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Nathaniel Hawthorne's Individualism “This matter of the individual”: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Individualism James Thomas Hussey A dissertation submitted to the School of English at the University of Dublin, Trinity College, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2019 Declaration I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any other university and it is entirely my own work. I agree to deposit this thesis in the University’s open access institutional repository or allow the Library to do so on my behalf, subject to Irish Copyright Legislation and Trinity College Library conditions of use and acknowledgement. _____________ James Hussey Summary This dissertation explores Nathaniel Hawthorne’s engagement with Jacksonian and antebellum conceptions of individualism, demonstrating how this part of the American psyche played a crucial role in his authorial (and personal) development. Initially, this analysis had dedicated an extra chapter to examining Hawthorne’s female individualists, but it was necessary to incorporate this within the other sections, to indicate the intricate formulation of these characters, but also to suggest the dialectical structures employed by this writer in his creation of storyworlds. Fundamentally, this criticism moves away from a Puritan-centred view of Hawthorne, to consolidate his position as a thoroughly modern writer from the perspective of his milieu. The introduction provides an overview of the study, illustrating the importance of re- evaluating Hawthorne’s career through its Jacksonian foundations, and the role of a specific type of American individualism promulgated within Jacksonian America that was interrogated and processed by the era’s writers. The opening chapter focuses on Hawthorne’s work and career utilising extensive political, specifically Democratic, evidence to suggest his importance to an understanding of a uniquely Jacksonian culture. In embedding Hawthorne within a dynamic political environment, this analysis suggests the mutability of his authorial image at this time, connecting iterations of Jacksonian individualism to Hawthorne’s ability to appear before the public in shifting guises, something that, I argue, influenced his fiction indelibly. This chapter also provides the first lengthy analysis of Hawthorne’s 1852 campaign biography The Life of Franklin Pierce, a work that, I contend, is of real importance to a renewed comprehension of Hawthorne the author. Furthermore, this section presents The Blithedale Romance as a central text in understanding Hawthorne’s place within what Henry Wadsworth Longfellow called the “politico-literary” network of New England writers. Chapter Two argues for the importance of American disestablishment, and its special emphasis during the Jacksonian Era, in viewing Hawthorne’s works. Far from simply regurgitating previous critical viewpoints that express the significance of his Puritan heritage, this section focuses on his contemporary religious situation, infusing analysis with the strong individualism inherent in Calvinist and Unitarian religious philosophies. The writer’s religious characters frequently reflect upon the importance of individual belief rather than communal worship. While this chapter refers primarily to a number of canonical Hawthorne texts, exploring the personal element of spiritual selfhood and soteriology, it also draws focus to lesser-studied works, including “The Old Apple- Dealer” and “Sunday at Home”, to interrogate Hawthorne’s discomfort with ritualistic and congregational worship. While this chapter is foundational in exploring Hawthorne’s familial and personal religious links, its focus provides innovative perspectives on stories that are not considered part of a larger corpus of American religious narratives. The third chapter provides detailed analysis of the artistic figure in Hawthorne’s work, and the author’s personal construction of an individualistic aesthetic through these personae. This section includes specific critical passages on The House of the Seven Gables and notable stories such as “The Artist of the Beautiful” and “Drowne’s Wooden Image”, while also suggesting a newfound place for the frequently under-studied Fanshawe within an appreciation of his career. Utilising Fanshawe’s publication date at the beginning of Jackson’s first presidential term, this chapter advocates for a broader understanding of Hawthorne’s artists as figures inextricably tied to the economic machinations of society. Far from presenting Hawthorne’s artists as ephemeral characters, this analysis indicates their importance to a rounded understanding of Jacksonian culture, as figures that gained increasing legitimisation and justification in their choice of career. This chapter also considers the construction of masculinity presented by Hawthorne’s artists as in- keeping with the author’s engagement with contemporary discourses of gender. Hawthorne’s anti-social individualists have been analysed extensively with regard to their provenance and their connection with the writer’s other personae. This chapter situates the question of individualistic behaviour within discourses of Hawthorne’s time that emphasise the dangers of secrecy, and its conflation with anti-social elements, from banking practices to Masonic groups. This analysis indicates the embedded nature of Ethan Brand within Hawthorne’s oeuvre, and suggests his indefatigable anger is inspired largely by a Tocquevillean conception of Jacksonian America, described as “masterless and separate”. Alexis de Tocqueville plays an important part in this chapter; although Hawthorne did not encounter the Frenchman’s work until later in his career, his work frequently acknowledged how individualistic competition and market conditions affect interpersonal relationships. This chapter renews focus on some of Hawthorne’s most famous characters by situating them amidst prevailing Jacksonian attitudes towards secrecy. In doing so, this analysis reformulates criticism of the author that highlights his characteristic isolation as inextricably connected with dominant contemporary attitudes. The conclusion reflects on the importance of individualism to a renewed understanding of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s work, and the consolidation of this writer within his time, as an author of texts intricately with the vicissitudes of his America. Further avenues of research are suggested, particularly with regard to Hawthorne’s later, and posthumously published, works. Acknowledgements I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Stephen Matterson, whose guidance, attentive feedback and thought-provoking conversation greatly facilitated the composition of this work. I am deeply thankful, looking back over these four years, to have been afforded the opportunity to work alongside someone whose breadth of knowledge and inquisitive mind were on hand when needed or, simply, when asked. I also owe a debt to Crawford Gribben, formerly of the parish, and Philip Coleman, whose respective counsel and expertise are indelible influences in this dissertation. I am hugely appreciative of the support of various funding bodies and associations, including the Irish Research Council (2015-2018), the Ralph Waldo Emerson Society (2017), the Irish Association of American Studies (2016) and the School of English (2013, 2015). To Andrew Jackson; you were a man of many regrettable traits. If it is possible, however, to disregard these defects of character, you were some lad. To Herman Melville, for teaching me that “(t)here is a wisdom that is woe; but there is a woe that is madness.” To Nathaniel Hawthorne, without whom this wouldn’t have been possible. Thanks for Ethan Brand too. To Julia and Alex, my fellow researchers, who have provided stimulating discussion, good humour and, most importantly, friendship. To my friends, particularly John, Sean, Graham and Tobin, my sincere thanks. To my family, without whose influence I would not be where I am today. To Aisling, you have a lot to put up with, but I’m always grateful you do. Thank you for everything, even the “emotional montages”. To my mom and dad, whose love and support mean so much. Your generosity and belief are an integral part of the head-the-ball I am. Thank you for every step of the way. Fino alla fine. Forza Juve. Contents Introduction: “…never an associate of the community”: Hawthorne’s American individual 1 1. “Considerable of a politician”: Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Political Individualism 22 2. “…alone of mortals”: Hawthorne’s Religious Individualism 89 3. “An idler like myself”: Hawthorne’s individualistic artist 156 4. “…forth from the haunts of men”: (Anti-) Social Individualism and Nathaniel Hawthorne 210 Conclusion 271 Bibliography 277 Introduction “…never an associate of the community”: Hawthorne’s American individual In our domestic concerns there is everything to encourage us, and if you are true to yourselves nothing can impede your march to the highest point of national prosperity. - Andrew Jackson, “Farewell Address” March 4, 1837. Individualism has been utilised for myriad political and social causes since its theoretical establishment by the socialist Saint-Simonians in France in the 1820s.1 The term was translated from the French and utilised in a predominantly pejorative sense by the Owenite movement of the 1830s in England, specifically to describe “the motives of antipathy and individualism”, such as “love of money” and “love of rank, privilege, of domination” that would destroy the “state of community” central to
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