Meteorological Factors Affecting Pan Evaporation in the Haihe River Basin, China

water Article Meteorological Factors Affecting Pan Evaporation in the Haihe River Basin, China Zhihong Yan 1 , Shuqian Wang 1,*, Ding Ma 2, Bin Liu 1,* , Hong Lin 1 and Su Li 1 1 School of Water Conservancy and Hydroelectric Power, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan 056021, China; [email protected] (Z.Y.); [email protected] (H.L.); [email protected] (S.L.) 2 Hebei Hydrology and Water Resources Survey Bureau, Shijiazhuang 050000, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (S.W.); [email protected] (B.L.); Tel.: +86-310-312-3077 (S.W.); +86-310-312-3702 (B.L.) Received: 16 December 2018; Accepted: 10 February 2019; Published: 13 February 2019 Abstract: Pan evaporation (Epan) is an important indicator of regional evaporation intensity and degree of drought. However, although more evaporation is expected under rising temperatures, the reverse trend has been observed in many parts of the world, known as the “pan evaporation paradox”. In this paper, the Haihe River Basin (HRB) is divided into six sub-regions using the Canopy and k-means (The process for partitioning an N-dimensional population into k sets on the basis of a sample is called “k-means”) to cluster 44 meteorological stations in the area. The interannual and seasonal trends and the significance of eight meteorological indicators, including average temperature, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, sunshine duration, wind speed, and Epan, were analyzed for 1961 to 2010 using the trend-free pre-whitening Mann-Kendall (TFPW-MK) test. Then, the correlation between meteorological elements and Epan was analyzed using the Spearman correlation coefficient. Results show that the average temperature, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature of the HRB increased, while precipitation, relative humidity, sunshine duration, wind speed and Epan exhibited a downward trend. The minimum temperature rose 2 and 1.5 times faster than the maximum temperature and average temperature, respectively. A significant reduction in sunshine duration was found to be the primary factor in the Epan decrease, while declining wind speed was the secondary factor. Keywords: evapotranspiration; Pan evaporation; TFPW-MK; Haihe River Basin 1. Introduction Global warming has become an indisputable fact [1]. Temperature records indicate that the earth has warmed by approximately 0.6 ◦C during the 20th century [2]. This increase in global temperature has significantly impacted the natural environment, ecosystem, and social economy [3], and has led to a series of changes in hydrological factors, such as precipitation, evaporation, water infiltration, soil moisture, river runoff, and groundwater flow, all of which affect the global hydrological cycle. This, in turn, causes temporal and spatial redistribution of water resources, and thereby threatens water security, food security, social security, and national security [4,5]. As a key component in the hydrological cycle, evapotranspiration is associated with water balance and water exchange, as well as surface energy balance; hence, of all components of the water cycle, evapotranspiration is the factor most directly affected by climate change [6]. Therefore, analyzing the climate sensitivity of evapotranspiration has important theoretical and practical implications for understanding the impact of climate change on the hydrological cycle [7]. Evapotranspiration is the process of water transport from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere [8]. As a core process of the climate system, evapotranspiration closely links the hydrological cycle, Water 2019, 11, 317; doi:10.3390/w11020317 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2019, 11, 317 2 of 18 energy budget, and carbon cycle [9]. Pan evaporation (Epan)[10] is the most universal and simplest way to measure evapotranspiration, which is often used to indicate the humidity level of a given regional climate [11]. Although Epan cannot directly represent the evaporation of the water surface, it has a close correlation with water surface evaporation. Therefore, it has remained an important reference indicator in the assessment of water resources, water resources planning, and the design of irrigation systems, to name a few examples [12]. As the global temperature rises, Epan should theoretically gradually increase. However, in reality, only certain regions in the world have an Epan value that is consistent with theoretical expectations, and the majority of the world’s regions have been found to have declining Epan values. This phenomenon is called the “pan evaporation paradox” [3]. Specifically, countries such as Spain [13], Iran [14], Israel [15], and Brazil [16] have been found to have increasing Epan values, and countries such as the former Soviet Union, the United States [17,18], New Zealand [19], China [20–23], Thailand [24], India [12], Nigeria [25], and Australia [26,27] have been found to have declining Epan values. Correctly interpreting the overall declining trend of Epan in the context of rising global temperatures and uncovering the main meteorological factors that affect the reduction of Epan is of great importance to accurately predict future hydrological cycles. Many scholars have studied the temporal and spatial changes of Epan at global and regional scales, as well as the causes of such changes. According to their findings, the causes of Epan reduction can be categorized as follows. (1) An increase in humidity in the surrounding environment of the evaporation pan: Brutsaert and Parlange ascertained that the decrease in Epan value was due to an increase in the volume of evaporation from the land surface, considering the difference between evaporation from the land surface and the evaporation volume observed through the evaporation pan [28]. Zuo et al. employed observational data from 62 conventional meteorological stations with solar-radiation observation equipment in China to analyze in detail the relationship between Epan and corresponding environmental factors, as well as the environmental factors’ responses to global climate change. The researchers discovered that Epan was most correlated to atmospheric relative humidity [20]. (2) Changes in precipitation: Tebakari et al. [24] analyzed the temporal and spatial variation of Epan in Thailand from 1982 to 2000 and concluded that both Epan and precipitation showed a declining trend. This conclusion was inconsistent with findings from the United States, where Epan was found to be decreasing while precipitation was increasing [29]. Jaswal et al. utilized evaporation and rainfall data from 1971 to 2000 from 58 stations that were evenly distributed in India to analyze the overall correlation between evaporation and rainfall in a year, as well as their correlation in winter, summer, monsoon season, and post-monsoon season. The results showed that, in southern India, the evaporation trend had a complementary relationship with rainfall during the same period [30]. (3) A decrease in the diurnal temperature range: Peterson et al. compared data from both the United States and the former Soviet Union from 1950 to 1990 and found a steady decline in Epan values in all investigated regions (except Central Asia), as well as a decline in diurnal temperature range. Epan and diurnal temperature range were thus clearly correlated. Therefore, the researchers concluded that the reduction in the diurnal temperature range, caused by an increase in cloud cover, consequently caused the reduction in Epan [17]. (4) A reduction in solar radiation: Roderick and Farquhar found that Epan values observed in many parts of the world over the past 50 years showed a clear downward trend and asserted that such a decline was caused by the reduction in overall solar radiation resulting from an increase in cloud cover and aerosol concentrations [3]. (5) A reduction in wind speed: Burn and Hesch conducted a trend analysis on the evaporation data of 48 sites in the Canadian Prairies over three analysis periods and concluded that wind speed has a substantial influence on the decreasing trend of evaporation, while vapor-pressure deficit has a significant influence on the increasing trend of evaporation [31]. Hoffman et al. studied the changes in Epan, rainfall, wind speed, temperature, and vapor-pressure deficit from 1974 to 2005 taken from 20 climate stations in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), South Africa, and suggested that the reduction in Epan was likely due to a reduction in wind speed [32]. Yang and Yang analyzed the daily Epan, temperature, wind speed, solar radiation, and relative humidity of 54 meteorological stations in China for 1961 to 2001 and Water 2019, 11, 317 3 of 18 concluded that the reduction in Epan in the majority of regions in China is due to a decrease in wind speed [33]. (6) The comprehensive impact of meteorological elements: Roderick and Farquhar analyzed data from Australia for 1970 to 2002 and found that Epan values showed a downward trend. The results showed that such a change might be related to a decrease in solar radiation, wind speed, and diurnal temperature range [26]. Sheng examined Epan data and other meteorological factors from 468 meteorological stations in China, measured simultaneously from 1957 to 2001, and found that the main influential factors of Epan were solar radiation, diurnal temperature range, and wind speed, while the influence of humidity was the weakest factor [21]. Liu et al. investigated data for 1955 to 2001 taken from 671 sites in China. The results revealed an overall decline in

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