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Revising Pastoral in Hawthorne's America Steven A. Petersheim, Ph ABSTRACT Debating Nature: Revising Pastoral in Hawthorne’s America Steven A. Petersheim, Ph.D. Mentor: Joe B. Fulton, Ph.D. In 1849, Ralph Waldo Emerson gave Nathaniel Hawthorne a presentation copy of his second edition of the famous essay Nature. Hawthorne’s three American romances composed over the next three years – The Scarlet Letter (1850), The House of the Seven Gables (1851), and The Blithedale Romance (1852) – employ some of the same terminology Emerson uses in his essay. More importantly, Hawthorne’s romances offer differing ways of reimagining the kind of “original relation with the universe” that Emerson advocates while at the same time critiquing Emerson’s blithe comments about unmediated relations between humans, nature, and the divine. Hawthorne shares with Emerson a conviction that nature and spirit are somehow related, but he registers his disagreement with Emerson by incorporating into his romances diverse ways of understanding nature – Puritan allegory, Gothic romance, Native American views of land ownership, and Renaissance pastoral, in addition to Transcendentalist idealism. Thus, the Transcendentalist view of nature functions, for Hawthorne, as one of a variety of ways of knowing nature rather than being the one “true” way, as Emerson imples. In his investigation of nature, Hawthorne turns from Emerson’s Transcendentalist claims to Renaissance pastoral as the most adequate way of understanding the relations between humans, nature, and the divine. Yet Hawthorne revises the pastoral as well by bringing together diverse views of nature to comprise a syncretic view of nature that he finds closer to the truth than any one of these views by itself. In Renaissance pastoral, the primary approach he adopts even as he revises it, Hawthorne finds a form that breaks down the apparent dichotomies between art and nature, nature and humans, nature and the divine, and humans and the divine so as to indicate that such dichotomies are founded upon a misconstrual of the human condition. By adopting Renaissance pastoral as a critique of more strictly American views of Nature, Hawthorne suggests that older literary forms may yet hold wisdom for the contemporary world – even if those older forms must be modified to respond to a new situation. Debating Nature: Revising Pastoral In Hawthorne's America by Steven Petersheim, B.S. A Dissertation Approved by the Department of English ___________________________________ Dianna M. Vitanza, Ph.D., Chairperson Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Baylor University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Approved by the Dissertation Committee ___________________________________ Joe B. Fulton, Ph.D., Chairperson ___________________________________ Sarah K. Ford, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Phillip J. Donnelly, Ph.D. ___________________________________ Daniel Walden, Ph.D. ___________________________________ T. Michael Parrish, Ph.D. Accepted by the Graduate School May 2012 ___________________________________ J. Larry Lyon, Ph.D., Dean Page bearing signatures is kept on file in the Graduate School. Copyright © 2012 by Steven A. Petersheim All rights reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. ix DEDICATION ................................................................................................................. ixii CHAPTER ONE Introduction: Nature “Seen at Unawares” in Hawthorne’s America .................................. 1 Hawthorne’s Revision of Pastoral .................................................................................. 7 Hawthorne Criticism: Literary Forms and Nature ....................................................... 15 Writing American Pastorals: Hawthorne and Nature ................................................. 28 CHAPTER TWO Nature “Illumined by Higher Truth”: Reading Puritan Allegory in The Scarlet Letter ... 42 New World Nature: Paradise, Wilderness, or Both .................................................. 51 Reading the Earth: Nature’s Sympathy and Heathen Nature ................................... 66 Reading the Sky: Natural Hieroglyphics and Hawthorne’s “Blasted Allegories” ... 80 “Illumined” Nature: Under Earth and Sky .............................................................. 91 CHAPTER THREE “The Wrongs Which Had Been Done Them”: Native American Lands and the Gothic in The House of the Seven Gables ............................................................... 101 Gothic Architectures: Constructing the House of America ................................... 116 Legal Claims versus Claims “Too Vaguely Founded to be Put on Paper” ........... 135 Gothic Imprints: Humans, Nature, and the Supernatural ...................................... 153 CHAPTER FOUR “Periodical Infusion of the Primal Spirit:: From Seeing Nature to Seeking “Nature’s God” in The Blithedale Romance ............................................................. 163 Seeing Nature: Natural Reform and Correspondence ............................................ 171 v Disillusionment: “A Counterfeit Arcadia” ............................................................. 178 Et in Arcadia Ego: Seeking “Nature’s God” .......................................................... 202 CHAPTER FIVE "To Bear a Part in the Great Scheme of Nature": Pastoral Humanity in Hawthorne's American Fairyland ................................................................................................ 218 Hawthorne’s Natural Artists ................................................................................... 231 Humans and the Triplex Vita: Passion, Action, Contemplation ............................. 252 Nature and Grace: Seeking Justice and Providence in Hawthorne’s America ...... 265 APPENDIX Hawthorne's Reading of Renaissance Pastoral ............................................................... 284 WORKS CITED ............................................................................................................. 294 vi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AYLI Shakespeare, As You Like It. Ed. Michael Hattaway. Cambridge UP, 2009. CE Hawthorne, The Centenary Edition of the Works of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Ed. William Charvat et al. 23 vols. Ohio State UP, 1962-2004. Com. Milton, Comus, or A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634. &c. In The Riverside Milton. Ed. Roy Flannagan. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 123-71. CW Emerson, The Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson: Nature, Addresses, and Lectures. Ed. Alfred Ferguson et al. 9 vols. Belknap P of Harvard UP , 1971-. Cym. Shakespeare, Cymbeline. Ed. Martin Butler. Cambridge UP, 2005. FQ Spenser, The Faerie Queene. Ed. Albert Charles Hamilton, Hiroshi Yamashita, and Toshiyuki Suzuki. Longman, 2001. JMN Emerson, The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Ed. William Gilman et al. 16 vols. Belknap P of Harvard UP, 1960-1982. L’All. Milton, L’Allegro. In The Riverside Milton. Ed. Roy Flannagan. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 66-71. Mem. Rose Hawthorne Lathrop. Memories of Hawthorne. MND Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Ed. R. Foakes. Cambridge UP, 2003. NHHW Julian Hawthorne, Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Wife. OED Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford UP, December 2011. MW Thoreau, The Maine Woods. Ed. Joseph J. Moldenhauer. Princeton UP, 2004. Pens. Milton, Il Penseroso. In The Riverside Milton. Ed. Roy Flannagan. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 71-77. PL Milton, Paradise Lost. In The Riverside Milton. Ed. Roy Flannagan. Houghton Mifflin, 1998. 352-710. Tmp. Shakespeare, The Tempest. Ed. Stephen Orgel. Oxford UP, 1998. Wa. Thoreau, Walden. Ed. John Updike. Princeton UP, 2004. vii WHM Melville, The Northwestern-Newberry Edition of the Writings of Herman Melville. Ed. Harrison Hayford et al. 15 vols. Northwestern UP, 1968-. WT Shakespeare, The Winter’s Tale. Ed. Stephen Orgel. Oxford UP, 1996. viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My work found its beginnings first of all in a fascination with the art of imaginative literature generally and with Hawthorne’s fiction in particular, and several graduate seminars provided a strong impetus for my work. My first two seminars of graduate school were offered by Joe Fulton, whose seminars in American literature I have taken as often as I could ever since, and Phillip Donnelly, who especially piqued my interest in the liberal arts and the changing world of the Renaissance and seventeenth century. In Joe Fulton’s class on American Transcendentalism, I found Hawthorne engaged with a rich community of intellectuals which included Transcendentalists and others in mid-nineteenth-century New England. My first seminar paper for this class was a comparative analysis of Hawthorne’s Blithedale Romance and Shakespeare’s Tempest, and some of those ideas have filtered their way into this dissertation. During the same semester, I was enrolled in Phillip Donnelly’s Milton seminar, which pushed led me to consider the rhetoric of Puritans and writers of imaginative literature in England at the time when the Puritans first arrived on America’s shores. These two seminars, taken my first semester, prepared me to seek out some of the links in this dissertation. Several other professors have contributed both directly and indirectly to my research and scholarly work on this project. Sarah Ford’s seminar on early American literature and a preliminary examination on colonial
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