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Nation-States and Wars Sonderdrucke aus der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg JÖRN LEONHARD Nation-States and Wars European and Transatlantic Perspectives Originalbeitrag erschienen in: Timothy Baycroft (Hrsg.): What is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2006, S. [231]-254 D ITED BY What is a Nation? Europe 1789-1914 Edited by TIMOTHY BAYCROFT and MARK HEWITSON OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford 0X2 6DP Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Sh2nghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © The Several Contributors, 2006 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain on add-free paper by Biddies Ltd., Kings Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 0-19-929575-1 978-0-19-929575-3 135791086 42 Acknowledgements The fact that this is a commissioned volume rather than a collection of conference papers has not prevented the editors accumulating a long list of debts. The authors were able to hear each other's contribution at a conference kindly hosted by the German Historical Institute in London. Hagen Schulze, the Director of the Institute, was instrumental in helping to initiate the project and made very much appreciated suggestions throughout. For a comparative topic of this scale, we required—and found—a large number of sponsors. In addition to the German Historical Institute, we are indebted to the British Academy, the German History Society, the Association for the Study of Modern Italy, Sheffield University's Centre for Nineteenth- Century Studies, and UCL'S Centre for European Studies for their financial and logistical support. We are also very grateful to Peter Alter, John Breuilly, Miles Taylor, and Martin Brown for acting as chairs of panels and for stimulating discussion of various questions, as well as sharing their expertise on the subject of nationalism more generally. Together with intellectual stimuli provided by the contributors themselves, their interventions made possible—we hope—a coherent volume on a bewilderingly broad and unwieldy topic. At a later stage, we also received welcome suggestions and support from Oxford University Press's editorial staff and anonymous referees. Any remaining errors in the volume, which are of course difficult to excise completely from a book of this type, are very much our own. Mark Hewitson, University College London Timothy Baycroft, University of Sheffield March 2006 12 Nation-States and Wars European and Transatlantic Perspectives Jörn Leonhard INTRODUCTION: TOWARDS CIVIC AND ETHNIC NATIONALISMS Research on the historical phenomenon of nationalism in Europe has, for a long time, concentrated mainly on single cases of nation-building or on the develop- ment of specific typologies, generating ideal types of nation-building processes.' One of the most influential typological differentiations was that between political and cultural nations, a model which, based upon Friedrich Meinecke's distinction between Staatsnation and Kulturnation had an important impact on West German perceptions of nation and nationality after 1945. 2 This distinction was also present in the apparently clear dichotomy between apparently typical Western and Eastern nationalisms. 3 Analyses focusing on this dichotomy operated. with 1 See with particular reference to German research literature Dieter Langewiesche, `Nation, Nationalismus, Nationalstaat: Forschungsstand und Forschungsperspektiven, Neue Politische Literatur, 40 (1995), 190-236; id., Nation, Nationalismus, Nationalstaat in Deutschland und Europa (Munich, 2000) and id. and Georg Schmidt (eds.), Föderative Nation: Deutschlandkonzepte von der Reformation bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg (Munich, 2000); see from an Anglo-American perspective Geoff Eley and Ronald Grigor Suny, `Introduction: From the Moment of Social History to the Work of Cultural Representation, in eid. (eds.), Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford, 1996), and Anthony Smith, Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations and Nationalism (London,1998); see for Franco-German comparisons Heinz-Gerhard Haut, `Der Nationalismus in der neueren deutschen und französischen Geschichtswissenschaft', in Etienne Francois, Hannes Siegrist, and Jakob Vogel (eds.), Nation und Emotion: Deutschland und Frankreich im Vergleich, 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Göttingen, 1995), 39-55; for a general European overview see Peter Alter, Nationalismus (Frankfurt am Main, 1985); Hagen Schulze, Staat und Nation in der europäischen Geschichte (Munich, 1994); John Breuilly, Nationalism and the State, 2nd edn. (Manchester,1993); and Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), The National Question in Europe in Historical Context (Cambridge, 1993). 2 Friedrich Meinecke, Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat: Studien zur Genesis des deutschen Nationalstaates (1907), 6th edn. (Munich, 1922), 1 22. 3 See Heinrich August Winkler (ed.), Nationalismus, 2nd edn. (Königstein, 1985). 232 Jörn Leonhard different historical patterns of apparently successful, handicapped, or failed patterns of modernization. This perspective gained particular attention because of the specific experiences of Fascism, National Socialism, and Stalinism and especially by the developing Cold Wax confrontation after 1945. Against this background Hans Kohn and Louis S. Snyder distinguished an essentially political meaning of the nation in West Europe, which according to their definition aimed at establishing a pluralist society, from an East European model of an essentially cultural nationalism, which was characterized by a tendency to focus on cultural and political unity by the systematic exclusion of minorities. The differences between both models—a civic West European concept of nation and nationality, focusing on citizenship and individual rights on the one hand and an ethnic Central and East European one on the other, concentrating on shared myths, culture, and common history—also reflected Popper's paradigm of the `open society' in the west and its opposite in the East. West European national- ism, as experienced in Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, seemed to be based upon existing political realities, thus avoiding mythological construc- tions. In contrast, different regions in Central and Eastern Europe as well as Asia pointed to the significance of cultural traditions and myths as well as constructs of ethnic unity.4 The dominating antagonism behind these bipolar typologies was that between a community of equal state citizens, forming a nation on the basis of their political will, and a people's community, generated not by the political will of a sovereign nation but by the definition and communication of certain cultural and mythological bonds. According to this typology, which justified a pioneering and successful `western' path of modernization and defined latecomers accord- ingly, two different social profiles could be applied to these distinct developments. whereas the Western type of nationalism seemed an essentially bourgeois phe- nomenon, East European nationalism appeared as the result of the aristocracy's politics or caused by the masses, thus again underlining distinct paths of economic and social modernization. Another major typology was conceptionalized in the 1960s, integrating elements of Kohn's and Snyder's earlier works.5 In his influential essay on the typology of the nation-state in Europe, Theodor Schieder presented three different models. First, there was the West European model of nation-states in Britain and France, originating from the successful revolutions in the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries which had constituted these early nation-states as expressions of the political will of its citizens. Secondly, nation-states in Central and Southern Europe were established. between 1815 and 1871 through territorial integration, by which hitherto stateless nations were transformed into new nation-states. In 4 See Hans Kohn, Die Idee des Nationalismus: Ursprung und Geschichte bis zur Französischen Revolution (Heidelberg, 1950); id., Nationalismus: Its Meaning and History (Princeton, 1965), and Louis L. Snyder,
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