s preferences, which in turn zens vote on a law already approved by the legislature. can reinforce gender inequalities in social and economic Direct democracy also covers town meetings, in which domains. citizens gather on a regular basis for making public de- While scholars have examined the effect of cultural cisions. In several advanced democracies, most famously (Inglehart and Norris 2000) and economic factors in the United States and Switzerland, direct democratic (Morgan-Collins and Teele 2017) on women’s political procedures have become an integral part of the policy- participation, there has been less discussion on how making process across different levels of government. Jeong Hyun Kim is Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70802 ([email protected]). I would like to thank the Editor of AJPS and three anonymous reviewers, as well as Deniz Aksoy, Michael Bechtel, Dan Butler, Melody Crowder-Meyer, Olle Folke, Matt Gabel, Johanna Rickne, Leslie Schwindt-Bayer, Margit Tavits, Dawn Teele,and Danielle Thomsen for their valuable comments on earlier versions of this article. I also thank Karin Leijon for her crucial help with identifying Swedish documents. I acknowledge the Carrie Chapman Catt Prize for support for this research. American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 00, No. 00, xxxx 2019, Pp. 1–17 C 2019, Midwest Political Science Association DOI: 10.1111/ajps.12420 1 2 JEONG HYUN KIM In this article, I propose that the presence of di- suggest that providing participatory opportunities at the rect democracy signals the openness of the system to masslevelhasimportantimpactsonwomen’spoliti- women’s political activism and confirms that women are cal orientations. This insight highlights the need to ex- equally competent to make important contributions to plore the role of broader institutional contexts in shaping political decision making. It also enables women to more women’s political behavior. closely observe how their political actions translate into Second, this article advances our understanding of changes in their lives, thereby increasing their sense of developments of women’s political engagement by ana- having political influence. These effects will in turn in- lyzing historical data from the early decades of women’s crease women’s political participation at a higher rate electoral participation. It builds on an emerging interest than men’s. in the research on women and politics in utilizing histor- Although recent work suggests that women and men ical data to test previously untestable arguments about now turn out at a similar rate (Quaranta and Dotti Sani women’s political behavior. Specifically, these studies 2018), women’s turnout was substantially lower than that have addressed how women’s economic status (Morgan- ofmenwhentheyfirstgainedvotingrights(Duverger Collins and Teele 2017), levels of electoral competition 1955; Tingsten 1937). I investigate how the presence of di- (Corder and Wolbrecht 2016), or electoral rules (Sko- rect democracy affected the gendered patterns of electoral rge 2018a) shaped women’s voting behavior in the early participation in the earlier years of women’s enfranchise- twentieth century. ment. Specifically, I test the effect of direct democracy on My article makes a distinct contribution to this the gender gap in turnout through leveraging a natural literature by examining how the availability of direct experiment in Sweden in the early twentieth century. Be- policy influence affected newly enfranchised women’s tween 1919 and 1953, a population threshold determined participation in elections. Furthermore, both my theory whether direct democratic institutions governed Swedish and findings suggest that women’s participation in direct localities or whether elected representatives governed democratic procedures has durable implications for their it through a local council. This plausibly exogenous subsequent political behavior. This finding is consistent variation in local political institutions coincided with the with the scholarly evidence on the relationship between introduction of universal suffrage in the country, provid- women’s earlier involvement in political activities and ing a rare opportunity to identify the effect of local direct their political activism in the future (Carpenter and democratic institutions on women’s political inclusion, Moore 2014; Skorge 2018b). while controlling for their past behavioral patterns. Re- Finally, this article provides a new theoretical per- sults from regression discontinuity (RD) analyses confirm spective on the relationship between direct democracy that the presence of direct democracy has strong effects and marginalized groups. Some empirical studies have on the political inclusion of women. Extending this base- shownthatdirectdemocraticprocedurestendtopro- line analysis and using rich information from minutes of duce outcomes that are systematically biased against the municipal meetings, I examine whether women’s involve- interests of socially marginalized groups, such as racial ment in direct democratic meetings is associated with and ethnic minorities (Gamble 1997; Hainmueller and their participation in subsequent parliamentary elections. Hangartner 2015; Hajnal 2009). My study indicates This article makes three important contributions. that opportunities and experience under direct democ- First, it extends the literature on political institutions racy may create some positive behavioral implications and women’s political inclusion. Most studies on this for marginalized groups. It further suggests that direct topic have focused on how electoral institutions, espe- democracy helps citizens, who have been politically ex- cially those expected to increase women’s representation, cluded and socially marginalized develop a sense of po- bring women closer to politics. Notably, many scholars litical efficacy, leading them to become more engaged in haveexaminedhowtheadoptionofgenderquotasinelec- politics. This attitudinal change, in turn, may provide tions affects women’s presence in elected positions (Krook them with greater political influence in the long run. 2009; Schwindt-Bayer 2009; Tripp and Kang 2008), access to political leadership (O’Brien and Rickne 2016), and political engagement (Barnes and Burchard 2013; Kittil- son and Schwindt-Bayer 2010). My findings complement Previous Literature on the Gender this research by showing that institutions that are not Gap in Political Engagement
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Migrant, Woman and Business Owner: a Heterogeneous Group with Diverse Needs Karen Haandrikman and Natasha A
    K ULTURGEOGRAFISKT SEMINARIUM Migrant, woman and business owner: A heterogeneous group with diverse needs Karen Haandrikman and Natasha A. Webster 2020:1 Migrant, woman and business owner: A heterogeneous group with diverse needs Karen Haandrikman and Natasha A. Webster ©Karen Haandrikman och Natasha Webster, Stockholms universitet 2020 Omslag: Saitong Kerdprasop ISBN Print 978-91-87355-94-3 ISBN Online 978-91-87355-95-0 ISSN 0347-9552 Distributör: Kulturgeografiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet, Stockholm Table of contents 1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 2. Migrant entrepreneurship ....................................................................... 5 3. Who gets to be self-employed? ............................................................. 7 4. Methods ................................................................................................. 9 5. Results ................................................................................................. 11 5.1 Results from register data: Who gets to be self-employed? .................................... 11 5.2 Results from interviews: Processes shaping self-employment ............................... 18 6. Conclusions ......................................................................................... 27 7. Policy recommendations ........................................................................... 29 References ...................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Gender Equality Policy in the Arts, Culture and Media Comparative Perspectives
    Gender Equality Policy in the Arts, Culture and Media Comparative Perspectives Principal Investigator: Prof. Helmut K. Anheier, PhD SUPPORTED BY Project team: Charlotte Koyro Alexis Heede Malte Berneaud-Kötz Alina Wandelt Janna Rheinbay Cover image: Klaus Lefebvre, 2009 La Traviata (Giuseppe Verdi) @Dutch National Opera Season 2008/09 Contents Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 3 List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. 5 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... 8 Comparative Summary ............................................................................................................ 9 Introduction to Country Reports ......................................................................................... 23 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 23 Method ............................................................................................................................... 24 Indicators ..........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Attitudes Towards Gender Equality in Denmark, Sweden and Norway
    V12B Attitudes towards gender equality in Denmark, Sweden and Norway Jørgen Goul Andersen & Ditte Shamshiri-Petersen Department of Political Science Aalborg University [email protected], [email protected] draft Paper presented at the 2016 Annual meeting of the Danish Political Science Association, October 27-28, Vejle, Denmark Indhold 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 2 2. Data .................................................................................................................................................... 5 3. Country and gender differences ........................................................................................................... 6 3.1. Gender role attitudes ..................................................................................................................... 6 3.2. Gender equality as an ideal ........................................................................................................... 8 3.3. Perceived distance from the ideal ................................................................................................ 10 3.4. Policy instruments to promote gender equality ............................................................................ 13 4. Generational diversity ....................................................................................................................... 15 References ...........................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Political Incorporation of Women in Sweden (1921-1960)
    FAMILY, GENDER NORMS AND SOCIAL CLASS: THE POLITICAL INCORPORATION OF WOMEN IN SWEDEN (1921-1960) (February 7th, 2021) 1 Carles Boix 2, Zsuzsanna Magyar 3 and Jordi Muñoz 4 Abstract Women’s voting behavior has been historically defined by three stylized facts: at the time of their enfranchisement, they voted less than men did; their participation varied with social status; and they gradually caught up with men, first among high-status urban groups and last in rural areas. To account for these tendencies, we develop a theory that links women’s probability to vote to their position in the family and type of gender norms that were prevalent in their social milieu. Among women in social environments in which traditional gender norms were more pervasive, political participation was highly dependent on marriage and intra-family mobilization: unmarried women voted infrequently; married women, however, internalizing the interests of their households and abiding by the norms that governed family life, approximated their husband’s voting rate. By contrast, for those groups that already displayed more modern norms and practices, mainly urban educated women, electoral participation was less dependent on their marital status, and the overall female-male turnout gap much lower. Our model integrates but moves beyond standard participation models that underline the role of individual resources (and the mobilization of political organizations) in the decision to vote. We test it employing a unique set of official turnout data for elections in Sweden between 1921 – the first election in which women had the right to vote – and 1960, recording participation by gender, occupational group, marital status, and (for some elections), regional district of all eligible voters.
    [Show full text]
  • Women in Legislative Politics : a Comparative Study of Canada, Norway and Sweden
    Women in Legislative Politics : A Comparative Study of Canada, Norway and Sweden Michelle Johnston Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia December, 1996 Q Copyright by Michelle Johnston, 1996 1SI Nationai Library Eiwrorneque nanonaie of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, nie Wellington Ottawa ON KI A ON4 OuawaON KlAOlr14 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive pennettant à la National Libraq of Canada to BLbliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la foxme de microfiche/filrn, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts eom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Table of Contents iv List of Tables v Abstract vi Abbreviations vii . Acknowledgments Vlll Chapter 1- Introduction 1 Chapter 2- A Feminist Critique of Liberal Democratic Theory 9 Chapter 3- The Impact of Second-Wave Feminisrn on Women's Politicai Representation in the Canadian, Norwegian, and Swedish Parliaments. 35 Chapter 4- Wornen's Recniitment and Selection into Political Parties in Canada, Norway and Sweden.
    [Show full text]
  • The Swedish Welfare State and Women: Is Sweden the Feminist Society the United States Imagines?
    Augustana College Augustana Digital Commons Scandinavian Studies Student Award Prizewinners 2019 The wediS sh Welfare State and Women: Is Sweden the Feminist Society the United States Imagines? Amanda Schar Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.augustana.edu/scanaward Part of the Feminist, Gender, and Sexuality Studies Commons, and the Scandinavian Studies Commons Augustana Digital Commons Citation Schar, Amanda. "The wS edish Welfare State and Women: Is Sweden the Feminist Society the United States Imagines?" (2019). Scandinavian Studies Student Award. https://digitalcommons.augustana.edu/scanaward/3 This Student Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Prizewinners at Augustana Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Scandinavian Studies Student Award by an authorized administrator of Augustana Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 1 The Swedish Welfare State and Women: Is Sweden the Feminist Society the United States Imagines? Amanda Schar Swedish Culture﹘ Swedish History Spring 2018 Dr. Tobias Berglund Uppsala University 2 This paper discusses several aspects of the Swedish welfare state and whether or not they represent a successfully feminist form of government. It compares these aspects of the Swedish government to the United State’s government. Therefore, this paper satisfies the parameters of this award as a culture studies piece. This paper discusses both modernity in Swedish society as well as the migration of ideas, particularly feminist ideas between Sweden and the rest of the Western world. It also helped to make Scandinavian Studies relevant to my life by looking at feminism in the government through a Swedish model.
    [Show full text]
  • Women's Political Representation and Gender Quotas
    Women’s Political Representation and Gender Quotas - the Swedish Case Lenita Freidenvall Working Paper Series 2003:2 The Research Program on Gender Quotas Department of Political Science STOCKHOLM UNIVERSITY, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden Phone +46 8 16 20 00, Fax +46 8 15 25 29, www.statsvet.su.se Women’s Political Representation and Gender Quotas - the Swedish Case Lenita Freidenvall The Research Program: Gender Quotas - a Key to Equality? Department of Political Science, Stockholm University www.statsvet.su.se/quotas Women’s Political Representation and Gender Quotas - the Swedish Case1 Although highly controversial, recent years have witnessed the diffusion of a plethora of electoral gender quotas. Electoral gender quotas are today being introduced in an increasing number of countries around the world (www.quotaproject.org). More than 30 countries have introduced quotas for election to national parliament by constitutional amendment or by electoral law, most of them during recent years. In more than 50 countries quotas for public election is now stipulated in major political parties’ own statutes, demanding that a certain minimum of the parties’ candidates for election to national parliament must be women.2 In international literature on women in politics one finds the argument that women’s political representation reached a historical and worldwide high in the Scandinavian countries - Denmark, Norway and Sweden - due to quotas (Phillips 1995:57). This is, however, not quite accurate. For instance, there have never been any constitutional quota requirements in the Scandinavian countries. Moreover, while almost all parties in Norway have quota provisions, no parties in Denmark use them.
    [Show full text]
  • The Effects of Political Institutions on Women's Political Representation
    PRQXXX10.1177/1065912912 449698Political Research QuarterlyRosen Political Research Quarterly 66(2) 306 –321 The Effects of Political Institutions on © 2011 University of Utah Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav Women’s Political Representation: DOI: 10.1177/1065912912449698 A Comparative Analysis of 168 prq.sagepub.com Countries from 1992 to 2010 Jennifer Rosen1 Abstract Women’s political representation exhibits substantial cross-national variation. While mechanisms shaping these variations are well understood for Western democracies, there is little consensus on how these same factors operate in less developed countries. Effects of two political institutions—electoral systems and gender quotas—are tested across 168 countries from 1992 to 2010. Findings indicate that key causal factors interact with a country’s socioeconomic development, shifting their importance and possibly even direction at various development thresholds. Generalizing broadly across countries, therefore, does not adequately represent the effects of these political institutions. Rather, different institutional changes are advised to increase women’s presence in national governments. Keywords women and politics, development, quotas, electoral systems, political representation Women have secured the legal rights needed to partici- A rich tradition of scholars have analyzed political, socio- pate in politics in all but a handful of countries; however, economic, and cultural factors to explain the substantial their representation in national politics
    [Show full text]
  • Men's Activism to End Violence Against Women
    MEN’S ACTIVISM TO END VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN Voices from Spain, Sweden and the UK Nicole Westmarland Anna- Lena Almqvist Linn Egeberg Holmgren Sandy Ruxton Stephen Robert Burrell Custodio Delgado Valbuena First published in Great Britain in 2021 by Policy Press, an imprint of Bristol University Press University of Bristol 1– 9 Old Park Hill Bristol BS2 8BB UK t: +44 (0)117 954 5940 e: bup- [email protected] Details of international sales and distribution partners are available at policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk © Bristol University Press 2021 The digital PDF version of this title is available Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial- NoDerivs 4.0 license (https:// creativecommons.org/ licenses/ by- nc- nd/4.0) which permits reproduction and distribution for non- commercial use without further permission provided the original work is attributed. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978- 1- 4473- 5618- 9 hardcover ISBN 978- 1- 4473- 5619- 6 paperback ISBN 978- 1- 4473- 5621- 9 ePub ISBN 978- 1- 4473- 5797- 1 OA PDF The right of Nicole Westmarland, Anna- Lena Almqvist, Linn Egeberg Holmgren, Sandy Ruxton, Stephen Robert Burrell, Custodio Delgado Valbuena to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved: no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission of Bristol University Press.
    [Show full text]
  • Female Entrepreneurship in the Nordics 2020
    FEMALE ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE NORDICS 2020 - A comparative study By Leo Grünfeld, Sigrid M. Hernes & Erika Karttinen, Menon Economics Preface Menon Economics has, on behalf of Nordic Innovation, written a report on female entrepreneurship in the Nordic countries. The project has been managed by Leo Grünfeld, Sigrid M. Hernes and Erika Karttinen. Menon Economics is an employee-owned consultancy operating in the interface between economics, politics and business. Menon Economics analyses issues and provides advice to companies, organizations and authorities. We combine economic and commercial expertise in fields such as industrial organization and competitive economy, strategy, finance, organizational design and social profitability. We use research-based methods in our analysis and work closely with leading academics in most disciplines. We wish to thank the Nordic Innovation for an exciting assignment. We thank the national statistical agencies and Bureau Van Djik for data and valuable guidance. ______________________ May 2020 Menon Economics Leo Grünfeld, Project Manager Disclaimer: This publication is part of the special initiative Nordic Female Entrepreneurship by Nordic Innovation. Menon Economics is responsible for its content. 1 Table of content TABLE OF CONTENT 2 SUMMARY 3 1. INTRODUCTION 5 1.1. Purpose of this study 5 1.2. Methodology 6 1.3. A short reading guide 6 2. WHAT IS ENTREPRENEURSHIP? 8 3. WOMEN AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN NUMBERS 10 3.1. Those who dream of entrepreneurship 10 3.2. Those who start a business 11 3.3. In which industries are female entrepreneurs more active? 15 3.4. The impact of COVID-19 on female entrepreneurs 19 3.3. Part-time entrepreneurship 21 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Sweden's Follow-Up of the Platform for Action from the UN's Fourth World
    U2014/240/JÄM 27 August 2014 Ministry of Education and Research Sweden Sweden Sweden’s follow-up of the Platform for Action from the UN’s Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995) Covering the period between 2009–2014 1 Section One: Overview and analysis of achievements and challenges since 1995 Achievements since 1995 The goals of gender equality policy have been stable over time. Despite intervening general elections and changes of government, the goals adopted by the Riksdag in 1994 remained in force until 2006. In 2006, the Riksdag adopted a new overarching goal for gender equality policy: Women and men are to have the same power to shape society and their own lives (Govt. Bill 2005/06:155). That goal remains to this day. Four sub goals indicate the direction of the Government’s efforts in gender equality policy: Equal distribution of power and influence; Economic gender equality; Equal distribution of unpaid care and household work; An end to men’s violence against women. In some areas, society has made significant strides forward since 1995. In others, the pace of development has been considerably slower, with major challenges still remaining. The following presents some of the major features of developments since the 1990s. Increased representation by women since the 1990s One area that has shown a distinct positive trend since the 1990s is the distribution of power and influence in elected political assemblies. The 1991 general elections saw the first decline in the proportion of women in the Riksdag since 1929 (from 38 per cent to 33 per cent).
    [Show full text]
  • Art Bulletin of Nationalmuseum Stockholm Volumes 24–25 Foreword
    Women Artists in France in the 1880s Carl-Johan Olsson Curator, Paintings and Sculpture Art Bulletin of Nationalmuseum Stockholm Volumes 24–25 Foreword Dr. Susanna Pettersson Director General Associate Professor Art Bulletin of Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, (An Unpublished Drawing on Panel by Salvator (In the Breach of Decorum: Painting between is published with generous support from the Rosa Depicting a Landscape with a Philosopher Altar and Gallery, Fig. 9, p. 163). Friends of the Nationalmuseum. and Astrological Symbols, Fig. 6, p. 22). © Wikimedia Commons/ CC BY 2.0 © The Capitoline Museums, Rome. Archivio (In the Breach of Decorum: Painting between Nationalmuseum collaborates with Svenska Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, Roma, Sovrinten- Altar and Gallery, Fig. 13, p. 167). Dagbladet, Bank of America Merrill Lynch, denza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali. © The John & Mable Ringling Museum of Art, Grand Hôtel Stockholm, The Wineagency and (A Drawing for Pietro da Cortona’s Rape of the Sarasota. Bequest of John Ringling, 1936. Nationalmusei Vänner. Sabine Women, Fig. 2, p. 28). (In the Breach of Decorum: Painting between © Bibliothèque Nationale France, Paris. Altar and Gallery, Fig. 19, p. 173). Cover Illustration (The Entry of Queen Christina into Paris in 1656, © Uppsala auktionskammare, Uppsala Étienne Bouhot (1780–1862), View of the Pavillon by François Chauveau, Fig. 2, p. 32). (Acquisitions 2017: Exposé, Fig 4, p. 178). de Bellechasse on rue Saint-Dominique in Paris, © Finnish National Gallery/ Sinebrychoff Art 1823. Oil on canvas, 55.5 x 47 cm. Purchase: the Museum, Helsinki. Photo: Jaakko Lukumaa Graphic Design Hedda and N. D. Qvist Fund. Nationalmuseum, (Self-Portraits and Artists’ Portraits as Portraits of BIGG NM 7434.
    [Show full text]