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Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 DOI 10.1186/s40064-016-3288-9

RESEARCH Open Access Heavy metal meets complexity and sustainability science David G. Angeler*

Abstract This paper builds a bridge between , complexity theory and sustainability science to show the potential of the (auditory) arts to inform different aspects of complex systems of people and . The links are described along different dimensions. This first dimension focuses on the scientific aspect of heavy metal. It uses complex adaptive systems theory to show that the rapid diversification and evolution of heavy metal into multiple subgenres leads to a self-organizing and resilient socio-musicological system. dimension builds on the recent use of heavy metal as a critical thinking model and educational tool, emphasizing the artistic component of heavy metal and its potential to increase people’s awareness of environmental sustainability challenges. The relation- ships between metal, complexity theory and sustainability are first discussed independently to specifically show mechanistic links and the reciprocal potential to inform one domain (science) by the other (metal) within these dimensions. The paper concludes by highlighting that these dimensions entrain each other within a broader social- cultural-environmental system that cannot be explained simply by the sum of independent, individual dimensions. Such a unified view embraces the inherent complexity with which systems of people and nature interact. These lines of exploration suggest that and the sciences form a logical partnership. Such a partnership might help in endeavors to envision, understand and cope with the broad ramifications of sustainability challenges of rapid social, cultural, and environmental change. Keywords: Auditory arts, Complexity science, Complex adaptive systems, Heavy metal music, Social-ecological systems, Sustainability, Transdisciplinary science, Environmental education, Global change

Background The to link heavy metal with two apparently dis- What does complexity theory (for definitions of terms in parately distinct scientific disciplines is on purpose. Iso- italics see Table 1) tell us about heavy metal music and lated knowledge from different disciplines can be linked its links to complex challenges as those present in global in different ways and vary in their degree of subjectivity environmental sustainability? This question has been versus objectivity (Ratner 2002), the reciprocity by which inspired by earlier scientific (Bachelard1934 , 1936) and one discipline informs the other (Rinia et al. 2002), or artistic (Breton 1936) writings and recent calls (Ange- research method (qualitative and/or qualitative) used in ler et al. 2016), which advocate the connection of iso- transdisciplinary research (Angeler 2016). This variability lated knowledge from different disciplines into a broader is manifest in the approach used in this paper (Fig. 1), in model of scientific inquiry. Specifically, this paper links which links between knowledge domains are made along the auditory arts, using heavy metal as an example, with three dimensions. The first dimension emphasizes the two scientific disciplines, one comprising basic science scientific component of heavy metal music (Brown 2011) (complexity theory) and the other applied research (envi- in which it is linked to complex adaptive systems theory, a ronmental sustainability). branch of complexity science, to describe the emergence of a socio-musicological system (Fig. 1). This paper will scrutinize the reciprocal potential to inform one domain *Correspondence: [email protected] by the other; that is, where heavy metal music poten- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7050, 750 07 Uppsala, tially contributes to inform complex adaptive systems

© 2016 The Author(s). This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 2 of 20

Table 1 Overview and definitions of terms used in this paper Term Definition

Complexity theory Encompasses various approaches to the study of complex systems, including the application of complexity theory to strategy and organizations, the complexity of economics, self-organizing complex adaptive systems, chaos theory, theoretical computer science and mathematics and algorithmic information theory Heavy metal music A fast evolving form of the auditory arts belonging to the genre of . Metal has roots in rock and and originated in the late and early , mainly in the and the USA. Heavy metal has diversified into than 20 subgenres with characteristic vocal, and instrumentation structure (see Table 2). This paper explores the scientific and artistic components of heavy metal to describe aspects of complex systems of humans and nature Environmental sustainability/Sustainability The interaction of human population with their environment in ways to guarantee their natural Science resources needs without compromising the ability of generations to meet their needs. Sustainable development aims at avoiding overuse or degradation of resources to ensure long- term environmental quality Complex adaptive systems Hierarchical entities that consist of diverse and autonomous parts or components (“agents”) that depend on and relate with each other, and which are linked through many connections. Com- plex adaptive systems adapt to and learn from changes in the environment, which allows them to self-organize as a unified whole Socio-musicological system A particular from of complex adaptive system with reference to music, wherein system adapta- tion, learning and self-organization are governed by the broader and complex interaction between musicological, psychological, cultural, social, technological, marketing, and other economic aspects of social and technological change Social-ecological system A complex adaptive system of people and nature, where one component influences and is influenced by the other. For instance, the relationship between commercial fisheries, ecosystem service provisioning, resource overexploitation, aquatic resource degradation, loss of economic and social potential Non-linear processes Non-linearity manifests when not all agents in a complex adaptive system interact with the same strength which each other (e.g., species A and B in a system, or Y and Z, or A and Z, and so forth). Also when the loss of an agent in the system (e.g., a key predator in an ecosystem), can cause substantial change in biophysical interactions and a subsequent reconfiguration of the structure and functioning of the system Delays Delays in complex systems arise from the ability of systems to buffer the impact of disturbances. When the buffering capacity (mediated through feedback loops) is exhausted the delayed impact becomes manifest in structural and functional changes in the system. For instance, habi- tat degradation may make the persistence of large mammals untenable. However, the effects of degradation may not become evident until these mammals went extinct Feedback loops Circuits in complex systems that reinvest some of the yield to the input of a system to allow for self-correction and adjustment to internal and external variables Balancing feedback loops Also known as negative feedback loops. These occur when a changing initial condition lessens its change in the future. For instance, when the population number of predators increases, the consumption of their prey increases too, leading to a decrease in their population numbers. Due to increasing scarcity of prey, the population number of predators decreases as a result of the lack of food. Population dynamics of predator and prey are balanced Reinforcing feedback loops Also referred to as positive feedback loops. These occur when a changing initial condition furthers its change in the future. For instance, the greater the population of a species, the more progeny will be born. When those become adults, they will also have offspring. Rapid population growth rates of these species are reinforcing themselves and can ultimately have substantial impact on natural resources Hierarchical organization Refers to patterns and processes that occur at discrete scales of space and time. For instance, con- tinental drift acts on millennial time scales and changes the face of the entire globe. By contrast, an annual grass is very short-lived and lives in a narrow space within a meadow Information flow Outcome of interaction between agents in a complex adaptive system that informs and influ- ences the behavior and interaction of other agents in the system. For example, the collapse of the real-estate market in the USA in 2008 provided the “information” which “flew” across the world to affect the global economy at a systemic level Connectedness The degree and strength by which agents in a complex adaptive system interchange information based on their interactions. For instance, the economic crisis had a severer effect on southern European countries (strong connection with economic collapse) relative to northern European countries (weaker connection) Regime shift A regime shift occurs when a complex system changes from one set of structure, functions and processes to another set of structures, functions and processes. Regimes are stable and a system may not shift back to a previous regime without substantial and costly management Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 3 of 20

symbolizes the unidirectional link (Fig. 1) means that the connection between heavy metal music and sustainabil- ity is entirely subjective. The unidirectional link also - gests that environmental sustainability issues currently do not influence metal music in ways to result in integral architectures (, , , instrumenta- tion) from which a “sustainability metal subgenre” might emanate. Figure 1 also shows a third dimension, in which complex adaptive systems theory and environmental sus- tainability are linked to describe the dynamics of complex systems of people and nature (social-ecological systems). The complexity of social-ecological systems dynamics has been reviewed recently (e.g., Allen et al. 2014) and will therefore not be explored here. However, this third dimension will be considered in the broader discussion of the synthesis between heavy metal, complex adaptive sys- tems theory and environmental sustainability. This paper will be structured in three parts. The first Fig. 1 Schematic showing links between distinct, apparently unre- part emphasizes the scientific component of heavy metal lated knowledge domains. Shown are: (1) The links between heavy music. It briefly sketches the claims of complex adaptive metal music and complex adaptive systems theory to describe the systems theory and then examines metal through the lens emergence of a socio-musicological system (light blue ellipse). (2) The of this theory, including the description of operational potential of heavy metal music as an educational tool to increase terms to portray the emergence of a socio-musicological awareness of environmental sustainability challenges (purple ellipse). (3) The links between complex adaptive systems and environmental system. The second part of the paper focuses on the artis- sustainability that mediate social-ecological system dynamics (dark tic component of and provides an overview blue ellipse). (4) An emerging broader, unified picture of social-cul- of social-ecological systems challenges that are relevant tural-environmental dynamics (green circle). Arrow directions and thick- from the perspective of environmental sustainability. It ness represent reciprocal versus unidirectional information potential uses heavy metal in which their song architecture between domains and interpretational objectivity versus subjectivity, respectively (see “Background” section) becomes allegorical to specific environmental challenges and potentially associated human tensions. These links are discussed within the context of environmental aware- ness and education. The paper concludes by synthesizing theory and vice versa (arrows in both direction in Fig. 1). the linkages between the different knowledge domains in Although this paper will only explore linkages theoreti- an overarching discussion of a broader and more integral cally, it is deemed possible that numerical analysis, which understanding of social-cultural-environmental dynam- have been used in the study of complex adaptive systems ics in times where planet Earth undergoes fast change (Holland 2014), might be used to study the heavy metal of climatic, ecological, economic, production, commu- socio-musicological system. The potential to objectively nication and other technological systems (green circle in study socio-musicological systems is shown by thick Fig. 1) (Folke et al. 2002; Berkes et al. 2003; Walker et al. arrows in Fig. 1. 2004). This paper is intentionally descriptive to provoke The second dimension builds on the recent use of thought and provide a source to stimulate future trans- heavy metal as a critical thinking model and educational disciplinary research and cross-pollinate currently dis- tool (Angeler et al. 2016; Schmaltz 2016), emphasiz- tinct disciplines. ing the artistic component of heavy metal (Kahn-Harris Heavy metal music: a complex adaptive system 2007) and its potential to increase people’s awareness of environmental sustainability challenges (Fig. 1). Informa- Complex adaptive systems theory, a branch of complex- tion potential in this link is unidirectional; that is, heavy ity science, studies the systemic behavior of complex sys- metal music informs only sustainability science. This tems that results from the interaction of distinct features, unidirectional connection is made via allegories. These including adaptation, recalibration and self-organization relate the music with specific environmental change chal- (Holland 2014). Complex adaptive systems dynamics lenges and ensuing human tensions with the aim to elicit have been described for a plethora of systems, includ- thought and educate people about, and increase their ing the cell, brain, and immune system of humans, eco- awareness of environmental change. The thin arrow that logical (social insect colonies, ecosystems, the biosphere), Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 4 of 20

economic (global macroeconomic network, stock mar- My theoretical model of the metal socio-musicological kets), technological (internet, artificial intelligence), system is based on the description of the general ele- political (geopolitical organizations, terrorist networks) ments that make up a complex adaptive system (Fig. 2). and other social systems (schools, health services) (e.g., Basic elements of a complex adaptive system are: hierar- Meadows 2008; Holland 2014; Sundstrom et al. 2014). chical organization, information flow within and between The use of complex adaptive systems theory for explain- these hierarchies and other complex systems (i.e., con- ing the dynamic organization of disparately distinct sys- nectedness), non-linear patterns and delays resulting tems suggests that an examination of metal as a complex from information flow, and the deriving reinforcing and adaptive system is worthwhile. balancing feedback loops (Meadows 2008; Holland 2014). Heavy metal music, a fast evolving form of the auditory These feedback loops comprise the manifold processes arts belonging to the genre of rock music that originated that drive system behavior, and help the system recali- in the late 1960s and early 1970s, mainly in the United brate and adapt to disturbance. From these basic system Kingdom and the USA, has been regarded in recent years elements emerge innovation and learning, resilience, self- as a cultural esthetic worthy of scientific study in its own organization and system-level persistence. right (Brown 2011). This is reflected in an increasing amount of scientific publications (Hickam2014 ) since the Hierarchical organization first scholarly publications by Weinstein (1991) and Wal- The hierarchical organization of the metal complex ser (1993). During the last 50 years, metal has diversified adaptive system is based, from a structural point of rapidly into more than 20 subgenres out of traditional or view, on a series of “actors” and begins with the musi- classic heavy metal (Sharpe-Young 2007; Table 2). Nowa- cian at the lowest operational level. Lowest operational days it spans a wide range of song architectures, lyric level means that there are more levels down the hierar- themes, and instrumentation, including distorted , chy; that is, as humans are built up of organs, emphatic rhythms, dense -and- sound, and vig- cells, organelles, molecules and atoms but these levels orous vocals, and the genre at large continues to develop are likely marginal for the understanding of the metal fast (Brown 2011). This development has reached a com- complex adaptive system. The structure of the complex plexity that is reminiscent of complex adaptive systems adaptive system increases in complexity with increas- dynamics. That is, the development and diversification ing hierarchical level, which is reflected in an increasing in metal has been the result of the broader and complex number of actors. That is, the next level up the - interaction between musicological, psychological, cul- tional hierarchy of the metal complex adaptive system is tural, social, technological, marketing, and other eco- the comprising various musicians. Various bands nomic aspects of social and technological change (Seppi playing similar musical styles collectively comprise the and Stoycheva 2015), leading to a self-organizing socio- subgenre, the next level in the hierarchy (Table 2; Fig. 2). musicological system (Patel 2010). The highest operational level is the genre of heavy metal Meadows (2008) and Holland (2014) give simple over- music. This level is not only composed of the plethora views of complex adaptive systems, and provide the basic of musicians and bands across the multiple subgenres criteria for a relatively uncomplicated examination of but also other actors from distinct social environments metal through the lens of complexity science. My examina- that interact with each other. These include fans, music tion of metal as a complex adaptive system is based on a producers, technologists, scientists from different fields theoretical model because of two reasons. First, metal is a (e.g., culture and art studies, anthropology, psychology), very young field with many gaps in the scientific literature, marketing professionals, and politicians. Combined, this and it currently lacks the necessary broader peer-reviewed broader community of different actors makes up the quantitative and qualitative information to populate/ socio-musicological system that comprises the metal parameterize models empirically and realistically. Second, complex adaptive system. There are further levels up the even if this knowledge was available, model predictions are hierarchy (e.g., the whole biosphere); however, these may highly uncertain because, as noted by Holland (2014), a full go beyond the upper boundaries necessary for describ- description/understanding of complex adaptive systems is ing the structure of agents and thus the highest opera- impossible. There is, for instance, emergent behavior that tional hierarchies of the metal complex adaptive system. cannot be described by the sum of individual components, This does not mean, however, that there aren’t functional which often results from non-linear processes, delays, and linkages (some of these will be explored in the Synthesis complex feedback loops (see descriptions and examples in section). That is, if the whole biosphere undergoes sig- Table 1). However, theoretical models have value in build- nificant biophysical change it is likely that it will affect all ing a foundation for future research (Meadows 2008). the levels subsumed within it. Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 5 of 20 metal elements and other styles (e.g., , grunge, metal elements and other styles (e.g., and ) industrial, com - and growling of hip hop; melodic singing with absent) monly associated ambient or normal and metal) with hostility some to Nazi beliefs ethnic European (, Judaism); promote , occultism, or ) ideology); was socialist, communist or anarchist NSBM) to as a reaction created organs, piano, , (strings, and orchestral keyboards) elements) percussion, Viking Norse paganism, and the mythology, ; folk-influenced Nordic Age; paced and heavy riffingslow anthemic style, frequent uses clean and harsh vocals; choruses, instrumentation use of keyboards for use of folk atmospheric effect) chaotic style of black metal) (a fusion of and funk) metal (a fusion of alternative blended with groove Nu metal (alternative and lyrical form the vocal (institutes (fusion genre of either darkAmbient black metal (fusion genre National socialist black metal (NSBM; melds - Marxist, black metal (promotes Red and anarchist (incorporates symphonic on Norse Viking a focus by metal (characterized cacophonous and metal (an aggressive, War Derivative styles Derivative - garde elements, large-scale elements, experimentation,garde - and unconven and the use of non-standard song struc - instruments, tional sounds, techniques. and vocal styles, playing tures, and rock Evolutionary in progressive origins bowed string instruments (, ) as pribowed - mary with or replacing together instruments, instruments such as electrictraditional rock and electricguitars, bass , not normally with metal; character associated ized by heavy guitar riffs, mostly melodic heavy guitar riffs, by ized unconventional and clean singing, vocals uses sounds of other heavysong structures; takes experimentalmetal genres; approaches heavy music to or growling vocal style, highly or heavily style, highly or heavily vocal or growling picking, distorted with tremolo guitars played unconventional recording, fidelity) (low raw artistssong structures; often appear in and adopt Characterized by the use of innovative, avant- the use of innovative, Characterized by Characterized by the use of and other Characterized by Has influences from and genres rock and genres alternative Has influences from Characterized by fast , shrieking fast tempos, Characterized by and/ Characteristics Mid-, USA, Japan, 1970s, United Kingdom United 1970s, Mid-1980s, USA Early to mid-1980s, Early mid-1980s, to Origin Overview of of forms) (including derivative subgenres heavy metal music and some of and their characteristics (compiled modified from sources 2 experimental metal) Avant-garde metal (avant-metal, metal (avant-metal, Avant-garde metal Cello Alternative metal Alternative Black metal Table Subgenres on Wikipedia; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_subgenres ) on Wikipedia; Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 6 of 20 pessimistic/depressive mood of pessimistic/depressive and double kick vocals with the growling drumming of metal) a piece throughout sustained and repeated are electricof music (drones); guitar is performed and feedback; amounts of reverb with large or usually growled are when present, vocals, songs often veryscreamed; long and lack beat in the traditional sense) or rhythm at a very music; played , dirge slow places emphasis on evoking emptiness and despair; electric distorted; guitars heavily dark create used to keyboards or and ambient aspects; in the background vocals consist of mournful or growls) and southern and heavy rock; generally slow passages; some songs with brief hardcore guitars heavily fast tempos; bands emphasize sludgy distorted an abrasive, and producing d-beat sound; drumming often with hardcore or double-kick elements during passages; faster lyrics or screamed; usually shouted vocals generally pessimistic in nature) and black metal) sound) its overall elements to and roll of British Heavy Wave elements of the New fast riffing and harmonic i.e. Metal, guitar lines) nically complex work, often guitar solos) including sweeping (combines the slow tempos and Death tempos the slow doom (combines that or chords defined notes (largely doom (blends death-doom with funeral Funeral punk (blends elements of hardcore Derivative styles Derivative death metal (combines Blackened and incorporates rock by (inspired roll Death ‘n’ death metal with (combines - fast, tech death metal (characterized by Technical and extreme metal; songs with dark and pes - on political and social simistic lyrics dwelling bass component ills; sounds with strong and distorted; at a fast tempo, often played growling sections;occasional slow grunting, vocals and screaming guitars and a much low-tuned tempos, slower sound than other metal “heavier” or “thicker” the music and lyrics evokegenres; a sense and dread, of despair, and early black metal; typically employing picking, distorted tremolo heavily guitars, drum - vocals, deep growling complex song minor keysming, or atonality, changes; often multiple tempo structures, on the details of extreme e.g. acts, elaborates cannibal - , dissection, , , ism, and Influencedby anarcho-punk, punk hardcore of heavy metal typicallyAn extreme form using Characteristics building on trash metal An extreme subgenre Mid-1980s, United KingdomMid-1980s, United Kingdom USA, United Early mid-1970s, to Origin Mid-1980s, USA continued (Crust) Doom metal 2 Table Subgenres Death metal Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 7 of 20 - - pirate mythology, commonly combined with mythology, pirate elements of Sea Shanties) music) with medieval folk death metal and ) and death metal, blends grindcore nogore; using lyrics with sexual themes) uses vocals; or extremely low with pitch-shifted pathology as its exclusive and forensic gore subject matter; often very fast tempo) from melodic death metal with , melodic death metal with hardcore from clean and at times ; can have har can feature and screaming; growls singing, picking, double bass tremolo monic guitar riffs, drums and metalcore-stylized breakdowns) punk,- by an exces or both; defined or hardcore blast beats and use use of death metal riffs, sive punk breakdowns) of hardcore veryrhythmically complex with unusual time dissonant style of metalcore) signatures; (fuses heavy metal and ) metal (fuses heavy metal and Celtic (blends music with classical Pirate or heavy metal rock metal (blends hard Medieval Derivative styles Derivative Death grind (death-grind fuses or death/grind; porno-grind (porno grind, or por its preoccupation by (characterized (combines sounds and traits (combines Melodic metal core death metal with metalcore (combines be confused with math metal; (not to - in teased-up ; combines elements hair in teased-up and heavy metal with rock of hard adding hooks and guitar riffs; and , the aesthetic of 1970s glam from borrows rock including the widespread use of folk instru - use of folk including the widespread a lesser extent, to traditional sing - ments and, soft instrumen - ing styles; sometimes features rock folk by tation influenced generally melodramatic, fantasized, romantic, romantic, fantasized, generally melodramatic, dark or sometimes gloomy; range of diverse growling including clean singing, styles, vocal singers male and female and screaming, and hardcore punk; metal guitar repeating and hardcore or sequencer lines, sampling, riffs, distorted vocals and death metal; growling vocals, blast beats; vocals, and death metal; growling very short very songs (microsongs); chaotic, use of time signatures; lacks the standard at and , on gore lyrics often focused times political and Spanish vocals; percussion and Latin percussion and Spanish vocals; Salsa rhythm) (e.g., rhythm heavy guitar riffs and solos, fre and solos, heavy guitar riffs quently use hardcore blast beats and double quently use hardcore stylebass drums; vocal includes death growls A distinguishing characteristic and shouting. half-time to is slowed (song “breakdown” is the and the open strings achieve play to sound) the lowest-pitched Visual styleVisual of bands with artists styling their Blends heavy metal with traditional , music, Blends heavy metal with traditional folk Combines with doom metal; lyrics gothic rock Combines Blends industrial , Blends industrial dance music, Characteristics Fuses crust punk, hardcore punk, crust punk, thrash metal hardcore Fuses Has Latin origins, influences, instrumentation, influences, Has Latin origins, Combines heavy metal and hardcore punk; uses heavy metal and hardcore Combines Late 1970s, USA 1970s, Late Early to mid-, Europe Early mid-1990s, to Mid-1990s, Europe Mid-1980s, , USA, Mid-1980s, England, Origin Mid-1980s, England Late-1970s, Mid to late 1980s, USA Mid 1980s, late to continued (hair metal, sleaze metal, pop metal) metal, sleaze Glam metal (hair metal, Folk 2 Table Subgenres Grind core Metal core Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 8 of 20 technical complexity;technical distorted, heavily features and riffs syncopated guitar chords, palm-muted alongside virtuosopolyrhythms soloing) Derivative styles Derivative (characterized by progressive, rhythmic, and rhythmic, progressive, by (characterized - - of composition; uses a very style technical of in which guitar”, “shred guitar soloing called picking,guitarists sweep use cross-picking, picking rapid scales and economy play to from uses elements borrowed and ; scales including instruments, and Wave, alternative metal and metal and groove alternative Wave, industrial, combined with elements from in (often music; vocals and electronic and clean male, German) dominantly in deep, and death growls sometimes screaming voice; instrumentation; characterized by synthesiz - instrumentation; characterized by electronically 8-bit sounds, , ers, beats; stylistically veryproduced variable, punk, post-hardcore, hardcore including e.g. melodic metal core tuned and distorted guitar(s), heavy atmos - of evolution gradual pherics, multiple ones or climax (or a crescendo to within a song); minimal emphasis on vocals; abstractoften ; lyrics frequently (thematic or philosophical) metal; often emphasizes clean, melodic, clean, melodic, metal; often emphasizes bass fast pacing (double vocals, high-pitched drumming), and melodic ; rhythm pro chord by straight power guitar defined used at times (backing harsh vocals gressions; lyrics based on themes; gener vocals); ally more upbeat than other metal genres, upbeat than other metal genres, ally more and inspire seeking the listener empower to and courage joy metal; complex structure with unusual and metal; complex structure long compositions, dynamic time signatures, if present, skilled vocals, instrumental playing; melodic (at times unclean); lyrics often are or political spiritual, philosophical, Heavily influenced by classical music in its style influenced Heavily Characteristics styleby New influenced German A crossover Uses electric drum , and typical guitars, rock Similar to post-rock, but tends to include lower- to post-rock, but tends Similar to Takes influence from heavy metal and speed influence from Takes Fusion between and heavy rock between progressive Fusion America Late 1970s, America, Europe 1970s, Late Origin Mid Germany 1990s, Early 2000, USA Mid Sweden 1990s, Mid 1980s, Germany, , USA Scandinavia, Mid Germany, 1980s, Mid 1980s, Australia, United Kingdom, United Mid North Australia, 1980s, continued Neoclassical metal (Shred metal) Neoclassical metal (Shred 2 Table Subgenres New German hardness core Post metal Post Power Progressive Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 9 of 20 Derivative styles Derivative - - - tuoso soloing and featuring shorttuoso soloing and featuring instrumen - tal passages between couplets; uses highly but lesser use of harsh vocals, expressive than in thrash metal vocals demanding; usually less abrasive and more and more demanding; usually less abrasive melodic than thrash metal; less influence from aggressive punk; and more faster hardcore vir than traditional heavy metal; inclination to rock, , , and doom metal; a typically and features slow-to-mid tempo laden bass-heavy distorted, groove heavily production “retro” and melodic vocals, sound, and symphonic rock; includes elements of classical music (symphonic instruments, keyboards ); full symphony choirs, often find a dominant place; classically trained per and a second vocalist vocalists female are growls forming aggression; songs usually with fast percussive songs usually with fast percussive aggression; overlaid with guitar riffs beats and low-register lead work;shredding-style lyrics often deal and denuncia - with social issues using direct tory partially language; approach overlaps genre with the hardcore evolved and diversified; departs and diversified; the evolved from rock; character of hard blues roots original thumping riffs, mid-to-fast-tempo by ized extended lead guitar riffs, crunchy , clean, often high-pitched, solos; vocals anthemic choruses; pioneering use of double lead guitar that comprises almost every of subgenre to by dedication heavy metal music; defined and using song lyrics based on Judeo-Chris - Unblack metal (akatian traditions. Christian stylistically to black metal) refers Christianitywhich promotes in their lyrics and imagery) Extremely fast, abrasive, and technically and technically Extremely fast, abrasive, Combines elements of heavy metal, psychedelic psychedelic elements of heavy metal, Combines Characteristics Influenced by early gothic metal, power metal Influenced power by early gothic metal, Extreme subgenre with fast tempo and overall and overall with fast tempo Extreme subgenre Seminal genre from which today’s subgenres subgenres which today’s from Seminal genre An ideological umbrella form of heavy metal form umbrella An ideological Late 1970s, Europe, America Europe, 1970s, Late Early 1990s, Early 1990s, Origin Mid-late 1990s, Europe Mid-late 1990s, Early 1980s, USA, Europe Early 1980s, Late 1960s, USA, UK 1960s, Late Late 1970s, USA, Sweden 1970s, Late continued Stoner metal (, metal (Stoner desertStoner rock) 2 Table Subgenres Trash metal Trash Classic (traditional) heavy metal Umbrella terms Umbrella Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 10 of 20 Derivative styles Derivative stylistic in gothic and extreme origins metal subgenres with a more abrasive, harsher, harsher, abrasive, with a more subgenres non-commercialized style or underground, black with the thrash metal, sound associated death metal and doom genres, metal, being Despite and sometimes speed metal. extreme metal has music, non-mainstream influenced an array of musical performers inside and outside of heavy metal traditions of a specific culture or region; uses region; or traditions of a specific culture rustic melodies, specific thematic concepts, languages; unusual instruments or archaic and folk with often associated metal A loosely defined subgenre of heavy metal, with of heavy metal, A loosely defined subgenre Comprises a number of related heavy metal Comprises a number of related Characteristics extreme metal with the pre-Christian Fuses Early 1970s, Europe, USA Europe, Early 1970s, Origin NorthernEarly 1990s, Europe continued Dark metal Extreme metal 2 Table Subgenres metal Pagan dynamics in heavy system but serves adaptive complex at times incomplete construct is subjective as a summarizing and classification to show This Note: also shown. are genres several encompass that terms Umbrella to examples giving from paper therefore This 2011 ). (Tsatsishvili among artists, and critics about membership of selected these subgenres bands to fans, can be disagreement there the subjectivity, Given metal. bias avoid Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 11 of 20

Fig. 2 Simplified complex adaptive system model of heavy metal music showing discrete hierarchical structure and the connections between those. Non-linear interactions (connectivity between agents) are symbolized by . These colors are not an absolute representation of dynamic interactions and only serve to visualize non-linear system connectivity; interactions and similarities are therefore not an absolute represen- tation of dynamic interactions in the heavy metal complex adaptive system

Information flow instruments (Table 2). The rule is that different combina- Information flow and connectedness among the struc- tions of these musicians are needed to qualify as a metal tural agents in complex adaptive systems is critical for band that generates that specific style of music (metal; system function and behavior. Connectedness reflects not classical music). A composed of only singers the structural linkages between agents in the complex does not qualify as a metal band that plays metal music. adaptive system; these linkages can vary in strength and At the band level of the metal hierarchy, the informa- connect some agents more and others less in the system. tion flow, which comprises the distinctive and charac- For instance, musicians in a band are closer connected teristic series of sound structure that emerges from the to each other than with the musicians of another band. combination of vocals and instruments, is manifested in Information flow reflects the functional linkages between a song architecture that characterizes the band’s label. the connected agents. That is, the “information” cre- For instance, doom metal bands typically use slower tem- ated from the vocalists, guitarists and drummers “flows” pos, low-tuned guitars, and “thicker” or “heavier” sound between the musicians and leads to the emergence of a than other metal subgenres, and the music and lyrics song. This example shows that information flow in com- evoke a sense of despair, dread, and impending doom. plex adaptive systems is goal oriented. Specifically, in In metalcore and deathcore, a harsher version of met- the metal complex adaptive system it is the generation alcore, a distinguishing characteristic is the breakdown, of a specific form of music that often reflects transgres- whereby the song is slowed and the guitarists play open sive cultural and political norms and values (Kahn-Har- strings to achieve the lowest-pitched sound. Folk metal ris 2007; Brown 2011). These norms and values often blends heavy metal with traditional folk music, includ- build on the incorporation of pornographic and foren- ing the widespread use of folk instruments and, to a sic themes in their lyrics (e.g., pornogrind, grindcore; lesser extent, traditional singing styles. These examples Table 2). To this end, agents be connected within show the higher within-subgenre similarity rather than and across hierarchical levels (Allen et al. 2014), but these between-subgenre similarity of band styles, and more connections follow certain rules and vary in strength. In broadly how subgenres are connected. Metalcore and the metal complex adaptive system, individual musicians deathcore with their breakdowns are more similar to either act as front man, , bass, drums, occa- each other than to death metal and trash metal without sionally synthesizers, and sometimes subgenre specific breakdowns. However, when compared with symphonic Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 12 of 20

metal and classic metal, which are more melodic subgen- current system dynamics operate so slowly that their res, the former metal subgenres become more similar to effects eventually manifest in the future, as is the case each other with their overall harshness and aggression. with substantial biophysical change in social-ecologi- Sometimes metal subgenres are so similar to each other cal systems (Folke et al. 2004). Metal is currently seeing that it is difficult to draw boundaries (Tsatsishvili 2011). transforming social perceptions and music industries. As a result, some umbrella terms have been defined that Music digitalization, rapid popularization of online unite similar metal subgenres (Table 2). streaming services (YouTube, , , Sound- That agents in a complex adaptive system are linked Cloud), subscription models, and social media websites and information flows with different strengths among facilitate broad exposure. Quickly expanding regional agents reflects another critical hallmark of complex adap- and global metal markets, festivals, and conferences ena- tive systems, their nonlinear patterns and processes. ble social engagement worldwide (Seppi and Stoycheva Such non-linearity can be seen in different patterns of 2015). In this regard, metal shows a similar “teleconnec- connection of elements of the metal complex adaptive tion” as social-ecological systems (Adger et al. 2009). system. For instance, from a scientific viewpoint, many That is, geographically disparate regions are becom- papers dealing with metal have been published in psy- ing increasingly connected and one region may affect chology, meaning that there is high information flow and another remote area due to this global connectivity (e.g., connectedness between metal and psychology (Brown metal styles that have emerged in Sweden [djent] may 2011). To my knowledge none exists between the music inspire metal in the USA and elsewhere). In social-eco- and complexity and sustainability science, highlighting logical systems, for example the production of food and the lack of connectedness and information flow between fiber shows similar teleconnection (Rist et al. 2014). these domains. There is no linear relationship when com- It is clear that the of metal, and music in paring connectedness in these examples. Similarly, from general, can lead to interactions. A case in point a cultural-political perspective, Western music is more is the interaction of metal with other musical genres connected to metal than middle Eastern cultures, in or sounds from emergent technologies. which this form of music doesn´t meld well with cultural, exemplifies how elements and other sounds religious and ethical belief models (Stanton et al. 2012). from video gaming (a technological invention) can Metal is emerging in countries in Asia and entrain heavy metal music, leading to a new subgenre. (Wallach 2005; Varas-Díaz et al. 2014), and this emerg- Alternative metal, especially its crossover forms rap ing link suggests an increasing degree of connectedness metal and nu metal, incorporate elements from hip hop of these countries with metal. music, a form of contemporary music characterized by Connectedness also has a temporal, dynamic dimen- (chanted rhythmic and rhyming speech). On the sion, operating at different speeds across hierarchical lev- other hand, symphonic metal and cello metal emphasize els in the metal complex adaptive system. A metal song a strong classical component, particularly in terms of typically lasts from seconds to minutes. A subgenre needs instrumentation used. years to develop. Metal has now evolved over the past 5 Metal is influenced by other genres, but also affects decades. These temporal patterns are also nonlinear, and other musical genres. For instance, certain metal ele- can comprise a feature characteristic of complex adaptive ments are reflected in brostep, an emergent form of dub- system dynamics: delays (Table 1). The different speeds step, which is a genre of . These also have implications when delays can be perceived. A interactions between metal subgenres and other music in a complex adaptive system becomes evident forms and technological inventions exemplify a when accumulated structural and functional changes in potential and source of dynamic interactions between the system suddenly become evident (Table 1). At the complex adaptive systems (Kahn-Harris 2007; Brown song level, such delays are often manifested in unusual 2011). These dynamic interactions often follow from the time signatures, resulting from unrhythmic patterns constant recalibration of a complex adaptive system in when sound elements are synchronized or unsynchro- response to a changing environment. However, the out- nized with lags. This is a characteristic of mathcore, comes of these dynamics are currently highly uncertain, grindcore, and progressive metal. In songs from these partly because of delayed responses that might arise from subgenres rhythmic delays can be perceived immediately. these interactions. Delays, or time lags, also make predic- Other metal subgenres (symphonic metal, power metal) tions of when and why systems are changing extremely are more melodic and are therefore characterized by challenging. fewer rhythmic delays. Uncertainty, highlighted in the above examples, is a At the other extreme, at the highest operational level, general phenomenon in complex systems dynamics. It the perception of delays might not be easy because stems from the stability of current patterns and processes Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 13 of 20

in a resilient complex adaptive system. Resilience refers recalibration resulting from learning that balances feed- to the ability of a system to maintain structures and func- back loops. For instance, alternative metal diversified into tions in the face of disturbances, and when this capacity nu metal and funk metal, and death doom, drone metal, is exceeded systems reorganize into a new regime with funeral doom, and sludge metal derived from doom different structures and functions (Holling 1973). Critical metal (Table 2). The New Wave of British Heavy Metal to the understanding of resilience are feedbacks, or feed- that peaked between 1975 and 1985 and which has seen back loops, that arise from the flow of information and posterior reformation exemplifies that feedback loops connectivity in the complex adaptive system. can change over time. Broader social-political environments can exemplify Feedback loops feedback loops at the highest operational hierarchies. As is the case with many complex adaptive systems (Ster- Western countries do not generally impose restric- man 1994), there are potentially far more feedbacks in tions on cultural, artistic, and scientific development the metal socio-musicological system than can be cur- within permitted legal settings. This contributes to and rently envisioned and enumerated in this paper. However, facilitates recalibration, innovation and progress across some examples shall help make the point that feedback social environments, and ultimately systemic evolution. loops essentially contribute to complex adaptive system As stated before, there are many feedbacks operating dynamics in metal. between the constantly developing scientific, musicologi- There are reinforcing and balancing feedback loops, and cal, economic and marketing aspects in the metal socio- these can operate within and across hierarchical levels in musicological system that ultimately allows it to evolve. the complex adaptive system and affect processes from On the other hand, in many countries with conservative both directions in the loop (Meadows 2008). Imagine at politics or specific belief models there are more restric- the band level agreement among musicians and similar tions to development. Progress is often limited due to opinions about music style and where to perform con- suppressive and penalizing action that may reinforce certs. Based on these criteria, bands compose new songs incompatibilities between cultural models. Such incom- and make a new release or . After each release patibilities can be reinforced to such an extent as to lead or gig the band composes new songs and releases a new to violent action, as witnessed during the recent terror and presents it at another festival. The band works attacks at a metal concert in . So too, is the use of in a balancing feedback loop, whereby the generation heavy metal (and children´s TV programs Barney and of new music is partly contingent on the music created Sesame Street) in psychological operations used in a before. In this calibration process, the musicians and negative context, for instance during the interrogation the band at large learn, and this learning process builds of detainees (BBC 2003) that can reinforce hard feelings the source for future experimentation and innovation. A towards metal. These examples highlight that top hier- reinforcing feedback loop becomes evident when there archies are connected to and influence behavior at lower is disagreement and escalating conflict between band levels. members; that is, the reinforcing feedback loop results In short, metal has seen an expansion and gain in in an initial conflict that increases over time to further world-wide popularity (Trilling 2007), despite some even more conflict in the future. Less cooperation can periods of turmoil in the 1990s that forced musicians to lead to less songs being produced and consequently distance themselves from the genre, due to a plethora of fewer releases and/or . With increasing escala- factors including aversion by the media and music indus- tion of conflict learning, experimentation and innovation try (Konow 2002). Despite this, metal has been resilient is de-emphasized, contributing to a downward spiral that to this disturbance. It shows that balancing feedback can culminate in the band´s dissolution. There can be of loops have dominated over reinforcing feedback loops course other factors (personal, professional) leading to thus far in the evolution of metal. the disappearance of a band. In summary, the broader dynamics of metal abides Balancing and reinforcing feedbacks at the band level within a dynamic state space that adapts and flexes con- may scale up to the next hierarchy, the subgenre level of stantly based on the complex interaction of agents in the metal. When balancing feedback loops dominate over system (Lansing 2003; Frenken 2006), dynamics which reinforcing feedback loops, the whole subgenre is likely can be seen in art at large (Levine and Levine 2011). to persist and further develop. If the relationship is Social theory on diffusion of art forms shows that some inverse, a subgenre likely disappears. Balancing and rein- elements climb up and thrive in this state space, and oth- forcing feedback loops have influenced metal subgenres ers fizzle out as ends based on the structure of social distinctly. For example, many subgenres see a rapid diver- interactions (reminiscent of the viral dynamics of mar- sification into derivative styles, based on the constant keting; Leskovec et al. 2007). The state space of the metal Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 14 of 20

socio-musicological system comprises similar complex ecological concerns, search for new solutions, and design dynamics driven by endogenous and exogenous factors ecological activity to enable public action (Kagan 2014). (social perception, changes in music production and A series of approaches is used to communicate envi- routes of exposure, human behavioral, cognitive, and cul- ronmental change problems, ranging from realistic (e.g. tural aspects) and interactions. Ultimately, these dynam- photography) to abstract, often aiming to elicit human ics highlight the ability of the metal complex adaptive tensions (Peeples 2011). are often used to system to persist in broader social and cultural environ- reinforce the surprise component and stimulate people´s ments. It has become a self-organizing, self-maintaining, learning and long-term memory formation (Timms 2004, resilient socio-musicological system. Lisman and Grace 2005). With regards to art, and similar to the movement in the early twentieth century, it Metal and environmental sustainability has been argued that forms of heavy metal have system- The previous section emphasized the scientific compo- atically transgressed the boundaries of the accepted in nent of heavy metal music (Brown 2011) and explored the auditory arts (Kahn-Harris 2007), and other music its merger with complexity science to describe the emer- forms (e.g., post-punk, New Complexity School) might gence of a complex socio-musicological system. This sec- similarly deviate from these boundaries. This suggests tion uses an independent line of inquiry. It emphasizes that metal can symbolize artistically when change poten- the artistic component of heavy metal and explores its tially takes people out of comfort zones. use as an educational tool to increase people’s awareness Although not unique to metal music alone, individ- about environmental sustainability challenges on planet ual subgenres of metal (Table 2) have song structures Earth that undergoes fast change in climate, ecological, that become allegorical to and can symbolize specific economic, production, communication and other tech- aspects of human tensions associated with disturbances nological systems (i.e. global change) (Folke et al. 2002; in social-ecological systems (e.g., natural disasters, ter- Berkes et al. 2003; Walker et al. 2004). The use of metal rorist attacks, humanitarian crises; see below). Songs music as a critical thinking and educational tool has been from these subgenres can be linked with these specific recently highlighted (Angeler et al. 2016, Schmaltz 2016). social-ecological system challenges artistically, although Sustainability science is concerned with the ability these specific links are entirely subjective, as many artis- of systems of people and nature to adapt to changing tic expressions are in general. I showcase this potential social-environmental baselines (Kates et al. 2001). Natu- with selected examples (Table 3) from a potentially vast ral disasters (floods, wildland fires, hurricanes, infec- spectrum of application. Note that band and song names tious diseases), terrorism, or mass migrations of people are of subordinate importance in symbolizing these sen- due to humanitarian crises have increasingly shattered timents. That is, although the songs were not always the world in recent years. In its extreme form, the entire written to intentionally make the connection to environ- globe can undergo a fundamental reorganization because mental sustainability challenges, it is possible to draw a of the broader overexploitation of resources and climate comparison between the sounds and lyrics the music change (Rockström et al. 2009; Hughes et al. 2013). There inspires in many people´s emotions and sustainability is much uncertainty about global change outcomes, but challenges. In the examples below, emphasis is placed on negative consequences (conflicts, health problems) and contextualizing metal songs with specific environmen- associated human tensions (distress, aggression, depres- tal change challenges from which emotional reactions sion, torture, despair) are and will likely become a more in people possibly ensue. The metal allegories comprise common denominator in people´s lifes in the future an approach, based on the visual arts (Thomsen 2015), (Horner-Dixon 1991; McMichael et al. 2008). Sustain- which has potential to reconceptualize “hearing” as ability science is in critical need of qualitative and quan- “questioning”. That is, the allegorical expression of envi- titative approaches to address these and many more ronmental change issues through metal might trigger a consequences that result from global change, to facilitate chain of questioning: for instance, what is environmental citizens’ comprehension of the scientific and potential change and why do we need to study it? How do these policy dimensions of environmental change, especially challenges relate to sustainability? What are elements of because it is the that bears the costs of uncertainty and surprise, and how do they manifest? This transformation and adaptation measures (Angeler 2016). process can improve learning and connect people more Here, metal is explored as one qualitative tool that pro- closely with environmental sustainability issues (e.g., vides a critical thinking and education model about such Ryan 2001; Angeler 2016). A combination of metal with complex challenges. Artists and scientists are increas- visual underpinnings (e.g., photography; Thomsen 2015) ingly collaborating (e.g., EcoArt movement) to commu- may further bolster people´s connection to environmen- nicate the nature of problems, heighten awareness of tal change problems. Also, there is precedence in the use Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 15 of 20 a = ybyU0pdIu4Y watch?v = 3sQ5iaynO8k watch?v = N7BFBW3psp0watch?v = 4ifTjdKrTPw watch?v = Gz-xmICHCK4 watch?v = gIB9Cai5kZ4 watch?v = HjFdhraTA7A watch?v = Z3vkeO-GsV8watch?v = VT13aP_GnuMwatch?v = KxQZsW0H7LU watch?v = VSSFG_pNPg0 watch?v = jLE8FCn6BzE watch?v = P1LXARJv4Lgwatch?v = eSGEKQaaRjo watch?v N7IVV6yIS0 = Vd3IT1LuHfM watch?v JH-dmHtZ4M = 9hOghDTPvJg watch?v Links to YouTube https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ = - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v https://www.youtube.com/ = _ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v https://www.youtube.com/ Nosebleed) ers) Lines) Song (Band/artist) examples Escapist () of time (Halloween) March Forever) Evoke (After Angels () Dopethrone (Electric Wizzard) Concubine (Converge) Concubine Garrucha Bomb) (Car (Agoraphobic now Agorapocalypse Unanswered () Unanswered Speed metal messiah (Joe Stump) Murdered by (Frowning) grief by Murdered (Ophis) Among the falling stones Morte Grin) aetérna (Chelsea - Lead (Corrupt graves Dig their own (Behind Enemy bastards Fucking Resistance () Dream) the Fallen In Sincerity (For the Burial) (After - joy and empowerment conveyed in conveyed and empowerment joy metal power ability in mathcore and grindcore ability in mathcore metal and trash death reflected political ills breakdowns in metalcore and in metalcore breakdowns deathcore Manifestation in metal allegoryManifestation Melodic aspects in symphonic metal; Psychedelic elements in stoner metal elements in stoner Psychedelic Rhythmic complexity and unpredict Fast tempo and aggression in speed and aggression tempo Fast Despair conveyed in doom metal; Despair conveyed Crust punk lyrics dwelling on social/ Crust punk lyrics dwelling Transitions in songs in the form of in songs the form Transitions - ignorant of potential catastrophes catastrophes of potential ignorant environment in immediate bances (e.g. floods) bances (e.g. of control of intense and fast distur of intense of control despair, agony, stress agony, despair, time scales, but metal can servetime scales, as people conscientize model to Emotions in people emotions; positive Widespread Sense of false security Chaos, uncertaintyChaos, Overwhelming and lack to exposure Widespread negative emotions; negative Widespread Dissatisfaction against governments Often not perceivable given long Often given not perceivable Selected sustainability challenges in social-ecological systems (SES) and how they manifest in the form of heavy metal allegories in the form Selected manifest they (SES) and how sustainability challenges in social-ecological systems 3 Table SES challenge and social disturbances Ecological disturbances (a) Before (b) During disturbances (c) Aftermath(c) of disturbances (d) Social(d) and political causes Systemic SES aspects shifts(a) Regime Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 16 of 20 a = fk83pC0xDeo watch?v = VDke1Gvmr3swatch?v = HPe9Uv8gHnw watch?v Links to YouTube https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ https://www.youtube.com/ Song (Band/artist) examples Demonium (Inmortal) Intent kill to of Demise) (Dawn (Sybreed) A.E.O.N. metal Manifestation in metal allegoryManifestation and harshness in black Abrasiveness related emotions related Emotions in people health and disease instance, For continued traps) Some of the videos are preceded by advertisements that are unrelated to the songs on YouTube the songs on to unrelated advertisements are by that preceded Some of the videos are

3 Table SES challenge (poverty SES states (b) Undesired for symbolizing sustainability utility issues their broader SES challenges highlighting different metal allegories apply to several that Note given. are YouTube Examples with online links to a Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 17 of 20

of metal sound tracks to provide auditory support in war result from corrupted and/or authoritarian governance (Black Hawk Down), horror (Valentine), action/science regimes. fiction (), or fantasy () movies and Chaos and uncertainty are high during and immedi- film series (Resident Evil). O’Brien (2012) deals specifi- ately after disturbances, resulting in discomfort from cally with the use of metal in combat movies. not knowing how the disturbance will end or what the future holds. Uncertainty and chaos may be associated Metal, human tensions and environmental sustainability with the patterns of mathcore’s, grindcore’s, and progres- Disturbances as manifestations of social-ecological sys- sive metal´s rhythmic complexity. These subgenres are tem dynamics can be associated with a variety of metal characterized by unusual time signatures, atonality and subgenres that are allegorical to human emotions. That dissonance in the manifestation of song elements that is, these subgenres have the necessary diversity to char- are reminiscent of chaos. The listener is constantly chal- acterize allegorically distinct sustainability issues and lenged to digest and anticipate dynamically interacting experiences and sentiments of people prior, during and and often antithetical sound patterns and rhythm struc- after disturbances. tures. These metal subgenres, along with other types of In a social-ecological context, imagine a society that media and art, have therefore high potential to increase lives in a peaceful environment, urban or rural, where people´s awareness about the sentiments and behavior their basic requirements for livelihood are covered, of uncertainty and chaos that people may experience as a including recreational and other services provided by result of natural disasters. nature. People with a sense of relative security and Similar applications of metal allegories can be used in happiness. These conditions and sentiments can be other contexts, highlighting their broader use to symbol- expressed with the more melodic symphonic metal sub- ize disturbances in social-ecological systems. There is genre or power metal that seeks to empower the lis- a wide range of social issues that lend themselves to the tener and inspire joy and courage. However, the sense emotional content of metal, such as the stresses particu- of security can be false when people take their comfort lar to urban living for instance, recurring overarching for granted. Occasionally sludge metal, and stoner metal problems in public transportation during rush hours, with its psychedelic elements, which reflects a temporary attacks in schools, or broad-scale terrorist massacres in altered state of consciousness induced by the consump- urban public places. tion of psychedelic , can symbolize feelings of false In social-ecological systems disturbances can ulti- reality or security as catastrophes can happen at any time. mately lead to wider systemic changes resulting in sub- With climate change, the frequency, duration and mag- stantial reorganization of the system’s structure, function nitude of disturbances are altered. For instance, devastat- and dynamics (i.e., regime shifts). Regime shifts occur ing wildfires or extreme precipitation events that result when for example a shallow lake with clear water and in flashfloods occur more often in a changing climate submerged vegetation shifts into a nutrient-enriched, (Christensen and Christensen 2003; Gillett et al. 2004). turbid-water regime with frequent algal bloom outbreaks. The devastation of torrential floods or wildfires occurs This nutrient-enriched regime is stable, meaning that the relatively fast, causing death and destroying the basis of lake will not return to a clear-water regime without sub- people’s livelihoods. Metal genres with fast tempo and stantial management. Such systemic changes of social- overall aggression in sound and vocals, like speed metal ecological systems can be explored through metal songs or trash metal, can symbolize the fast devastation when from distinct subgenres. Regime shifts per se that charac- floods or fires unleash and peoples reactions to these terize the non-linear transitions between system regimes catastrophes. People´s despair, agony and suffering in can be characterized with metalcore and deathcore the aftermath of these disturbances becomes allegorical songs. These songs symbolize the dynamism inherent in to many sentiments that doom metal inspires with slower non-linear transitions in the form of “breakdowns” that tempos, low-tuned guitars and thick/heavy sounds. introduce sudden changes in beat and rhythm patterns in Similar sentiments can be expressed with social distur- a song; that is, breakdowns in metalcore and deathcore bances. The world currently witnesses large scale human is figurative of the existence of and can inspire people migrations caused by war. The sense of agony of people about dynamic changes between alternative regimes in fleeing their countries with an associated loss in eco- social-ecological systems. A further systemic aspect of nomic and social potential, culminating in humanitarian social-ecological system change becomes evident when catastrophe, can be brought to mind with the sentiments systems have shifted and locked in a new regime after a death doom and funeral doom inspire. Crust punk and disturbance threshold has been passed. Similarly to the grindcore, which consciously emphasize political and above examples of sentiments people may experience in social ills, can symbolize the sources of conflict that can the aftermath of a disturbance, metal allegories based on Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 18 of 20

more abrasive and harsher black metal, can be used to Heavy metal diversifies and evolves fast in response to characterize the persistence of an undesired post-distur- rapidly changing social and technological factors. These bance regime; for instance, when a system locks in pov- dynamics mirror the equally rapid changes in the ways erty traps, which are characterized by limited access to modern human societies interact with the environment, credit and capital markets, extreme environmental degra- and which are driven by the same factors (exemplified dation (which depletes agricultural production potential), by the social-ecological systems dimension in Fig. 1). corrupt governance, capital flight, poor education sys- However, the interactions between people and the envi- tems, disease ecology, lack of public health care, war and ronment have reached dimensions that have become poor infrastructure (Bonds et al. 2010). To demonstrate potentially detrimental to the planets capacity to support such cases, metal can be used to increase people´s aware- humankind (Rockström et al. 2009). Although it is highly ness that systems are often not able to rebound from dis- uncertain how current patterns of human-environment turbances, but rather become trapped in an undesirable interactions will unfold in the future, several social- regime for humans, and which are very difficult to escape ecological challenges, as those exemplified in this paper, (e.g., Cinner et al. 2009). will likely interfere with mankind’s welfare and the way humans interact with each other. Tribal societies have for Synthesis thousands of years used music as an art form to express The preceding sections explored hitherto nonexistent sentiments about and show emotional responses to phe- links between metal, an auditory art, complex adaptive nomena observed in nature (Morely 2013). The counter- systems and environmental sustainability science along culture arts (Dada, ) of the 1920s in Europe two independent dimensions; that is, from a socio-musi- both informed and were informed by socio-cultural- cological systems point of view and an environmental political , including rejection of traditional education/awareness perspective (Fig. 1). These lines of modes of authority and conservative societies. Those rev- inquiry show that metal as an art form has potential to olutions in the cultural landscape were connected partly describe distinct and independent facets of the complex- to the music that helped drive those changes, as well as ity of systems of people and nature. The paper concludes reflected those changes (LeBaron 2002). Similar dynam- with an examination of the overarching implications ics can be observed in this Millennium, exemplified with that may derive from the merger of these independent the dynamics of heavy metal as a complex socio-musico- explorations. logical system. There are many different complex adaptive systems in Exploring apparently unrelated connections between systems of people and nature (Sundstrom et al. 2014). different disciplines and art movements, such as surre- Arguably, art comprises a complex system that is embed- alism and quantum physics (Parkinson 2008), or men- ded in a broader social-cultural-environmental complex tal illness and political leadership (Ghaemi 2011), have adaptive system (Fig. 1). Within the arts there are many shown opportunities for scientific inquiry that are not forms and genres that might be nested and interacting commonly practiced in academic circles. However, such complex adaptive systems. Using heavy metal as an exam- lines of exploration open ways for a broader understand- ple, this paper shows how a can become its ing of complex adaptive systems and have potential to own complex adaptive system or socio-musicological inform our ability to understand, predict, and cope with systems. Such systems are often artificially separated in their dynamics and change. It was the aim of this paper scientific research, which impedes the development of to show that the use of heavy metal as an art form can appropriate models and knowledge of system dynamics. contribute to such an endeavor, exploring the use of emergence of metal not only reflects cultural change music to inform two different areas of scientific inquiry, in modern societies, its dynamics follow those described complexity and sustainability science. While novel in for complex adaptive systems. Metal thus provides a val- itself, the independent discussions of the contribution uable addition to complex adaptive systems research and of metal to the basic and applied sciences begs the ques- further highlights that considering the arts as a form of tion how metal as a socio-musicological system (Dimen- complex adaptive system is long overdue. The bottom sion 1; Fig. 1) and as a tool for environmental education line is that it is uninformative to consider the arts and (Dimension 2) are linked. Both dimensions entrain with sciences as discrete units (Friedenwald-Fishman 2011). each other and a plethora of other dimensions of social- The arts and the basic and applied dimensions of science ecological system dynamics not discussed in this paper are integral to humanity. People cannot be understood as to lead to the emergence of a broader social-cultural- separate from our environment, be it ecological, cultural, environmental system (Fig. 1). The emanation of such a political. broader system cannot be explained simply by the sum of Angeler SpringerPlus (2016) 5:1637 Page 19 of 20

individual explorations of dimensions. In these dynamics Received: 24 May 2016 Accepted: 11 September 2016 the individual dimensions behave like actors that weave together and inform cultural, social and environmental facets in a broader complex adaptive system. Imagine a human body where the central nervous system modulates References sensory, visual, auditory and olfactory stimuli. These pro- Adger WN, Eakin H, Winkels A (2009) Nested and teleconnected vulnerabilities to environmental change. Front Ecol Environ 7:150–157 cesses are likely independent from each other and oper- Allen CR, Angeler DG, Garmestani AS, Gunderson LH, Holling CS (2014) Panar- ate in distinct lobes of the brain, yet all are integral to the chy: theory and applications. Ecosystems 17:578–589 functioning of human live and coordinated by complex Angeler DG (2016) Viewing biodiversity through the lens of science…and art! 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