VOLUME I NUMBER 3

ANNALS OF MEDICAL HISTORY

FRANCIS R'PACKARD 'M'D' EDITOR [PHILADELPHIA] PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY PAUL - B - HOEBER 67-69 EAST FIFTY-NINTH STREET'NEW YORK CITY i ANNALS OF MEDICAL HISTORY

V olume i F a ll 1917 N umber 3

FIGURATIONS OF SKELETAL AND VISCERAL ANATOMY IN THE BOOKS OF HOURS

By

WILFRID M. DE VOYNICH & FIELDING H. GARRISON, M.D.

HE memorable essay humorous, signifying, Parkes Weber main­ of Lessing (1769) tains, a degraded Epicureanism. But the and subsequent ancients never used the skeleton or the studies have fairly shrivelled skin-and-bone larva as a symbol well proven that the of Death itself. This, as Parkes Weber ancients represented insists, was an innovation of the Middle death in art in a se­ Ages. Mediaeval figurations of dancing and rene and b e a u tifu l tipsy skeletons occur in plenty, it is true, way. Parkes Weber has latterly shown but, by the time of Holbein, the skeleton that “ during the best period of Greek had become the sign and symbol of Death art the realistic representation of skel­ as the King of Terrors. etons and corpses was avoided,” although, The question arises: Were these skeletal in the later Roman and Graeco-Roman symbols of Death a survival of the Epi­ figurations, skeletons and shrivelled corpses curean Graeco-Roman figurations, or were of skin and bone sometimes occur, as they derived from the drawings in the a whimsical memento mori device, on manuscript illustrations of anatomy of the gems, vases, wine cups, etc.1 In these, for Middle Ages? That the artists of the Mid­ instance in the figures of skeletons or dle Ages should have figured Death as a shades of dead philosophers on the Graeco- skeleton, with scythe or drum, is easy of Roman silver wine cups of the Boscoreale explanation. Death was at hand every­ treasure in the Louvre,2 the device is where. The long succession of devastating 1 F. Parkes Weber: “Aspects of Death in Art and wars and epidemics following the downfall Epigram,” 2. ed., London, 1914, 15 -2 1. 2 Ibid., p. 18. 226 Annals of Medical History of the Roman Empire had paralyzed hope upon anatomy, Streeter infers that these and human endeavor, and the thoughts of artists acquired their interest in dissecting mankind were constantly turned towards in precisely this w ay: mortality. But the very character of some “How these easy intimacies arose be-

of the early mediaeval figurations of Death tween physic and the figurative arts would suggest kinship with the m s. anatomical be hard to explain in any other way than drawings of the same period, and it is pos­ the one I shall attempt to use, simple sible that the mediaeval artists may have and obvious as it is! It was by the haz­ acquired this peculiar type of decorative ard of association in one and the same scheme not beautiful in itself, from associa­ guild that the anatomists and artists of tion with physicians who were studying Florence made their magnetic contacts. anatomy by means of dissection. In his The painters formed a sub-membrum of interesting study of the influence of the the ‘Guild of Physicians and Apotheca­ Florentine painters of the Quattrocento ries.’ They all belonged—Giotto, Masac­ S k eleta l and V isceral A natomy 227 cio, Castagno, Ucello, Verrocchio—to the together in all the multiform guild func­ membrum pictorum of the Guild of tions; they sat together in the guild Physicians and Apothecaries. Masaccio Council; walked together under the same joined the guild first as an apothecary banner in pageants. It cannot, therefore,

| factt rectos cozdeOeus tudeje iuftus fcntis et parens: nunqm'dirarcitutperfiiigulosoiesOificonuerfi'fueris tie gl adiumtHumvib:auit:arcum fuiImtcFendit et para= uit illumQft m eorarauft vafa moms: fagittas fuas ar denttbus effecit. fcjjcce partunnmufticiam concepit 00 | l totem: z peperit iniquitatemfCOiaifrt aperutt et offodit eum: et mcidit in fouea quarn fecit^jptuertetur oolot eius in camit^i'usxt in verticem ipfius mtquttas eius oe I! fcendetJC(on

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(in 1421, at the age of 19); then he matric­ be a matter of surprise to learn that ulated under the membrum pictorum (in Giotto was a friend of Dino del Garbo 1423). You see, the apothecaries included and Torrigiano, or that Luca della Rob­ color handlers, the ‘spetiarii, qui emunt, bia (almost 200 years later) was a friend vendunt et operant colores et alia ad of the founder of pathological anatomy, membrum pictorum spectantia memora- Benivieni, although the latter was al­ tum’ (apothecaries who buy, sell and most half a century (49 years) younger deal in colors and other materials needed than Luca.”3 by the artists). By virtue of this affilia­ 3 E. C. Streeter: Johns Hopkins Hosp. Bull., tion the artists and doctors were thrown Balt., 1916, xxvii, 118. 228 ^Annals of Medical History Some light upon this question is afforded of the “Books of Hours,” and the best in in the skeletal and other anatomical figura­ artistic merit, particularly the illuminated tions in the illuminated and printed “ Books m ss., are of French design, tasteful and of Hours,” from which the pious recited their charming in conception and execution.

mec.m.XOefufcepit* C pfe fm u s. f£u& ©cue meus:ad te oe luce vigtlo,gjfftiuitffl te Vj/am na mea:q^multipltciter tibi caro meajTnl^ra oeferta imua z inaquofa ftc m fancto apparufHbmvide j rem virtut^ warn et gloria tuam Quemamelioz ell mia ( tua fuper vitas:labia mea laudabut te* benedtca tef mvita mea:et in nomine tuo leuabo manus meaa^fcut, adipeetpinguedine repkqturaiamea: etlabiierejculta= tioms laudabit os med*j©ic memo: fuiml fuper dratu jim matutims meditabot te: q: fuilli adiuto: meus in velamento alaro tuarumejcultabo adbefit anima mea pod te:me fufcepit oejttera tuCHpfi vero inuanum quefierunt aiam meam introibuntwinferior terre: tra= dentur in manus gladij partes vulptu erunfc^ejt vero letabitur in oeo laudabutur oesqui turat in eo:q? oblte ctum ell os loquentiu iniqua dO u s mifereat noflri z be. nedicatnpbis: illuminet vultufuu fuper nos et mifereaf. n odri^t cognofcamusut terra viam tua :in omnibus gentibus falutare tuuOonfiteatur tibi populi oeus: cd nteantur tibi populi et ejeultent getes quo mamimjtcas populos m equitate:et genres in terra oir£= gis.CXonfiteantur tibi populi oeus: confiteantur tibi po puli oes terra oedit fructu fu30enedicat nos oe9 oeus noder bndtcat nos oetfsxt metuant eum oes fines terre* ^Requiem eternam oonaeis one et lujcperp etua luceat eis*an*X0e fufcepit oeictera tua oomie*an.H poria infer! fp^falm us* /So oi]ei in Oimidio oieru meomm: vadam ad pot- tasinferi* Ouefiuirefiduum annommmeqium: oijei non videbo oominum oeum in terra viuentifiAT afpiciambominevltra:etbabitato:em quietis* <3 ^ iera tio mea ablata ed et conuoluta ed a me:quafi tabernacus lum padommOtccifa edvelut a te)tente vita mea bum ! adbuc ozdirefmccidit me:oe mattcvfq? advefpera fiiries yg^erabam vfq$ ad mane: quafileo fic contriuit oia

matins, lauds, vespers, and the other daily In the plates herewith presented, it will exercises of prayer and devotion. There are strike upon the sense of any one that the many different varieties of skeletons in these marginal figurations of death as a half- beautiful mediaeval manuals which we dissected corpse, as a figure covered with hope at some future time to study. For syphilitic or leprous sores, or as a shrivelled the present, it may suffice to describe a Hautskelett (Sudhoff’s Lemur engestalt) were, few pages photographed from a manual in all probability, conceived from some of the horse canonicse printed at Paris in other viewpoint than the purely artistic. 1501 by Pigouchet (Plates I-IV). Most In the shrivelled figure of Death subscribed S k e le ta l and V isceral A natomy 229

“ /e pape” in the right-hand margin of covered with syphilitic sores, with a spade, Plate I, the abdomen is opened, suggesting threatening a newly-married wife (“ nouvelle dissection. In the lower right-hand corner marie” ), and Death jeering at a pregnant of the center-piece is a leper, with Lazarus- woman (“ la feme grosse” ). At the bottom

rattle and wallet, a dog licking the sores of the page, a dead eviscerated king, covered on his left foot. The skeleton in the lower with luetic sores, lies with his crown beside right-hand corner of Plate II (“ le medecin” ), him. In the center of Plate IV is a corpse grins mockingly at a doctor who is uphold­ astride a jester, the abdominal viscera ing a urine glass. At the top (“ /e moyne” ), being dissected out, with lines extending grinning Death shoulders a spade. The from the heart, liver, stomach and other right-hand marginal ornamentation of Plate viscera to legends in the margin indicating III shows an eviscerated Death arm in the planets influencing these separate parts, arm with a nun (‘7a theologiene” ), Death a decorative device plainly derived from 230 Annals of Medical History the old zodiacal diagrams for bloodletting tures of Henri de Mondeville (1314), which and purgation, in which an exposition of Sudhoff has reproduced,4 or the shrivelled planetary influences was frequently com­ skeletal larvae, with jesters between their bined with schemata of the viscera. That outstretched legs, from the Shepherd’s Cal­ these grotesque figurations should be em­ endars (Calendrier des Bergiers) of 1495 and ployed as decorative devices in the other­ 1500 5 or the Nuremberg skeleton of Rich­ wise beautiful “Books of Hours,” plainly ard Helain (1493),6 or the Brunswick skele­ suggests affiliation of the miniature painter ton of Griininger (1497).7 That there is with medical men who did dissecting and some connection between these early ana­ made anatomical illustrations in m ss. This tomical figurations and the decorative de­ will seem clear to any one who compares vices in the “ Books of Hours” seems clear, these shrivelled and eviscerated skeleton- and we hope to trace this connection further larvae with the twelve anatomical minia- back at some future opportunity.

4 Sudhoff: “ Studien zur Geschichte der Medizin” 5 Sudhoff: Ibid., pi. ix. (Puschmann Stiftung), Heft 4, Leipzig, 1908, pi. 6 Ibid., p. 46. xxiv. 7 Ibid., p. 48.

THE EXPERIMENT OF WALAEUS

[J ob W a l a e u s . Epistolae duae (1640)]

I j we open a vein in a ligated arm and while the distal part was correspondingly dim­ compress or ligate the distal portion near the inished; at the same time, if the vein was lig­ opening, not a drop of blood comes out: from ated, it did not swell perceptibly. This has which we may conclude, apparently, that when been our common experience. But in order blood does flow from the opening, it comes that there might be no manner of doubt, and from the direction of the hand. Again, when that we might know what goes on inside the blood is drawn in quantity to the extent that vein, we have elevated the detached vein and it could not have come from the lower part of artery a little, and have fastened the leg tight­ the brachial veins, it must have come from ar­ ly underneath, so that the blood could not be teries not closed by the ligature, and above the carried up or down by any other vein than the opening as the pulse itself indicates. But in one so lifted. Then, having suspended and order to make this plainer, we have sometimes elevated the vein with a thread as represented separated the tissues from a large vein and ar­ in the figure, we made a little opening above tery lying above the muscles in a dog’s groin and below the ligature: Instantly the blood so that both were completely exposed. On lig­ from the part farthest from the heart spurted ating this vein with a thread we have noticed out in an abundant, impetuous jet; while the that the part nearer the vena cava emptied and part beyond the thread and nearer the heart contracted, while the lower parts swelled ex­ oozed out only drop by drop. From which it tremely towards the leg, so that by reason of seems evident that the blood does not descend its fullness it seemed harder than the artery from the greater vessels but ascends from the itself. But directly the ligature was relaxed, smaller to the larger veins; especially since the blood mounted upwards on the instant and having ligated the same vein farther from the ' the hardness and fullness of the vein was vast­ heart we have seen that not a drop came from ly diminished; when the artery was ligated, the opening from which it had previously jet­ the part near the aorta swelled marvelously ted forth with such impetuosity. BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN MEDICINE1

By MORRIS JASTROW, JR., P h.D., LL.D .

University of Pennsylvania PHILADELPHIA, PA. EDICINE among the Babylo­ It is the same life that manifests itself nians and Assyrians takes its everywhere. So far as plants and the ani­ rise from popular experience mal world are concerned, this identification or perhaps, we should say, of all forms of life, though set up in an en­ fromM necessity, and, therefore, rests upon tirely unscientific spirit, would not be in popular beliefs as to the cause of disease. contradiction to modern biological theories That cause forms part and parcel of a most which recognize some connecting link be­ primitive Weltanschauung which seeks to ex­ tween the lowest form of animal life plain the universe in terms of life. Life is the and the highest form of plant life, but one phenomenon which man finds everywhere, primitive man extends the analogy to in himself and about him. He recognizes life inanimate nature—to stones, streams and in trees and plants, in wells and streams, in the heavenly bodies. All life is of the the heavens above— in the sun and moon, in same kind and, therefore, the primitive the rain and the storms which come from philosophy assumes the possibility of one above—and as a matter of course also in the form of life passing on to another form—a animals that he sees or with which he comes point of view that is illustrated in the folk into contact. Whatever moves must have tales and myths, so widespread, of men life, and so he assigns life to the clouds and being changed into animals or trees, and to the running brooks. Whatever grows and vice versa.2 This theory survives in ad­ gives fruit has life, and so there is life in the vanced forms of religious thought in the trees and plants; whatever has power is en­ doctrine of the transmigration of souls, as dowed with life, and so there is life in the in Buddhism, where the same vital es­ sun and moon as in animals and in himself. sence, it is assumed, may appear succes­ Whether we call this theory animism or sively in a tree, in an animal or in man; in prefer some other designation, it represents another direction it leads to the belief of an early and natural phase of man’s the incarnation of a deity in human form— thought, closely entwined with his religion a belief found in many religions. and involved in most of the rites which we The primitive theory of animism has a find to be a part of primitive culture. bearing on the earliest view as to the cause It is a part of this early and naive philos­ of disease. Since physical suffering is an at­ ophy to identify all forms of life as of the tack upon the vital essence in man, pre­ same quality, or rather as one may also senting itself as a conflict waged between put it, not to differentiate between the man and some hostile power, that power various forms and manifestations of life. is likewise viewed under the aspect of life. 1 The article is based in large measure upon my M ay 5, 1917, I have treated the subject from a some­ monograph “ The Medicine of the Babylonians and what different point of view and have added some Assyrians,” published in the Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., new material, to bring the subject up to date. Section for the History of Medicine, 1914, vii, 2 For instance, in the Jatakas or the Buddha birth 109-176, which is an enlargement of a paper read tales, coming down to us as the “ Fables of Bidpai,” before the Royal Society in October, 1913. In the “ Tisop’s Fables” and in various other forms. present article, enlarged from a paper read before The “ Metamorphoses” of Ovid and the “ Golden the Chicago Society for the History of Medicine, A ss” of Apuleius also rest on this popular belief. 231 232 Annals of Medical History The germ theory, so popular in these days The evil Utukku,6 who in the open attacks of advanced pathology, has an ancient heri­ the living; tage. It forms the starting point of medi­ The evil AIu covering one like a garment;7 The evil Etimmu,8 the evil Gallu who seizes the cine everywhere, for sickness is pictured body. by primitive man as being due to some Labartu, Labasi, bringing sickness to the body; active living force that has found its way Lilu,9 wandering about in the open, into the body. The conclusion is a very Approaching the side of the wandering man, natural one. In the case of a violent or a Imposing wasting disease on his body, shooting pain, the sensation is very vivid Bringing an evil ban on his body, Bringing an evil pest into his body, that there is something inside which pro­ Bringing evil poison into his body, duces the picture, something that must be Bringing the evil curse into his body. forced or coaxed out if one is to be relieved ******* —and in many cases this is no doubt true. Ashakku10 has approached the head of the man. A cure, therefore, involves the expulsion Namtar 11 has approached the throat of the man. of the hostile power. Medical treatment is The evil Utukku has approached his neck. The evil AIu has approached his breast. essentially exorcism. This primitive germ The evil Etimmu has approached his stomach. theory has, in fact, a great advantage over The evil Gallu has approached his hand. the modern successor, for to the imagina­ The evil god has approached his foot. tion of primitive man the germ is obliging The seven together have seized him; enough to take on tangible shape. It does They have burned his body like a glowing fire.ua not hide itself, as the modern germ insists The Babylonians and Assyrians thus rec­ upon doing, so as to be discernible only ognized an entire faculty of demons. The when isolated and under the gaze of a age of specialization had set in which as­ powerful microscope, nor must its exist­ signed a special function to each “ germ,” ence be hypothetically assumed. The an­ though the professional ethics of demon­ cient germ was not ashamed of itself; it ology did not bar the demons from en­ showed its teeth and even its tail and its croaching on the domain of a colleague. horns. The germ was a demon, an evil spir­ Medical treatment, therefore, was di­ it that was sufficiently accommodating to rected towards exorcising the demon as the sit for its portrait, and so we have in early cure. It remained on this level among the art, pictures of these demons that by their Babylonians and Assyrians, despite consid­ terrifying aspect3 suggest the mischief that erable progress made in the direction of they were capable of inflicting. prophylaxis. Sickness continued to the lat­ Let me add a description of these de­ est period, in the long stretch of several mons as found in Babylonian literature: thousand years covered by Babylonian-As- syrian history, to be viewed as a struggle Evil Rabisu 4 are they between the patient and the demon. The From the lower world they come forth. Messengers of Enlil,5 the lord of the lands are theory persisted that the patient was cured they. when the demon had been thrust out.

3 See the illustrations in Jastrow, “ Civilization of 7 A demon that clouds one’s vision. Babylonia and Assyria,” PI. xxxii. 8 A class of demons identified with the “ shade” 4 Name of a class of demons, meaning “ the one of the departed. who lies in w ait.” 9 A storm demon. 6 The chief deity of Nippur and, in the older period, 10 The demon of wasting disease. the head of the pantheon. 11 The demon of plague. 6 Another class of demons, meaning “ the strong uaThat is, with a fever, which is regularly spoken one. 99 of in these texts as a fire. B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 233

II sacredness. The Nile, the Euphrates and An interesting trace of this point of view Tigris, the Ganges, the Jordan, the Tiber is to be found in the Sumerian12 name for and the Rhone, as indeed large streams physician which also passed over into Ak­ everywhere, are sacred. To this day pious kadian and thence into other Semitic lan­ pilgrims bathe in the Ganges and in the guages. He is called A-Su composed of two Jordan to free themselves from sin. Baptism signs, conveying the idea of “ one who as a rite of initiation into the covenant of knows water ”—a water expert. The term the church is in the direct line of succession rests on the prominent part played by water to the use of water as a purifying element. in the exorcising of disease. The water-cure The novice must be freed from uncleanliness is, in fact, the starting point of medical before entering upon a new life. Hygiene treatment among the Babylonians. and religion thus converge in the early In the Babylonian-Assyrian incantation stages of human culture. texts, of which we have a large number,13 An incantation to be recited while sprink­ the two elements of nature which play the ling the patient with water or pouring it most prominent part in the exorcising of over him reads: disease are water and fire. Water is viewed The holy 14 water, under the aspect of a sacred element, sym­ The water of the Euphrates, flowing in a bolizing, as water does in primitive and an­ holy place, cient cults in general, purification from The water that is preserved in the deep,15 ritualistic uncleanness. Fire is also a sacred The pure water that is purified by E a,16 element, contact with which purifies, but Seven sons of the deep 17 are they, in Babylonian-Assyrian texts its function is Who have purified it and made it clean and glisten to destroy the demon or the sorcerer as the Before your father, Ea, cause of the disease. Before your mother Damkina 18 Disease as due to the presence of a harm­ M ay he (i.e., the victim or diseased one) become ful demon is regarded as a form of unclean- resplendent, pure, clean. Iiness. The association of ideas involved in Or again in an incantation to the god this symbolism is very natural. Water is Marduk, the son of Ea, and who as the looked upon as a gift of the gods, suggested chief god of the city of Babylon becomes the by the rain that comes from above. Streams, head of the later Babylonian pantheon: filling up and overflowing during the rainy season, therefore acquire a special degree of Marduk, son of E a. With holy, streaming water, 12 Sumerian is the designation of the non-Semitic With clear, shining water, speech represented by the earliest records of the Euphrates Valley; Akkadian is the Semitic speech Babylonia,” London, 1904; and in German, K. L. that became predominant after 2000 b. c. While Tallquist, “ Die Assyrische Beschworungsserie Maq- the Akkadians may have been the earlier settlers, Iu,” Leipzig, 1894, and Zimmern, “ Beitrage zur the Sumerians, coming to the Valley as conquerors Kenntniss der Babylonischen Religion,” Leipzig, from a mountain home, imposed their authority and 1901, Part i. their language on the valley till circa 2500, when the 14 Or “ pure.” The two terms are synonymous in Akkadians came to the front, and about 2000 b.c. Babylonian. obtained definite control of the region, though some 15 That is, by the spirit or god who resides in the Sumerian centers continued to flourish after that waters. date. The cuneiform syllabary appears to be of 16 The god of the waters— more particularly of Sumerian origin. See further Jastrow, “ Civilization the Persian Gulf. of Babylonia and Assyria,” Chapter iii. 17 Seven minor water gods, who are the attendants 13 Translations of many of these texts will be found of Ea. in R. C. Thompson, “ Devils and Evil Spirits of 18 Consort of Ea. 234 Annals of Medical History Seven times and again seven sprinkle, purify, doubt come across the original incantation cleanse! ritual of Eridu, which is frequently referred M ay the evil Rabisu pass out! to in the later texts at our disposal. “ Recite M ay he step to one side, the incantation of Eridu,” we read in these M ay the good Shedu,19 may the good Lamassu19 attach themselves to his b o d y!20 texts, time and again. B y heaven, be ye exorcised! The most common conception attached B y earth, be ye exorcised! to Ea next to that of “king of the deep” is that of god of humanity. He is depicted The A-Su or “ water expert” is, there­ as saving man when other gods are angry fore, the one qualified by his knowledge to and irreconcilable. It is Ea who reveals drive the demon away through the use of to a favorite that the gods intend to bring water as the purifying element. From the on a deluge, and tells him to build a ship. circumstance that he rather than the fire Ea endeavors even to secure immortality expert should have been the one to acquire for man, though he fails to do so. This the general qualities of the physician, we aspect of Ea as the friend of humanity is may conclude that the water-cure was prob­ due, largely if not exclusively, to the ably the older and certainly the most aus­ function of water as the element of Ea in picious method of driving out the demon exorcising the demon of disease. Ea is the of disease. real physician and in a sense the only In accord with this, we find the deity healer. The Asu or “ water expert” is most prominently associated with the large merely his human servitor, who knows how mass of Babylonian-Assyrian incantations to secure the cooperation of the god in to be the god Ea, the god who has his hab­ effecting a cure. One of the forms in which itat in the deep that surrounds the earth Ea was portrayed was that of a huge-sized and on which, according to Babylonian man—the gods were always pictured as views, the earth floats like a rubber ball. supermen—with fish scales hanging down The name Ea is written with two signs con­ from the back of the head to the feet, the veying the idea of “ water-house,” which latter being an appropriate symbol for points to the character of the deity, and a water god. The priests of Ea, when per­ also shows that the name was originally a forming their exorcising ritual, similarly designation of the “ deep.” 21 The Persian clad themselves in robes resembling fish Gulf as the largest body of water was more skins,23 to indicate that they were the god’s particularly regarded as the seat of Ea, and representatives, and that their power was the old city of Eridu, situated on the Gulf, due to the supposed transfer of the god’s was the oldest center of his cult. That city qualities to his vicars. The masquerade was is represented by the mound Abu Shahrein,22 to suggest the transfer. which has not yet been excavated. When No doubt the Asu also made use of other that shall have been done, we will be in a forms of treatment besides the water-cure, position to solve many a problem connected and it may be worth while before passing with the origin of this deity and will no on to give a specimen from Babylonian- 19 A protecting spirit. 20 As bodyguards. terra firma, who becomes a “ water god” when the 21 We must, therefore, assume that the god was Sumerians reached the Euphrates Valley— where designated as the “ god ° f Ea, ” i.e., “ the god of the water is the most prominent element. water-house” or the god of the deep. The older nam­ 22 See the map in Jastrow, “ Civilization of Baby­ ing of the deity was En-Ki, “ lord of the land” or lonia and Assyria.” of the fixed abode. As the deity of the Sumerians 23 See the illustrations in Ward, “ Seal Cylinders of living in a mountainous country, Enki is a god of Western Asia,” p. 226 et seq. B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 23 5

Assyrian incantation texts in which fire is III introduced as the exorcising element, This burning of an image of a demon or though, as already suggested from a dif­ sorcerer or witch introduces a new thought ferent point of view. We have two long in the primitive treatment of disease which series of exorcising formulas with accom­ was not implied in the appeal to the water- panying rites, which were known as Shurpu god Ea, or of his son Marduk, to whom, as and M aklu,24 Both terms convey the idea the head of the later pantheon, the at­ of “burning,” and the designation is due to tributes and powers of the father are trans­ the prominence given in the incantations ferred. This thought is that certain in­ to the burning of images made of wax or some dividuals have the power to superinduce the other substance. These are effigies either of entrance of demons into the bodies of those the demons of disease, or of the sorcerer or singled out as victims. The belief, while witch who has control of the demons, and widespread in antiquity, would appear to through them bewitches the victim. The be a stratum superimposed upon the older burning of the images is supposed by the and more primitive belief that the demons familiar process of sympathetic magic to are lurking everywhere, and are at all destroy the demon or sorcerer (or witch) times ready to strike whomsoever and as the immediate or mediate cause of the wheresoever they can. They act independ­ disease. One of the incantations in the ently. The thought of their being under Maklu series reads: control strikes one as a later development, though still falling within the circle of primi­ I raise the torch, their images I burn. tive notions. The “ fire” ritual would, there­ The images of the Utukku, Shedu, Rabisu, Etimmu, fore, be a later procedure than the water Of Labartu, Labasi, Akhkhazu, cure. At all events, while the sorcerer as the Of Lilu, Lilitu and Ardat Lili,25 ultimate source of disease—because of his And all evil that seizes hold of men. supposed power to direct the entrance of Quake, melt, vanish! the demon into the body—is the logical Your smoke rise to heaven! complement of the exorciser as the one M ay Shamash,26 destroy your limbs! M ay the arch-exorciser, the son of Ea, who drives the demon out, the real starting (i.e., Marduk) check your strength! point of medical treatment among the Babylonians and Assyrians is the water- The water treatment by pouring or cure through the Asu, in which, to be sprinkling water over the victim is direct, sure, sympathetic magic also enters but as the fire treatment is purely symbolical. The a subsidiary factor, whereas in the case of former method was supposed to drive away the “ fire” ritual, the symbolical rite is the the demon by purifying the victim of the dominating factor. An illustration will make uncleanliness marked by the presence of the this distinction clearer, and will also show demon, the latter to destroy the demon by the further steps in the development of the a process of sympathetic magic, resting on fire ritual. the hope that the symbolic burning of the In the fifth and sixth tablets of the image would bring about the hoped-for above-mentioned Shurpu series, we have a reality. long list of exorcising formulae in which

24 See note 13 above. designation of a demon that makes its attack like a 25 These are all names for the various classes of storm, or comes with the storm. demons of disease. See above, p. 232, Lilitu— 26 The sun god whose rays dissipate the shadows the feminine form of Lilu— is the female “ storm and the specters of the night— the favorite time for demon” ; Ardat Lilu “ maid of Lilu” is similarly the the activity of the demons. 236 Annals of Medical History various substances like onions, dates, palm ment, contact with which removes unclean- clusters, bits of sheep’s hide and goat skins Iiness, but as a symbol of the hoped-for and colored wool are introduced to be destruction of the demon as a means of peeled or to be torn to pieces, and as each ridding oneself from the clutches of the bit is thrown into the fire an incantation is evil one. recited. The rite is, again, purely symbolical. IV The incantation in the case of the onion is the following: It is only in connection with the water- treatment that we pass on to genuine medi­ As this onion is peeled and thrown into the fire, Consumed by the glowing fire-god, cal treatment. The Asu, or “ water expert,” Never to be planted again in a garden, passes over into the physician. He takes on Never to be harrowed, never to take root, this function because the use of water in Will never again be placed in the ground, the exorcising ritual is regarded as a puri­ Its stalk will never grow, will never see the sun­ fying element, acting directly on the vic­ light again, tim, whereas the use of fire, though at its Will never come on the table of a god or king, So may the ban, curse, pain and woe, start also viewed under the aspect of a Sickness, groans, injury, sin, misdeed and trans­ purifying element, passes over into the do­ gression, main of sympathetic magic and becomes So may the sickness in my body, in my flesh, in associated with a symbolism that takes us my limbs, outside of the sphere of medical treatment As this peeled onion, be consumed by the glow­ altogether. ing fire-god. Bearing this distinction between the The same incantation, with merely a water and fire incantations in mind, we change in the substance, is prescribed for will be prepared to find actual medical the other materials when selected for burn- remedies introduced into the Ea ritual, ing. supplemental to the sprinkling of the sa­ Here there is no treatment prescribed for cred element over the body of the victim. the patient. The burning of the image of But while the Asu, from being merely an the sorcerer or of the demon suggests as a exorciser by the use of water, thus becomes further step the destruction of some sub­ the physician, the association of incantations stance, the burning of which is to sym­ with direct medical treatment is indissolu­ bolize the “ destruction” of the demon as ble in Babylonian-Assyrian medicine. The the cause and source of the suffering. Sins two aspects are never disassociated from and transgressions are placed in the same each other, despite the considerable prog­ category as bodily tortures, for sin shows ress made in the course of time in the itself in suffering. The advance signaled by treatment of bodily ills. Both are essential this _synonymity is along the line of primi­ to effect a cure—the medical prescription tive thought, but the new idea added is and the incantation—and as an interesting the punishment for wrongdoing by the en­ survival of this strange partnership, one trance of a demon into the body of a victim. may point to the custom reported by trav­ Sin is thus a form of uncleanliness, and the elers which prevails among the fellahs of sin can only be removed by exorcising the Egypt of swallowing not merely the drug evil spirit which has secured its hold over prescribed by a native physician, but the the victim. The fire ritual thus forms a prescription as well. The prescription takes bridge leading to an entirely different the place of the ancient incantation; and it province than the direct treatment of dis­ is perhaps not unnatural that even the mod­ ease. Fire is not viewed as a purifying ele­ ern prescription, with its queer cabalistic B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 237 signs so mysterious to the uninitiated, should Like the araru plant may her enchantment curse be looked upon as a mystic formula. It is her.36 possibly also a fair inference that the swal­ Like the nukhurtu plant may it cut her lips.37 lowing of a prescription drawn up by a The significant feature of such a list is modern herb-doctor or quack—the direct the underlying idea that the medicinal heir of the ancient Asu or exorciser—is in plants are supposed to have their effect on many instances as effective as the taking the demon, here pictured as a witch who of the drug. has cast a spell on her victim. The plants Let me now turn to an illustration of the are supposed to have the power of destroy­ manner in which in Babylonian-Assyrian ing the vitality of the witch (or demon), to literature medicinal drugs are introduced weaken her hold, to cause her discomfort, in connection with incantation formulae. In to torture her— all in the hope that the de­ a tablet of the Maklu series—in which the mon may be forced to make an exit out of water and fire rituals are combined—we the body of the sufferer. There is no sharp find a long series of plants enumerated dividing line between the witch controlling which are precisely the ones that are fre­ the demon and the demon itself. The one quently encountered in medical texts prop­ is bound up with the other, and it is of the er. They are here enumerated with plays essence of ancient witchcraft that the witch upon the name of the plants—genuine puns, is at one and the same time the de­ but serving a most serious purpose. The mon and the controller of the demon, in­ hope is expressed by means of these plays duced by her to ^enter the body of the that the plants may bind, pierce and lacer­ victim. ate the demons of disease, may cause them Each plant is supposed to have some to scream, strike them blind, strangle them, specific effect on the witch or demon. The and the like. name of the plant, in accordance with the Like the ninu plant (i.e., ammi) may her significance attached to names 38 throughout enchantment27 be weakened,28 antiquity as bound up with the essence of Like the sapru plant, may her enchantment the thing designated by the name, becomes cause her to scream,29 an omen. While we must not press such Like the sikhlu plant,30 may her enchantment plays or names, as revealed by this text, pierce her,31 Like the sammu plant, may her enchantment too hard, yet the point of view is important blind her,32 for an appreciation of an essential feature Like the kasu plant (i.e., cassia), may her en­ of Babylonian-Assyrian medicine that the chantment pierce her.33 purpose of the medicinal drug is to have an Like the khaltappanu plant may her enchant­ effect on the demon, and only in this ment startle her.34 indirect manner to affect the patient. The Like the kitmu plant may her enchantment cover her.35 patient is merely the accidental subject. The chief factor is the demon, and if the 27 The reference is throughout to the enchantment of the victim through a witch. 35 Liktumu with play upon kitmu. 28 Li-nu-shu with a play upon ninu, the name of 36 Liruru with play upon araru. the plant. 37 Littakhkira (for lintakhiru) with play upon 29 Lisappiru with a play upon sapru. nukhurtu. 30 A thorn plant. 38 The name of an object is part of the essence 31 Liskhulu with a play upon sikhlu. of the object. To have a name is the synonym of 32 Lisammu with a play upon sammu. “ to exist.” The meaning of the name, therefore, 33 Liksu with play upon kasu. also involves the quality of an object. What we 34 Likhashshu with play upon khaltappanu (for regard as a “ play” on the name is for the ancients khashtapanu). an indication of what the thing itself is. 238 Annals of Medical History

Asu succeeds in driving the demon away, duced by an irregular circulation. The his part is fulfilled, no matter what happens introduction of the various ingredients to the patient, though the implication of rests, it may reasonably be supposed, upon course is that the patient is cured if the actual experience, but the point of view, demon is driven out. If nevertheless the it is equally evident, is the hope that by sick man, contrary to what he ought to do, manipulating the patient in the way indi­ dies, it is the equivalent to a “ successful” cated the demon of chills and fevers will operation in our days, to which the patient be driven out of the body. inconsiderately succumbs. We have a large number of such texts in which medical prescriptions are closely V entwined with incantations and also with purely magic rites. At times, the formulae The transition from such an enumeration predominate and again the actual treat­ of medicinal plants, bound up with the ment; and according as this is the case, exorcising formulae, to actual prescriptions the text still falls within the category of is a simple step. Accordingly, we find in a incantations, or is to be regarded as a medi­ text in which the basis is an incantation cal text, though the two aspects, as already in the name of Ea and his son Marduk, a indicated, are not sharply separated from genuine prescription, prescribed for a patient each other. suffering with chills and fevers. It runs as For rheumatism, which is called “ fever follows: of the muscles and joints,” we find in such a mixed text the following treatment pre­ Against fever and chills, which is not good for scribed ;40 the flesh, fill a shukhurratu jar with water from (1) Around water taken from the Euphrates, a cistern, untouched by hand.39 Add tamarisk place in a circle flour made of putrid grain. wood, mashtakal-plant, shalalu-reed, ukhkhuli Place within the circle shashur-reed. Take a (perhaps alkali), cummin, pressed date wine. measure of grain, place it on the shashur- Add thereto a sparkling ring. Pour the water reed and let the sick man sit on it. over that man. Pluck makkanu-root, pour pure (2) Fill a Ka measure with the decayed grain salt with pure ukhkhulu plant, and sweet oil and put it on the shashur-reed. Place the brought from the mountain. Seven times rub foot of the sick man on it, and cover the the body of that man. foot with putrid dough, made of the decayed grain. That the liniment is to be associated with Two remedies are here combined, the the magic power of a ring is not to be former of which has a more distinct touch regarded as an incidental factor, but of a magic rite in the direction to pour inherent in the semi-magical treatment some holy water on the ground, or perhaps prescribed. The actual remedy, however, pre­ in a receptacle, and to surround it with a dominates. The rubbing of the patient with wall of putrid grain. The aim of the treat­ a liniment made of water mixed with oil, ment is to drive the demon out of the body salt, cummin, some roots and other in­ and to drown him in the water which is gredients (the exact nature of which escapes under the protection of Ea, and out of us) is evidently intended to bring about a which he cannot escape by virtue of the stimulation of the blood circulation, as a wall around it. The reed placed in the countereffect to the chills and fever pro­ water with a measure of grain is to form a

39 That is, the water is to be drawn in a pail, with­ 40 The text will be found in “ Cuneiform Texts from out allowing one’s hand to come into contact with Babylonian Tablets,” etc., in the British Museum, the water. xxiii, Plate i, 1-4. B abylo nian-A ssyrian M edicine 239 kind of poultice to drive the demon out, mon, considerable progress was made in the by having the patient sit on it. In the sec­ remedies applied on the basis of actual ex­ ond prescription the poultice is more defi­ perience. nitely indicated, as is also the localization of By the side of incantation texts in which the rheumatism in the foot. medical prescriptions are introduced—but What the modern layman would, there­ viewed either entirely or mainly from the fore, describe as “ drawing out the inflam­ angle of magical rites—we have medical mation,” the ancient Asu regarded as the texts in the proper sense of the term, in endeavor to drive out the demon and then, which incantations play a subsidiary role if possible, to catch him, drown him or im­ and impress one as a survival, retained by prison him. This purpose of the treatment virtue of the conservative instinct which is even more explicitly indicated in the con­ preserves the old by the side of the new. tinuation of the text,41 where further direc­ The British Museum possesses in the great tions are given how to catch the demon collection of tablets found by Layard in after having driven him out of the body. the ruins of the palace of King Ashurbana- pal of Assyria (668-626 b .c .), about fifty Recite this incantation while covering the years ago,42 a large number of medical texts thigh. Place the putrid food in a room facing dealing with various diseases and prescrib­ the west. Close up the door with earth taken from the Pu-plant, seal the door with shubu ing a large number of distinctly medical and gunu stones. Then fasten a torch to the remedies. Of these texts—some four hun­ man’s thigh, take hold of his hand and let him dred—only a few have as yet been pub­ pass seven times and again seven times across lished.43 Dr. R. C. Thompson has had the encircled water taken from the Euphrates. ready for some time a large volume, em­ After he has crossed it, recite in a clear voice bodying most of these texts, the publication the incantation: Ea has made, Ea has released. of which has been delayed by the war. Exorcise the evil, ease the pain ( ? ). These texts are all copies made from the Loosen the evil enchantment! Ea be with library which Ashurbanapal through his thee! scribes had made from originals in the temple collections of Babylonian cities. The heat of the torch is to act as an ad­ The prominent part played by the Asu, or ditional means of forcing the demon out as physician, in the Hammurawi code (circa the patient crosses and recrosses the pool 2086 b .c .), where the fees for the surgeon’s of water, which is under the protection of operations are regulated and fines and Ea. The room is to be tightly closed so as punishments imposed for unsuccessful treat­ to preclude the possibility of the demon es­ ment, justifies us in carrying back these caping through any opening. Ea is to catch originals to the third millennium before this him and put an end to him once for all. era. A few years ago the Berlin Museum, ac­ VI cording to published reports, acquired a Now if Babylonian-Assyrian medicine had collection of about one thousand medical remained in this stage, it would have little tablets—presumably from Kaleh Shergat— interest for us except as a curiosity. We the ancient capital of Assyria some forty find, however, that though medicine in the 42 See Jastrow, “ Civilization of Babylonia and Euphrates Valley never cut loose from the Assyria,” p. 21, et seq. fundamental principle of exorcising the de­ 43 By Friedrich Kiichler, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Assyrisch-Babylonischen Medizin,” Leipzig, 41 Op. cit., xxiii, Plate i, 9-14. 1904. 240 Annals of Medical History miles south of Nineveh. These too may might expect, the weakest feature, being turn out to be copies of older originals. A purely empirical and devoid of any scien­ medical tablet of about the seventh cen­ tific principle. For purposes of treatment, tury b .c . from Kaleh Shergat was obtained the physicians prepared elaborate hand­ through a dealer by the College of Physi­ books in which they entered very briefly cians of Philadelphia.44 There are also two the symptoms of the various diseases that medical texts, one from the late Neo-Baby­ had come under their notice, together with lonian period, i.e., about the fifth century a variety of remedies to be used, given in b . c., the other of the Hammurawi period the form of prescriptions. The number of c. 2000B.c.,in the Museum of the University such prescriptions for one and the same of Pennsylvania.45 There are also a consid­ diagnosis varies. The aim evidently was to erable number of letters from Assyrian phy­ gather as many as possible, so that if one sicians of the seventh century b .c. included failed another might be tried, or it was left in the great corpus of “ Assyrian and Baby­ to the judgment of the Asu which one to lonian Letters,” edited by the late Robert use. Not infrequently as many as a dozen Francis Harper,46 which throw an interest­ remedies are enumerated, with only occa­ ing light on mddical practice in Assyria. sional indications of the stage of the disease However, until the two large collections— in which any particular one is to be used. the one in the British Museum and the other The treatment being wholly empirical, the in the Berlin Museum—shall have been general procedure must have been for a placed at the disposal of students, we must physician to try one remedy after the other resign ourselves to a considerable amount until the demon was exorcised, or until the of uncertainty as to the exact scope of patient succumbed to the remedies. medical knowledge and treatment in an­ Let me quote a few examples. In a tablet cient Babylonia and Assyria. Yet the ma­ dealing with stomach and intestinal troubles terial published is sufficient to give us a we read: bird’s-eye view of the methods adopted in If a man’s inside 47 is sick, compound shi-shi the treatment of disease and to show us plant in wine at the rising of a star (i.e., in the evening). Let him drink it without food. Grind the extent to which a genuine science of a stick of Shi-Nub plant, mix with finely pow­ medicine, based on experience, developed, dered flour, stir with cassia juice, spread on a despite the very serious limitation, due to cloth and bind around his stomach and loins. the persistence of the primitive theory of If ditto, boil leak and puttati and let him drink disease and to the confirmed combination it with milk. L j K a 48 of thorn, Li Ka of of medical treatment with magic rites and turnip, kneaded with milk, spread on a cloth and attach. the recital of incantations. We have here two series of remedies, VII each one of which consists of a potion to ease the pain or cramp, and of an exterior The diseases most commonly referred to application—a poultice. The first is a cold in the texts are stomach and intestinal potion to be taken with wine, which is very troubles, liver complaints, fevers, colds, and eye diseases. The diagnosis is, as one 46 Thirteen volumes (Luzac & Co., London, 1914). A bibliography of Babylonian-Assyrian 44 Published by me, Tr. College of Physicians, medicine till 1902 will be found in von Oefele 1913, pp. 365-400. “ Keilschriftmedizin” (Breslau, 1902), in “ Abhand- 45 They have been copied by Dr. H. F. Lutz and Iungen zur Geschichte der Medizin,” Heft iii. will ere long be published. The one of the Hammurawi 47 A general term, libbu, meaning “ inner” (also period is particularly important as being the oldest “ heart” as that which is “ within” ) is used. medical text of Babylonia at present known to us. 48 A common measure. B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 241 frequently introduced as an ingredient, the let it cool, mix with oil and honey, let him drink second a hot one. The purpose of the poul­ it without food, and he will have a passage. The tice is apparently to produce heat, and thus next morning, mix honey, fine oil, unmixed wine,50 let him gulp it down without food and by stimulating the circulation, to afford without touching his tongue, and he will have relief. The vagueness of the term used to a passage. diagnose the seat of the trouble makes it In addition to poultices and drugs in­ impossible to determine the nature of the tended to mollify irritated membranes, to disease, which may have been a simple case reduce swellings, to open the bowels, to get of indigestion. rid of wind, we come across such curious Somewhat more specific is the descrip­ remedies as pouring concoctions over a pa­ tion of a disordered stomach as follows: tient’s head, on his stomach and on his If a man’s inside is swollen and inflamed, and anus, though, presumably, in some cases he is nauseated, then for his life (i.e. to cure rubbing of the affected parts with liniment him), mix onion with cumin seed, let him drink is intended. it in wine without food and he will recover. If ditto, take the green rind of the II plant, mix If a man has cramps,51 let that man sit down, with pig’s fat, let him drink it with Du-Zab, with his feet under him, pour boiled . . . unmixed wine and sweetened water, and he and cassia juice over his head and he will will recover. recover. If ditto let him kneel and pour cold water on his head. Aggravated cases of inability to retain food are described as follows: The choice is here again between a warm and cold douche. If the one afforded no re­ If a man has a pain inside, food and drink lief, the other could be tried. A variation coming back to his mouth, bandage his head of the treatment includes massage to stim­ and breast. Boil ...49 let him eat it with ulate circulation. honey, Iamb fat and butter. Let him refrain from eating onions, white onions and kidnu If ditto, place his head downwards and his for three days, and not wash himself with water feet [under him?], manipulate his back with and he will recover. the thumb, saying “ be good,” manipulate his arms 14 times, manipulate his head 14 times, Here we have at last a diet prescribed. rolling him on the ground. . . . The honey, fat and butter are intended to The address to “ be good” appears to be soothe the irritation, while avoiding onions directed to the demon, and in view of the seems equally rational. Presumably, the di­ underlying theory of disease, it would be a rection not to wash for three days has refer­ reasonable conclusion that the aim of the ence to bathing, which should be avoided manipulation is to push the demon out of to prevent the patient from catching cold. the body. If this be correct, we would have For a similar case of inability to retain in such treatment another illustration of food, pounded tamarisk seed is prescribed, the manner in which the theory would ac­ likewise to be taken with honey and butter cord with the result of experience. Massage and without any other food. must have been recognized as beneficial in For a case of constipation with gas in certain cases, but the point of view neces­ the stomach, a laxative mixture is ordered sarily was that what was good for the pa­ with very specific directions. tient was bad for the demon. The drugs, If a man’s inside is full of gas, to cure him the poultices, the hot and cold douches and take sweet-smelling reed, Balluku-pla,nt, cypress, the massage all were supposed to act not oleander (?)... put into wine, boil, strain, 50 That is, strong fermented wine. 49 Text defective. 51 Literally “ tying” or “ contraction of the inside.” 242 Annals of Medical History

on the patient but on the demon, who was goat star 53 and in the morning without food let in this way to be forced out or to be coaxed him drink. Then let him take of Shi-Ka out. through his mouth and anus, sprinkle him with it and he will recover. If ditto, mix rock It is hard for us at the present stage of sa lt54 and ammonia 55 with unmixed wine, let medical knowledge to reconstruct so strange him take it without food through his mouth and and distorted an attitude towards the his anus, sprinkle him with it and he will results of medical treatment, and yet it is recover. perhaps fair to assume that the average Or again: lay person today when he hears of an anti­ If a man has cramps, compound green onions, toxin to kill the germ that is the cause of a chicory rind with unmixed wine and let him particular disease, has in mind a picture of drink it without food. (For his diet) let him something that by the treatment passes eat dates either in pig’s fat or in oil . . . .If out of the body. At all events, the popular ditto, take Shi-Shi plant, Shi-Makh, tarmush (not necessarily the scientific) notion of the (a kind of bean), root of male namtar (some bitter root), moistened with unmixed wine at “ germ” theory should help us to understand the rise of the star (i.e., in the evening) and in the point of view which looked upon any the morning, let him drink one-third of it with­ relief from pain as due to an influence out food, and two-thirds let him direct into his exercised upon the demon. The removal of anus, and he will recover. an irritation was always realistically inter­ As the last example of a disordered stomach preted as a consequence of getting the I quote a most realistic description of what demon away from the affected spot. The we would call a case of “jag,” but which drug was supposed to be disagreeable or the Babylonian Asu sets forth in most harmful to the demon and, similarly, the serious fashion: poultice— hot or cold—was unpleasant to him, and the bandage around the head or If a man has drunk unmixed wine and has breast or stomach was supposed to strangle a severe headache, he forgets his words,56 his speech is heavy, his mind is clouded, his eyes him. are set, take (eleven plants are enumerated) The use of an enema, which is frequently mix them with oil and wine, let him drink referred to in the medical texts, would before the approach of Gula,57 and in the morn­ strengthen the belief that a cure actually ing before any one has kissed him. involved driving the demon out of the body. Did the Asu add the last touch from a Prescriptions of this character read as sense of humor? follows: Now taking all these and other descrip­ tions with the prescribed remedies together, If a man has a stomach ache, he cannot retain food which comes back through his we obtain not only an extensive pharma­ mouth, his . . . is pierced and he has diarrhoea, copoeia but also a rather large variety of his flesh is flabby ( ? ) , and wind (i.e., gas) treatment as well as dietary precautions, moves about in his anus . . . to cure him take bandages, poultices, douches, massage, ene­ 3^ Ka of date juice, x/i Ka cassia juice, oil and mas and even indications of a rest cure. sweetened water, 3 shekels52 of clarified oil, 2 shekels of honey, 10 shekels of pounded mint term sal ammoniac is directly derived. Amanus is added thereto, at night before the rise of the the name of a mountain range in northern Syria. The common derivation from the temple of Amon 52 A standard silver coin, worth about 40 cents, in Egypt is erroneous, and rests upon a phonetic but here used as a weight. coincidence. The substance appears to have been in­ 53 A general phrase equivalent to “ evening.” troduced into Egypt through Babylonian influences. 64 Literally, “ mountain salt.” 66 That is, does not know what he is talking about. 65 Literally, “ salt of Amanus” from which our 67 Another expression meaning “ evening.” B abylo nian-A ssyrian M edicine 243

VIII a large number of remedies. The diagnosis When we turn to other diseases, the is simple up to the point of naivete. list of drugs and the methods of treatment If a man’s body is yellow, his countenance is can be still further extended. Liver troubles yellow, the flesh swollen ( ? ) — that is amur­ are particularly frequent in hot moist rikanu (i.e., yellow disease). regions like the Euphrates Valley, and our Among the remedies prescribed are drink­ medical texts give many specimens both of ing a mixture of cypress with wine, crushed diagnosis and treatment. A clear case of a myrrh or cynoglosson62 or chicory63 or the disordered liver is described as follows with same ingredients (and other drugs) taken an interesting emphasis on the character of with milk. the excrements: A more detailed description of jaundice in an advanced stage reads: When a man has sharp pains in his head, g a ll58 is mixed with his excrements, his bowels If a man has yellowness 'of the eye, the dis­ are disordered, he cannot retain onions, leek, ease having extended to the eye, so that the beef, pig’s meat and unmixed wine, for his cure water of the eye is green as copper . . . his take (prescription of some 20 plants) with oil inside is swollen, he cannot retain food or drink and flour, strain it, stir with wine, spread on a and the sickness has dried up his entire body— cloth, attach it for three days and remove it on that man will die. the fourth day. If his excrements are white, he Or again most graphically: is improving, if red the fever 59 is still there, if If a man has yellowness of the eye, his head, green, he will shortly die ( ? ) . . . i f black, his face, his whole body even to the root of his he will grow worse and die; he will not recover. tongue is affected, it is fatal ( ? ).64 He will die. If (the excrements) are long, take dough and kurbannu of the field, mixed and pounded with A distinction is made between the disease mud . . . knead with cassia juice and let him which gives the face a yellowish appearance drink it with wine. After he has drunk it, let and when the skin becomes dark, in which him wash himself with shunu-juice, Ag-ut and case it is called akhkhazu, i.e., “ seized” Dilbat plants. from the name of the demon,65 regarded The general aim of the treatment in gall as the cause of the disease. troubles appears to have been to superin­ If a man’s body is yellow and his face is duce a free movement of the bowels. yellow and black, the root of his tongue is black—that is akhkazu. Bake large Mush-Dim- If a man is seized 60 with gall trouble, pound guruna 66 of the field, let him drink it with wine cassia, let him drink it with unmixed wine and and the akhkhazu will be quieted.67 he will have a passage. As in the case of jaundice, also cypress, Among other remedies prescribed to move myrrh or chicory is prescribed to be taken the bowels are drinking salt water, or salt in wine or milk, as well as a paste made of with wine, or onions in water. For jaundice powdered mountain-stone, mixed with oil designated as “yellow” sickness61 we have and wine. The term used for “ colds” is used as 58 The Babylonian term marru means “ bitter.” 59 Literally “ fire.” therefore, like cassia, from Babylonian medicine. 60 The verb used is interesting as an indication 63 Kukru, the origin of our “ chicory.” that a demon has got hold of him. Our modern 64 Or perhaps “ incurable.” usage of the term to be “ seized” with a sickness is 65 See above, p. 235. a survival of this view. 66 The name of a basilisk, but here presumably 61 amurrikanu. the designation of a plant. 62 The term used lisban kalbi, “ dog’s tongue,” 67 The verb again rests on the picture of the demon is the source of our cynoglosson— a direct derivative, who is subdued through the treatment. 244 Annals of Medical History

vaguely as the modern one is in general If a man’s head burns, his head oppresses him, parlance. A tablet, dealing in detail with particularly the veins of his temple, compound such troubles, begins: . . . with oil, wrap it around his head, press it on tight and do not remove for three days.

If a man has a cold which has developed A poultice of a more complicated char­ pains in his stomach, let him compound nam- tar root and liquorice root and beans ( ? ) and acter to be used as a compress consists of: darnel, Shi-Man, Tu-me and “ tongue” plant— Y2 K a of powdered juniper wood, 10 shekels these seven drugs with wine let him drink as of powdered cypress, 10 shekels of cypress, 10 the star rises (i.e., in the evening) and in the shekels of chicory, 10 shekels of powdered morning, and he will recover. cassia, 10 shekels of large Tig flour, ioj/2 shekels of small Tig flour, 10 shekels of good As a last example from the medical texts, standing wine, 10 shekels of powdered radish, I choose some remedies prescribed for fever, mix them together, knead with wine into a appropriately called “ fire,” 68 taken from a solid paste, strain, take one-third for his head tablet which is particularly interesting, be­ which pains, mix with cassia juice, wrap it cause it once formed part of a library be­ around and for three days do not remove. longing to a physician whose name was He also prescribes an eye wash of alkali Nabu-zer-kitti-Iishir,69 the son of Mardi, with which, it is directed, his eyes are to be grandson of Apia. The tablet dates from the washed until the tears cease to flow. Then late Assyrian period—somewhere in the the eyes are to be bandaged, and the pa­ seventh century b .c., and represents an tient to be put into a closed room, and the extract from a larger series of medical patient’s head is to be rubbed with boiled texts, prepared by the physician for his own juice of kiptu every evening and morning, guidance and use. It is the only specimen alternating with poultices of various in­ so far published of a physician’s handbook.70 gredients and oil liniment—the treatment to continue as usual for three days. If a fever seizes a man, localized in the nerves of his head (i.e., produces a severe Our physician, despite the late period in headache), and it affects his eyes so that his which he flourishes, holds to the belief in vision is clouded,71 and inflammation sets in, demons as strongly as do his patients, and and his eyes water, pound one-third K a of so he does not hesitate to copy on his tablet powdered “ thorn” root with khaltappanu stone, the following purely magic rite to drive the take one-third of it for the head that pains, demon out in case all other methods fail. knead with cassia juice, wrap it around the head, attach it (i.e., by a bandage), and for If a man’s head is affected and the demon 72 three days do not remove. in the man cries out,73 but comes not out, is not caught by bandage or incantation, then kill The physician includes in his extracts a captured kurku bird, squeeze its blood out,74

other remedies for headaches which are not 71A blinding headache. accompanied by a fever: 72 There is a special demon of headache, who is known as T i’u. 68 In the Talmud the question is asked, “ what is 73 One is reminded of the passage in Mark 1, 26 = fever,” to which the answer is, “ a fire of the bones.” Luke 14, 33, of the unclean spirit (i.e., demon) in 69 The name signifies “ O, Nabu, may the legitimate a man that cries out and issues from the body at offspring flourish.” the command of Jesus. See also the incident in 70 The one referred to above, p. 240, in the possession Luke 9, 27. of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia. For a 74 Note a similar rite of using the blood of a complete translation and discussion of its contents, bird as part of the rite to exorcise the demon of see my article, Tr. College of Physicians, 1913, pp. sara’ ath, a skin disease (not our leprosy) in Leviticus, 365-400. Chap. 13, for the explanation of which consult the B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 245

take its . . . its fat and the skin of its crop ( ? ), The “ heart” plant grew in the mountain and burn it in the fire, mix cedar with the blood, and I tore it out— the “ inside” 75 became affected— pronounce the incantation “ evil finger of man” The god Sin 76 [plucked it out]. three times. I commanded, and the “ heart” of Shamash 77 was affected; Shamash [plucked it out] These examples will suffice as illustrations I commanded, and the “ heart” of heaven and of the general character of the medical texts earth became affected. of the Babylonians and Assyrians, showing And so on ad infinitum et ad nauseam. both the method followed and the decided Such incantations may well represent older limitations in this method. Medical treat­ elements than the prescriptions proper, but ment, being based solely on popular ex­ their retention in that case by the side of perience, never reached even to the border­ genuine remedies is as significant a feature land of a science. It developed no new as their greater age. theory of disease; on the contrary, it clung to the old one. The Asu was as steeped in IX superstitious regard for the value of in­ Turning now to the pharmacopoeia of the cantations and magic rites as his patient. Both stood on the same platform, and the Babylonians and Assyrians, the large di­ manner in which, even in genuine medical mensions that it assumed in the course of texts, incantations and magic rites are pre­ time will have become apparent from the scribed shows the persistence of the primi­ examples quoted. This conclusion is con­ tive theory, and the impossibility of any firmed by the long lists of plants that have genuine advance in medical science beyond come down to us in the later copies of Ashur- prescribed bounds. We not infrequently find banapafs library,78 and also in texts dating the incantations to be recited taking up from much earlier periods. These lists were more space than the remedies prescribed. prepared in the temple schools of Babylonia Even such trifles as that a medical potion where all instruction was imparted, in­ should be held in the left hand while drink­ cluding, therefore, the training of priests to ing it seemed worthy of mention. The in­ act as physicians. The evident aim was to cantations—a jumble of phrases, often make these texts as inclusive as possible meaningless— are set forth in detail. so as to cover all the plants and woods and shrubs that grew in fields, gardens, orchards Wind of the glowing, wind, wind close to the and in the mountains. The medical charac­ gods ter of these lists is indicated by the use of Wind that went forth between excrements and the determinative Sham, signifying “ drug,” urine, and which, like Asu, has made its way from And whose throne is set up with the gods, thy brothers. the Sumerian into the Semitic languages. Moreover, in addition to the names, the This incantation for one suffering from lists often contain indications of the use to an inflated stomach is to be recited, while which the drugs are to be put, or in what the patient is being rubbed with a salve of way they are to be compounded with other cynoglosson and oil. drugs or with ingredients other than drugs. Or in another instance the incantation Finally, we have the proof for the medical reads: character of these lists in the circumstance

writer’s article, “ The So-called Leprosy Laws,” in 76 The moon god. the Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, vol. iv, 77 The sun god. 1913, pp. 336 et seq. 78 M any specimens of such lists in “ Cuneiform 76 Play upon libbu “ heart” and the “ insides.” Texts,” Part xiv. 246 iAnnals of Medical History that many of the “ plants” mentioned are tified. The difficulties involved in such iden­ precisely the drugs occurring in the medical tifications are very great. In the first place texts. No doubt when the two large collec­ the plants often have fanciful names, and tions of medical texts in London and Ber­ unless we are able to determine the character lin, which have been above referred to,79 of these names, we reach an impasse. It shall have been published, we will find that seems hopeless to solve such a puzzle as is most if not all the plants, trees, and shrubs, involved in a name like “ plant of tears” of the extensive lists served some purpose from the fancied resemblance of some part in medical treatment. of the plant to tears. A “ star” plant is A rough estimate shows that the ingre­ evidently suggested by the shape, but what dients used in medical prescriptions mount­ is it? A name like “ sword” plant tells us ed high in the hundreds. that the plant has a sharp cutting edge, but The lists also reveal attempts at a classi­ the term again is too general to admit of a fication of plants, thorny plants being definite identification. If we knew the folk­ placed together in one group, a series of lore of ancient Babylonia we might be sure shrubs in another, plants of which the roots of an identification for the “ birth” plant. are used in a third, and so on. Th^ classifi­ As it is we are confined to a guess that it cation is of course not based on any scien­ may be a species of “ mandrake,” associated tific principle but, in agreement with the so commonly with sexual fertility. In quite purely empirical character of Babylonian- a number of cases, we have the comparison Assyrian medicine, suggested by external with plant names in other Semitic languages features. So we have lists grouping various — notably the Aramaic—to help us,80 and kinds of Ammi plants (mnu), of cynoglosson, sometimes the signs with which the plants of juicy and sweet-smelling plants together. are written furnish a means of identifica­ Again, drugs are placed together which tion. A study of the flora of the Euphrates are to be used in the case of the same dis­ Valley and Mesopotamia in general with ease. So, for example, we have a list of six the present names in use by the natives, plants or drugs that are to be used for dis­ many of which reflect popular points of eases of the teeth and to be placed in the view, will probably yield important results, mouth, and again a series to be used for for traditional lore has a way of clinging to compresses around the head or for poultices the soil that is often surprising. to be placed on the stomach or the anus, or Summing up the results so far gleaned as ingredients for enemas. In other cases, from these various sources, we have quite a drugs are enumerated to be used for dog number of the ingredients used in Baby- or serpent bites. Ionian-Assyrian medicine that may be iden­ Indications are added in other cases of tified with certainty. Among these are (as the manner in which the drugs are to be already indicated) kasu, from which our own taken, mixed with oil or taken in wine and “ cassia” is directly derived; lishan kalbi, the like. “ cynoglosson” ; shilim, “darnel” ; ninu, Unfortunately only a small proportion of “ fennel” ; kurkanu, “ crocus” (or saffron), the drugs have up to the present been iden­ which appears likewise to revert to the Babylonian term, kukru, identical with our

79 See p. 239. contribution to the identification of Babylonian 80 The splendid work of Low, “ Aramaische plants and drugs, embodied in his “ Kleine Beitrage Pflanzennamen, ” Leipzig, 1881, has been of great zum Assyrischen Lexikon,” Leipzig, 1912, pp. service in this respect. Recently, a young Finnish 57-94. See also some suggestions in Stucken, “ As- Assyriologist, Harri Holma, has made a valuable tralmythen,” I, p. 5, note. B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 247

“ chicory” (cichorium); shushi, “ liquorice and ill-smelling qualities. These drugs con­ root” ; karashu, “ leak” ; gingiru, “ rocket” stitute a Dreckapotheke, to use the expressive (eruca sativa); tarmush, a “ bean” of some title for a general compilation of such kind; girgishshu, “strawberry tree” (ar­ strange remedies82 and which, as is well butus unedo)—native in Mesopotamia and known, were in general use in all countries Palestine; silbanu, “ liquorice wood” ; bu- until well into the nineteenth century, and rashu, “ cypress” ; laptu, “ turnip” (brassica no doubt still survive as “ lay” prescrip­ rapa); puglu, “radish” ; zuziratu, “ por- tions— “ housewife remedies” — in many a tulac” ; sapru, “straw flower” (helichry- nook and corner of Europe. In the Baby­ sum); lardu, identical with “ nard” (by a lonian-Assyrian Dreckapotheke, we encoun­ common interchange between I and n); ter such examples as a “ green frog” to be sapandu, which has passed over into Persia mixed with chicory, the claw of a black dog and Arabia as sipandu, and is our white with “ pestilence” root, the dust from a mustard (sinapis alba); kulkulanu, “ cassia- man’s foot to be added to powdered “ thorn” tora” ; kaman, identical with our “ cinna­ plant. Pig’s fat, dog’s dung, fat of a viper, mon” ; kamtu, “ truffle” ; khazilatu, “ colo- neck of a dog, the excrements of man and cynth” ; sagilatu, “jasmin” ; shishbanu, swine, the hair taken from a virgin goat, “ vitex agnus castris” ; kharubu, “ St. John’s a hair from the pudenda of an old woman, wort.” The terms for “ coriander” and and much more of the like are included in “ caraway seed” seem also to have been de­ the lists. termined with considerable certainty. Such remedies represent, as I venture to Among trees of which the leaves, bark, suggest, a natural outcome of the primitive sap, roots and seeds were used for medical theory of disease upon which Babylonian- purposes we have urbatu, “ willow” ; binu, Assyrian medicine rests. Their purpose is to “ tamarisk” ; tittu, “ fig” ; asu, “ myrtle” ; have a direct effect on the demon by dis­ sarpatu, “ elm” ; as well as the terms for gusting him through their nasty smell—to olive and cypress. Among salts, we have at lead him to fly to regions where the air is least two which are quite certain “ moun­ more agreeable, and thus to relieve the un­ tain salt” which is our rock salt, and “ salt fortunate victim after being obliged to sub­ of amanus” which, as pointed out,81 is our mit to an ordeal that must often have ammoniac. Other mineral substances, seemed worse than the disease. The genuine crushed and compounded, were used in remedies represent, of course, the result of considerable number, and it should be noted experience, but it was easy to apply the that just as in medical texts and in lists, fundamental principle—that what was good the sign for “ plant,” Sham, is used in a for the patient was bad for the demon—to general way for all organic substances, so remedies that were intended to bear on the the sign for stone (Sumerian Na = Akka­ demons, without reference to any medicinal dian abnu) is used in general fashion for character of the substances employed. inorganic substances. When with the advance of medical knowl­ Before leaving the subject, attention edge of a more rational kind the value of should be directed to a feature of the lists genuine remedies acting on the patient of plants and drugs drawn up by the scribes increased, the value of the Dreckapotheke for medical instruction and guidance. We was forced into the background, without, find a large number of substances enumer­ however, altogether disappearing. The nasty ated that are conspicuous for their nasty 82 K. F. PauIIini: “ Heilsame Dreckapotheke,” 81 See above, p. 242. 1714 (reprinted, Stuttgart, 1847). 248 1Annals of Medical History substances acquired the power of a charm," are supposed to have the power of disgust­ and from this point of view the old Baby­ ing the demons and of driving them away. lonian-Assyrian Dreckapotheke was carried Lastly, we have included in the lists, along the ages, gathering new ingredients compiled by the Babylonian-Assyrian on the way and surviving to the threshold scribes for use in the medical courses given of modern times. The substances which the in the temples, actual prescriptions, the witches in “ Macbeth” throw into the caul­ form of which is very simple. The drugs to dron83 to produce a charm to enable them be compounded are enumerated, together to peer into the future bear a close family with the indication of the disease against resemblance to the ingredients of the which they are to be used. In this way,85 we “ magic” aspect of Babylonian-Assyrian have nine drugs set forth, as a remedy for medicine that is hardly accidental. The stomach trouble, five drugs to be com­ usage in both instances rests ultimately pounded for the advanced stage of jaundice on the same association of ideas, though the —known as akhkazu,86 a formula of six purpose differs. drugs for the ordinary form of jaundice, and so on. Fillet of a fenny snake In the cauldron boil and bake X Eye of newt and toe of frog, Nose of bat and tongue of dog, A direct natural result of medical treat­ Adder’s fork and blind-worm’s sting, ment among the Babylonians and Assyri­ Lizard’s leg and owlet’s wing, ans was to lead to the study of the human For a charm of powerful trouble, body and to some extent also of animal Like a hell-broth boil and bubble. anatomy. An elaborate anatomical nomen­ The substances represent drugs that con­ clature was evolved which, passing far be­ tinued to form part of the popular, as also yond the obvious subdivisions of the body part of the professional pharmacopoeia in to minute details, furnishes the evidence Shakespeare’s days and beyond. The charm that the general structure of the human passes over into the amulet, and the wearing body was actually studied by the medical of bits of animals or trinkets in the shape students of the Euphrates Valley thousands of substances supposed to have magical of years ago. Long lists of parts of the power is merely another expression of the body were drawn up by the scribes which same idea that such substances as show the richness of the anatomical nomen­ clature developed in the endeavor to sub­ Scale of dragon, tooth of wolf Witches’ mummy, maw and gulf divide the organs and members of the body Of the ravin’d salt-sea shark, into their component parts.87 Let me take Root of hemlock, digg’d i’ the dark 84 as an illustration the designations of the Liver of blaspheming Jew, ^ parts of the male and female genital organs. Gall of goat and slips of yew, A common term for both is ba’ultu which has Sliver’d in the moon’s eclipse, the force of “ pudenda.” The most frequent Nose of Turk and Tartars lips,] Finger of birth-strangled babe, j term for the penis is birku, literally “ knee,” Ditch-delivered by a drab. 85 “ Cuneiform Texts,” xiv, Plate 48 (Rm 328). 83 Act iv, i, lines 14-40. 86 See above, p. 243. 84 The direction not to pluck a medicinal root i * 87 The most comprehensive study of the subject while the sun shines is specifically given in the Baby- is embodied in the monograph by Harri Holma, “ Die Ionian-Assyrian lists of medicinal drugs; e.g., “ Cunei­ Namen der Korperteile im Assyrich-Babylonischen,” form Texts, from Babylonian Tablets,” xiv, Plate Helsingfors, 19 11, in Annales Acad. Scientiarum Fen- 25 (K 259). nicae. Ser. B, Tome, vii, i. B abylo nian-A ssyrian M edicine 249 and which suggests that birku is a euphem­ “ jugular vein,” girru, giranu, and gangu- ism just as we find in other languages some ritu, “ gurgle,” with further subdivisions, part of the body suggesting the penis as kharurtu, “larynx,” urudu, “ windpipe,” “ hand,” “ foot,” “ leg,” “ tail” used euphe­ khamuritu perhaps “ vocal chords,” and sub­ mistically for the male organ. The “ testi­ divisions of the back into “spinal column” cles” are ishku, the “ foreskin” urulati, and (esensiru—literally, “bone of the back”), the “ prostate gland” perhaps sapsapu. shoulder (budu), shoulder blade (rapashtu), For the female organ, the number of terms and varous other terms, and similarly for the is very large—so large indeed as to suggest stomach (karshu), such divisions as takaltu, that specific parts of the womb were in­ “ stomach net, ” pappan libbi, “ navel, ” butnu tended—though each term was used also for “ belly ” (?), we may reasonably conclude that the female organ in general. We find among medical practice superinduced such de­ others uru from a stem indicating “ naked­ tailed analysis. We have in all about ness,” bissuru, perhaps the “ clitoris,” rubsu, four hundred terms for the various organs the “ uterus,” remu or remtu the “ womb,” and members and subdivisions of the hu­ kuzbu, perhaps the “ mons veneris,” libish- man body. This extensive nomenclature, shatu, probably the “ hymen,” silitu, “ after­ which will no doubt be further increased birth,” and such fanciful names as E-tur, as new texts are made accessible, is a sig­ “ house of the child,” and pirishtu, nificant testimony to the attention that “ secret,” 88 besides a number of more defi­ must have been paid to the study of anat­ nitely euphemistic terms. omy, though to be sure, in a purely empir­ It is entirely natural and not indicative ical and unscientific fashion. of technical knowledge to find in such lists We may go a step further in tracing the terms for leg (ishdu literally “ pillar” or origin of this study which, curiously enough, “ support” ), knee (birku), flank (kuritu), takes its start not with medicine but with shin-bone (kimsu), leg (puridu, literally divination; and, what is still stranger, it was “ advance” ), foot (shepu), sole (bud shepi), the attention paid in the interest of divina- heel (ikbu), toe (ubanu) and nail (supru), or tory lore to the liver of the sheep, the sac­ that for the upper part of the body we rificial animal par excellence, that furnished should have names—and in some cases the stimulus to the study of anatomy. several names— for the eye, ear, lip, nose, Among the various methods of divination nostrils, mouth, teeth, gums, tongue, throat, developed by the Babylonians and Assyri­ beard, breast, nipple, etc.; but when we ans, the endeavor to read the future in a find in the case of the eye such subdivisions sheep’s liver appears to be the oldest, as as iris (burmu—literally “ many colored” ), it is certainly the most widespread of prim­ eyelid (kappu, “ wing” ), nakabtu, “ corner itive methods to ascertain the disposition of the eye,” eye-ball (gaggultu), pupil (libbu, of the gods at any critical juncture in af­ “ inside” ), arku, “ white of the eye,” salmu, fairs. In various publications I have en­ “ dark of eye,” or when in connection with larged upon this subject of liver divination, the throat and neck, the differentiation ex­ or hepatoscopy,89 and of its spread under tends from kishadu, “ neck,” to labanu, Babylonian-Assyrian influence, so that I “ nape,” tikku, “ back of neck,” napishtu, may content myself here with a brief ref-

88 One might compare our use of “ privates.” subject is given; and for a general survey of the field 89 See my monograph, “ Babylonian-Assyrian Birth of Babylonian-Assyrian divination, see Jastrow, Omens and Their Cultural Significance,” Giessen, “ Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria,” pp. 254- 1914, p. 1, where a list of articles of mine on the 269. 250 Annals of Medical History erence. The method rests upon the belief and the soul of the god became for the time that the liver as the bloodiest organ in the being in perfect accord. The liver as the body was also the seat of life. The associa­ soul of the animal reflected the disposition tion of ideas between blood and life was as of the deity as in a mirror. If one could natural as it was obvious. Early specula­ read the signs on the liver, one could be tions about what we in common parlance certain of what the god had in mind— call the soul or the vital essence always take whether he was favorably disposed to the on a materialistic turn. Life was looked upon questioner or unfavorably minded— just as not as a condition, but as connected with in the higher form of astronomical divina­ some substance and, accordingly, the at­ tion, the reading of the stars revealed the tempt was made to localize the seat of life frame of mind of the gods in heaven. in some part of the body. Blood being re­ This curious method of liver inspection garded as identical with life, the organ had, however, the result of leading to a which seemed to be the center and seat of study of the sheep’s liver, for in the course the blood, whence it was distributed of time as the signs noted on examined throughout the frame, was also the seat of livers increased—and no two livers were life. The primitive observation was correct ever exactly alike—liver divination became to this extent—that the liver contains a a pseudoscience for which specialists had considerable proportion of the blood of the to be trained. body, about one-sixth in the case of many The experience of the past was gathered animals, and even more than this in the in handbooks which formed the textbooks case of man. for training the priestly augurs—the pre­ The ordinary sacrificial animal in Baby­ cursors of our modern meat inspectors. By lonia and Assyria was the sheep, and in or­ means of a natural or artificially developed der to ascertain the disposition of a deity association of ideas between signs observed at any given moment, a sheep was killed on the liver and what they portended, and and its liver examined. According to symp­ further on the basis of actual experience toms found on the liver conclusions were that on an occasion when an inspected liver drawn as to whether the signs observed showed certain signs, an event of a favor­ portended a favorable answer to a question able or unfavorable character occurred, put, or whether one had better defer an an elaborate system of liver interpretation undertaking till a more favorable moment. was built up that continued in force till the The sacrificial animal offered to a deity end of the Babylonian empire and spread and accepted by him became attuned, as to other lands.90 it were, to the deity. The soul of the animal

sign was a bad one for the enemy, if unfavorable to 90 The general principle underlying the system was you then it was favorable to the enemy. To the the significance attached to any deviation from the markings on the liver— due to the traces of the normal— an abnormally large or abnormally small subsidiary ducts on the surface— great attention was lobe, a peculiar form of the appendix pyramidalis paid, and all kinds of fanciful objects were seen in the or of the appendix capillaris, an unusually large or combination of these markings. The general prin­ thick or unusually short or thin gall-bladder, the ciple was always subject to modification through the shape of the hepatic duct and the like. The in­ observation that on a former occasion certain signs terpretation varied according as the abnormality were followed by certain occurrences, favorable or appeared on the right or on the left side of any part unfavorable. The ramifications of the system of of the liver. In general, a sign on the right side interpretation that thus grew up were nigh endless, portended something favorable, on the left side just as the field of divination in astrology and in something unfavorable. If favorable to you, the birth omens was boundless. B abylo nian-A ssyrian M edicine 251

The study thus given to signs on the liver medical texts already given, let me quote included the appearance of the gall, of the some passages from letters from Assyrian various lobes of the gall-bladder and of the physicians that have come down to us. These gall-ducts, of the larger and smaller ap­ letters form part of the royal library at pendices to the liver and of the veins. Nineveh which has been mentioned.91 In­ Names for these subdivisions were devised, cidentally, they also shed a further light some of which passed over into the anatom­ on medical diagnosis and medical treatment ical nomenclature of other lands or which in ancient Assyria. influenced that nomenclature. Since this One of these letters written by a court curious system of hepatoscopy was devised physician, Arad-Nana, in the days of King as early at least as 2500 b . c ., we may safely Ashurbanapal (668-626 b . c .) deals with assume that the inspection of the sheep’s the case of one of the royal princes who is liver marks the very beginnings of the study suffering from an injury to the eye. The of animal anatomy anywhere. The impetus physician reports to the king as follows: thus given by liver divination reacted on the natural curiosity of man, and was no To the King, my lord: thy servant Arad- Nana! Hearty greetings to the King my lord! doubt a factor in leading to a closer ob­ M ay Ninib and Gula92 grant happiness and servation of the human body as part of health to the King, my lord. the medical training of the Babylonian- Hearty greetings to the little fellow whose Assyrian Asu, with the result of producing eyes cause him trouble. I put a bandage93 on his the very extensive anatomical nomencla­ face. Yesterday, towards evening, I took the ture that forms one of the surprises in the bandage off, removing also the dressing below. There was blood on the dressing as much as study of cuneiform literature. The proof the point of the little finger. To which one of that this study was undertaken in connec­ the gods this is due, his order has surely been tion with the endeavor to drive out the carried out. Hearty greetings! Let the King, my demons of disease by incantations and lord, rest assured. In seven or eight days he will medical treatment is again furnished be well. through the occurrence of the anatomical The nature of the injury, unfortunately, nomenclature in incantation and medical is not stated, nor the ingredients in the texts, as well as in divination texts that dressing. The injury—perhaps a wound— form a supplement to incantations and had resulted in hemorrhages and the doctor medical prescriptions. reports that the eye was almost healed. XI The flow of blood had almost stopped. In accordance with the pious belief of the day, By way of further illustration of the use the physician ascribes the improvement to of anatomical terms in Babylonian-Assyrian the gods, though he does not know which medicine, supplemental to the occurrence one of them has come to the rescue. of these terms in the specimens from the Assyrian and Babylonian letters, though not in­ 91 See above, p. 240. frequently others are added. So in Assyrian letters 92 Letters almost invariably begin with a greeting one finds Ashur and his consort, Belit, or Nebo and of this kind in the name of some god or some gods. his consort, Nana, invoked. In the subscripts to In the case of medical letters, Ninib, who is the god the literary collection of Ashurbanapal the divine of healing, and his consort, Gula, are always invoked; pair Nebo (the god of wisdom and writing) and his in the case of divination and omen texts, Shamash consort, Tashmitu, are introduced, except in the (the sun-god) and Adad (the storm-god) who are case of divination and omen texts which substitute the gods of divination are addressed. Otherwise, the Shamash and Adad. ordinary greeting introduces Nebo and Marduk in 93 No doubt a dressing with a salve. 252 Annals of Medical History

If the “ son of the king” mentioned in King, my lord. A second and a third time this oil another letter of Arad-Nana is the same liniment should be applied to the King, my lord. Let the King see to this. If it please the prince, it would appear that the young King, let it be done in the morning. This disease fellow was also suffering from hemorrhages is in the blood. Let them bring the King a sil- of the nose. Arad-Nana reports, after the banu95 as was twice done, and let it be vigorously customary greeting, that the treatment applied. I shall come to inform myself and as prescribed by some one else to stop the soon as the perspiration flows freely from the bleeding was not correct, and proposes a King, my lord, I will send to the King something to apply to the King’s neck. With a salve which different one: I shall send to the King, my lord, let the King, my lord, be rubbed at the appointed time. In regard to the bleeding of his nose (i.e., of the prince) about which the Rab-Mugi (a high official) has reported to me that yesterday XII towards evening there was much bleeding, these dressings are not properly applied. They have In conclusion, let me summarize the ref­ been placed on the alae of the nose, obstructing erences to the Asu in the famous Ham- the breathing, while at the same time the blood murawi96 Code, promulgated c. 2080 b . c ., flows down into the mouth. Let the nose be toward the close of the King’s reign.97 plugged up at the back, so that air will be held out, and the bleeding will cease. If it please the There are eleven paragraphs (§§215-225) king, I will come to look at it to-morrow. in the code dealing with the fees to the Meanwhile may I hear good news. Asu, and with fines for unsuccessful opera­ tions. Both fees and fines are regulated ac­ A third letter of this same physician cording to the class to which the patient deals with an aggravated case of rheumatic belongs. The mar ameli, equivalent to our fever from which the king is suffering. The well-born gentleman, pays ten shekels for royal patient has grown restive, and in an operation for an eye wound, made with human fashion places the blame for the a bronze lancet, while a plebeian gets a re­ failure of the remedies prescribed on the duction of fifty per cent, and a slave is doctor. He raises the question whether the charged only two shekels to be paid by the latter understands the case, and the doctor owner. If a slave, in consequence of an op­ confesses that perhaps the treatment was eration, dies, the physician must supply not right. another slave. If the slave loses an eye, the

The King, my lord, continues to declare, physician pays half the value of the slave, “ the state of this sickness of mine thou dost not but if the Asu is unfortunate enough to recognize, thou dost not bring about a cure.” destroy the eye of a gentleman or of a Now, I confess that hitherto I did not under­ plebeian, or if a patient of either of these stand this rheumatism,94 but now I seal this two ranks dies, the physician’s hand is cut letter and send it to the King, my lord. Let it off—in order to render him harmless for be read to the King and properly understood. When it reaches the King, my lord, let a phy­ the future. For setting a broken bone or sician . . . carry out the accompanying direc­ for the cure of an injured limb, the fee is tions. Let the King apply this liniment. If the five shekels for the well-born, three shekels King does this, this fever will soon leave the for the plebeian and two shekels for a slave.

94Literally: “ sickness of the muscles.” 95 A massage. 97 See the translation in R. W. Rogers, “ Cuneiform 96 This appears to be the correct reading of Parallels to the Old Testament,” New York, 1912, the name of the writer, as Prof. D. D. Luckenbill pp. 398-405. For a survey of the Code, see Jastrow, has pointed out, Jour. Am. Orient. Soc., PI. 3 7 , “ Civilization of Babylonia and Assyria,” pp. 283- pp. 250-253. 315- B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 253

Now the point of interest in these some­ an individual by an equal. The Asu as sur­ what strange regulations is that they all geon inflicts an injury in case his treat­ fall within a subdivision of the code dealing ment is unsuccessful, and therefore must with injuries. Hence, the only phase of the pay a fine. But while he thus cuts loose from Asu’s activities referred to in the code is the physician as an exorciser, the surgeon surgery. Nothing is said of general medical passes from the Babylonian-Assyrian point treatment, and no doubt for the reason of view to a lower plane. He is taken out of that such treatment still fell entirely within the priestly class and degraded to that of a the category of religious rites, bound up mechanic or, let us say, a butcher. The with incantations. The Asu as surgeon, Asu as surgeon does not appeal to Ninib however, is not dealing with demons, but and Gula for aid in driving out a demon. with injuries98* to some member or organ He has no recourse to incantations and of the body. The treatment of injuries is, magic rites, supplemental to the medicinal therefore, logically dealt with in the part remedies, supposed to have their effect on of the code devoted to assault and battery, the demon as the cause of the disease. The to blows and wounds inflicted accidentally operator depends solely on his knife—the or intentionally on someone by a fellow Babylonian would say merely on his knife— being; and it is worth noting that this sub­ which is generally of bronze. The Asu as division of the code (§§196-233) is intro­ physician is the instrument of the gods, duced by the lex talionis," as the funda­ but the moment he takes an instrument mental principle regulating the punish­ into his own hands he is only an ordinary ment. In its original form, this lex talionis man who becomes subject to the law of read as follows: injuries. The Asu as surgeon is responsible for the result of his work, whereas if in his If a man destroys the eye of another, His eye shall be destroyed. treatment of disease the demon worsts the If he breaks the bone of another, Asu and the patient dies, it is a misfortune His bone shall be broken. for the patient for which the Asu is not If he knocks out the tooth of another, to blame. The attitude of the Hammurawi His tooth is to be knocked out. Code towards surgical operations was med- Supplementary to this primitive law of icus caveat—the surgeon must not risk fail­ direct punishment for injuries, paragraphs ure. If the eye is destroyed, it is due to are added, reflecting a later stage of society the Asu who ought to have done better. when fines take the place of bodily tor­ With cruel logic, the code refused to recog­ tures. If the injured party is a plebeian, nize an operation as successful if the pa­ one mana100 is imposed for an eye or bone, tient succumbs, though we have noted the and one-third of a mana for a tooth, whereas inconsistency that in the case of medicinal in the case of a slave one-half of the price treatment the death of the patient was re­ of a slave is the compensation to the owner garded in a different light. The surgeon for the loss of an eye or a broken bone, had to pay a fine in case of an unsuccessful rendering the slave by so much less valuable. operation, just as the code provides (§ 5) Nothing is said about the broken tooth of that if a judge renders a wrong decision, a slave, because the injury does not affect it is not the decision that is reversed but the value of the slave. The old lex talionis the judge, by being removed from the is limited to the case of an injury done to bench, in addition to paying a heavy fine.

98 The term used is zimmu kabtu, “ heavy blow” or 99 §§196-201. wound. 100 Sixty shekels. 254 Annals of Medical History The lower dignity accorded to the sur­ medical practitioner, who as an exorciser geon as against the “ medicine man” left of demons would have considered it beneath its trace on medicine up to a late period. his dignity to treat animals. He was hide­ The barber’s pole—his symbol as a surgical bound by the theory that demoniac posses­ operator—survives as evidence for the small sion was limited to human beings. value attached to the functions of the sur­ geon, which were in many cases committed XIII to the barber, though generally limited to bleeding, cupping and extracting teeth. A rapid survey of the influence exerted Modern surgery, which takes its rise with by Babylonian-Assyrian medicine upon the Ambroise Pare (1517-1590), has, of course, ancient world may close this article. That changed this and given to the surgeon his influence runs parallel with the wide spread present high standing, but I venture to of Babylonian-Assyrian methods of divina­ raise the question whether the distinction tion. Babylonian-Assyrian hepatoscopy and still made in England between the physician astrology passed beyond the bounds of the who is called “Doctor” and the surgeon Euphrates Valley to find their way to the who is addressed as “ Mr.” may not in the Hittites, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans;101 last analysis be a survival from the older and the medical methods developed in the days when the surgeon stood on a lower Euphrates Valley similarly spread to the level than his colleague, the medical prac­ cultural nations of antiquity, as supple­ titioner. mental to divination lore. We can trace The attitude towards the surgeon, as that influence in the medicine of the Jews exemplified in the regulations of the Ham- of the Talmudic period. In the great legal murawi Code, accounts for the fact that in compilation of the Jewish rabbis known as the medical texts of Babylonia and Assyria, the Talmifd,102 we come across general as in the lists of letters supplemental to points of view and details in treatment that these texts, we encounter no reference what­ can be carried back directly to Babylonian- soever to the surgeon but only to medical Assyrian prototypes. The advanced mono­ treatment through drugs, liniments, salves, theism of the Jews did not succeed in driv­ massage and diet—all with the one object ing out the popular belief in demons, hob­ of effecting a cure by driving the demon goblins, vampires and all manner of semi­ out of the body. On the other hand, it is divine beings of a sinister character, just interesting to note that as early as the days as early and medieval Christianity found of the Hammurawi Code, surgery had ad­ room by the side of the Trinity for devils vanced to the stage of differentiation be­ and angels. Popular beliefs are too deeply tween the surgeon and the veterinarian. imbedded to yield to metaphysical specu­ The latter was called the Asu for the ox lations as to the method of divine govern­ or ass (§§224-225). This is probably the ment of the universe by a single spiritual earliest instance of specialization in med­ power. The Talmud furnishes us with magic icine, though the fact that the distinction incantations to be recited as a means of was made was due again to the lower grade driving off the evil demons. The stimulus assigned to the surgeon as against the given to medical treatment of a more scientific character through the contact of 101 See the proof in the author’s monograph, “ Babylonian- Assyrian Birth Omens and Their Cultural Significance,” pp. 3-4, and more fully 102 See Ebstein, “ Die Medizin im Neuen Testa­ in his “ Religion Babyloniens and Assyriens” ii, ment und im Talmud,” Stuttgart, 1903, and Preuss, 320, et seq. and 741-749. “ Biblisch-Talmudische Medizin,” Berlin, 1911. B abylo nian-A ssyrian M edicine 2 55 the Orient with Greek civilization that had transcript of Greek medicine, is a chapter given birth to the medical schools of Hip­ of “ native prescriptions,” 106 and here we pocrates and Galen led to the practical encounter the familiar remedies of Baby­ abandonment of the theory of demoniac lonian-Assyrian medicine as, for example, possession as the cause of disease, but med­ for a disease of the heart: ical treatment in the Talmud remained on Burn the bones of partridges ( ? ) until they the same level as in Babylonia and Assyria. become a fine powder. Pour this powder into As late as the days of Josephus we come olive oil and warm the mixture and smear it on across beliefs in the power of individuals the head and sprinkle vinegar on the head. to drive demons out of the body by means Or again: of certain roots attached to a ring placed in the nostrils of a victim. Josephus, “ An­ Pound the insides of walnuts with garlic tiquities,” viii, 2, 5, tells us also of a root and apply to the head. baaras that was supposed to have the For eye trouble, the following is pre­ power when brought to a sick person of scribed : driving the demon away. This crude man­ Take 30 drachmas of juice of anethum foeni- ner of affecting the demons is an indication culum and 10 drachmas of honey and 30 of the fading belief, reflecting a period when drachmas of sweet pomegranates, mix together. it was no longer regarded as plausible that Set the mixture on a fire and boil. Take it off by taking a medical prescription the cure the fire, keep it in a glass vessel and pour onto involved the departure of a demon out of the eyes when the belly is empty.107 the body. Demoniac possession becomes Still closer to the style of Babylonian- limited to abnormal mental manifestations Assyrian prescriptions are the following:108 like insanity and hallucinations. In this For insides 109 which will not retain food, boil form it appears in the New Testament,103 thorns in water and let the patient drink it. but for all that the remedies themselves that are set forth in Talmudic passages For wind on the stomach, pound peppercorn parallel the pharmacopoeia of Babylonia and and cinnamon reed. Work into a paste with honey and let the patient eat 3 drachmas for Assyria, including a Dreckapotheke.104 Such two days. a detail, as that medicines should be taken in wine, forms too close a parallel to what For a very sick person, give him to drink of the sweat of his feet mixed with excrements. we so frequently find in Babylonian-As­ syrian texts to be an accident. We have For one who has been poisoned, let him the proof also that in Syria the Babylonian- drink the urine of a child, mixed with wine or Assyrian methods of medical treatment re­ gall of a gazelle in goat’s milk. mained in popular usage long after the more Among other ingredients of the “ native” scientific Greek medicine had made its Dreckapotheke, clearly intended to disgust way throughout the ancient world. Attached the demons as well as the patient, we have to an elaborate Syriac ‘ ‘Book of Medicines,” such substances as the testicles of a fox published a few years ago by E. A. Wallis for breasts too full of milk, or the gall of a Budge,105 embodying for the larger part a 106 Vol. ii, pp. 656-714. 103 See the passage quoted above, p. 244, note 73. 107 A parallel to the frequent injunction in Baby­ 104 See examples in Preuss, “ Biblisch-Talmudische lonian-Assyrian texts to take a mixture “ without Medizin,” p. 509. food.” 105 “ Syrian Anatomy, Pathology and Therapeu­ 108 Budge, II; pp. 674-675. tics” or “ The Book of Medicines,” 2 vols., text, 109 The word leb (Babylonian libbu) is used to transIation and introduction, Oxford, 1913. designate the “ insides” in a general and vague way. 256 Annals of Medical History pig to be burnt under a person who has a pears to have reached a much higher plane sore in the arms, or the fat of a black ser­ in Egypt. The oldest medical papyrus of pent with a red neck and the gall of a pig Egypt—the Papyrus Ebers—dates back to to be applied to the anus, or the dung of a the 1 6th century b . c . and is remarkably white dog. The person who has gas in the free from magic rites and incantations, stomach should drink this mixed with sugar though we do find, as in Babylonia-Assyrian and water “ and his insides will be loosened medicine, substances like dung, the uterus and he will have relief.” and vulva of various animals introduced Such remedies are clearly remnants of as drugs—which suggests that the purpose Baby Ionian-Assyrian medicine, preserved of such drugs was originally, likewise, to perhaps for centuries by oral tradition until drive the demon out of the body. No doubt they were embodied in the collections made Egyptian medicine started out from the by native “ quacks,” who continued to same primitive theory of demoniac posses­ flourish by the side of the better educated sion, but it appears to have cut itself loose physicians. from the theory to a large extent at an early The rival of Babylonian-Assyrian med­ age. Strangely enough in medical papyri of icine in point of age is Egyptian medicine, the new kingdom, magic practices and the of which we now know a great deal, thanks recital of incantations reappear as promi­ to the discovery and publication of several nent factors in the treatment of disease. medicinal papyri of various periods.110 The It is tempting to conclude that this recru­ possible relations between the two systems descence of primitive methods, in striking is a question which must be left to a fur­ contrast to the more rational manner in ther paper.111 That the drugs used in the which diseases are handled in the papyri Euphrates Valley should have passed to of older date, was due to the influence of Egypt at an early period, and vice versa, is Babylonian-Assyrian culture, whereas the exactly what we should expect to have hap­ advance to more scientific methods in Baby­ pened at an early date, now that we have lonian-Assyrian medicine, so far as this is ascertained that the intercourse between to be noted, may be ascribed to Egyptian these two regions reverts to the second influence as a factor, by the side of the millennium before this era. In the plant and natural progress which must also be as­ drug lists drawn up by Babylonian-Assyrian sumed. scribes, we find specific mention of sub­ At all times, however, and despite the stances brought from other countries— recrudescence of magic incantations, Egyp­ Canaan, Magan, Elam, etc. I have pointed tian medicine appears to have been far out112 that ammonia was probably intro­ more scientific in character, and if in the duced into Egypt through intercourse with case of Greek medicine, which marks the Babylonia. Beyond such interchange, how­ foundation of medical treatment on a basis ever, it may be questioned whether the more closely approaching that of modern Egyptian medicine had anything to learn days, we are to seek for any outside influ­ from Babylonia, for medical practice ap­ ence, we must turn to Egypt as a possible

110 The latest publication of them by Wreszinski pp. cxxx-cxliii, for a general survey of Egyptian (a) “ Papyrus Ebers,” Berlin, 19 13; (b) “ Berlin medicine and the further references there given. Papyrus,” Berlin, 1909; “ London Papyrus,” Leipzig, 1111 reserve for a special article to be prepared for 1912. To these is to be added “ The Hearst Medical the Bull. Soc. Med. Hist, of Chicago a fuller discussion Papyrus,” edited by Reisner, Univ. of California of the relations between Babylonian-Assyrian Medi­ Publications (1905). See also Budge’s Introduction cine and that of the Jews and Egyptians. to his edition of the Syriac “ Book of Medicines,” 112 See above, p. 242, note 55. B abylonian-A ssyrian M edicine 257 factor. Homer, it is interesting to note, of demoniac possession as the source of refers to Egyptian physicians, and we disease. find Egyptian herbs mentioned in the It is an observation that may frequently pharmacopoeia of Greek physicians. With be made, that after a civilization passes Hippocrates, however (460-375 b . c.), an away, its weaker aspects continue to exer­ entirely new epoch in medicine is ushered cise a more or less pronounced influence. in, and no doubt in the first instance it was There is a strange fatality in the manner the native scientific spirit of Greece that in which “ the evil that men do lives after had manifested itself even before the days them, the good is oft interred with their of Hippocrates, in mathematics and astron­ bones.” Babylonian-Assyrian civilization omy and in the development of philosophical can point to great achievements in art, thought that brought about the systematic literature, trade and government that study of human anatomy and philosophy exerted a strong and wide influence for good and laid the foundations for the rational in the ancient world; but after it passed treatment of disease as against purely em­ away—leaving scarcely any visible traces pirical methods, based on tradition and until the spade of the explorer dug up the crude popular beliefs. remains of the civilization out of the But popular beliefs and time-bound tra­ mounds that formed over the places where ditions have a tenacious life and survived once great cities stood—the beliefs and even in Greece long after the attempt was theories of a purely primitive character, made to convert medical treatment into a which were carried along in the waves of science. Just as we have down to the thresh­ influence that flowed from the Euphrates old of modern science, astrology flourish­ Valley, continued their sway. These beliefs ing by the side of astronomy and the exor- and theories became in the course of time ciser plying his trade side by side with unofficial appendages to astronomy, re­ the spiritual guide, so we have the Baby­ ligion and medicine; they were degraded to lonian-Assyrian Asu surviving by the side the rank of superstitions; they were finally of the Greek iatros. Indeed, in our own denounced as heterodox, but their vitality days we still have the astrologer as the remained unimpaired. And so the Baby­ successor of the Babylonian-Assyrian lonian-Assyrian Asu may still be found in baru,nz and likewise the medicine-man and the by-ways of American and European the herb doctor and “ quack” as the direct cities. In these times when we are living descendant of the Asu, supplying remedies under the sign of the germ theory of disease, that have been handed down from a hoary there would be a certain poetic justice in antiquity, dealing with disease in purely the apparition of an old Asu of Babylonia- empirical fashion and introducing all kinds Assyria rising out of his grave, and ex­ of hocus-pocus that suggest the old theory claiming with his bony finger directed to 113 The “ seer,” used for the one who inspects the the ultramodern pathologist, “ There, I liver, equally with the priest who searches the skies told you so thousands of years ago—it’s all for omens. due to the demons.” ON A GREEK CHARM USED IN ENGLAND IN THE TWELFTH CENTURY

B y CHARLES SINGER, M.D. OXFORD, ENGLAND

N the Library of St. John’s College, “ April is named after venery or Aphrodis Oxford, is a large folio volume (MS. for Venus is called in Greek Aphrodis.” 17), containing an encyclopaedia of Ajrodis is for dcppd)drjc, an adjective formed secular knowledge, perhaps the earli­ from dtppoq = foam. Again “ Eliotropium id estI mediaeval work of its kind that has yet est intuba a grecis sive solsequia uel sponsa come to light. It is composed under the solis.” “ The heliotrope of the Greek, that strong traditional influence of Bede. We is intuba, either the sweetheart or the bride have described the MS. elsewhere and have of the sun.” 3 In one instance, also, the shown that it was written between m o Greek script is used, namely for the legends and 1112 by an English speaking monk of a circle of Petosiris.4 who was ignorant of Norman French.1 The In the medical section the author has MS. contains numerous glosses nearly all borrowed largely from the contemporary of which are in the same hand as the Salernitan writings, and from them he may text. have derived a number of medical terms of A rather surprising feature of this en­ Greek origin, such as anastomo, plagiotimo, cyclopaedia is the acquaintance with Greek anacarsis, malanma, dissentericus, emotoi- that it betrays especially in the medical cus, cephalica. In some cases, however, there sections. The knowledge of Greek is, it is is a suggestion of a more intimate contact true, little more than vestigeal, but even with Greek sources, and a correspondingly that degree was unusual in Western Europe greater degree of misunderstanding of them. during the profound intellectual depression Thus in a section on bloodletting we read: of the 10th, nth, and early 12th centuries. Inciditur autem de flebotomo optimo rectam The interest in the Greek language taken percussuram catatixin. habet hoc est in iussum by the author, or rather the compiler, is primere flebotomum rectum. & sursum Ieuare. shewn in various ways. Thus there are sev­ Quod si male incisa fuerit. collectionem in eral Greek alphabets scattered through the altum facit. & uulnera insaniosa facit. insan- volume. Again, derivation from the Greek iamque plurimam. & spissa nutrit uulnera. & had the same fascination for the English deducit ad omnem perniciem.5 monk as was exhibited by St. Isidore of Se­ “ [The vein] is best incised with the lancet ville and by Bede. He tells us, for instance, catatixin, that is with a direct cut, and it that the name of the month April is derived is the practice to raise the lancet with the from Aphrodite. “ Aprilis pro uenere dicitur point passing it straight and upwards. For if quasi afrodis grece enim uenus dicitur.” 2 3 Fob 176 recto column b. 1 Chades Singer: “ A Review of the Medical Liter­ Eliotropium is, of course, fiXtoTpoxtov. Intuba ature of the Dark Ages with a New Text of about is the Virgilian dnh&um, endive or some such plant. 1110 ,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., London, 1917, vol. x The interpretation of solsequia is more difficult. I (Section of History of Medicine, pp. 107-160) and have regarded sequia as equal to secia a mediaeval “A Medical Compendium of the First Half of the form of sexa. Possibly it is falsely derived from Twelfth Century” in the Bull. Soc. Med. Hist. sequor. Chicago, 1 917. 4 Folio 8 recto. 2 Fob 17 verso. 5 Folio 2 recto cob b. 258 O n a G r e ek C harm 2 59 it should be badly cut, a deep gathering is The top line in Anglo-Saxon may be formed which makes the wound extremely translated “ If blood run from the nose unhealthy, generates chronic lesions and write on his forehead in a Christ’s cross,” gives rise to all kinds of trouble.” and then follows the charm. This catatixin is clearly the kcct’ !£ cv of As regards the charm itself, it is nothing Hippocrates who uses it as describing the else than a quotation from the Greek Lit­ same side and distinguished from the op­ posite side. Hippocrates6 says that if a person with enlarged spleen has haemorrhage from the same (that is the left) nostril, it is a good sign, but if dvdxaLcv from the opposite (that is the right) nostril, it is bad, an idea which afterwards gave rise to the famous controversy as to “ derivation” or “ re­ vulsion.” Galen uses the expression yuxx’ in a commentary on this very passage of Hippocrates.7 He there takes the view that venesection should be performed y.ax’ on the same side as the disease. The author of our MS. has misunderstood Galen’s phrase urgy of St. John Chrysostom still in use and takes him to mean that venesection by the Orthodox Church. The passage oc­ should be performed with a straight up and curs in the most solemn part of the service down cut. 8 The error may have arisen from before the distribution of the sacred ele­ the use of the ambiguous Latin word recte, ments, the priest reciting to translate 7,0ct’ c^cv. The most interesting point of contact with S t w ix s v y.aXd)<;‘ ciTwpisv [x sto: 9 6 6 0 u‘ x p o o ^ w p .s v the Greek language in the MS. is, however, TTjv aytocv dva^opav iv eiprjVY] x p o d ^lp s tv . in a marginal gloss by the same hand as the “ Let us stand seemly, let us stand in awe; rest of the volume. It occurs in the course let us accept the holy memorial which is of a section on the preparation of plasters offered in peace.” and runs as follows (Fig. 1): STOMEN CALCOS STOMEN META Wi5 9 blod rine of nosu wriht on his for- FOFU heafod on Xpistis mel. was read for en STQMEN KAAQ2 STOMEN META ff>OBOY

Stomen 3. calcos . + . The scribe has transliterated the Greek p with two exceptions. He has written calcos o’ ST for kalos and fofu for fobou. How did these + errors arise? There is a complete explanation for them. 6 Prorrhetics, I, 125, Littre, Vol. v, p. 554. 81 have to thank my friend Dr. E. T . Withington 7 The passage in question is in Galen’s “ De for drawing my attention to Galen’s true meaning curandi ratione per venae sectionem” cap. X V . and for pointing out to me some errors in my Kuhn’s edition xi, 295-6, and runs as follows: previous interpretation of this passage. «Tb Ssxa-u’ i£tv oTixaT’ euOuX^yet, xaatv wpt.oXiSYiq'rac aatp&q aflxou 9 [Folio 175 recto.] As will be seen from Fig. 1 xsxpiQ^vou xoXXi£xc<; exl rouSe tou airjpiaiovojiivou Tfj xoct’ if£cv tpwvfj. T& 8’ dcvaxaXiv a^op payouvra pajSev tocpeXeiv fj xal pXixTStv evotTs tc7> the M S. gives Wid. We have restored the cross stroke xaraXGaat r?)v SuvapUv #veu tou xb x&Gcx; xou^faat.)) to the d, as seems required by the context. 260 Annals of Medical History

In early MSS., the letter kappa often The third line of the same facsimile sim­ takes a form something like IC, the stem ilarly shows an o> that can be mistaken of the k being completely separated from by a careless reader for CO. Thus KAA122 in the original became CALCOS in transcrip­ tion. The passage of [ equally simple. The F as a representative "G y i em cionovuvoNCTANji. of the letter beta is by no error but h o \rn o \ c- w t r r p f % \ y io iT 0 M is a true presentation of the Byzantine pronunciation. The U of the word FOFU is 6fMHNMA €U,TO IUT*M XT-frAi an ignorant error for the usual MS. ON t Y ^ r r €Al BN ISt&Al'lKl g ; ~ _ method of writing the diphthong OU (cp. Fig. 2, line 3). We thus have the very remarkable phe­ TOY GNATIOIC n(*c)P(o)C HMGON ICOANNOY nomenon of a passage in the Communion APXienicKonoY k c o n c t a n t i 8 NOYFTOAGCOC TOY XPYCOCTOM Service of the Greek Church in actual use GPMHNGIA GIC TO KATA MATOAI as a charm in England in the 12th century ON GYAITGAION BIBAION B : v. and probably earlier. The source of this remedy for nosebleeding was doubtless un­ the rest of the letter. We give here (Fig. 2) known to the scribe who has preserved it a facsimile with transcription from the for us. The fact may, however, suggest to title of a 9th century MS. of the sermons the folklorist a new field of research into of St. John Chrysostom10 which illustrates the origin of other apparently gibberish well this tendency. The second line charms and folksayings, and to the medical of this facsimile shows two kappas historian further reflexion on the continuity either of which could easily be read IC. of Greek influence during the darker age of his science. 10 The facsimile is from a M S. found in a secret crypt / in the Monastery of the Transfiguration at Meteora. Meteores de fan 8 6 1-2 ” in the Revue des Etudes It is the earliest dated Greek M S. that has yet come Grecques xxvi, p. 53, Paris, 1913. Our fig. 2 is taken to light and is described in “ Un Manuscrit des from this work.

SORANUS OF EPHESUS AND MARION SIMS

In the brilliant reign of Hadrian lived So- penetrated into the future, there would have ranus, who had been the tutor of Atticus. He appeared to him, standing on a platform in devoted himself chiefly to the diseases of the what would have seemed a most singular garb, female sex, and wrote the only complete treat­ but with features similar, because as regular ise on the subject which has come to us from in outline as those to which he was accus­ antiquity. His work, remarkable for its fu l­ tomed, a youth with a roll in his hand, and, ness of knowledge, shows him to have been attracted by the look of genius in his face, he something of an enthusiast; and we can think might well have wished him strength to carry of him in his evening walks near the splendid out resolves that were to lead to immortality: walls of high-turreted Rome,— the altae moenia M ade nova virtute puer; sic itur ad astra. Romae that Virgil loved,— or returning from And that wish would have been fulfilled in the Athenaeum, as wondering what were to be the creation of a science that owes everything the developments following his labors and the to him,— to him, Marion Sims.

instruments he had invented. Had his eye J . M. DaCosta (i 8 gi). THE LEGISLATIVE AND ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY OF THE MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1776-1786)

By COLONEL WILLIAM O. OWEN, U. S. ARMY CURATOR, ARMY MEDICAL MUSEUM, WASHINGTON, D. C.

S E C T IO N II

INCE the first section of this Dr. Potts is to be held accountable” would valuable archivistic material has perhaps need more explanation than the de­ already been prefaced by Colonel preciated value of Continental paper then Owen’s salient cullings from the obtaining. records,S these few words of recapitulation In the light of modern war reconstructive will suffice. work, the provision for an I nvalid Corps under From unorganized beginnings, the forma­ date of May 27th, 1777, to be composed of tion of official medical service may be traced men disabled for rigorous war service but in the scattered items of the Journals of the capable of acting in the capacity of military Provincial Congress of Massachusetts instructors and garrison guards, is illuminat­ (1775), supplemented by excerpts from the ing. Interest also centers around the unfor­ Military Journal of Thacher, who, as sur­ tunate circumstances at the Alexandria in­ geon’s mate to the senior surgeon, Dr. John oculation camp in which the conscientious Warren, was active in these early days. In Dr. Rickman was involved. His work was the Journals of the Continental Congress later exonerated by tracing the cause of from June 2nd, 1775 to April 7th, 1777, the the unsuccessful results to incompetent as­ story is carried through the appointment sistants and the malarial breeding swamps and dismissal of Benjamin Church, the through which the men were taken on forced Director General and Chief Surgeon of our march immediately before inoculation. first Army Hospital, and of Dr. Stringer The beginnings of our present pension sys­ whose conduct was pronounced “ highly tem, odd means of disciplining those con­ derogatory to the honor of Congress.” The tracting venereal disease, unusual reports office of Surgeon General and less important of the extravagance at the Yellow Springs positions under revolutionary medical service Hospital under a certain Alexander McKal- were destined to be stumbling blocks for many. Iaher, “ allowed to do so by Congress or Dr. At this point, the excerpts in this second Shippen, the informant is not certain installment take up the account with the ig­ which,” and the complaints about food and nominious dismissal of Church’s successor, clothing,—all these rather modern problems Dr. John Morgan on August 3rd, 1777. Dr. are interwoven with the many entries which Rush, Chief Physician in the Middle Dis­ group themselves around the story of Dr. trict, is forced to resign his commission to Shippen’s court-martial. From June 4th, Dr. Jonathan Potts at about the same time. 1778, when Shippen was accused of malfeas­ By June 10th, 1778, this worthy gentleman ance in office by the counter-charges of the is charged with “ exorbitant expenditure” deposed Dr. Rush, until his acquittal August and indeed the numerous successive entries 18th, 1780, the machinations of Dr. Morgan in the Journal of requisitions for fifty and and other derogators are but slightly hidden one hundred thousand dollars, “ for which in the record which follows.— E d it o r . 262 Annals of Medical History

II. FROM JOURNALS OF THE CONTINENTAL geons general of the military hospital, and the physi­ cians and surgeons general of the respective armies, c o n g r ess (1774-83) (Continued) and that the election be on the day following. April 8, 1777. 243, 244-6 April 11, 1777. 253-5 That the eldest son of General Warren, and the Congress then proceeded to the election of the youngest son of General Mercer, be educated, from officers in the hospital department; and the ballots this time at the expence of the United States.33 being taken, Congress resumed the consideration of the report Dr. William Shippen, Junr- was chosen, by the on the hospital; Whereupon, unanimous vote of the thirteen states, director gen­ Resolved, That in time of action and on any other eral of all the military hospitals for the armies of the emergency, when the regimental surgeons are not United States. sufficient in number to attend properly to the sick Dr. Walter Jones, was elected physician general of and wounded, that cannot be removed to the hos­ the hospital in the middle department. pitals, the director, or deputy director general of Dr. Benjamin Rush, was elected surgeon general the district, be empowered and required, upon the of the hospital in the middle department. request of the physician and surgeon general of the Dr. John Cochran, was elected physician and sur­ army, to send, from the hospitals under his care, to geon general of the army in the middle department. the assistance of such sick and wounded, as many Dr. Isaac Forster, deputy director general of the physicians and surgeons as can possibly be spared hospital in the eastern department. from the necessary business of the hospitals. Dr. Ammi Ruhamah Cutter, physician general of That the director, deputy directors general, as­ the hospital in the eastern department. sistant deputy directors, physicians and surgeons Dr. Philip Turner, surgeon general of ditto. general, be and they are hereby required and di­ Dr. William Burnet, physician and surgeon (gen­ rected to employ such parts of their time, as may eral) of the army (in the eastern department). conveniently be spared from the duties before point­ Dr. Jonathan Potts, was elected deputy director ed out to them, in visiting and prescribing for the general of the hospital in the northern department. sick and wounded of the hospitals under their care.34 Dr. Malachi Treat, physician general of ditto. That the establishment of the medical department Dr. Forgue, surgeon general of ditto. be as follows: Dr. John Bartlett, physician and surgeon general i director general...... 6 dollars a day and 9 rations. of ditto. 3 deputy directors gen- The Board of Treasury reported, eral...... 5 do. 6 do. That there is due to Dr. J. Ramsey, and to be paid Indeterminate assist- to the honorable Jonathan Elmer, Esq? for sundry ant deputy director. 3 do. 6 do. medicine supplied the New Jersey troops, the sum 4 physicians general of £ 9 3 6 equal to 24 42/90 dollars; and 4 surgeons gen- That there is due to Dr. James Tilton, for sundry eral each...... 5 do. 6 do. medicine supplied the batallion of the state of Dela­ 1 to each army, physi- ware, the sum of £10, equal to 26 60/90 dollars; cian and surgeon That there is due to Dr. William Currie, for sun­ general of the arm y. 5 do. 6 do. dry medicine supplied the 5, or Colonel Johnston’s Senior surgeons...... 4 do. 6 do. Pennsylvania batallion, the sum of £50 17 2 equal Second surgeons...... 2 do. 4 do. to 135 56/90 dollars. Surgeons’ mates...... 1 do. 2 do. April 12, 1777. 257 Apothecaries general.. 3 do. 6 do. M ates...... 1 Vo do. 2 do. Resolved, That 100,000 dollars be advanced to Dr. Commissary...... 2 do. 4 do. Shippen, director general, for the use of the hospi­ Clerk, who is to be tals; he to be accountable. paymaster...... 2 do. 4 do. Resolved, That the surgeons general and physi­ Assistant clerks...... 2/3 do. 1 do. cians general of the hospitals, shall, each of them Stewards...... 1 do. 2 do. regulate the practice of both physic and surgery, and M atron...... Vo do. 1 do. do the duty of physician and surgeon general in the Nurses...... 24-90 1 do. hospitals respectively committed to their charge, and Stabler...... 1 do. 1 do. that the director and deputy directors general take Regimental surgeons.. 2 do. 4 do. proper care to keep the sick and wounded in separate Do. mates.. . . 1 1/3 2 do. departments. Ordered, That the regulations respecting hospitals April 1 7 , 1777- 2 7 4 - 5 be published. That there is due to Dr. William Smith, conti­ April 9, 1777. 247 nental druggist, for sundry medicine purchased by him for public use, the sum of 2,820 30/90 dollars, Resolved, That to-morrow be assigned for nomi­ and for sundry medicine supplied by him for the use nating gentlemen for the offices of director and dep­ of the brig Lexington, the sum of 131 38/90 dollars, uty directors general, physicians general and sur­ both sums making 2,952 28/90 dollars; 33 This report, in the writing of Benjamin Rush, is in the P a ­ 84 These two paragraphs, in the writing of James Wilson, are pers of the Continental Congress, No. 19, V, folio 151. in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 22, folio 26 1/2. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 263

That there is due to Dr. William Currie for sun­ the army, wherever found, in their own or other dry medicine supplied the sick of the 4th and 6th departments, provided such other departments are Virginia regiments, the sum of 99 66/90 dollars. not supplied with any of the officers aforesaid. April 22, 1777. 288-90 April 23, 1777. 292 Resolved, That a Corps of Invalids be formed con­ Resolved, That Dr. James Tilton be authorized to sisting of eight Companies, each Company to have repair to Dumfries, in Virginia, there to take the one Captain, two Lieutenants, two Ensigns, five Ser­ charge of all continental soldiers that are or shall jeants, six Corporals, two Drummers, two fifers and be inoculated, and that he be furnished with all one hundred Men. This Corps to be employed, in necessary medicines: that the commanding officers Garrisons and for Guards, in Cities and other Places, in that department be directed to afford every as­ where Magazines or Arsenals are placed; as also to sistance in their power, and that all commissaries serve as a Military School for Young Gentlemen, and quarter masters on whom the doctor shall have previous to their being appointed to marching Regi­ occasion to call, be directed to provide quarters and ments, for which purpose, all the Subaltern Officers, everything requisite for this business. when off Duty, shall be obliged to attend a Mathe­ matical School, appointed for the purpose to learn April 25, 1777. 300 Geometry, Arithmetick, vulgar and decimal Frac­ Resolved, That the physician or surgeon general tions and the extraction of Roots. And that the of the hospital in the middle department, be directed Officers of this Corps, shall be obliged to contribute to send a proper person or persons in the medical one day’s pay in every Month, and Stoppages shall department, to visit all the hospitals betwixt this city be made of it accordingly, for the purpose of pur­ and the town of Annapolis, in Maryland, with direc­ chasing a Regimental Library of the most approved tions to order all such soldiers, as shall be deemed Authors on Tacticks and the Petite Guere. capable of service, to join immediately their respec­ That some Officers from this Corps be constantly tive corps under proper officers. employed in the Recruiting Service, in the Neigh­ April 30, 1777. 317 bourhood of the places they shall be stationed in, Resolved, That Major General Schuyler be di­ that all Recruits so made, shall be brought into the rected to send a proper officer, to hasten the march Corps, and drilled and afterwards draughted into of the Carolina continental troops, supposed to be other Regiments as occasion shall require.35 now on their way to head-quarters; that they halt Inform General Washington that Surgeons’ Mates at Dumfries, Colchester and Alexandria, in Virginia, are appointed and their Pay fixed. Pay and Rations there to pass through inoculation; which the hospi­ of Regimental Surgeons and Mates same as second tal surgeons, lately despatched from this city to Dum­ surgeons in the Hospital.36 fries, are directed to see effected, with the greatest Resolved, That the farther consideration of the despatch. report be postponed. Resolved, That the director and deputy directors May 2, 1777. 321-2 general, shall constantly publish in the news-papers, That there is due to Christopher, jun. and Charles the names of the places in which their military hos­ Marshall, for sundry medicine and chirurgical in­ pitals are respectively kept; and the several com­ struments supplied by them for the use of different manding officers of parties, detachments, or corps, batallions of continental forces, the sum of £ 1,55 6 on their march to or from the camp, shall send to 16 6, equal to 4 ,151 48/90 dollars: the said hospitals, such of their officers and soldiers, That there is due to Dr. George Glentworth, for as, from time to time, are unable to proceed, together sundry medicine supplied the sick of Captain Doyle’s with certificates to the director or deputy director company in continental service, the sum of 28 48/90 general, mentioning the names of the said officers dollars: and soldiers and particular regiments to which they That there is due to Dr. Frederick Phile, for sun­ belong; unless, from the distance of the hospitals, dry medicine administered by him to several batal­ or other causes, it shall at any time be necessary to lions of continental forces, the sum of £492 2 9, deliver them to the care of private physicians or equal to 1,312 33/90 dollars.37 surgeons, in which cases, such physicians and sur­ Ordered, That the said accounts be paid. geons, and also the respective commanding officers, are forthwith to report their names and regiments May 8, 1777- 335 to the director or deputy directors general as afore­ A letter, from Governor Livingston, to Dr. Wither­ said, who shall give the necessary orders for removing spoon, dated Haddonfield, M ay 7, was laid before them to the hospitals as soon as may be, and dis­ Congress and read, wherein he requests a guard of charge the reasonable demands of the physicians and 25 or 30 continental troops, for purposes therein surgeons conducting agreeable to this resolve. mentioned; Whereupon,38 That the director, deputy directors general and M ay 20, 1777. 371 assistant deputy directors, have power to order to A letter . . . of the 19th, from Dr. W . their respective hospitals, the sick and wounded of Shippen, director general; . . .39 36 See under June 20, 1777, post. 36 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 38 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 147, I, folio 147. 68, folio 255. 37 This report, dated April 29, is in the Papers of the Continen­ 39 The letter of Shippen is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ tal Congress, No. 136, I, folio 141. gress, No. 78, XX, folio 403. 2 6 4 Annals of Medical History

May 27, 1777. 389-90 July 12, 1777- 547 Resolved, . . . by the resolutions of Congress That there be advanced to Dr. William Shippen, of the 26th day of August, 1776, to make, provision director general of the hospitals, 8,000 dollars, for for the maintenance of disabled wounded soldiers, which he is to be accountable: belonging to their respective States, and to keep a regular account of the expence attending the same, Ju ly 16, 1777- 5 5 4-6 Resolved, That the pay and subsistence of sur­ that, at a future day, the Continent may be charged geons in the navy, be equal to the pay and subsis­ therewith: tence of the lieutenants of the vessels to which they May 28, 1777- 394 shall respectively belong. A letter, of the 27th, from Dr. B. Rush, was read: Resolved, That, for carrying into execution the re­ Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ solve respecting Colonel Nicola’s corps of invalids, mittee. the following plan, for raising one company, be June 20, 1777. 482 adopted for raising the whole of the said corps: Resolved, That a corps of invalids be formed. 1. That the director general of the continental . . . This corps to be employed . . ., and hospital be desired to give directions to the Phy­ for guards in cities and other places where . . ., sicians and surgeons, in the different departments or hospitals are placed; . . . at a reasonable distance from Philadelphia, that, be­ June 23, 1777. 490 fore they discharge any serjeants, corporals, or pri­ A . . . letter of the 20th, from Dr. W. Ship- vate men from the hospitals as unfit for service, pen, informing that Dr. Walter Jones, for weighty they consider, whether such men are actually, or reasons, cannot accept the honour Congress did him likely soon to be capable of doing garrison duty; in appointing him physician general of the hospitals and, if thought so, to mention it in the discharge, of the middle department; and that he gives this that they may not be entirely discharged from the information at the desire of Doctor W. Jones; service, but transferred from the regiment to which .4° they actually belong, to that of invalids; and that in case such men are at a distance from their re­ July 1, 1777- 5i7, 518 spective regiments, that the director or steward of Resolved, That there be advanced to Dr. W. each hospital send such men to Philadelphia, in the Shippen, director general of the military hospitals, best manner circumstances will admit: 25,000 dollars, for which he is to be accountable.41 2. That notice be sent, by the Board of War, to Congress proceeded to the election of a physician the generals commanding the armies, of the raising general of the hospital in the middle department, in a corps of invalids, and that they be desired to give the room of Dr. Jones, who declines, and, the ballots orders to the officers commanding regiments, that, being taken, in case they have any serjeants, corporals, drum­ Benjamin Rush was elected. mers, or private men, deemed incapable of doing July 2, 1777. 525 field duty, such men should be examined by the di­ Congress proceeded to the election of a surgeon rector of the hospital or some other physician or general of the hospital in the middle department, in surgeon, and, if judged fit for garrison duty, that the room of Dr. Rush; and, the ballots being taken, they be not discharged, but transferred to the in­ Dr. William Brown was elected. valid corps, and sent to Philadelphia as soon as pos­ July 3, 1777. 527 sible. A letter . . . of the 22 June, from Jonathan Men having only one leg or arm each, if otherwise Potts, at Ticonderoga; . . . capable of doing garrison duty, are to be deemed Ordered, . . . that the letter from Dr. Potts, proper recruits for this corps. be referred to the Medical Committee. 3. That the following advertisement be published in the several newspapers as soon as possible, viz. July 5, 1777. 532. “ War-Office, June, 1777: The Congress, being de­ The said Board farther reported that a warrant sirous to make provision for such men as suffer in should be drawn by the president on Benjamin Har­ the military service of the United States, have di­ rison, Junr, Esq^, deputy pay master general of rected a regiment of invalids to be immediately the southern department, in favour of Colonel Will­ raised for the reception of such as have already iam Aylett, deputy commissary general in the said been, or may, in future, be rendered, by wounds or department, for 54,000 dollars, for which the said disorders, incapable of doing field duty, but are yet Commissary General is to be accountable.42 fit for garrison service. Notice is hereby given, that July 7, 1777. 538 all persons in Philadelphia, or within twenty miles That there is due to Messrs. Caldwell & Co. for round, who are under continental half-pay, on ac­ sundry medicine delivered William Smith, conti­ count of incapacities contracted in the service, must, nental druggist, for the use of the United States, within fifteen days, repair to Philadelphia and show the sum of 666 60/90 dollars: themselves to Colonel Nicola, in Front Street, four (Ordered, That the said account be paid.) doors below the Coffee house, that, if judged capable 40 The letter of Shippen is in the P ap ers o f the Continental Con­ lie.” These paragraphs were: “Resolved, That all Bedding, Blan­ gress, No. 78, XX, folio 115. kets, Shirts and Sheets which may be necessary for the use of the 41 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. Hospitals be purchased and supplied by the Clothier Gen­ 136, I, folio 271. eral. ...” 42 This paragraph formed part of a report, dated July 2 , which The report i3 in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. contained two other paragraphs, both of which were ordered" to 136, I, folio 283. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 265 of duty, they may be put on full pay. All other per­ stowing of rank on the inferior officers of the civil sons, who have served in the armies of the United Departments of the Army, corresponds with the States, within the above description, though not on Opinion of the Officers in general, and there is too half-pay, may present themselves, and, if judged much Reason to apprehend great inconveniences capable, they will be immediately received. All from such Measures if not rectified in future. . . . such as are above twenty miles from Philadelphia That the Director and each of the Deputy Direc­ must apply to the nearest continental general, field tors General be severally authorized to empower the officer, physician or surgeon, who are desired to for­ Surgeon and Physician General of the Army within ward such as they judge fit for the corps of invalids. his respective District, to draw on the issuing Com­ Officers who, from wounds or disorders contracted missaries for such Articles of Provision in gross in the service, are rendered unfit for field duty, Quantities as the said Surgeon and Physician Gen­ must signify their pretensions, with certificates from eral Shall require for supporting the Sick in the fly­ continental physicians or surgeons to the Board of ing and temporary Hospitals; and the said issuing War. As this corps is intended, not only as a pro­ Commissaries are respectively directed to charge vision for disabled officers and soldiers, but as a such Provisions to the Director or Deputy Director school for propagating military knowledge and dis­ General of the District, and to keep the Vouchers in cipline, no officers need apply but such as produce separate Files in order for Settlement with the ample certificates of their having served with repu­ Officers aforesaid. . . . tation, and having supported good characters, both as citizens and soldiers. Officers and soldiers who August 6, 1777. 618 have engaged during the war will be preferred.” Resolved, That there be advanced to Dr. William Resolved, That Enoch Welsh be appointed an en­ Shippen, Jr. director general of the hospitals, the sign in the corps of invalids.43 sum of fifty thousand dollars, for the use of the hos­ pitals, for which he is to be accountable: July 17, 1777. 560 Resolved, That in lieu of the advance ordered on August 8, 1777. 623 the 12 instant to be made to Dr. William Shippen, A petition from William West, major, James director general of the hospitals, an order be drawn M ’Henry and Hugh Hodge, surgeons of the 4th and on the loan officer of Connecticut, in his favour, for 6th regiments of || Pennsylvania forces, || commanded 8,000 dollars, for which the said Dr. Shippen is to by Colonels Magaw and Cadwallader, prisoners on be accountable.44 parole, praying to be informed, whether, as conti­ nental officers holding commissions only revocable July 22, 1777. 570 by this or a future Congress, they are not entitled A letter, of the 5, from Dr. W. Rickman to Mr. to pay while on parole, as well as when in the hands (Benjamin)* Harrison, was laid before Congress and of General Howe:45 read :44a Ordered, To lie for consideration to Monday next. Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ The Medical Committee, to whom the memorial mittee. from Dr. J. Morgan was referred, brought in a re­ July 31, 1777. 593 port.46 A . . . letter and memorial from Dr. J. Mor­ August 9, 1777. 626-7 gan, were read:44b Congress took into consideration the report of Ordered, . . . that the memorial of Dr. Morgan the Medical Committee which was read, as follows: be referred to the Medical Committee. “ The Medical Committee to whom the memorial August 5, 1777. 608, 609 of Dr. John Morgan to Congress was referred, beg . . . That there are sick in the Hospitals and leave to report, that they find from the journals of Arm y 3,745 soldiers, the number of which has been Congress, that Dr. Morgan was appointed director greatly increased by the use of bad Bread, and the general and chief physician of the hospital, in the Want of Vinegar, Vegetables and Soap as particu­ room of Dr. B. Church, October 17, 1775; that, on larly set forth in General Washington’s Letter to the the 9 January, 1777, he was dismissed from said ap­ Committee .... pointment; that though no cause is assigned for his In the Hospital Department from the Want of discharge, yet, your committee on enquiry, find, Authority in the Director and Deputy Directors that the general complaints of persons of all ranks General to draw Supplies from the Commissary’s in the army, and not any particular charges against Stores. him, together with the critical state of affairs at That the General officers as well as the Staff com­ that time, rendered it necessary for the public good plain of their not receiving regularly the resolutions and the safety of the United States, that he should of Congress relative to their several offices. be displaced, and were the reasons of his dismission; That the Complaint of the General upon the be- that the doctor’s memorial appears to your commit­ tee to be a hasty and intemperate production; not­ 43 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 147, I, folio 237. withstanding which, as he conceives himself injured, 44 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. and requests an enquiry into his conduct, your com­ 136, I, folio 305. mittee are of opinion that he ought to be heard, and 44a This letter is in No. 78, XIX, folio 97. 44b The letter of Morgan, in No. 63, folio 113; and the me­ 45 This petition is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. morial in No. 41, VI, folio 19. 42, VIII, folio 167. * Material placed in parenthesis appeared in brackets in the 45 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. original MSS. 19, IV, folio 177. It is summarized on August 9, post. 2 66 Annals of Medical History that a committee of Congress should be appointed hospital stores, &c. settling accounts with the sur­ for that purpose:” geons, mates, &c. attending the commissioners at Resolved, That Congress concur in the said report. Hartford, 1,164 dollars; for 1,179 rations from 31 The Medical Committee, to whom was referred December, 1776, to 10 M ay, at 8/90 dollar, 104 the letter from Dr. William Rickman, also report, 72/90 dollars, and for 567 rations, from 10 M ay to “ that as the establishment of the military hospital 12 July, at 10/90, 63 dollars, making in the whole in Virginia, by a resolution of Congress of the 18th 2,145 22/90 dollars: of M ay, 1776, is entirely distinct from, and inde­ pendent of, the general establishment of hospitals September 13, 1777. 739 in the other States, they are of opinion, the same Ordered, That the President issue his warrant on was not affected by the new regulations of the 7th the commissioners of the loan office for the State of day of April last, and that Dr. Rickman still con­ Pennsylvania, in favour of Dr. Shippen, director tinues director of that hospital;” general of the hospital, for fifty thousand dollars, Resolved, That Congress concur with the foregoing for the use of that department; and for which he report.47 shall be accountable: Ordered, That a copy of the foregoing report and September 18, 1777. 754 concurrence of Congress be sent to Dr. Shippen, and Resolved, That establishments be made for the that he be directed to withdraw from Virginia such hospital in the respective departments, and chap­ physicians, surgeons, or assistants, as he may have lains appointed, and that their pay be each 60 dol­ sent thither. lars a month, three rations a day, and forage for August 25, 1777. 670 one horse: A letter, . . .o f the 16, from Dr. Shippen, were The Rev. Mr. Noah Cook was elected chaplain of read:48 the hospitals in the eastern department. Ordered, That . . the letter from Dr. Shippen, be October 18, 1777. 821 referred to the Medical Committee. A letter from William Shippen, director general, to the Medical Committee, was laid before Con­ August 30, 1777. 699 gress and read: The Medical Committee brought in a report Ordered, That it be referred to the Board of War. which was taken into consideration; Whereupon, October 20, 1777. 823 Resolved, That the several issuing commissaries Resolved, That General R. Howe’s letter of the be directed to furnish the director general, or any of 29 August last, relating to the general hospital in the deputy directors, or their assistants, with such South Carolina, be referred to the Medical Commit­ provisions as any of them shall, from time to time, tee. demand by an order in writing, for the use of any October 24, 1777. 838 temporary hospital which shall be established, which Resolved, That a warrant issue on the treasurer for order, with the receipt of the steward endorsed 500 dollars, in favour of William Shippen, Juffi di­ thereon, shall be a sufficient voucher for such issu­ rector general of the hospital, which is to be charged ing commissary, who is also required to keep such to the said W. Shippen, and for which he is to be vouchers separate, and make a separate entry of the accountable; this being to indemnify the treasurer same in his books, charging the director who ordered for so much advanced by him to the said Dr. Ship- the same therewith. pen on account of the military hospitals, as appears September 10, 1777. 727, 728-9 by his receipt, dated 15 October, 1777. A letter, . . of the 9, from Dr. Shippen, director November 6, 1777. 870 general of the hospital, . . . Resolved, That the unremitted attention shewn Ordered, That the letter from Dr. Shippen, . . by Dr. Potts, and the officers of the general hospi­ be referred to the Board of Treasury. . . . tal in the northern department, (as represented in That there is due to Dr. John Morgan, late direc­ General Gates’s letter to Congress, of the 20 Octo­ tor general of the American hospitals, the balance ber,) 49 to the sick and wounded under their care, of his account current as adjusted by the commis­ is a proof not only of their humanity, but of their sioners of accounts at Hartford, the 12 July last, the zeal for the service of the United States, so deeply sum of 613 40/90 dollars, and the farther sum of interested in the preservation of the health and lives 200 dollars which he advanced to Dr. Warren, sur­ of the gallant asserters of their country’s cause; and geon of the general hospital, to defray expences, &c. that Congress, therefore, cannot but ascertain a which sum was stolen from the said Warren, as per high sense of the services which they have ren­ certificates taken on oath before the commissioners dered, during this campaign, by a diligent discharge at Stamford, and which the Board of Treasury of their respective functions.50 agrees should be allowed to Dr. Morgan; Also the pay of director general from the 31 De­ November 12, 1777. 894 cember, 1776, to the 12 July, 1777, being 194 days, Ordered, That a warrant issue on Nathaniel Ap­ at 6 dollars per day, which time he employed in pleton, Esq!' commissioner of the continental loan taking accounts, and delivering up the medicines, office of the State of Massachusetts bay, in favour

47 See note under August 8, ante. 50 This report, dated November 4, is in the Papers of the Conti­ 48 The letter of Shippen, is in the Papers of the Continental nental Congress, No. 147, I, folio 381. The members of the Board Congress, No. 78, XX, folio 147. present were: Francis Lightfoot Lee, William Duer, Joseph 49 Words in parentheses were inserted by Henry Laurens. Bones, William Williams and John Harvie. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring th e R evolution 2 6 7

of Dr. William Shippen, director general of the hos­ hospitals at Alexandria, reported, “ That from the pitals, for sixty-seven thousand dollars, for the use information of several officers in the Virginia and of his department, and for which he is to be ac­ North Carolina regiments, which are annexed, it countable: appears obvious to the committee that Dr. Rick­ man, director of the said hospitals, has been guilty November 19, 1777. 941 of great neglect in not giving proper attendance to The Medical Committee brought in a report, the officers and soldiers under inoculation at Alex­ which was taken into consideration; Whereupon, andria:” The said report and the informations being Resolved, That the cloathier general be directed to read, deliver to the director general of the military hospi­ Resolved, That Dr. Rickman be immediately sus­ tals, the deputy directors general, or their assistants, pended, and that he attend the Medical Committee, for the use of the sick and wounded of the several to answer the several complaints exhibited against departments, a proportionable share of the blankets, him. shirts, shoes, and stockings, he shall, from time to Ordered, That the Medical Committee transmit time, procure for the supply of the army: to Dr. Rickman a copy of the complaints against That the director general of the hospitals be au­ him, and direct his attendance: thorized to cause stoves to be erected in the differ­ That the said committee write to Dr. Shippen, ent hospitals, in case he shall think such a measure director general, and direct him to send immediate­ will conduce to make up for the present scarcity of ly a skilful physician to take care of the sick and blankets and cloathing, or to the greater comfort of superintend the inoculation of the soldiers at Alex­ the sick; and that the waggons annexed to the hos­ andria. pital department be employed, as much as possible, in the transportation of fuel for the respective hos­ January i, 1778. p. 9 pitals. A letter, of the 8, and one, of the 13 December, from Dr. B. Rush to Mr. (William) Duer, were laid November 29, 1777. 980 before Congress, and read :52 A letter, of the 16, from General Gates, . . . Resolved, That the said committee be fully au­ also a letter of the 24, from W. Shippen, director thorized to take every measure, which they shall general, at Bethlehem, were read :51 deem necessary, for the immediate relief of the sick, December 1, 1777. 983 and report such alterations in the medical depart­ ment, as they shall deem best adapted to answer Ordered, That a warrant issue on Thomas Smith, the end of its institution. EsqF commissioner of the loan office for the State of Pennsylvania, in favour of Dr. William Shippen, January 6, 1778, p. 23, 24 director general of the hospitals, for fifty thousand The committee to whom the letters from Gover­ dollars, for the use of his department; the said direc­ nor Livingston and Dr. Rush were referred, brought tor general to be accountable: in a report, which was taken into consideration; Ordered, That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in Whereupon, favour of Dr. William Shippen, director general of Resolved, That the cloathier general be directed the hospitals, for fifty thousand dollars, for the use to deliver to the order of the director general as of his department, the said director general to be much linen and as many blankets as can be spared, accountable: to be retained in the hospital for the use of the sick: December 10, 1777. 1016 That the cloathier general be directed to supply Resolved, That two members be added to the the convalescents with necessary cloathing, in order Medical Committee: that, when properly recovered, they may join the The members chosen, Mr. (Francis) Lewis and army: Mr. (John) Penn. That a member of Congress be forthwith appoint­ Congress having received information that the ed to visit the hospitals in the middle department: inoculation of recruits in the hospital in the State the member chosen, Mr. (John) Penn. of Virginia has of late been attended with much ill That a recommendation be sent to the clergy of success; all denominations in the said [ middle ] district, to Resolved, That the Medical Committee make strict solicit charitable donations of woolens and linen, enquiry into the truth of this information, and re­ made or unmade, for the sick soldiers in the hospi­ port to Congress, with all possible despatch. tals; and to send the same to the Board of War, or any hospital, as may be most convenient. December 13, 1777. 1024 That Dr. Shippen and Dr. Rush be directed to A return of the number and names of the wound­ attend Congress on the 26 day of January inst. to ed men, distinguishing such as are fit for the corps be examined touching certain abuses said to prevail of invalids, and such as are totally unfit for service; in the hospital. Resolved, That the farther consideration of the re­ December 20, 1777. 1039 port be postponed (to the afternoon.) . . . The Medical Committee, to whom it was referred Congress resumed the consideration of the report to enquire into the conduct of the director of the under debate this morning; Whereupon,

61 The letter of Shippen is in the Papers of the Continental (7on- 62 These letters are in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. gress, No. 78, XX, folio 163. 78, XIX, folios 173 and 181. 268 Annals of Medical History

Resolved, That the sum of ten dollars shall be paid That in the absence of the director general from by every officer, and the sum of four dollars by any district, the physician general and surgeon gen­ every soldier, who shall enter, or be sent into any eral shall hereafter determine the number of hospi­ hospital to be cured of the venereal disease; which tals to be provided by the deputy director general sums shall be deducted out of their pay, and an ac­ for the sick and wounded, and shall superintend count thereof shall be transmitted by the physician and controul the affairs of such hospitals: or surgeon who shall have attended them, to the That the director general shall consult with the regimental pay master for that purpose; the money physician general and surgeon general in each dis­ so arising to be paid to the director general, or his trict, about the supplies necessary for the hospitals, order, to be appropriated to the purchasing blan­ and shall give orders in writing to the deputy direc­ kets and shirts for the use of sick soldiers in the tor general thereof to provide the same; and, in the hospital. absence of the director general, the physician gen­ eral and surgeon general shall issue such orders: January 19, 1778. 60 That each deputy director general shall appoint A letter, of the 18th, from W. Shippen, Jun, one or more of the assistant deputy directors, under . . . was read: . .M him, to the sole business of providing beds, furni­ January 26, 1778. 92 ture, utensils, hospital cloathing, and such like arti­ cles; and shall appoint one or more to provide medi­ A letter, of the 25, from Dr. Rush, was cines, instruments, dressings, herbs, and necessaries read: . . ,54 of a similar kind: January 27, 1778. 93 That the director general shall frequently visit A letter from Dr. Shippen, director general of the the hospitals in each district, and see that the regu­ hospital, and one from Dr. Brown, (both directed) lations are carried into effect; shall examine into the to the Medical Committee, were laid before Con­ number and qualifications of the hospital officers, gress, (and read:) 55 report to Congress any abuses that may have taken Ordered, That the same, together with the letters place, and discharge the supernumerary officers, if some time since received from Dr. Shippen and Dr. there be any, that all unnecessary expence may be Rush, and Governor Livingston, relative to the hos­ saved to the public; and when the director general pital department, be referred to a committee of five, is in any particular district, the physician general and that the committee be instructed to confer with and surgeon general in that district shall not ap­ Dr. Shippen and Dr. Rush, and report specially: point any officers without his consent: That, on the settlement of hospital accounts, the January 30, 1778. 100 officers entrusted with public money shall produce Resolved, That a warrant issue on the treasurer vouchers to prove the expenditure, and receipts from in favour of Dr. Jonathan Potts, deputy director the proper officers of the hospitals, specifying the general of the hospitals in the northern department, delivery of the stores and other articles purchased; for twenty thousand dollars for the use of his dis­ and the apothecaries, mates, stewards, matrons, and trict; the said deputy director general to be ac­ other officers, receiving such stores and other arti- countable. ticles, shall be accountable for the same, and shall A letter, of this day, from Dr. Rush, requesting produce vouchers for the delivery thereof from such leave to resign, was read: 56 officers, and according to such forms as the physi­ cians general and surgeons general have directed, or February 6, 1778. 12 8 -13 1 shall, from time to time, direct; which forms and Congress took into consideration the report of the directions the physicians and surgeons general shall committee to whom the letters from Dr. Shippen, report to the Board of Treasury: Dr. Rush, and others were committed; and there­ That the director general, or, in his absence from upon came to the following resolutions: the district, the physician general, and surgeon For the better regulating the hospitals of the general, shall appoint a ward master for each hos­ United States, pital, to receive the arms, accoutrements and Resolved, That there be a deputy director general cloathing of each soldier admitted therein, keeping for the hospitals between Hudson and Potomack entries of, and giving receipts for such articles, rivers; and that the superintending care of the di­ which, on the recovery of the soldier, shall be re­ rector general be extended equally over the hospi­ turned to him, or, in case of his death, the arms and tals in every district, and that he be excused from accoutrements shall be delivered to the commissary the duty of providing supplies, [and from “ particu­ or deputy commissary of military stores, and re­ larly” superintending the said hospitals]* when the ceipts be taken for the same; and the ward master deputy director general shall be ready to enter upon shall receive and be accountable for the hospital the office: cloathing; and perform such other services as the That the several officers of the hospitals shall physician general or the surgeon general shall di­ cease to exercise such of their former powers as are rect: herein assigned to other officers thereof: That the physicians general and surgeons general shall hereafter make no returns to the deputy direc- 63 The letter of Shippen is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ gress, No. 78, XX, folio 171. 78, XX, folio 175. 54 The letter of Dr. Rush is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ 56 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No gress, No. 78, XIX, folio 197. 78, XIX, folio 205. 55 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. * Material in brackets was cancelled in the original MSS. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 269 tors general, but the returns shall be made by the Dr. Charles M ’Knight was elected. said officers respectively to the director general, Whereas, the duty of the person who executes the who shall carefully transmit copies of each with his office of secretary and pay master of the hospital in monthly return to Congress, and suspend such of the middle department, is important and difficult: the officers aforesaid as neglect this or any other Resolved, That the pay of the person who exe­ part of their duty, and shall report their names to cutes those offices in the hospital in the middle de­ Congress: partment, be augmented to three dollars a day. That the director and deputy directors general That a warrant issue on the treasurer for the sum forthwith prepare their accounts, and adjust them of forty thousand dollars, in favour of William Ship- with the commissioners of claims, at the Board of pen, Jun. director general of all the military hospi­ Treasury. tals, for the use of the middle district; for which That four dollars a day, and the former allowance the director is to be accountable: of rations, be hereafter allowed to each assistant February 23, 1778. p. 191 deputy director and the commissary of the hospitals That a warrant issue on the treasurer in favour of in each district; and one dollar a day, and two ra­ Dr. Jonathan Potts . . . for one hundred thou­ tions, to each ward master: sand dollars . . . he is to be accountable.58 Resolved, That Dr. Potts be called from the north­ ern district, and appointed to act as deputy director March 7, 1778. p. 230 general in the middle district. The Medical Committee report, “ That they have Resolved, That the eldest assistant deputy director carefully examined and considered the several alle­ in the northern district shall execute the office of the gations and testimonies for, and against, Dr. Wil­ deputy director general in the said district, until the liam Rickman, deputy director general in the south­ further orders of Congress: ern department; that, notwithstanding, it appears That the salaries of the hospital officers and debts the North Carolina and Virginia troops, inoculated contracted for the hospitals of the middle district by the said Dr. Rickman at Alexandria, suffered, in to the time of Dr. Potts’s entering upon the office of general, more in the course of the disease than is deputy director general therein, shall be adjusted usual, and that a number of them did die; yet, as and paid by the director general, who shall deliver the committee are convinced that it was impracti­ all the public stores in his possession to the deputy cable for the director to obtain, in season, a variety director general or his order, taking duplicate re­ of articles for their due accommodation in the hos­ ceipts for the same, and transmitting one of each to pitals, as many of them were badly cloathed, and the Board of Treasury; and the same rule shall be all had, immediately before the operation, under­ observed by Dr. Potts with respect to the salaries gone a long and fatiguing march at a season of the and debts of the hospitals of the northern district, year when putrid diseases generally prevail most; as and the public stores thereof, which are to be de­ from a regular return it appears that most of those livered to his successor in office in that district. who were lost, died of a putrid fever; as the director Congress proceeded to the election of a physician really had not sufficient assistance, and lastly, as general in the middle district, in the room of Dr. one of the assistants, of the name of Parker, who Rush, [ resigned ] and the ballots being taken, was employed from the necessity of the case, ap­ Dr. William Brown was elected. pears to have greatly abused the confidence and trust reposed in him by the director; whence a great February 10, 1778. p. 142 part of the evils complained of by the patients may Resolved, That another chaplain be chosen for have arisen; the committee are of opinion, that Dr. the hospitals in the middle department: Rickman ought to be acquitted of the charges ex­ The ballots being taken, the Rev. Mr. (James) hibited against him; that the resolution of the 20th Sproat was elected. day of December last, for his suspension, be re­ February 13, 1778. p. 157, 158 pealed, and that Dr. Rickman be directed to repair That there is due to Dr. John Witherspoon, for immediately to his department, and resume the ex­ hay for the army, and wood for the hospital at ercise of his duty there:” 59 Princeton, as appears by the certificate of Enos Kel­ sey, acting in the quarter master’s department, the March 9, 1778. 235 sum of 429 30/90 dollars: A letter, of the 2, from Captain W. Nichols, was Resolved, That Mr. Nathaniel Scudder be added read, praying for leave to resign his commission. to the Medical Committee, . . . A letter from Dr. A(mmi) R(uhamah) Cut­ ter to Mr. (George) Frost, praying for leave to re­ February 21, 1778. p. 186, 187 sign, were read: 60 A letter of 21, from Dr. W. Shippen, was read;57 Ordered, That Dr. Cutter have leave to resign; Whereupon, that the letter from Captain Nichols be referred to Resolved, That a surgeon general be appointed the Board of W a r ; ...... for the hospital in the middle department, in the March 11, 1778. 243 room of Dr. Brown, promoted; the ballots being That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour taken, of Joseph Nourse, pay master to the Board of War

67 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 69 This report, in the writing of Nathan Brownson (?), is in the 78, XX, folio 193. Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 19, V, folio 249. 68 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 60 The letter of Nichols is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ 136, II, folio 101. gress, No. 78, XVII, folio 37. 270 Annals of Medical History and ordnance, for 50,000 dollars, to be by him trans­ . . . There w as. some time ago an apprehension mitted to Doct. Isaac Forster, deputy director gen­ in a part of the goal distant from the officers’ apart­ eral of the military hospital in the eastern depart­ ments that a contagious fever had broke out among ment, at Danbury, in Connecticut, for which the the soldiers, but the diseased were immediately re­ said doctor is to be accountable: moved to hospitals, and a Surgeon and nurses pro­ March 26, 1778. 284 vided for them, and every assistance afforded them A letter, of the 24 February, from the council of the nature of our affairs would admit. . . . Massachusetts bay, respecting allowances to be M ? ConoIIy, altho’ indulged with every thing a made to sick and wounded soldiers, was read. 61 prisoner could reasonably wish, has repeatedly rep­ resented his own, and the situation of the goal, in April 3, 1778. p. 303 similar terms with the letter now under considera­ A letter, of 21 March, from General Washington, tion, and the former, and this Board, have often enclosing a copy of a letter to him from Dr. Rush, had consequent examinations, in all of which they dated Princeton, 25 February, was read; also a let­ found the complaints groundless. Once particularly, ter of 9 March, with a postscript of 19, from Dr. when M !- ConoIIy represented himself as at the Rush to Mr. (Daniel) Roberdeau, was laid before point of death from the severity of his confinement, Congress: 62 the board directed Doctor Shippen to visit him, who reported that his situation was directly opposite to April 17, 1778. p. 361 his representation, his indisposition slight and mere­ That 30,000 dollars be advanced to Dr. Potts, ly of an Hippochandriac Nature. . . . and that a warrant issue in his favour on Thomas R ichard Peters.63 Smith, Esq. commissioner of the continental loan M ay 25, 1778. p. 531 office in the State of Pennsylvania, for the farther Resolved, That the auditor, together with Mr. sum of 70,000 dollars, for the use of the hospital in Milligan, one of the commissioners of claims, be au­ the middle district; for which sums the said Dr. thorized and directed to examine and pass upon the Potts is to be accountable: accounts of Dr. Isaac Forster, deputy director gen­ April 18, 1778. p. 365, 366 eral of the eastern department. Resolved, That a Warrant issue on the Treasurer M ay 28, 1778. p. 546 On question, in favour of Dr. William Shippen, . . That 755 42/90 dollars be advanced to the Com­ negatived for Forty thousand Dollars, . . . mittee of Commerce, to enable them to pay Andrew for which he is to be accountable. and James Caldwell the freight of sundry medicines Resolved, That Mr. G(ouverneur) Morris be add­ imported in their sloop from Martinico, on public ed to the Medical Committee. account; the said Committee to be accountable.64 M ay 16, 1778. p. 504 June 4, 1778. p. 568 Ordered, That 100,000 dollars to be paid to Dr. A letter, of 20 April, from Dr. Rush to Messrs. Thomas Bond, Jun. to be by him delivered to Dr. (William Henry) Drayton, (Samuel) Huntington, Jonathan Potts, deputy director general, for the use and (John) Banister, committee appointed on 3d of of the hospitals of the middle district; the said Dr. that month to inquire into Dr. Rush’s charge against J. Potts to be accountable: Dr. Shippen, (was read:) 65 June 9, 1778. p. 580, 582 M ay 23, 1778. p. 525, 526, 527 Ordered, That 50,000 dollars be advanced to Dr. . . . The Board will lay before Congress the facts Isaac Forster, . . .for the use of his department; which they have collected from Major Wilson, com­ and for which he is to be accountable. . . . manding at Carlisle during the residence of Major Resolved, That the deputy director general of the Stockton and other officers of his party in the goal hospital in the eastern department shall, as hereto­ of that place; from M? T. Peters, Deputy Commis­ fore, in the absence of the director general, superin­ sary of prisoners, who has had the charge during the tend the medical affairs of that department till the winter of the prisoners at Carlisle and York; from further order of Congress. Doctor Henry, employed to attend the British pris­ June 10, 1778. p. 582 oners when sick; . . . Ordered, That 200,000 dollars be advanced to Dr. . . .B u t the goal at Carlisle not being secure, Jonathan Potts, deputy director general for the the deputy Commissary of prisoners removed them middle district, for the use of his department; he to to the prison of this place, wherein was also confined be accountable. Doctor John ConoIIy, for the same causes which in­ N . B. Dr. Potts applies for 300,000 Dollars; but duced and continued their present imprisonment, as he has already had that sum advanced him since and for other reasons of policy and prudence. Doc­ February last, and as the Treasury is at present tor ConoIIy having also sundry times behaved amiss very low, your Committee judged it improper to while on parole. report so large a sum. They beg leave further to 61 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. inform Congress, that from an examination of the 65, I, folio 288. It is indorsed: “There are no resolutions of Con­ gress respecting soldiers in any of the circumstances mentioned 63 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. in this letter.” 147, II folio 57. 62 The letter of Washington is in the Papers of the Continental 64 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. Congress, No. 152, V, folio 411; that of Rush to Washington is 136, II, folio 321. in No. 78, XIX, folio 211; and that of Rush to Roberdeau, in 65 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. the same volume, folio 215. 78, XIX, folio 233. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 271 estimates given them by Dr. Potts, they conceive guards in the city of Philadelphia; and if an addi­ the expences that accrue in his Department are ex­ tional number is, in their opinion, necessary, how orbitant; they have therefore laid them before Con­ many and for what purposes. gress for their Inspection.66 August 21, 1778. p. 825 June 15, 1778. p. 607 That there is due to the officers and privates of The auditor general and commissioners of claims the invalid regiment, for pay and subsistence for the having, in consequence of the resolution of the 25 months of May and June last, the sum of 937 54/90 M ay, reported upon the accounts of Dr. Forster, dollars:68 Ordered, That it be referred to the Board of Treas­ Ordered, That the said accounts be paid. ury, and that the accounts of Dr. Forster be adjust­ September 3, 1778. p. 863 ed agreeably to the said report, when he shall pro­ That a warrant issue on the treasurer in favour duce vouchers shewing the expenditure of the stores by him procured and charged in the said account. of Dr. Jonathan Potts, deputy director general for the middle district, for 70,000 dollars, of which July 13, 1778. p. 686 40.000 is for the use of the hospitals thereof, and The Committee for Foreign Affairs laid before 30.000 to be transmitted to Dr. Johnston, assistant Congress a letter from Dr. Edward Bancroft, dated director of the northern department; the said Dr. 31 March last which was read, and returned to the Potts to be accountable: Committee. September 7, 1778. p. 887 August 4, 1778. p. 746 A letter, of 28 August, from Dr. (I.) Forster, dep­ Ordered, That a warrant issue on the treasurer uty director general of the hospital in the eastern for one hundred thousand dollars, in favour of Jona­ department, was read: than Potts, Esq., . . . he to be accountable. Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ mittee. August 11, 1778. 775 September 16, 1778. p. 918 That a warrant issue on the treasurer in favour of That Dr. John Warren, Executor of the late Ma­ Dr. Isaac Forster, . . .for the use of his depart­ jor General Warren be authorized and requested to ment, . . . he to be accountable; and that the superintend their Education, and to make quarter­ same be paid to John Delamater, as requested by ly Drafts on the Treasury of the United States for the doctor. the Expences incident to the same, transmitting to August 14, 1778. 787 the Board the necessary Accounts. A letter, of the 1 August, from Mr. (Samuel) September 18, 1778. 925 Huntington, one of the delegates of that State in A letter and memorial from Dr. J. Morgan, were Congress, was laid before Congress, and read, set­ read :69 ting forth sundry evils and abuses in the hospitals Ordered, That the foregoing letter and memorial in the eastern district: Whereupon,67 be referred to the said committee. Resolved, That the resolution of Congress of the September 23, 1778. 946 9 of June last, authorizing the deputy director gen­ eral of the hospital in the eastern department, in Resolved, That Mr. (Samuel) Holton be added to the absence of the director general, to superintend the Medical Committee. the medical affairs of that department, be, and it is October 9, 1778. p. 993 hereby repealed; and that the said hospital for the That there is due to the officers and privates of future be under the same regulations as the hospi­ the invalid regiment, commanded by Colonel L. tals in the other departments. Nicola, for pay and subsistence for the month of Resolved, That the director general be directed to August last, the sum of 155825/90 dollars: enquire into the state of the hospital in the eastern department, and give proper orders for the good October 10, 1778. 997 government and economy thereof, and discharge un­ A letter, of 4, from Dr. W. Shippen, director gen­ qualified and supernumerary officers, if any there eral, enclosing a return of the sick in the hospital, be. was read: Ordered, That the same be referred to the Medi­ August 20, 1778. 816 cal Committee. A letter, of 19, from Major General Arnold, was October 20, 1778. 1031 read: Whereas by a resolution of Congress of the 22 Ordered, That it be referred to the Board of War, April, 1777, it is provided, that the several com­ and that the Board be directed to report their opin­ manding officers of parties, detachments or corps on ion on the necessity of an additional number of their march to or from the camp, shall send to the troops to the corps of invalids, for the purpose of military hospitals such of their officers and soldiers 66 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. as from time to time, are unable to proceed, unless 136, II, folio 349. from the distance of the hospitals or other causes, 67 The letter of Huntington is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 78, XI, folio 309. 69 This position, dated September 17, is in the Papers of the 68 This report, dated August 20, is in the P a p ers o f the Conti­ Continental Congress, No. 41, VI, folio 51. The letter is in No. 63. nental Congress, No. 136, II, folio 471. folio 117. 2 7 2 Annals of Medical History

it shall at any time be necessary to deliver them to ments of this State, as agreed to by the House,” the care of private physicians or surgeons, in which was laid before Congress: cases the deputy director general shall discharge the reasonable demands of the physicians and surgeons Ordered, That so much thereof as relates to the conducting, agreeably to the said resolve. hospital, be referred to the Medical Committee, and And, whereas, no provision is therein made for the remainder to the Board of War. discharging the accounts of other persons who have November 12, 1778. p. 1124 been or may be employed by proper officers for Ordered, That a warrant issue on the treasury for taking care of and providing for such officers and seventy-five thousand dollars, in favour of Jonathan soldiers: Potts, deputy director general, and another warrant Resolved, That the deputy directors general be in his favour on Derick Ten Broek, Esq. commis­ respectively authorized and instructed to discharge sioner of the continental loan office in the State of such of the said accounts as shall appear to be rea­ New York, for seventy-five thousand dollars, . . . sonable and just, provided that each person who for use in hospitals in the northern department; may hereafter be employed to provide for officers . . . said deputy director general is to be account­ and soldiers as aforesaid, shall give the earliest no­ able. tice thereof to the deputy director general, or the physician or surgeon general of the district, in order November 28, 1778. p. 1170, 1174 for their speedy removal to the military hospitals. That another warrant issue on the treasurer in favour of Isaac Forster, Esq., . . . for twenty-five October 22, 1778. p. 1038 thousand dollars, to be paid to James Davison, A memorial from the regimental surgeons and . . . said deputy director general to be account­ surgeons’ assistants of the Army or the United able: . . . States of America, was read: A memorial from the magistrates and the over­ Ordered, That it be referred to a committee of seers of the poor of the city of Philadelphia, was three: read, praying for a compensation for the use of the The members chosen, Mr. (Nathaniel) Scudder, house of employment, occupied for continental hos­ Mr. (Samuel) Holton, and Mr. (Josiah) Bartlett. pital: 71 October 26, 1778. p. 1062, 1064. Ordered, To lie on the table. A letter, of 21, from Major General Lord Stirling, enclosing a letter to him from Dr. Griffith, with sun­ December 5, 1778. p. 1192 dry affidavits relative to the massacre of Colonel The committee to whom was referred the memo­ Bayler’s regiment, on 27 September last, was read: rial of the regimental surgeons and assistants, . . . Ordered, That Mr. (Josiah) Bartlett be brought in a report, which was read, and after de­ added to the Medical Committee: bate, Ordered, That it be committed to the Medical October 30, 1778. p. 1079 Committee, who are directed to take into considera­ That there is due to the officers and privates of tion the case of the hospital as well as regimental Colonel Lewis Nicola’s regiment of invalids, for ra­ surgeons, and report thereon. tions and parts of rations retained from their first establishment to the 31 of May, 1778, a balance of December 28, 1778. p. 1259 six hundred and eighty-eight 50/90 dollars, as more Resolved, That a member in the place of Mr. fully appears by a particular state filed with the ac­ (John) Harvie be added to the committee on the counts: memorial from Dr. Morgan: The member chosen, Mr. M(eriwether) Smith. November 3, 1778. p. 1101 February 6, 1778. p. 1282 That a warrant issue on Thomas Smith, commis­ Resolutions on Hospitals. sioner of the continental loan office in the State of 199. Rules and directions / for the better regulat­ Pennsylvania, in favour of Jonathan Potts, deputy ing the Military Hospital of the United States: / In director general, for one hundred and thirty thou­ consequence of a Resolve of the Honourable the sand dollars, for the use of his department; he to be Continental Congress, the 6th of / February, 1778; accountable:70 to be punctually observed by the Officers, Nurses, A motion being made respecting the medical de­ &c. of the / Eastern Department.71® partment, (Signed) P. Turner, Surg. Gen. M. H. E. D. Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ F° Broadside. mittee. September 25, 1778. p. 1287 November 9, 1778. p. 1 1 1 3 Provision for disabled officers and privates. An extract from the journals of the assembly of 226. In Congress, August 26, 1776 .... In Con­ South Carolina, purporting to be “a report of the gress September 25, 1778 . . .71b committee on the president’s message, relative to December 3, 1778. p. 1289 the hospital establishment and military arrange­ Health of Soldiers. 70 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 136, II, folio 665. 71a A copy is in the Library of Congress. Papers of the Con­ 71 This memorial, dated November 18, is in the P a p ers o f the tinental Congress, No. 78, xxii, folio 567. It measures 40 x 25 cms. Continental Congress, No. 41, VI, folio 73. 71b See Pennsylvania Archives, vi, 755. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 273

235. Directions / For Preserving / The Health of Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ / Soldiers: / recommended to / The Consideration mittee. of the / Officers / Of the Arm y of the United / February 26, 1779. 255 States. / By Benjamin Rush, M. D. / Published by Order of the Board / of War. / Lancaster: Printed That agreeable to the application of the Medical by John Dunlap, / In Queen-Street. / M .DCC.LXX- Committee a warrant issue on the treasurer, in V III. 12? pp. 8. favour of Doctor Jonathan Potts, *** for one hun­ dred and fifty thousand dollars, *** he to be ac­ January 12, 1779. 51 countable. A letter, of 10, from Doctor Shippen, Director March 6, 1779. 287 General, was read: Resolved, That a warrant issue on the treasurer, Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ in favour of Dr. Jonathan Potts, *** on the applica­ mittee. tion of the Medical Committee, for one hundred Ordered, That two members be added to the said and fifty thousand dollars, . . . for which he is committee. to be accountable. The members chosen, Mr. (Thomas) Burke and March 10, 1779. 301 Mr. T(homas) Adams. That a warrant issue on the treasurer in favour of Doctor Jonathan Potts, . . .fo r one hundred and January 16, 1779. 73 fifty thousand dollars, . . .h e is to be accountable. That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour March 13, 1779. 313 of Nathaniel Eustis, upon the application of Doctor Isaac Forster, deputy director general of the eas­ The committee, to whom was referred the memo­ tern district, agreeable to his letter of the 28 Decem­ rial of Doctor J. Morgan, late director general and ber last, for twenty-five thousand dollars; and physician in chief in the general hospital of the That another warrant issue on Nathaniel Apple- United States, brought in a report, which was read:73 ton, Esq. commissioner of the continental loan office, Ordered, To lie on the table for the perusal of the in the State of Massachusetts bay, in favour of the members, to be taken into consideration on Thurs­ said Doctor Isaac Forster, for fifty thousand dol­ day next. lars; . . . said deputy director general is to be April 12, 1779. 440 accountable; . . . for the use of his department. That John Nixon Esqr. Col. Shee, Andrew Doz have been recommended by Francis Hopkinson Esq. January 23, 1779. no-111 Treasurer of Loans; Hugh Montgomery by Doctor Resolved, That the director general (of the medi­ Witherspoon, and John Miller Esq. by Doctor cal department) be authorized and instructed to en­ Ewing, as proper persons to be appointed Commis­ join the several deputy directors, physicians, and sioners for destroying the Bills to be taken out of surgeons general and other officers under his super­ circulation. intendence, to attend and perform such duties at any post or place, as a change of the position of the April 15, 1779. 455 army, or other circumstances, may, from time to A memorial from the staff officers of the general time, make necessary, and shall be required by the hospital was read: Commander in Chief, notwithstanding such deputy Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ director, physician, or surgeon is, by the general ar­ mittee. rangement of the hospitals, attached to a particu­ April 16, 1779. 460 lar department; and that in case of any dispute con­ That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour cerning their seniority or precedence, the director of Doctor Jonathan Potts, deputy director general general shall determine the same in the first instance, of the military hospitals for the middle department, the party supposing himself aggrieved being at lib­ upon the application of the Medical Committee, for erty to appeal for redress to the Medical Committee. one million of dollars, for the use of his department, Resolved, That the director general be authorized and for which he is to be accountable. and instructed to supply, for the use of the regi­ mental surgeons, such medicines and refreshments April 27, 1779. 515, 523-524 as may be proper for the relief of the sick and That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour wounded before their removal to a general hospital, of Isaac Forster, Esq. *** for one hundred thousand and to be dispensed under the care and at the dis­ dollars, to be paid agreeable to his request to John cretion of the physician and surgeon general of the Adams, *** the said Doctor Forster to be account­ army.72 able.74 The Committee on the Treasury report, February 8, 1779. 151 That information has been given to the Board of A memorial from W. Shippen, director general, in Treasury that Alexander McKallaher, the deputy behalf of himself and the medical officers of the gen­ commissary of the hospital at the Yellow Springs, eral hospital in the middle, eastern and northern has made a practice of exchanging the hospital stores, districts, was read: such as sugar, molasses, &c. for butter, poultry, eggs,

72 This report, in the writing of James Duane, is in the P ap ers 73 See under June 1 2 , “post.” of the Continental Congress, No. 33, folio 277. 74 Based upon Forster’s letters of March 9 and 10, 1779. 274 Annals of Medical History

&c. for his own and the doctors’ table: That he keep June 12, 1779. 722, 723, 724 a blooded horse in the guard house, and a mare and That upon the application of the Medical Com­ colt; and a hostler at his quarters, and another at mittee, a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour the hospital, that he entertains all people who come of Doctor Isaac Forster, deputy director general to the hospitals with wine and toddy, alledging that of the eastern department, for one hundred and he is allowed to do so by Congress or Doctor Ship- fifty thousand dollars, . . . he is to be account­ pen, the informant is not certain which. able. . . That those circumstances have given occasion to That there is due to the officers and privates of great clamours among the inhabitants in the neigh­ Colonel Lewis Nicola’s invalid regiment, their pay bourhood. and subsistance for the month of April last, two That it is convalescent hospital: That they have thousand three hundred and seventy three dollars repaired the Farmer’s houses in the neighbourhood and 6/90ths. . . . for their own convenience at the public expence; Congress took into consideration the report of the Whereupon, committee to whom was referred the memorial of Ordered, That the information from the Commit­ Doctor John Morgan, late director general and phy­ tee on the Treasury, relative to Alexander McKalla- sician in chief of the general hospitals of the United her be referred to the Medical Committee, and that States, and thereupon came to the following resolu­ they take such measures for ascertaining the facts; tion: and if properly supported for bringing him to a tryal, Whereas by the report of the Medical Committee, as they shall judge expedient.75 confirmed by Congress on the 9th of August, 1777, it appeared that Dr. John Morgan, late director M ay 5, 1779- 549 general and chief physician of the general hospitals That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour of the United States, had been removed from office of Doctor George Smith, for the sum of thirteen on the 9th of January, 1777, by reason of the gen­ hundred seventy six dollars 22/90, equal to five hun­ eral complaint of persons of all ranks in the army, dred and fifty pounds ten shillings, New York cur­ and the critical state of affairs at that time; and rency, reported by John Welles and Edward Chinn, that the said Dr. John Morgan requesting an in­ Esquires, commissioners of accounts, at Albany, to quiry into his conduct, it was thought proper that be due to him for cattle and forage taken by order a committee of Congress should be appointed for of General Schuyler for the immediate subsistance that purpose: and, whereas, on the 18th day of of the militia and other troops assembled at Fort September last, such a committee was appointed, Edwards on the evacuation of Ticonderoga, his de­ before whom the said Dr. John Morgan hath in the mand of recompence for the loss of fencing being re­ most satisfactory manner vindicated his conduct in jected.76 every respect as director general and physician in chief, upon the testimony of the Commander in M ay 17, 1779- 599 . Chief, general officers, officers in the general hospi­ Resolved, That a warrant issue on the treasurer tal department, and other officers in the army, shew­ in favour of John Gibson, auditor general, for four­ ing that the said director general did conduct him­ teen thousand dollars, being the sum he so paid to self ably and faithfully in the discharge of the duties the said Scott, on the order of the said Nathan of his office: therefore, Brownson, on the 1 September, 1777, on account of Resolved, That Congress are satisfied with the the State of Georgia, and for which the said State is conduct of Dr. John Morgan while acting as director to be accountable.77 general and physician in chief in the general hospi­ tals of the United States; and that this resolution May 28, 1779. 661 ' be published.79 A petition from Isaac Forster and others, officers of the hospital in the eastern department, was read: June 15, 1779. 733 Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ A letter, of this day, from Dr. J. Morgan, was mittee. read, charging Dr. William Shippen, Jun. in the service of the United States, with mal-practices, and June 5, 1779. 689 misconduct in office, and declaring his readiness to A letter, of this day, from John Morgan was give before the proper court having jurisdiction, the read;78 Whereupon, necessary evidence in the premises against the said Resolved, That Saturday next be assigned for Dr. William Shippen.80 considering the report of the committee on the On motion of Mr. (Henry) Laurens, seconded by memorial of Doctor J. Morgan. Mr. (William Henry) Drayton,

76 The committee’s recommendation was that “an enquiry Congress, No. 136, III, folio 313. The account with the State of ought to be made into the truth of the said charges, without de­ Georgia is on folio 317. lay; and that on proof thereof the parties charged ought to be 78 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. suspended and brought to trial.” The resolution adopted was an 63, folio 125. amendment offered by Elbridge Gerry, to be found in his writing 79 This report, in the writing of William Henry Drayton, is in on folio 259 1/2. The name is written McKallaster in the Journals, the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 19, IV, folio 185. It and McKallaher in the committee report. was presented March 13, 1779. Morgan’s “Vindication,” dated 76 This report, dated May 3, is in the Papers of the Continental February 1, 1779, is in No. 63, folio 184. Congress, No. 136, III, folio 287. 80 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 77 This report, dated May 17, is in the Papers of the Continental 63, folio 129. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 275

Resolved, That a copy of the said letter be trans­ fifty thousand dollars, for the purchase of hospital mitted to the Commander in Chief, and that he be stores, and for defraying the necessary expences of directed to cause such proceedings to be had there­ his department, and that another warrant issue on on, as that the charges alluded to in it be speedily Thomas Smith, Esq. commissioner of the continental enquired into, and justice done. loan office, for the State of Pennsylvania, in favour Ordered, That an extract of the letter, with the of the said Doctor Jonathan Potts, for seventy one above resolution, be transmitted to Dr. Shippen. thousand one hundred and forty four dollars, in loan office certificates [for the purpose of discharging June 21, 1779. 754 a debt due to Robert Morris, Esq. for twelve A petition from the surgeons of the American boxes of surgical instruments purchased of him by navy was read: the said Dr. Potts;] the said Doctor Potts to be ac­ Ordered, That it be referred to the Marine Com­ countable .... mittee. October 19, 1779. 1187 June 29, 1779. 782 Resolved, That Friday next be assigned for taking That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour into consideration the report of the Medical Com­ of Doctor John Warren, for seventeen hundred and mittee on the medical staff. forty three dollars and 60/90, in full of his account for the support and education of Joseph Warren, son October 22, 1779. 1200-1 of the late Major General Warren, to April, 1779, as Congress took into consideration the report of the allowed by the council of Massachusetts bay, and Medical Committee on the medical staff, and some that the said sum be paid to David H. Conyngham time being spent thereon, authorised to receive the same.81 Ordered, That the farther consideration thereof be postponed. July 19, 1779. 854 October 25, 1779. 1208 A letter, of 19, from John Morgan was read, en­ A letter, of this day, from Doctor John Morgan, closing sundry papers relative to his charges against was read: 84 Doctor Shippen: 82 Ordered, That it be referred to a committee of Ordered, That copies thereof be sent to General three: Washington. October 27, 1779. 1211 August 3, 1779. 917 Sundry returns of the state of the hospital in the A letter, of 28 July, from Doctor W . Shippen, was southern department, were laid before Congress and read;83 Whereupon, read: The Medical Committee, to whom were referred Ordered, That they be referred to the Medical the several papers and memorials from the officers Committee. of the Medical department, brought in a report, which was read: October 27, 1779. 1213-14 Ordered, That the same be taken into considera­ According to order, Congress took into consider­ tion, when the report from the committee on a far­ ation the report of the Medical Committee and af­ ther allowance to the officers of the army is consid­ ter debate, ered. On motion of Mr. (Nathaniel) Scudder, seconded by Mr. (Samuel) Holton, August 18, 1779. 978 Resolved, That the farther consideration thereof Resolved, That until the further order of Congress, be postponed. the said officers be entitled to receive monthly for On motion of Mr. (Nathaniel) Scudder, seconded their subsistance money, the sums following, to wit, by Mr. (William Churchill) Houston, . . . ensign and surgeon’s mate 100 dollars. Resolved, That the director general, each of the September 3, 1779. 1018 deputy directors general, each physician and sur­ A letter, of 2d, from the hon1?.1® Sr. Gerard, was geon general, each senior physician and surgeon, read, soliciting leave for Mr. Witherspoon, a surgeon each junior surgeon, each apothecary general, each in the service of the United States to go to France: chaplain and each apothecary’s assistant, in the Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ hospital of the United States, [to the north ward of mittee. the river Potomac ] shall be entitled to draw clothing Resolved, That two members be added to the said annually from the stores of the clothier general, in committee. the same manner, and under the same regulations as The members chosen, Mr. (Nathaniel) Peabody, are established for officers of the line, by a resolu­ and Mr. (Frederick A.) Muhlenberg. tion of the twenty-sixth day of November, 1777. Resolved, That until the further order of Con­ September 29, 1779. 1123 gress, the said officers of the military hospital shall That on the application of the Medical Commit­ also be entitled to subsistence, in like manner as is tee, a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour of granted to officers of the line, to be estimated in the Doctor Jonathan Potts, . . for one hundred and following ratio:

81 Based upon an order of the Council of the State of Massa­ 83 The Shippen letter is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ chusetts of May 3, 1779. gress, No. 78, XX, folio 435. 82 Morgan’s letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, 84 The Morgan letter is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ No. 68, folio 133. gress, No. 63, folio 137. 2 7 6 Annals of Medical History

1st. The director general to receive the same sub­ purposes aforesaid in their executive authorities, if sistence as a colonel in the line: the same be not already done. 2d. The deputy directors general, the physicians, November 19-20, 1779. 1293, 4-6 surgeons and apothecaries general, the same as lieu­ tenant colonels: Resolved, That the report of the Medical Com­ 3d. The senior physicians and surgeons the same mittee on the hospital staff be postponed till to­ as majors: morrow, and that the same be taken into consider­ The junior surgeons and apothecaries’ assistants ation immediately after reading the journal. the same as captains: and the chaplains, the same Congress took into consideration the report of as chaplains of brigades are entitled to by a resolu­ the Medical Committee on the hospital staff; Where­ tion of the 18th day of August last, and to com­ upon, mence from the said 18th day of August. Resolved, That the director general, deputy di­ Resolved, That the mates of the military hospital rectors general, the assistant deputy directors, the shall, during service, be entitled to the same sub­ physicians and surgeons general of the hospitals and sistence as is given to regimental surgeon’s mates, by army, the senior surgeons, the second or junior sur­ the resolution of the 18th day of August last. geons, the apothecaries general and apothecaries’ mates or assistants, the hospital chaplains, regimen­ October 28, 1779. 1216 tal surgeons and mates, mates of the military hos­ Resolved, That the resolutions of yesterday, re­ pitals, commissaries, assistant commissaries, pay specting the officers of the hospital department of masters and stewards of the hospital, who shall have the United States, be re-considered; and together been in the service for the space of one year, and are with the report of the Medical Committee on the at present employed in the same, shall each be en­ hospital department, be re-committed. titled annually to draw cloathing from the stores of the cloathier general, in the same manner and under November 4, 1779. 1237 the same regulations as are established for officers A letter, of 26 October, from Thadeus Benedict, of the line by a resolution of Congress of the 26 day was read,85 respecting the conduct of Dr. Forster: of November, 1777. Ordered, That it be referred to the Commander Resolved, That until the further order of Con­ in Chief, and that he be directed to cause such pro­ gress, the following officers of the military hospital ceedings to be had thereon, as that the charges al­ shall be entitled to subsistence, in like manner as is luded to in it be speedily enquired into and justice granted to officers of the line by a resolution of the done. 18th day of August last, and in the following pro­ Ordered, That the Medical Committee transmit portions, viz. each deputy director general, 500 dol­ to the Commander in Chief the memorial of Thadeus lars per month; each assistant deputy director, 400 Benedict and others, against Dr. Forster, and such dollars; each physician general and surgeon general, other papers as they may have respecting that 500 dollars; each physician and surgeon general, 500 matter. dollars; each senior surgeon, 400 dollars; each junior surgeon, 300 dollars; each apothecary general, 400 November 5, 1779. I24° dollars; each apothecary’s assistant or mate, 100 A letter, of 4, from Doctor Forster, was read, re­ dollars; each commissary, 300 dollars; each commis­ questing that a court of enquiry may be appointed sary’s assistant, 200 dollars; each clerk, who is to to examine into his conduct.86 be pay master, 200 dollars; each steward, 100 dol­ Ordered, That it be transmitted to the Com­ lars; each chaplain, 400 dollars; mander in Chief. The same to commence from the 18 day of August November 16, 1779. 1277 last. [ Resolved, That all the said officers of the military The Medical Committee, to whom were referred hospital and all regimental surgeons and their mates the resolutions of 27 October respecting the officers who shall continue in the service to the end of the of the hospital department, together with the re­ present war, shall be entitled to quotas of lands port of the said committee on the said department, respectively, in like manner as is stipulated, in favour which was re-committed, brought in a report: of officers of the line by the resolution of the Ordered, That the same be taken into considera­ day of , which quotas shall be ascertained and tion on Friday next. apportioned according to the rate of subsistance The committee to whom was referred the letter of above granted. ] 25 October last, from Dr. J. Morgan, brought in a Resolved, That all mates necessarily employed in report; Whereupon, the military hospital or army shall, during service, Resolved, That it be recommended to the execu­ be entitled to the same subsistence as is given to tive authority of the respective states, upon the ap­ regimental mates, viz. 100 dollars per month. plication of the judge advocate for that purpose, to Resolved, That the remainder of the report be re­ grant proper writs requiring and compelling the per­ committed. son or persons whose attendance shall be requested by the said judge, to appear and give testimony in November 22, 1779. 1297 any cause depending before a court martial; and A letter, of 19th, from George Morgan, was read: that it be recommended to the legislatures of the Resolved, That the Medical Committee be instruct­ several states to vest the necessary powers for the ed to revise the several resolutions passed respecting 85 This letter is in the Washington Papers, No. 92, folio 312. 86 The Forster letter is in the Washington Papers, 92, folio 311. H istory of the A rmy M edical D epartm ent D uring the R evolution 277 the hospital department, and to digest and arrange thereto, where the witness resides within the dis­ them with such amendments as may make the whole tance of thirty miles from such party, and six days consistent with and conformable to the alterations where the witness resides above the distance of made by Congress in the original system, and re­ thirty, and not exceeding eighty miles, and a reason­ port the same to Congress. able time for a greater distance. November 24, 1779. 1303 A letter, of 22d, from Doctor J. Morgan, was SUMS ADVANCED PIN4THE HOSPITAL DE­ read: 87 PARTMENT Ordered, That the same be transmitted to the Feb. 26. To Jonathan Potts, deputy di­ Commander in Chief, Doctor Shippen being first rector ...... 150,000 furnished with a copy thereof. March io. To do...... 150,000 April 16. To do...... 500,000 November 25, 1779. 1310 Sep. 29. To do...... 221,14 4 That on the application of the Medical Commit­ Jan. 16. To doctor Isaac Forster, dep­ tee, the following warrants issue in favour of Doctor uty director eastern district. 75,000 Isaac Forster, deputy director general of the eastern April 27. To do...... 100,000 department, amounting to one hundred and fifty June 12. To do...... 150,000 thousand dollars, for the use of his department; for Nov. 25. To do...... 150,000 which he is to be accountable, viz: June 29. To S. Kennedy for rent of hos­ December 10, 1779. 1366 pital at Yellow Springs . . 5,000 Dollars 1,501,144 A letter, of 8, from D(avid) Jackson and a memo­ p. 14 4 0 rial from the officers in the hospital department, FARTHER SUMS ADVANCED IN THE PAY- were read:88 OFFICE DEPARTMENT Ordered, That they be referred to the Medical Jan. 9 and 20...... 3857 5-90 Committee. Feb. 9...... 2102 26-90 December 13, 1779. 1373 March 30...... 2275 5-90 The director general, to whom was referred the April 12 ...... 2152 70-90 report of the commissioners on the memorial of M ay 13 ...... 2300 4-90 Lewis Weiss in behalf of the single brethren of Beth­ June 12 ...... 2373 6-90 lehem, having reported thereon, and the said re­ January 1, 1780. 1 port being read: 89 A letter, of 30 December, from Doctor J. Morgan, Ordered, That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in was read, requesting to be furnished with copies of favour of Lewis Weiss, attorney of John Bonn, war­ the following letters and returns of Doctor W. Ship- den of the single brethren of Bethlehem, for three pen, viz: 92 thousand and seventy seven dollars and 60/90 for Letters previous to October 9, 1776, on which the use of the said brethren, being in full of their were founded the resolves of that day; of November account for evacuating, repairing and re-entering 1, 1776, including the return of the sick; November their house, which was used as a general hospital 9, 1776; November 24, 1777, and return of the sick, for the space of eight months, in lieu of rent and all also return of the hospital officers; January 19, 1778, other demands.90 '* with the return of the hospital officers, &c., also December 22, 1779. 1400 Governor Livingston’s, to which it refers; January A letter, of 20, and one of 22d, from Doctor Mor­ 26, 1778, to Francis Lewis, Esquire; Whereupon, gan, were read: 91 Ordered, That Doctor Morgan’s request be com­ Ordered, That they be referred to a committee of plied with and that those of the papers which are in three: the possession of the Medical Committee be lodged in the Secretary’s office for that purpose. December 24, 1779. 1409 January 3, 1780. 10-12 The committee to whom was referred the letter of 20, from Dr. Morgan, brought in a report, which According to order, Congress took into considera­ was taken into consideration; and thereupon, tion the report of the Medical Committee, viz. Resolved, That on the trials of cases not capital That each and every officer hereafter mentioned before courts martial, the depositions of witnesses and described in this resolve, belonging to the medi­ not in the line or staff of the army, may be taken cal department in the hospitals, or army, who is before some justice of the peace, and read in evi­ now in the service of the United States, and shall dence, provided the prosecutor and person accused continue therein during the war, and not to hold are present at the taking the same, or that notice any office or profit under the United States, or any be given of the times and places of taking such de­ of them, shall after the conclusion of the war, be positions to the opposite party four days previous entitled to receive, annually, for the term of seven years, if they shall live so long, viz; the physicians 87 The Morgan letter is in the Papers of the Continental Con­ 90 This report, dated December 4, is in the P a p ers o f the Con­ gress, No. 63, folio 143. tinental Congress, No. 136, III, folio 873. 88 Letter of Jackson and enclosures, in the Papers of the Con­ 91 Morgan’s letter of the 20th is in the Papers of the Continental tinental Congress, No. 78, XIII, folio 125-33. Congress, No. 63, folio 165. 89 Shippen’s letter, dated this day, is in the Papers of the Con­ 92 This letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. tinental Congress, No. 19, VI, folio 513. 158, folio 305. 2 7 8 Annals of Medical History' general, surgeons general, the physician and surgeon That the commissary general of issues direct the general of the army, the deputy directors general, form of the returns and receipts aforesaid.93 each, a sum equal to the half pay granted and ex­ tended to a colonel in the line of the army by a re­ February 7, 1780. 130 solve of Congress, of the 15 of May, 1778; the senior A letter from sundry officers in the hospital de­ surgeons and physicians, assistant deputy directors, partment was read: and the apothecary general, each, a sum equal to the Ordered, That it be referred to the Board of War, half pay of a lieutenant colonel, granted and ex­ to take order. tended by the resolve aforesaid; the junior or sec­ A memorial from President Wheelock, of Dart­ ond surgeons of the hospitals and the regimental mouth college, was read: 94 surgeons, each, a sum equal to the half pay of a ma­ Ordered, That the same, together with the report jor in the line, granted and extended as aforesaid; of the committee on a memorial from the late Doc­ the mates of the regimental surgeons, the apothe­ tor Wheelock, be referred to the Board of War. cary’s mates, or assistants, each a sum equal to the February 9, 1780. 143 half pay granted and extended to a lieutenant in the line of the army, by the resolve aforesaid; the That on the application of the Medical Commit­ whole of the foregoing allowances are to be subject tee, a warrant issue on the treasurer, in favour of in every respect to the same rules, restrictions and Jonathan Potts, purveyor general in the middle dis­ limitations, upon which the half pay of the afore­ trict, for sixty thousand dollars, to defray the neces­ mentioned officers of the line was granted and ex­ sary expences of the department; and for which sum tended by the said resolve, of the 15 of M ay, 1778. he is to be accountable.95 That each of the aforementioned and described February 14, 1780. 166 officers in the medical department, or their legal The Board of Treasury beg leave to report representatives, respectively, shall be entitled to the That a warrant issue on Thos. Smith Esq' Com- like quantity of lands with the aforementioned and missr of the Continental Loan Office for the State described officers of the line, in due proportion to of Pennsylvania for Thirty six thousand nine hun- the sums granted to them respectively by the pre­ xr • t dred dollars in Loan Office Certificates ceding resolve, upon the same conditions, and sub­ ga ive jn favor 0f Jonathan Potts Purveyor ject to the same rules, restrictions and limitations, General of the Hospitals, or order, for which sum as the grants of lands to the aforementioned officers the said Purveyor General is to be accountable.96 of the line, by a resolve of Congress of the 16 Sep­ tember, 1776. March 1, 1780. 220 On the question to agree to the first proposition Two letters, of February 4th and 14, from Philip for granting half pay, the yeas and nays being re­ Turner, were read: quired by Mr. (Roger) Sherman,...... Ordered, That they be referred to the Medical So it passed in the negative. Committee. On the question to agree to the second proposition for granting lands, the States were equally divided, March 18, 1780. 260 and the question lost. That on the application of the Medical Commit­ tee, the following warrants issue in favour of Jona­ January 27, 1780. 99 than Potts, purveyor general of the hospitals, for That the Medical Committee, as soon as they the use of his department; and for which, amount­ shall judge convenient, give directions for removing ing to forty six thousand nine hundred dollars, he is the hospitals in or near Philadelphia, to some other to be accountable; viz...... place, where wood and other necessaries may be procured on more reasonable terms than in the city March 30, 1780. 317 aforesaid: A letter, of n, from Doctor I. Forster to the That the issuing commissaries be respectively di­ Medical Committee was laid before Congress and rected not to deliver rations, or parts of rations, to read. any hospital commissary, unless on returns signed Ordered, That it be referred to the Board of by him and countersigned by the principal physician Treasury. or surgeon of the respective hospitals, specifying the names and stations of the persons for whom, and for April 4, 1780. 326 what time, the rations are drawn; and that the hos­ A letter, of 28 March, from Doctor J. Morgan, pital commissary be also required to annex to each was read.97 return the receipts of the persons to whom he shall have delivered the provisions drawn on the last re­ April 5, 1780. 330 turn: That on the application of the Medical Commit­ tee of the third instant, a warrant issue on Henry 93 This report, in the writing of Elbridge Gerry, is in the P a p ers of the Continental Congress, No. 29, folio 123. 96 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, 94 This memorial, dated January 3, 1780, is in the P a p ers of No. 136, IV, folio 91. the Continental Congress, No. 41, X, folio 423; the letter from offi­ 97 Morgan’s letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, cers in the hospital department, dated February 7, 1780, is in the No. 63, folio 169. Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 78, XX, folio 499. (Note) A letter from W. Rickman, dated April 23, 1780, ap­ 95 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. pears to have been read. It is in the Papers of the Continental 136, IV, folio 79. Congress, No. 78, XIX, folio 311. H i s t o r y o f t h e A r m y M e d i c a l D e p a r t m e n t D u r i n g t h e R e v o l u t i o n 279

Gardiner, treasurer of the State of Massachusetts Medical Committee, to whom was referred the let­ bay, in favour of Isaac Forster, deputy director gen­ ter from Governor Trumbull, of the 1st inst.; and eral of the hospitals in the eastern department, for thereupon, forty thousand dollars, being part of the monies Resolved, That the director general, or in his ab­ raised in the said State, for the use of the United sence, deputy director general, of the hospitals in States, and for the use of that department; for which the eastern district, be and he is hereby directed to the said deputy director general is to be accountable. hire a suitable house at or near the port of New London, in the State of Connecticut, for the recep­ May 4, 1780. 412 tion of such sick American prisoners as shall, from Ordered, That a member be added to the Medical time to time, be exchanged and landed in that Committee. neighbourhood; and that one senior surgeon or phy­ The member chosen, Mr. (James) Henry. sician, and a suitable number of mates, be occasion­ May 10, 1780. 417 ally employed therein, as the number of sick shall A letter, of this day, from Doctor J. Morgan was increase or diminish.100 read, requesting “ to be indulged with an authenti­ June 26, 1780. 562 cated copy of his Excellency General Washington’s That on the application of the Medical Commit­ letter to Dr. Shippen, referred to in the General’s tee, a warrant issue on Abraham Yates, commission­ letter to him (Dr. Morgan), of January 6, 1779, er of the continental loan office for the State of New dated about the beginning of November, 1776, and York, in favour of Robert Johnson, assistant direc­ enclosed to the President of Congress in Doctor tor of the hospitals in the northern department, on Shippen’s letter, dated 9th November, 1776:” account of Jonathan Potts, purveyor general of the Ordered, That Doctor Morgan be furnished with military hospitals, for the sum of fifty thousand dol­ a copy of the said letter, agreeably to his request. lars, one half of which, payable in loan office cer­ May 12, 1780. 425 tificates, and the other half in current money of the The Board having considered the letter of William United States, to be applied in the department afore­ Rickman Deputy director general of the hospitals said; and for which the said Jonathan Potts is to be in Virginia referred to them by Congress report accountable.101 That the said William Rickman*is not charged July 1, 1780. 581 with any monies in the Treasury books, [and that if A letter, of this day, from the Board of W ar was he has received any monies that he is accountable read: to the Director General who is to account with the Ordered, That the same be referred to the Medi­ United States.] cal Committee, and that they take order thereon. May 16, 1780. 430 Ju ly 6, 1780. 589 The Board on the references relative to the Chil­ dren of the late General Warren Report, Ordered, That on the application of the Medical That the accounts for the Education of Joseph Committee, a warrant issue on the treasurer, in Warren his eldest son have been paid to Doctor favour of Jonathan Potts, purveyor of military hos­ John Warren up to April 1779 and that no accounts pitals, for twenty thousand dollars for the purpose have Since been rendered, of purchasing necessaries for the hospitals in the That they know of no resolution of Congress mak­ middle department; and for which the aforesaid ing provision for the education of any other of the Jonathan Potts is to be accountable.102 Children of the said late General Warren.98 July 7, 1780. 592 May 20, 1780. 442 Resolved, That a member be added to the Medi­ On motion of the Medical Committee, cal Committee, in the room of Mr. J(ames) Henry, Resolved, That on the application of the Medical who is absent: Committee, the Commercial Committee be author­ The member chosen, Mr. (Abraham) Clark. ised to furnish Doctor Potts, the purveyor general, July 18, 1780. 638 with two hogsheads of sugar, for the use of the hos­ Another letter, of 15, from General Washington pitals in the middle district, the said purveyor gen­ was read, enclosing the proceedings and sentence of eral to be accountable. a general court martial on the trial of Doctor W. Resolved, That on the application of the Medical Committee, the commissary general of purchases be Shippen, Junr, director general of the military hos­ pitals : directed to furnish the purveyor general with two Ordered, That the consideration thereof be as­ hogsheads of spirits, for the use of the hospitals in signed for to morrow. the middle district, the said purveyor general to be Another letter, of 15, from General Washington accountable.99 was read, respecting the hospital department. May 23, 1780. 447 Ordered, That it be referred to the Medical Com­ Congress took into consideration the report of the mittee.103

98 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 101 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 136, IV, folio 303. 136, IV, folio 367. 99 This report, in the writing of Frederick A. Muhlenberg, is 102 This report is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 22, folio 89. 136, IV, folio 409. 100 This report, in the writing of Frederick A. Muhlenberg, is in 103 Washington’s letters are in the Papers of the Continental Con­ the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 22, folio 87. gress, No. 152, IX, folios 25 & 19. 2 8 o Annals of Medical History

July 19, 1780. 646 July 27, 1780. 676 According to the order of the day, Congress took Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ into consideration the proceedings of the court mar­ ceedings of the court martial on the trial of Doctor tial on the trial of Doctor W. Shippen, director gen­ W . Shippen, Junior; and some farther progress be­ eral of the hospitals, and some time being spent ing made...... therein; Ordered, That the farther consideration thereof July 28, 1780. 677-8 be postponed till to morrow. Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ ceedings of the general court martial on the trial of July 20, 1780. 648 Doctor W . Shippen; and some farther progress be­ Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ ing made therein, ceedings of the court martial on the trial of Doctor Ordered, That the farther consideration thereof be Shippen; and having made some farther progress, postponed. Ordered, That the farther consideration thereof be postponed till to morrow. July 29, 1780. 680 July 21, 1780. 648 Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ ceedings of the general court martial on the trial of The Medical Committee, to whom was referred Doctor W . Shippen; and some farther progress be­ the letter of 15, from General Washington, brought ing m a d e ,...... in a report, which was read; Whereupon, The Medical Committee to whom was referred July 31, 1780. 684 the letter of the Commander in Chief of July 15th Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ beg leave to report, ceedings of the court martial on the trial of Doctor That they have conversed with D. Cochran and Shippen, director general; and some farther prog­ other gentlemen of the Hospital department by ress being made therein, whom, and the many distressing accounts the Com­ mittee almost daily receive from every quarter, it August 7, 1780. 708 appears that the department is in want of almost Ordered, That the Medical Committee report as every article necessary for the comfortable suste­ soon as may be, the state of the military hospitals nance of the sick and wounded soldiery. They are within the State of Pennsylvania, specifying partic­ therefore clearly of opinion that a sum of two hun­ ularly the number of physicians, surgeons, mates, dred thousand dollars is immediately necessary to matrons and attendants residing in Pennsylvania, put the department on such a footing, that the dan­ and the places they are employed in, and also the ger the General apprehends in his letter may be number of the sick. avoided. They beg leave to refer to the enclosed estimate and submit the following resolution. August 10, 1780. 716 Ordered, That a warrant issue on the treasurer, in W “ Shippen, D. G. H., 628,200 dollars, Ren­ favour of Jonathan Potts, purveyor of the hospitals dered accounts. in the middle district, for two hundred thousand August 16, 1780. 737, 8. dollars, for the use of the hospitals in the middle A letter, of 15, from Doctor W. Shippen was read.106 district, to be applied as the Medical Committee Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ shall direct; the said purveyor to be accountable.104 ceedings of the court martial on the trial of Doctor The Medical Committee, to whom was referred Shippen, director general, and having gone through the letter, of 15, from Doctor Brown, brought in a the evidence, defence and judgment of the court, report, which was read; Whereupon, The Medical Committee to whom D. Will, August 18, 1780. 744, 5, 6 Brown’s letter of Ju ly 15th was referred, beg leave Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ to report: ceedings of the court martial on the trial of Doctor That they have conversed with D. Brown and Shippen, director general, when a motion was made find that his circumstances will no longer permit his by Mr. (Timothy) Matlack, seconded by Mr. (Wil­ continuance in the service, and as it appears to liam Churchill) Houston, as follows: them that he has been a faithful and diligent officer they submit the following Resolution. That the court martial having acquitted the said Resolved, That Congress entertain a high opinion Doctor W . Shippen, the said acquittal be confirmed. of the abilities, integrity and past services of Doctor A motion was made by Mr. (Abraham) Clark, William Brown, physician general, but as his pres­ seconded by Mr. (Nathaniel) Folsom, to amend the ent circumstances will no longer permit his continu­ motion, by inserting after W. Shippen, these words, ance in the service, his resignation be accepted.105 “excepting that part of the 2d charge relating to his speculating in hospital stores, on which the court July 22, 1780. 654 judge him highly reprehensible.” Congress resumed the consideration of the pro­ The court martial having acquitted the said Doc­ ceeding of the court martial on the trial of Doctor tor W. Shippen, Ordered, that he be discharged from Shippen, and having made some farther progress, arrest. Adjourned to 10 o’CIock on Monday. So it was resolved in the affirmative.

104 This report, in the writing of Frederick A. Muhlenberg, is in in the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 19, I, folio 423. the Papers of the Continental Congress, No. 19, VI, folio 287. 106 Shippen’s letter is in the Papers of the Continental Congress, 105 This report, in the writing of Frederick A. Muhlenberg, is No. 78, XX, folio 541. (Concluded in the next issue) MILITARY SANITATION IN THE SIXTEENTH, SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES1 B y COLONEL CHARLES L. HEIZMANN U. S. A., Retired SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. PART I.---THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY buses, and Montluc relates the equipment, in the same year, of twenty men of each The Siege of Metz, 1552 company with arquebuses that carried 400 paces from point to point.2 Field artillery H E i 6th century was eminently one of sieges, from which date the origin of was comparatively rare during the whole of Tmodern fortifications. In the preceding cen­ this period. Rabutin, who details the ar­ tury the proportion of sieges to battles was mament of Henry’s army, mentions forty- nearly as 1 to 1; in the 16th, as 2 to 1; and three cannon, nearly all siege guns. On the in the 17th, about 4 to 3. Political, econom­ other hand, cities of any importance were ical or strategic reasons may be given for provided with large cannon, and as these these differences, but underlying them will were eventually opposed by artillery of be found a sufficient explanation in the similar calibre, more numerous because history of the development of fire-arms. made more movable, further means of de­ The ramparts of a town became the best fense were invented, which proved a tem­ defensive armor against the gradually in­ porary advantage over besieging armies in creasing number and effectiveness of arque­ the first years of the 17th century. buses and cumbrous pieces of siege guns, Forts and arms, however, did not always few of which could be brought into action determine the result. Famine and disease in the field on account of the crude means were just as fatal.3 Knowledge of the of transportation. It is true that the smaller means of prevention of epidemics and of fire-arms were not in general use until the precautions against their spread was very following century. As late as 1553 the lance extensive in this century. Municipal and was the favored weapon of the French, royal ordinances regulating the police of the pike of the Swiss, the two-hand sword cities in time of peace were very common.4 of the Poles, bows of the English, sword The application of them in a besieged and poignard of the Italians, halberd of town by military authority ought to have the Germans, pistols of the Danes and been easy, yet the memoirs of the time are arquebuses of the Spaniards. Yet one-third full of recitals of suffering and destruction of the entire force of 40,000 fighting men, due to their neglect. There was excuse for gathered by Henry II. of France, March, the absence of sanitary measures from ar­ 1552, to invade Germany, possessed arque- mies in the field, in their transitory charac­ ter, lack or weakness of medical organiza­ 1 This article, which appeared in the Journal of tion, and general ignorance of the subject the Military Service Institution of the United States, Vol. xiv, No. fxiv, July, 1893, has been reprinted 3 Of 57 besieged towns, 24 were carried by assault, by permission. 20 capitulated and 13 were relieved or the siege aban­ 2 One fourth of the remainder of H enry’s army doned. had pistols, and from 1200 to 1500 mounted harque- 4 The Archives curieuses de I’histoire de France busiers had guns three feet long, slung to the saddle­ depuis Louis X I—Louis XVIII, par L. Cimbcr, bows. Slings, long disused, were said to carry from Paris, 1834, contain (9th vol. 1st series) a valuable 500 to 600 paces, and ancient Roman machines 700 and interesting document on the subject, by Claude yards; crossbows killed point blank at from 40 to de Rubys, being the history of the pest in Lyons, 50 yards, elevated at from 120 to 160 yards. 1577. 282 Annals of Medical History as affected by the changed condition of tions for the Landesknechte. It is not known living.5 Hence the dissipation of armies was how far or often these were carried out, but frequent, on account of the want of food, it has been justly said, by Froelich, that the the appearance of disease and consequent instructions for physicians and surgeons are desertions. the origin and basis of the present medical The gallant array of Henry II. met with regulations of the German army, because this fate in less than four months, although no such existed in Germany before, and be­ it encountered no serious military obstacle, cause there is so great a resemblance be­ nor fought a single battle. Its historian says tween them and those of to-day;—indeed, that the camp followers outnumbered the the latter are very little better than those troops proper, a common occurrence of that an enlightened past had brought to a those days, and together with the soldiers high grade of perfection. Another authority6 loaded the wagons with plunder from aban­ asserts that Charles drew physicians and doned houses, thus causing disorder and surgeons from all sides for his campaigns, famine in the camp. Summer approaching, and that, not satisfied with garrison hos­ on account of the great heat some started pitals, he instituted field hospitals, following to march at 2 a .m., and remained on horse­ the example of his grandmother, Isabella of back until noon before they were lodged;— Spain. the foot soldiers generally began the march The custom in camp was to send the sick first so as to reach their destination at the and wounded to the baggage train, where same time, and were overcome by thirst; they were cared for in tents by the physi­ they eagerly filled themselves with cold cian or barber and nursed by women, who water and many “ fell into great diseases, then constituted a large following of armies. pleurisies and fevers,” a large number dying. On breaking camp the light sick were Toul, Metz and Verdun were the trophies, transported in wagons and the dangerously but France was exhausted when it became sick sent to hospitals in the nearest towns.. known in July that the Emperor Charles V. The Landesknechte selected from among was collecting a force to recapture these their number and paid in common a Spital places. meister, or hospital superintendent, who Among the Emperor’s many inheritances looked after their sick in hospital or on the from his predecessor, Maximilian I., not the march, providing necessaries and waiting least were regulations for military organiza­ on the physician, barber and women. The tion and discipline, so that his armies were meanest duties were performed by women considered in these respects the best in and children. Europe. Leonhard Fronsperger in 1555 A field physician-in-chief and a field- wrote a work on Imperial courts-martial, barber were attached to the staff of the etc., in which are found sanitary disposi- commanding officer of each Haujfen,—5,000

5 1 can find only one treatise on hygiene specially, printed in the 16th century,— Anton Schneeberger, thing to be near lodgings, and the same to be buried.” De bona militum valetudine conservanda, 1564, a copy Altogether there were printed, mostly after Pare’s of which is in the Library of the Surgeon-General’s first edition, 45 works or parts, on military surgery office,— and a chapter in a surgical work by N. by both physicians and surgeons, most of whom had Godin, 1558. Occasional orders enjoining cleanli­ field experience,— 1 on military pharmacy, and n ness were issued, presumably after their necessity on various military diseases. became manifest; thus, the statute of the English 6 L. Thomas, Lectures sur Uhistoire de la medicine, Henry V. in the early 15th century, at Mans, and Paris, 1885. He mentions particularly the celebrated one of Henry V III., in 1544, prohibiting “ carrion, anatomist Vesalius and a distinguished Spanish sur­ filth, or other unwholesome or infectious, stinking geon, Daga Chacon. M i l i t a r y S a n i t a t i o n 283 to 10,000 infantrymen; a physician to the ments, apothecaries and medicines for both field-marshal of cavalry, and a field-barber internal and external wounds and sickness. and assistant to the chief of artillery. All “ He should also with all diligence, advise of these had rank and pay assimilated to whether a leg, arm or such should be am­ superior officials. To each independent putated or preserved by other means. troop, each infantry company—about 200 Further, he should give his attention to the men, and each squadron was assigned a severely wounded, that they may not be field-barber. His place during battle when left too long on the lines or in the companies, not in the ranks, was with the rear guard, but immediately carried to the surgeons and and he ranked between clerk and halber­ aided by beneficial dressings. On the march, dier, according to Fronsperger, after the when it becomes important to have a field- quartermaster sergeant and before a cor­ barber near at hand or available, it is his poral, according to others. He received a business to see that one is stationed between salary and could charge a soldier for special the cavalry and infantry, with his instru­ services. ments. On other occasions, in camp and ‘‘ The physician-in-chief must have been quarters, each barber remains with the a doctor, or one who had recently charge of troop in which he has been assigned for surgeons or field-barbers by State authority; duty. Whenever a question arises between he must be a well-known, skilful, experi­ barbers and cured soldiers or others, as to enced and cautious man, of the proper age, the payment to be made, he shall settle it, upon whom all barbers, cutlers, wounded, seeing that neither too much nor too little sick and stricken could rely for help and is given. counsel in time of need, particularly when “ As it is necessary that a field-barber or they are shot, cut, bruised or broken, or surgeon serve with each troop, so should are suffering from any accidental or dis­ each Captain be careful to select a well- abling diseases, such as scalds, fluxes, versed, skilful, experienced and trained man, fevers, and similar affections that occur and not a poor beard-shaver or bath-boy among soldiers. His duties are even more as often happens by reason of favor; thus, extensive in that he should inspect, both the killing or maiming of good soldiers may when the regiment is organized and later be prevented. The field-barber should be at monthly muster, the instruments and supplied with all necessary medicines and everything pertaining thereto, and when he instruments in a field wagon, and the Cap­ finds anything lacking or lost, such shall be tain should see that it is done. He should charged to the field-barber, to make up the be a capable Knecht, to help in necessity. deficit. When this cannot be done, he shall His duty is to render assistance first, when find other means to meet emergencies. On there is need, to those of his own troop, the march he will closely attend his com­ not to exact too much from anyone, but to manding officer. When exigency or peril treat men at reasonable and like rates. He impends from the enemy, in battle array shall have his lodging at night at the com­ or skirmishes and such like, he shall remain pany pennant, so that he may be found in in the neighborhood of his superior military necessity, and it is best that one barber officer;— but he will also oversee as much as should be accessible to each lodging house, possible the other physicians, surgeons and on account of the sick and wounded. He the like, wherever wounded, etc., are to be shall serve with his troop in all else like an attended, and he shall devote his care, ad­ ordinary soldier, and he shall receive double vice and skill to all others, particularly be­ pay.” cause he, above others, is ready with instru­ The greater part of the Imperial army 284 Annals of Medical History on this occasion consisted of Landesknecbte,7 of Guise and other nobles occupied Metz, 14 regiments of 143 bands or companies, and formed and drilled in guard exercises and it is presumed that some such medical 12 companies, in all 4,500 to 4,600 foot, 444 organization obtained among them, for horse, and 920 gendarmes in 3 companies. Fronsperger speaks of it as well known, not The military student ought to read Sa­ as having been recently introduced; and in lignac for the particulars of preparation 1557 at the siege of St. Quentin, an analo­ for defense made by the active genius of gous arrangement of medical officers for this young man, with very inadequate the English ordnance existed, evidently means;—the repairs to the fortifications copied from Maximilian’s, and usually cited with the aid of women and children, making by English authors as the first attempt at serviceable old and badly cast cannons, the formation of a regular medical staff. construction of powder mills, razing of The remainder of 120,000 men was made suburban gardens, pleasure resorts, mills, up of 27 Spanish companies, 16 Italian, etc.; the storing of grains and provisions, more than 10,000 cavalry and 7,000 pioneers. purchasing in his own credit animals, salt There were 140 pieces of artillery. This meats, fish, butter, oil, salt, cheese, rice, army was said to have been larger, by 15,000 etc., enough to last a year8 purging the city men, than any army gathered by Charles, of superfluous persons and things, retaining and twice as large as any army collected and organizing 1,200 artisans, including under one chief afterwards for more than carpenters, masons and blacksmiths to one hundred years. There is no record of a help in the ramparts and artillery, and medical organization other than the Ger­ armorers, farriers, bakers, shoemakers and man, but it is probable that a surgical ser­ hosiers, a limited number of the most ex­ vice existed among the Spanish troops, pert and best provided with materials to such being mentioned in 1554 with Daga meet the necessities of the soldiers;—the Chacon as head, and among the Italians, means of defense adopted in the event of who employed surgeons for campaigns as breaches, or in case the walls were taken; early as the 13th century, and combined the rules for the effective guard of the them in bodies for sieges in the previous walls, for cavalry raids in large parties (100 century and even before. to 120 men), and in small (20 to 30 men) To meet this formidable array the Duke on the enemy’s supply trains, for ambushes,

7 Salignac says they were levied in the manner cardamon and other spices “ to put in our pastries, and numbers of the Germans, and that the companies the principal ingredient of which was horse meat, were not complete, coming recently from their and these would have tasted badly without them.” country. It was the custom to enlist Knechts by vol­ Turnips, carrots, leeks, etc., were buried in the untary engagement for the war only;— a fixed pay gardens and reserved for extreme necessity. Sir was agreed upon, and they were permitted to pillage James Turner furnishes even a larger list of articles and demand ransom. There arose from this condot- to be provided for an English army in the field in tien, who had at their call bodies of men, of varying Elizabeth’s time, including, besides, almonds, chest­ numbers according to the price paid, which were nuts and hazelnuts, honey and tobacco! The ordi­ placed at the disposition of princes about to engage nary daily ration was 2 lbs. of bread, 1 lb. of flesh, in war. There was no medidal examination of a re­ or, in lieu of it, 1 lb. of cheese, 1 bottle of wine or cruit, and when a Knecht was permanently disabled, 2 of beer. An ensign got 4 rations, a colonel 12. “ T t he dragged himself to his home as best he could. is enough,’ cry the soldiers, ‘ we desire no more.’ 8 Pare’s list is curious: biscuit, fresh beef, salt It is enough in conscience;— but this allowance will veal, bacon, saveloy, Mayence-hams; salt fish, as not last very long;— they must be contented to cod, marline, salmon, shad, tunny, anchovy, sar­ march sometimes one whole week and scarce get dines, herring; also peas, beans, rice, garlic, onions, two pounds of bread all the while, and the officers prunes, cheeses, butter, oil and salt; pepper, ginger, as little as they.” M i l i t a r y S a n i t a t i o n 285

for the interior police defining the relation cold that sentries were found frozen stiff, of citizen and soldier, the duties of the lance in hand. The wounded in both former during an alarm of fire, etc., and armies, partly on this account, did not do of the latter to suppress disorder at any well. Some of the imperial officers be­ hour. came dissatisfied with the treatment and Rabutin visited Metz after the siege was sent many of their disabled soldiers to raised, and inspected the numerous con­ springs of their native country. A quack trivances hastily made to meet every step appeared in one of the three besieging of the enemy’s advance. He also speaks of camps, named Doublet, who met with such them somewhat in detail, and in the most success by the use of simple water dressing admiring terms, especially of the pyrotech- that his fame spread.9 After the manner nical inventions of M. de St. Remy, who of the time Guise suspected poison in the was among the besieged. drugs used in the city, and sent a message The energy and foresight of Guise did to the king, November 8th, requesting a not stop here. Some soldiers of Rodemar, new supply. Ambrose Pare was intrusted who had joined the garrison before the city with the commission, and repairing to was invested, were taken sick with a con­ Verdun, was smuggled into the city, him­ tagious disease;—they were at once isolated, self, an assistant and a medical outfit, at and after having been mustered, were or­ midnight on December 8th, by an Italian dered to rejoin the camp of M. de Chatillon, captain, whose services were purchased by their colonel. To the surgeon barbers of the 1,500 ecus, an easy matter, it appears, since city he advanced money to provide them­ the Emperor had failed to keep his prom­ selves with means to treat wounds. The ises of payment. pioneers, under the provost, were ordered Pare’s reception and presentation by to clean the city often, horses and carts Guise to the princes and officers on the being supplied, to throw carrion and all breach are historical, and his recital of his other filth out of the city, and to keep the labors and observations is classical. streets always clean. When a soldier was From his account and other sources it is wounded or taken sick, especially during learned that at this period in France, at the night watch or work that had to be least, surgeons, like physicians, in armies done in the rain or extreme cold, it was were not obliged to attend the soldiers. ordered that he be carried at once to the A few men of considerable merit were at­ hospital and then treated with everything tached to the persons of captains or nobles, necessary; and the pioneers, when taken whom they followed, and upon whom they sick or wounded while engaged on the depended. Pierre Aubert, in his capacity of ramparts, were to be sent to another hos­ surgeon, thus served the Duke of Guise. pital. When a campaign ended, usually in autumn, The siege began October 20th, but the they passed the winter in the cities, in the defense was so well conducted that a breach pursuit of their customary civil practice. was not effected before November 26th, However, royal ordinances were beginning by means of a constant battery of 40 to be issued establishing more uniformity. double cannons for many days. It was as In 1550 Coligny inspired a decree respecting large as a front of fifty men. The besiegers infantry, which was remarkable in that it found behind it another new and stronger created in each company a surgeon, who rampart. The weather now became so was to take care of its sick and wounded 9 Frequent mention is made in those days of charla­ on soldiers who had been abandoned by their com­ tans following in the train of an army to practice rades. 286 Annals of Medical History in garrisons and campaign; his pay was congelations, dysentery and scurvy were not to come from the royal treasury, but soon followed by typhus fever, and the from a tax on the sum total of the pay of mortality became frightful. The least esti­ the company. The company baker, one to mate places the loss in the imperial army each company, was paid in the same way. from all causes at 20,000 men. The obstinacy and cleverness of Guise On the sixty-fifth day, December 26th, irritated the Emperor into an expressed the retreat was ordered and begun. It was determination to capture the city by force done so hurriedly and covered so badly by or famine at the cost of his entire army. the Marquis Albert of Brandenburg that This becoming known, it was ordered that some dead were left unburied and many no one in the city should eat fresh fish or sick and wounded were abandoned in their venison or game birds, for fear that they tents. Still, part of the disabled were car­ might be pestiferous. The prescribed rations ried away in carts, but the roads having must suffice, and they were carefully dis­ been made impassable by the advance of tributed by weight and measure according cavalry and heavy cannon, a number of to the quality of the persons. At first each them were left at a neighboring abbey. To soldier received two pints of wine and two these Guise sent provisions atid ordered loaves of bread, each of 12 ounces;—from Pare and several other surgeons to attend these were gradually taken Y and Y2 ounce. to their wants. A sallying party came across Pare says that the rations were diminished a number of sick Spaniards in wagons and in such a manner that what had been given let them pass unmolested. Considering these to three was divided among four persons, circumstances Guise departed from the and it was forbidden to sell or barter any custom of setting fire to the camps; he col­ remnants. lected all the sick and sent more than During the siege prisoners were treated three hundred to the hospital in the city, with unusual consideration.10 The Emperor where many lost limbs by amputation; he learning from some of his own soldiers ordered that all be fed and treated, and he returned from the city on parole, the ex­ buried the dead. After a few days he sent a treme measures taken by Guise, watered trumpet to Alva, the imperial general, prom­ his wine, as Pare puts it. His battery of ising safe conduct to such persons as he forty-five days had not advanced and his might send to care for and carry the sick mines had all been successfully met by and wou,nded prisoners to Thionville, the countermines. The intensely cold weather objective point of the retreat, stating that persisted and was the cause of crowding in he would gladly supply them with well the tents, huts and holes dug in the ground covered boats for the purpose. Alva sent and covered with stubble. Food became wagons and carts, but not enough, and scarce; the surrounding country, having Guise supplied the deficiency. Most re­ been previously devastated by Henry’s markable of all, the imperial general asked expedition and by Guise’s orders, furnished that a sick Spanish officer of his command no resources, and much of the imperial be permitted to enter the city for treat­ supplies had been ruined by rain and snow. ment, and the request was granted. The Clothing was so scarce, by reason of raids demoralization of the defeated army was on the trains, that the greater part of the so great that the French cart drivers, on soldiers were barefoot. In consequence, their return, found the roads filled with

10 A t the siege of Metz in 1444, according to the dead bodies of those who, before ex- Mathieu de Coussy, the besieged amused themselves followed the example, both parties disdaining ran­ by drowning the prisoners, and the besieging French som. M ilita r y Sanitation 287 piring, had been thrown there by the should be surrendered. Only a few months Spanish teamsters, who remarked that they before it, at the siege of Damvilliers, Pare were not paid to carry dead men. first tied an artery after amputation, dis­ The clemency of Guise proved a disaster, carding the cautery. On his return to Paris which would have been averted had the from Metz, he was appointed surgeon to same precaution been taken as at the be^ the King, the highest position he could ginning of the siege. No serious disease had covet, and about this time his surgical dis­ been in the city during the siege;—once coveries began to spread throughout Eu­ it was raised, the importation of prisoners rope. created an epidemic of typhus, which PRINCIPAL AUTHORITIES spread to the adjoining villages. The defense of Metz became the marvel Salignac, Le siege de Metz par Vempereur Charles V. en Van 1552. Carloix, Memoires sur Vielleville. Rabu- of Europe;—it, without doubt, saved tin, Commentaires des dernikres guerres en la Gaule France from destruction, and, in many Belgique. Bourdeille, abbe de Brantome, Vies des ways, besides political, its effects were grandes capitaines, etc. Pare, Apologia et voyages. lasting. Wounded soldiers were afterwards Fronsperger, Von kayserlichen Kriegsgerichten, Male- better treated, as at the siege of Thionville, fitz und Schuldhandler, etc. Froelich, Geschichte des 1558, and after the capture of Havre, 1563, Konig. Sachs. Sanitatskorps. Montluc, Commen­ taires. when the project of an Invalides originated with the queen mother, though it was not PART II.---THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY carried out for many years. The humanity of Guise towards both well and sick was The Last Campaign of Gustavus Adolphus remembered at the siege of Therouanne, 1553, by the Spanish, who, on being re­ Sully, the great Minister of Henry IV., minded of it by the French, courteously under date of 1604, wrote in his Memoirs: saved all prisoners, says Brantome. After “ It is difficult to conceive that, in a na­ this the custom of massacring prisoners tion, which from its establishment has been who were not reserved for ransom, gradually engaged in war and has indeed pursued no declined, and this was the germ from other trade than that of arms, no care which arose the spirit that culminated, in should have been hitherto taken to form a little over 300 years, in the articles of and methodize them. Whatever related to the Geneva Convention. the soldiery of France was offensive and It was noteworthy also in the prepara­ disgusting; the foot soldiers were enlisted tions made for it, other than purely mili­ by violence and made to march by a cudgel; tary, of food, medicines, hospitals;—in the their pay was unjustly withheld; they organization of artisans and surgeons; in heard of nothing but a prison and had the police and guard regulations and pre­ nothing before their eyes but a gibbet; cautions against disease. The first sugges­ their treatment drew them into all meth­ tion of transporting wounded soldiers in ods of desertion, which was prevented only numbers by water was made here. It was by the prevots, who kept them in the camp the first occasion when the services of the like men besieged; the officers themselves “ father of modern surgery” were univer­ being ill-paid had some kind of right to sally recognized in an army, by soldiers as violence and plunder. . . . The regulation well as officers, services that, in the fol­ (prompt payment) was followed by another lowing year, rendered his opinion of such equally just and equally proper to recon­ importance, that he was called in the coun­ cile the mind to the trade of arms; by this cil of war to determine whether Hesdin there was a provision made for the relief 288 Annals of Medical History of soldiers who, by wounds or sickness con­ Ireland in 1693, and Greenwich for seamen tracted in the service, were unable to live in 1695. either by war or labor; things were man­ From remote antiquity disarmed and aged so that in their state of misery they maimed soldiers excited general commis­ wanted nothing either for their maintenance eration and were provided for in various or care.” ways, by pensions, assignment of lands, By the establishment of the Maison etc. The reasons for founding asylums for royale de la Charite Chretienne in 1600, the them are obvious and are often men­ droit d’oblat was practically abolished. In tioned; economy, repression of beggary virtue of this right the kings attached dis­ and control of vices that were especially abled and aged officers and soldiers to con­ prevalent among discharged mercenaries.11 vents as lay brothers, who rendered service No permanent means were taken, however, by ringing the bells and sweeping the other than civil hospitals, to preserve the chambers. It had been exercised since the soldier temporarily disabled in active service, beginning of the Carlovingian race (752- or in time of peace, until enlistment became 987). The conception of a house in common universally established for a period longer for infirm soldiers is older than SuIIy’s than the duration of a war, and when offi­ institution. Philip Augustus of France cers became irremovable and dependent (1165-1223), St. Louis in 1260, the charter on the sovereign; until a regular royal mili­ of the chevaliers de I’Etoile in 1352, contem­ tary service was organized having greater plated it; Mary of England left a pro­ cohesion, better discipline and administra­ vision in her will, 1558, for such a retreat, tive departments, than were possessed by but no attention was paid to it, and the the so-called standing armies before the mother of Henry III. of France in 1563 17th century. For France, Richelieu is promised it. Many private individuals fol­ credited with the first system of sedentary lowed the example, among them Sir Thomas hospitals on the frontier near the scene of Coningsby, who founded a relief for worn- war, at Pignerol,12 (1630) for the army in out soldiers in Hereford in 1614. The Italy. They were all placed directly under Maison decayed insensibly under Louis the superintendence of a chirm gien-maj or XIII., a pension of 100 Iivres was substi­ des camps et armees, the first appearance tuted in place of the oblat, and after an­ of this title. Other nations,—Austria, Prus­ other ineffectual attempt by the organization sia, Denmark and Sweden,—continued to of the Commandery of St. Louis in 1633, furnish treatment for sick and wounded the Invalides, proposed in 1659, was finally soldiers in quarters and tents, exceptionally started in 1676. In England Chelsea was in civil hospitals, until the middle of the foreshadowed by the fourth of the Articles 18th centufy. The persistence of regimental for his M ajesty’s Guard, 1663, and com­ hospitals in England and America to the menced operations in 1682; Kilmainham in beginning of the present century, is a relic of the company methods of the 16th cen- 11 In the time of Henry II. and Francis II. disabled soldiers and widows went to Fontainebleau to de­ mand, not pensions, for these were not yet in vogue, It was found during the reign of Louis X III. but assistance. The cardinal Minister Claude de Lor­ that the soldiers dissipated their pension and lived raine, for an answer, caused to be trumpeted that in misery the rest of the time. (Histoire de I’botel those who came to seek relief must leave in twenty- des Invalides, in Archives curieuses etc., par Danjon, four hours, under pain of being hanged, and he 2d series.) actually had a gibbet erected for the purpose under 12 About 70 miles from Casal, the seat of the final the window of the king himself. (Audouin, Histoire military operations. The building was standing in de l’administration de la guerre.) 1858. M ilitary Sanitation 289 tury. Permanent, or garrison, and port, or ment of 2,200 men sent by James I., 1620, naval, hospitals soon followed the seden­ to the Palatinate, was accompanied by tary in France (probably an outcome of medical officers, but there was no allow­ epidemics), but nowhere else, and were ance for medicines or hospitals in the esti­ prominent among the military reforms of mates, though made by experienced officers, Louvois undertaken with the aid of Mar­ and, consequently, it suffered much from tinet and Dumetz, and dating from 1666, privation. The original plan for the expe­ Vauban designating places for hospitals dition contemplated two physicians, two in all the captured towns of Alsace and surgeons and two apothecaries on the staff Flanders, which he fortified. of the general; one surgeon to a regiment The crude field system of the 16th cen­ of 1,800 men with pay of captain, and one tury was limited to the company infirmary surgeon to each company of 150 men, with with the occasional help of civil hospitals. pay of ensign; one surgeon to the general SuIIy’s establishment at the siege of Amiens, of horse, one to each cavalry troop of 100 1597, was an improvement on this, but was men, and one surgeon to the ordnance not, as has been stated, the first ambulance and pioneers.14 hospital.13 It had more of the character of The English contingent of 12,000 foot a field hospital, was supported by a tax and 200 horse to Count Mansfeld’s expedi­ on sutlers, tavern-keepers, haberdashers, tion to the Netherlands, 1624, was likewise tailors and shoemakers in the train of the provided with surgeons, but owing to in­ army, and was so well directed by Pigray, competency or want of supplies it lost a pupil of Pare and the king’s physician- one-half of its men from contagious dis­ surgeon, that officers preferred to be treated eases. The scarcity of surgeons compelled there. This was, nevertheless, the first im­ Charles I. to issue a mandate, 1628, to the pulse given to a change of former methods Surgeon’s Company to “ impress sixteen and to the development of organization, on able and efficient chirurgeons” for the force military models, for the care of sick and of 4,000 men collected for the relief of wounded soldiers, whether on the field or Rochelle. In 1630 the Scotch troops in Swe­ at sieges. den, 12,000 men, had four surgeons to a Throughout Europe the condition of the regiment, they being reckoned among the soldier and officer began to improve at the staff officers, who took priority over the beginning of the century, and with it the line. About this period there was introduced quality and number of surgeons; though in the army in Ireland the rank of physi­ medical attendance was not yet deemed a cian-general, surgeon-general in the East soldier’s right or even a department of India service, regimental surgeon in the State. army and surgeon’s mate in the navy. In England more interest was taken in As early as 1614 there was improvement military matters generally, and officers in the navy, and to Woodall, originally were imported to instruct the militia, there an army surgeon, were due the assignment being no standing army proper. Much of surgeons to the East India ships, outfits confusion prevailed in sanitation. A regi­ sisting of 13 companies, one being the colonel’s; 13 A similar field hospital was established at the the 12 had 144 privates each, the colonel’s 192; siege of Rouen, 1591, and in the same year an edict each company had a surgeon; on the regimental was issued taxing wines and ciders of tavern-keep­ staff was a chief surgeon, who was also surgeon of ers, the proceeds to be applied to the care of wounded the colonel’s company; each cavalry troop had 70 soldiers. cuirassiers and 30 carbineers with one surgeon.— 14 Another account describes a regiment as con- Colburn s United Service Magazine, 1836, part 3. 290 A n n a l s of Medical History of medicine chests, and the introduction a stipulated amount to support the regi­ of lime juice for the prevention and cure mental medicine chest; both were liable to of scurvy. Not until 1660 do we find a be called by the company barbers, the purely military expression of interest in physician only in severe cases.15 During the hygiene of troops, and that by Sir the first years of the century this was, James Turner. During the civil war the likewise, the status in the Saxon army, in character of the soldiery was necessarily which nursing, by the consent of the com­ of a higher order than usual. In the parlia­ manding officers, was still done by camp mentary ranks Sydenham rose to a captain­ women who accompanied the soldiers in cy and subsequently became the greatest the march, the regulation prescribing that observer of medical facts of modern times. they should be neither “ lewd nor sus­ On the royal side served Harvey, the dis­ pected.” Not until 1683 was there a head coverer of the circulation of the blood, as to the surgical personnel, a staff physician physician to the king, and Wiseman, the in the cortege of the general, whose duty best English surgeon of his day. The pro­ it was to look after the proper arrangement verbial conservatism of the English is no­ of the hospitals and superintend the barbers where shown so well as in the retention of and apothecaries therein. There were also crossbowmen in their armies as late as 1672. a staff field-barber and field apothecary in Among the Germans the soldiers of the the same body. The rank of all these is duchy of Brandenburg (united with that supposed, by Froelich, from their pay and of Prussia, 1611) were at first in a wretched rations, to have been that of ensign. The condition. They were not provided with a physicians and surgeons furnished their commissary, and in 1620, when Branden­ own mounts, and received forage; the burg raised troops, they received the privi­ apothecary was allowed six horses and lege of begging through the country; the two wagons. Toward the end of the century peasantry were ordered to give each sol­ there appears a general staff surgeon, and dier a farthing every time he begged and the regimental barber’s rank was then a good thrashing with a stout cudgel, if he fixed among the officers, but that of the was not satisfied. The few permanent company barber was still between quarter­ troops before 1653,—the Elector’s body master sergeant and corporal. That the guard of 100 men and several companies social and official position of medical men of Landesknechte distributed among various was then improved is shown by the fact strongholds,—grew in that year to 52 that a captain of horse, Gehema, became troops of cavalry and 82 companies of in­ physician to the Brandenburg Guard. In fantry, and in 1656 to a force of 25,000 his capacity as an officer of the line he had men. The system of company field-barbers observed the faults of the sanitary service, remained; those of the infantry were particularly manifest in the character of equipped and armed like other soldiers, the field physician and subordinates and though their rank was gradually raised; of medical supplies, and he made vigorous, they received, besides their pay, a small but almost ineffectual, efforts to reform sum from each man, “ basin-money,” them. Minderer, a Bavarian, was an es­ for shaving twice a week. Each regiment teemed writer, 1620, on military medicine, had a physician on its staff and a field- including hygiene of troops and camps, and barber, who got from each soldier monthly Purmann, surgeon-major in the Branden­ burg army, published a celebrated treatise 15 Eventually a general oversight, only in time of war, was given to the physicians of the guard, thus sicians were the first Prussian surgeons-general, be­ making the organization more of a unit. These phy- ginning with Brandhorst. M ilitary Sanitation 291 on military surgery in 1680. The medical the latter half of the century, there was no organization throughout Germany, how­ surgeon of any merit or reputation, who had ever, continued to be so poor that soldiers not served in the armies, such service being perished in numbers; as late as 1685-87, of the readiest means of obtaining employ­ 3,000 men sent by Saxony to aid Venice in ment. Instances are recorded of men from the Morea only 761 returned. the rank of private rising to distinction in It is natural to infer from the number science and in medicine and surgery, no­ and variety of military medical institutions tably the philosopher Descartes, whose in France, that there was greater advance­ mathematical and physical discoveries and ment in the quality and numbers of the physiological observations place him among personnel. Before the invention of seden­ the promoters of medical science, and tary hospitals for armies in the field, Rich­ Jacques Beaulieu, a famous Iithotomist. elieu began to improve the field hospitals, Richelieu also organized the administrative first at the siege of Rochelle, 1627, by at­ departments generally,17 and the details of taching to them persons whose duty it was the edicts affecting them were admirable, to distribute bouillons and medicines, even though experimental and not always suc­ to those who could or would not seek their cessful in results. During the retreat, in aid. There was as yet no uniformity in 1635, of the army of la Valette on the the assignment of physicians and surgeons,16 Rhine, the hospitals were still unorganized but they became more an official part of and there was no transport service for the the army. In 1638 he published an ordi­ wounded. It was on this occasion that the nance, which is considered, by Morache, young Turenne having, as was customary, as the foundation of true ambulances. several carts loaded with personal baggage, Like the system adopted at the siege above plate, etc., ordered the contents to be thrown mentioned it provided Jesuits and cooks to away and the carts filled with wounded; he give potages and bouillons to the sick who also picked up bodily a wounded soldier and did not want to go to the field or sedentary tied him on his own horse, which he led to hospitals, and a surgeon and apothecary;— a place of shelter. The medical service ex­ a large army was to have 4 priests, a lay cited in 1667 the personal interest of brother and a cook with 5 assistants, 2 Louis X IV . so much that he sent for three wagons with food and six sheep;—small of the most skilled surgeons of Paris for armies, 3 priests, a cook with 3 assistants, the army in Flanders,—Turbiere, to whom 1 wagon and three sheep. The priests were was first given the title of chirmgien-major to look after the spiritual welfare of the consultant des camps et armees, Bienaise, re­ sick. The majority of surgeons of hospitals nowned as the most intrepid operator of and regiments were members of the College the century, and Gayant, who was the of St. Come, Paris; and Percy says that in first surgeon to be admitted to the Acad-

16 Thus, this year, 2 surgeons to the Chevaux Iarger rations at the expense of the municipalities: Lagers,—212 men; 1 to a company of Mousquetaires, daily for each man, 2 pounds of bread, 1 pound of — 343 men; 2 surgeons and 1 physician to the meat, salt, vinegar, and one pint of wine, fuel for guards,— 4,602 men; 1 physician and no surgeon to light and heating, and the loan of table linen, a the Suisses,— 2,516 men; 1 surgeon to the Gardes du bowl and a glass;— forage was also to be supplied Corps,— 145 men; many organizations had neither to the horses. During the campaign the system of physician nor surgeon. contracts on a large scale was followed to furnish 17 Troops in garrison were supplied with bread in everything including transports, the contractor kind by a contractor, its cost being withheld from being represented by a general des vivres, who had the pay. Troops on the march were supplied with under him a large personnel. 2 9 2 Annals of > Medical History

emy of Sciences.18 By 1674 it had so grown being of sheep-skin, excepting those of the and was so well managed that at the battle cuirasseurs, who had simple breastplates. of Seneffe, the Intendant Robert could dis­ The infantry company was in six ranks, tribute in three villages 230 military sur­ the cavalry in four and two squadrons. geons assisted by nurses, with the necessary The artillery pieces differed in calibre, the material to care for an exceptionally large novel feature being the field-guns worked number of wounded. In 1683 it was ordered by the infantry. These consisted of a thinly that during a campaign the sick be lodged beaten cylinder of copper, the chamber before the officers. reinforced by four bands of iron, and the The Thirty Years’ War brought Sweden whole wound by rope and covered with into prominence as a military nation, and rawhide;—they were mounted on carriages its most brilliant achievement was the last so light that two men could drag and campaign of Gustavus Adolphus, beginning manipulate a gun, and they were very slow June, 1630, by the landing in Pomerania in heating. The effects of this artillery are of an army of 8,000 men, reinforced at first graphically described by Munro, a surgeon by six Scotch regiments, about 7,000 men. of McKay’s Scotch regiment. Of this force both regiments and companies “ It is thought the invention of cannon of infantry and cavalry varied in the num­ was first found at Nuremberg for the ser­ ber of men. The differences were more vice of man; being at first, for a long marked in the infantry,19 but four surgeons time, used for battering down of walls were always among the regimental staff and cities, and for counter-batteries, till officers of both arms, as well as a quarter­ at last they were used in the field to master (ranking between major and cap­ break the squadrons and battailles of tain), a provost (and his archers), a re­ horse and foot; some carrying pieces corder, two chaplains, eight sutlers and a called spignards, of four foot and a halfe drum-major. All soldiers had swords, long long, that shot many bullets at once no swords or sabres. Two-thirds of the foot greater than walnuts; — and how soon were armed with matchlock muskets, the the trumpet did sounde, the enemy were forked rest being suppressed, and cartridge thundered on, first with these as with boxes instead of shoulder belts; and one- showers of hailstone, so that the enemies third with pikes 11 feet long, the iron part were cruelly affrighted with them, men being 2 feet long and 4 inches broad at of valour being suddenly taken away, the widest part. The cuirasseurs had car­ who before were wont to fight valiantly bines and two pistols each, the dragoons, and long with sword and lance, more for or light cavalry, light muskets and axes. the honour of victory than for any desire Armor was then falling into disuse, because of shedding of blood; but now men were it could be easily penetrated by the heavy martyrised and cut down at more than bullets;—the head only was specially pro­ half a mile of distance by these firearms tected by a helmet or iron cap, the jackets and thundering engines of great cannon that sometimes shote fiery bullets able to 18 Gui Patin, Lettres, who had no special regard for surgeons as a class, speaks of them in the highest 19 From a note found among the papers of Axel terms, and adds that it was rumored that the king Oxenstiern, dated 1632, it appears that some regi­ at the same time had sent for a good physician to ments had 12 companies and 1,787 men; others, 11 govern the army hospitals. It was the custom then, companies and 1,533 men; others, 13 companies and it lasted many years thereafter, for physicians and 1,940 men; others, 12 companies and 1,824 men. to superintend the work of surgeons, there being Since 1614 the company had varied from 120 to the greatest distinction between the two. 140 men. M ilitary Sanitation m

burne whole cities, castles, houses or of death;—quarrels over spoils were pun­ bridges, where they chance to fall;—and ished by seizure of the goods, which were if they happen to light within walls or devoted to the “ next hospital’’;—civil amongst a brigade of foot or horse, as hospitals, except when used for offensive they did at Leipsigh on the grave Van purposes, were expressly reserved from Torne his brigadd, they spoil a number pillage, as also churches, schools and mills;— at once, as doubtless, the devilish inven­ churchmen, the aged, maids and children tion did within WaIestine.,, were shielded; ordnance, munitions of war The opposing imperial infantry regiments and food were to be left for the use of the had 6 companies of 300 men, each company army, exempted from pillage, and one tenth having a surgeon.20 One half of the soldiers of his spoil each soldier was to give to the had very heavy matchlocks, a forked rest sick and wounded in the hospitals. 4 feet long and a sabre of the same length, Billeting was at its height, and the custom the cartridges being carried in metal or was to leave the sick, wounded, prisoners wood boxes on a leather shoulderbelt;— and heavy baggage in a captured town with the other half had pikes 15 to 18 feet long a small garrison, the disabled to be treated and swords;—both had helmets, but the in the civil hospitals. This was often diffi­ pikemen had breastplates and mailed cult, as appears from an edict of the aprons as well. They were in 10 ranks. A Elector John George of Saxony, for Dres­ cavalry regiment had 5 companies of 100 den, after the battle of Leipsic, Sept., men each, and no surgeon is mentioned in 1631, mentioned by Froehlich. Wagons were its organization;—the cuirasseurs were used in both armies for carrying the weighted down by complete armor, a long wounded, and an instance is related of a sword and two pistols and fought in 8 badly wounded prisoner being transported ranks;—the carabineurs had pistols, sabres to Pappenheim’s quarters on two pikes.21 and carbines, helmets and breastplates, in Gustavus made it a rule to gather the 5 or 6 ranks, and the dragoons, in the same enemy’s wounded and bring them to camp, number of ranks, were like the infantry, whence they were sent to hospitals in the except that they were mounted and had neighboring towns. He was anticipated in a lighter musket. Drills and exercises in this by Henry IV. of France during his this army were very minute and manoeuvres campaign in Flanders, where he commanded were very slow. besides that the wounded prisoners receive At this period troops subsisted mainly on without distinction the same treatment as the country and plunder, but Gustavus his own men. Indeed, the sentiment of hu­ Adolphus made efforts to deprive his cam­ manity toward an afflicted enemy, though paigns of the appearance of incursions;— far from universal, was not uncommonly he combined his troops in marching, fight­ exhibited during the Thirty Years’ War, ing and feeding, established magazines and and several instances are related as antici­ distributed daily rations of bread and meat. pating in a measure the Geneva Conven­ There was no separate commissary officer, tion. At the siege of Domitz by the Swedes, each general acting in that capacity. His 1631, under Colonel Lohansen, in the ar­ Articles of War are very explicit, prohib­ ticles of capitulation there was one to iting pillage without leave under penalty flight. Recent researches disprove this, for which see 20 Some writers assert that the imperial armies Baas, Hist, of Medicine, 17th century. had no surgeons;— all seem to base their opinion 21 This method is mentioned in the Chronique de on the anecdote of Tilly being wounded at Leipsic Bay art as having been offered to the chevalier when and compelled to seek a surgeon at Halle in his he received his mortal wound, but was declined. 294 Annals of Medical History supply wagons for the transport of the toward the end of the century were sown sick along with the garrison retiring with the seeds that made the 18th century, in the honors of war. And in 1636 there was this and all other respects, the most note­ an agreement made between John George worthy of modern times. of Saxony and the representatives of the king of Sweden at the surrender of Magde­ PRINCIPAL AUTHORITIES burg, that the sick were to be left in the Grimoard, Histoire des conquetes de Gustave Adolj, city and when cured to be given passes 1789. Gustave Adolf, Lettres et memoires, etc., 1790. to return to their regiments. The same Chassignet, Essai historique sur les‘ institutions mil- compact was made at Gorlitz, 1641, between itaires, 1869. Morache, Article, Service de Santi in the same parties. Diet. Encyclop. des sciences medical, 1874. Gore, Surg. Major, The story of our services to the Crown. The career of Gustavus was terminated Froelich, Militarmedicin. Froelich, Geschichte des at Liitzen, 1632, by a ball traversing his Kong. Sachs. Sanitats-korps. Baas, Grundniss der breast, his arm having been first broken Geschichte der Medicin. Sicard, Histoire des institu­ by a bullet, which fact he hid from his tions militaires des Frangais. Daniel, Histoire de la soldiers. His military talents placed him milice Frangaise. Grose, Military antiquities. among the greatest generals of this century so prolific in warriors, and his example in PART III.---THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY caring for his soldiers, sick and well, had The Battle of Fontenoy their influence, no doubt, on his political ally, Richelieu, and others, and thus served The administrative services for armies to bring forth organized means for their were of very slow and irregular growth welfare when disabled in action. prior to the 18th century in France, where Epidemics of all kinds were very frequent they originated, and in other countries, during the century, though not always in notwithstanding the spirit of imitation the train of its incessant wars, yet typhus and improvement which seems to be so and dysentery were often due to the gen­ universal even in our day. They then be­ eral misery of the people consequent on came an affair of government, and before war. Scurvy principally prevailed in the its close, when armies assumed more of a armies engaged in the Thirty Years’ War. national character, everything pertaining Considering the opportunities of the period, to the life of a soldier was of as much con­ it has been observed, as a curious fact, that cern to the State as now. Popular interest, the century was very unproductive of too, was excited to such an extent that, epidemiological works; yet there were pub­ long before the French Revolution, discus­ lished no less than 28 first editions on sions on tactical subjects were so frequent these diseases in armies, including 2 naval and violent in the salons of Paris that the and 10 on particular diseases, by military court and fashionable world were divided authors. It is also remarkable that from into two camps. Grievous faults in organiza­ the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War tion and practice lasted through the cen­ for fifty years very little military medical tury and remains of the old, severely criti­ literature of any kind appeared;—only 8 cised and generally unsuccessful methods, original works on surgery, nearly all un­ yet exist in some armies. Still, these ser­ important, and 9 on diseases, out of a vices then became to the general of as great total for the century of 34 on surgery, in importance as his plans for a campaign. contrast with 45 for the 16th century; The history of their development is volumi­ 2 on hygiene, 1 on the simulation of disease nous and very interesting to the military and 2 on medical organization. Especially student. Two especially curious features M ilitary Sanitation 295 are to be observed. There is no natural exacted. The Prussian regulations of 1788 order of time or succession in the births for the first time order real examinations of departments, or in the evolution of the by the regimental and battalion surgeons; details of each, particularly of the medical, before that date violence and deceit noto­ and, what appears to be a good reason for riously prevailed to fill the ranks. this, most advances were made by circum­ Billeting, onerous to the civilian and stances impelling individual endeavor be­ subversive of discipline for the soldier, was fore the State acted. the common usage until it was so modified All known methods of securing men for that it was practically abolished before the the ranks were tried at one time or another. end of the century.22 Although barracks, Voluntary enlistment was everywhere en­ in rare instances, had been constructed in couraged more than before, and, with the France in the previous century and a uni­ evident intent of making the soldier’s po­ form type had been designed by Vauban sition more honorable, it was declared for and futile ordinances issued for their erec­ fixed periods, first by Venice in 1766. tion, they really date from the early years This had been done at times for certain of the 18th century, the first, in most purposes, as by England in 1755, for continental countries as well, having been three years, but the understanding that built at the instance and expense of munici­ enlistment was for life or until discharge palities, to avert the charge of lodging from by order, existed on all other occasions, the poor inhabitants, the wealthier classes until 1775. Marshal Saxe was a strenuous being nearly all exempted. The number of advocate of a limited period as early as casernes was greatly increased and their 1732. In the beginning, from whatever plans very much improved during the reign source coming, the recruit underwent the of Louis XVI., and in 1818 their construc­ inspection of his captain only, as to phys­ tion was assigned to the engineers. England ical and other qualifications, and, conse­ began in 1739, by erecting low, ill-venti­ quently, there was no uniformity in this lated houses that bred disease, and these respect except as to height and age, which were used before Pitt interested the State were prescribed by law. From 1726 to 1775 in the matter, building large barracks to in France a medical examination began the such an extent that the expense became a ceremony of admitting a person in the pro­ political issue. The obligation of cities to vincial militia, from which the ranks of the shelter troops was in force in Prussia as army were filled according to necessity, late as 1810, when the government assumed and in 1763, to each of thirty-two regi­ it. Regularly laid out modern camps, on ments of recruits then organized was as­ the ancient Roman model, and the conse­ signed a surgeon, who was required to in­ quent good order of everything relating quire into the physical aptitude, in the thereto, date from Martinet, whose plan presence of the commissary of war. In 1778 Louis X IV . adopted in orders, 1667. The an inspector-general of recruiting for for­ habitations of soldiers and their accessories eign service was appointed in England but was a favorite theme among writers on the there was no medical examination until Art of War,—Feuquiere, Frederick the 1790, and then by reason, apparently, of Great, Saxe, etc.,—and the hygienic de- the complaints of regimental surgeons abroad, and no written attestation of it 22 It is now legal in France, in certain cases, as during a general mobilization, when barracks would before the last year of the century. As be insufficient. It was prohibited in England in 1745 early as 1745 rupture disqualified, by act except on licensed victualers, but lasted in Scotland of Parliament, no professional opinion being as late as 1857. 2 9 6 Annals of Medical History tails were discussed by every military med­ French officers generally, prescribed, in ical writer, especially worthy of note being marching orders, rules to govern its con­ Pringle, 1752, Brocklesby, 1764, Monro, sumption. The standard daily allowance 1764, and Colombier, 1772. was 24 oz. wheat bread,25 1 lb. of meat and Nor was the sanitary condition of the one pint of wine or two of beer. The bread soldiers neglected in the matter of clothing, was sometimes increased to 28 oz. and the the literature of the subject being meagre, cavalryman’s ration was one-half again as however, to this day. The hair, hat, stock­ large, as a rule. In England bread seems to ings, shoes, coats, breeches were all criti­ have been issued always by contractors; cised in the minutest particular by Saxe, there was a stoppage for it, however, while who cared more for the soldier than any other articles were sold by officers at ad­ other general, and gradually reformed on vanced and often exorbitant prices, and as lines laid down by him, according to Des- pay was irregular, the result may be im­ genettes, his commentator. Uniformity was agined. Frederick the Great instructed his introduced in France 1670-1679, among generals to supply bread 2 lbs. daily, and the improvements of Louvois, the soldier meat 2 lbs. weekly, free during a campaign. before that time wearing a shoulder belt In 1799 the issue was made in France at over a steel breastplate and ordinary dress. the expense of the government, and not Its supply as a source of profit was taken deducted from the pay of the soldier. The from the officers in 1729,23 yet in 1779 the Russian troops made their own bread long war minister, St. Germain, complained before this. Subsistence details were placed, that soldiers were poorly clad, more for in Richelieu’s time, in the hands of civil­ theatrical effect, and with no reference to ians, who were directly under the minis­ health. The first English regulation for ters, and it thus happened that both mili­ clothing was issued in 1751, and Frederick tary operations and generals were subject William began the reform in Prussia. It to them. Guibert says that this system of was not until the French Revolution that brigandage was at its height in 1757, and a permanent interest became manifest and soldiers in all armies suffered from insuffi­ only after that period, except incidentally, cient quantity and bad quality. There were by medical authors. no regular commissaries in England before Every commander who recorded his ex­ 1787, the contract system prevailing, and periences or opinions, from Turenne to even the great Marlborough was suspected Napoleon, including the eccentric Suwar- of sharing profits obtained by fraud in the row,24 recognized the hygienic importance supply of food. The vice lasted in all coun­ of food, and has something to say about it. tries, notwithstanding the often expressed A few, like Rutowsky and Maillebois, and wishes of the generals and orders of govern-

23 The custom lasted in England until 1858. in warm water or Iicquorice root. In high fevers eat 24 A book, “ Discourse upon the Trigger,” attrib­ nothing even for twelve days, but drink small beer uted to him, was sent by the Russian government as much as you please. In intermitting fevers, to every regiment in the service. It contains these neither eat nor drink. In hospital the first day the rules for diet. “ Have a dread of the hospital. Ger­ bed is soft, the second comes French soup, and man physic stinks from afar, is good for nothing the third you are laid in your coffin; one dies and ten and rather hurtful. A Russian is not used to it; mess­ of his companions inhale his expiring breath. For the mates know where to find roots and herbs. A soldier healthy, drink, air and food; for the sick, air, drink is beyond all price; take care of your health, scour and food.” the stomach when it is foul; hunger is the best med­ 25 Rye bread was issued in Queen Anne’s time icine. If loose bowels want food, at sunset a little but discarded because of a notion that it caused nourishment; for costive bowels some purging plant dysentery. M ilitary Sanitation 297 ment and in spite of warnings by medical separate and elaborated amphitheatres, officers. The work of Lind for seamen is to 1775, *n Saxony, 1748, as a part of the be especially commended. Toward the end of Collegium Medico-Chirurgicum of Prussia, the century we find such expert opinion 1719, distinct in 1795, and in Austria, the more highly regarded, and physicians and Josephinum, 1784. How much of this was surgeons appear on boards constituted to due to individual effort is shown by the inquire into the subject of articles of diet. fact that Desoteux established, with the Special hospital diet did not originate until aid of his colonel, a school of surgery in in the last half of it. his regiment that became celebrated; it The transport service, personal cleanli­ had regularly about sixty pupils, many of ness, marches, drills and exercises attracted whom became distinguished surgeons and the attention of both military and medical even professors in the faculty. And in 1766, writers, special works and orders appearing, through the exertions of Richard de Haute- and all these subjects were treated more or sierck, inspector of hospitals, appeared in less under the now very common head of France the first journal devoted exclu­ means of preserving the health of soldiers. sively to military medicine, though before This growing general interest in military this Schaarschmidt and Henkel, military sanitary matters greatly improved the con­ physicians, edited publications on medical dition of the soldier, and when they became matters in general, the former from 1708 a part of the duty of medical officers the to 1749, the latter from 1747 to 1772. But position of these was more elevated and the greatest and most beneficial institution respected. Only physicians who were Uni­ of the century was the Academie royale de versity graduates, and surgeons, were at Chirurgie, founded 1731, at the instigation first considered of sufficient importance to of de la Martiniere. Five of its seven be given the rank and uniform of officers, officers, and one-half of the forty members but before the beginning of the 19th cen­ nominated by the king, and of the associate tury, assistants, mates, etc., were com­ members, were prominent military surgeons missioned, and surgeons were considered who served in the field, and more than one- the equals of physicians. Officers of the line third of the authors of papers and observa­ like Robert Jackson transferred to the med­ tions contained in 4 volumes of memoirs, ical staff, and from the medical staff, like 1743-68, were in the army or navy. Charles Bisset, to the engineers. Hospital With the exception of the last decade, affairs began to be governed like military, which was the most eventful, brilliant and the French in 1718 setting the example by fertile epoch in the entire history of mili­ the adoption of medical regulations estab­ tary medicine, the most interesting period lishing discipline, defining duties and ex­ of the century is that between the origin acting reports; then followed a system of of the Academy and the publication of inspections and the creation of a depart­ the second volume of its transactions in ment with a chief subordinate directly to 1753. Within this period were conceived, the minister of war. Probably the first signed and operated the celebrated articles English regulations were issued in 1762 affecting the neutrality of hospitals, be­ by Robert Gordon at Winchester camp tween Lord Stair and the Duke de Noailles.' with the approval of Brocklesby. To meet The official correspondence of the latter the demands of new responsibilities it soon with his king and d’Argenson, the minister became apparent that a special training of war, credit the first suggestion to Stair, was needed, and schools were founded, in but there is good authority for the belief France at army and naval hospitals, 1718, that Pringle, chief physician of the English 298 Annals of Medical History army, inspired the proposition, many cir­ The Marquis de Feuquiere has much to cumstances after the battle of Dettingen, say concerning the administration of fixed 1743, bringing about a favorable condition and movable hospitals at the beginning of of mind in both armies. With the campaign the century. He mentions nothing similar ended the agreement;—a similar arrange­ to what took place, probably for the first ment for all time was advocated by Monro, time, at Fontenoy. Randby, the last royal Peyrilhe, Percy, surgeons, and Chamousset, household surgeon to be present with the intendant-general, and proposed on occa­ English king in active service, is credited sions, as by Moreau to the Austrian General with the first suggestion, but he made it Kray. In 1820 the subject was revived, after Dettingen, in the form of a recom­ and again in 1864 by Henri Dumant, a mendation, and I can find no such actual Geneva philanthropist, and it resulted fi­ organization in the British army before nally in the adoption of the present articles. 1748, when are mentioned flying, fixed and During this time the number of permanent also convalescent hospitals. The custom military hospitals in France increased rap­ was, as described in Marlborough’s time, idly; there was established the first special to extend the order of battle in front of the hospital for officers and soldiers at the hot tents, behind which were placed the sur­ springs of Bourbonne; new regulations en­ geons to await the arrival of the wounded. couraging the spirit of detail and subordina­ Both English and French generals com­ tion in all these institutions were promul­ plained of the sick and wounded interfering gated, and the selection of the personnel with military movements during and after and its payment were first made by the an engagement. Randby’s project was, that State. In the English army in active ser­ when an army was ranged for battle, the vice abroad, hospital comforts were sup­ surgeon-majors of three or four regiments plied so far beyond anything heretofore posted side by side, should unite with their extended to the soldiers that there arose a assistants under the same tent, taking sta­ lengthy correspondence between the Duke tion at the rear guard, according to the of Cumberland and the home authorities orders of the general:—the wounded were with reference to the additional expenditure to be carried to these points, and by these incurred. Humanity, Fonblanque says, had means the surgeons could assist each other not yet become an element in British mili­ and do their duty with diligence and ex­ tary economy. Austria, Prussia, Denmark actitude. He then deplores the actual and Sweden attempted the introduction of method of carrying wounded from point the French system of hospitals in their ar­ to point without any system and much to mies. Questions in surgery began then to be their detriment. discussed in a comprehensive and scientific We are indebted to Bagieu, a distin­ manner, as never before, the battle-fields guished French military surgeon, for a few of Dettingen and Fontenoy especially fur­ scant particulars, which are given casually nishing ample material from which practical for the purpose of elucidating a surgical deductions were made by many surgeons, question. He says that “ in battles there is and their differences brought to light de­ an ambulance hospital, more or less within tails that single individual experience had reach of the place where an engagement failed to give to the world. Then, too, was occurs, where the surgeon-major and other first formed the germ of an organization surgeons hold themselves in readiness. This for the prompt relief of wounded on the is the first depot where wounded are col­ field, that finally developed into the present lected, from whence they are carried to ambulance system. hospitals in the nearest towns, and thence M ilitary Sanitation 299 to cities farther removed when these be­ Scheldt opposite the field, to cover the re­ come crowded. It is rare that surgical op­ treat of the French king. All arms were erations are performed on the field proper, engaged at one time or another, the artil­ that is, at the place where wounds are in­ lery opening the battle, and at the critical flicted, and still more rare are amputations moment, supported by cavalry, saving the performed. The light wounded betake them­ day for the French, an occurrence said to selves to the ambulance station, the dan­ have been the first combination of the two gerously wounded are carried there on arms in history. litters/’ With the village of Fontenoy toward the The place occupied by the ambulance is right of the French centre, the length of the thus described: “ Sometimes, as at Fon- line that bore the brunt of the battle was tenoy, it is in the open field, commonly about 1,200 yards, and the width, of what it is in some village, more rarely in the was practically a closed field, was 2,000 cities, and nearly always sufficiently distant yards. The point where the English and from the place of combat.” He also dis­ Hanoverians massed their attack was on the cusses litters, mentions a horse litter im­ left of the village, including it eventually, provised by the great surgeon, J. L. Petit, and it was here that the terrible slaughter praises transportation by water, accom­ of the French infantry nearly won a victory plished on a considerable scale after Det- for the allies. Surgeons were posted on the tingen, and gives the detailed structure of first line, as is proved by the fact that a wagon specially designed for carrying while the English were advancing on the wounded. regiment stationed nearest Fontenoy, the With the aid of other writers the ar­ French lieutenant-general Futtaux was rangements at Fontenoy can be pictured. wounded, and his aide implored him to The contending forces, allied English, have his wound first dressed before going Dutch, Hanoverians and Austrians, 55,000, to report to the king. The regiments of and the French, 60,000, were organized Hainaut and Dillon were, in the beginning, very much alike; foot battalions of five on the French left, and which moving toward companies containing 100 to 140 men the centre to stay the English by an attack each, two to four battalions making a regi­ in the flank, lost heavily. It is stated by ment numbering 1,000 to 2,700 men, the Boucher that on the field itself amputa­ English battalions being slightly largest; tions were performed on wounded of these cavalry, in squadrons of about 100 men regiments, it is inferred, at the ambulance each. As at this time each infantry regi­ hospitals, which were, at the furthest, about ment had a surgeon and mate or assistant, 2,000 yards from the front line. After the it is estimated that the allies had about battle these ambulances were evacuated forty regimental medical officers, the French and the wounded carried on caissons and as many; the cavalry of both armies had carts to cities in the rear, principally to none. There was on both sides a small Lille, 16 miles, and Douai, 20 miles distant, number of physicians, one usually to a where an immense number of surgical op­ garrison of about 10,000 men, and army erations were performed at hospitals estab­ surgeons. The infantry were armed with lished for the purpose, the civil hospitals, flintlock muskets and bayonets, the sword churches and private houses being used.26 having been abandoned about this time, 26 The following members or associates, or con­ and they worked the field pieces of artil­ tributors to the transactions, of the French Academy lery, the largest mentioned being a battery of Surgery were present: Boucher at Lille, where his of six 16-pounders on the bank of the River conduct is mentioned as beyond praise, Geraud, I

300 Annals of Medical History

A battle begun with an exchange of fencing umn, and ordered to take station at vil­ master’s compliments ought to have ter­ lages, each about 1,200 yards in rear of the minated by an exhibition of practical phi­ line of battle on the river Tanaro, where lanthropy, and Voltaire says that in these an engagement was expected. Two of these hospitals no comfort was wanting for the hospitals actually united opposite the centre wounded French or their prisoners. The of the line, which covered ground about zeal of civilians and soldiers was such that 6,000 yards long. And in the “ Art of War,” the surgeons were obliged to interfere, and by the Marechal de Puysegur, published in the hospitals were so well managed that 1749, a map for illustration shows the am­ officers preferred to be treated there. The bulance about 2,500 yards in rear of the allies carried 600 wounded twenty miles, first line. Excepting an untried project of to Ath, where a hospital was established Ravaton, very little improvement, on Rand- in the casernes; they left 1,200 in the hands by’s outline and Bagieu’s account, took of the French, who had of their own 4,000. place subsequently until Larry and Percy Here then, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, made their names immortal, not only for wounded soldiers were treated on the first the invention of details to rapidly relieve line by regimental surgeons; they were and remove wounded soldiers during battle collected at ambulance stations, where cap­ on a scale never equalled, but for their in­ ital operations were performed, then trans­ estimable contributions to operative mili­ ferred to hospitals prepared for them in near tary surgery. cities, and, when these became over­ crowded, to cities further away. A few PRINCIPAL AUTHORITIES months after this battle, Maillebois con­ ducted an army into Italy, his chief physi­ Saxe, Mes Reveries. Frederick the Great, Instruc­ tions militaires pour ses generaux. Comte de St. Ger­ cian being Baron, who was subsequently main, Memoires. Feuquiere, Memoires. Noailles, dean of the Faculty of Paris, and in nearly Campagne en Allemagne. Maillebois, Histoire des every daily order for marching and camping campagnes. Puysegur, Art de la guerre. Guibert, De is designated a place for the hospital am­ I’etat actuel de la politique et de la science militaire. bulant, usually on the march in rear of the Voltaire, Precis du siecle de Louis X V . Academie artillery with the treasure and provisions. royale de chirurgie, Memoires. Delorme, Traite de chirurgie de guerre. Morache, Hygiene militaire. The day before the battle of Bassignano, Fonblanque, Treatise on the administration and September 27, 1745, three ambulance hos­ organization of the British army. Audouin, Histoire pitals were organized, one for each col- de l’administration de la guerre.

Guffroy, PoIIet, Guerin, Vandergracht, Theri at douille had charge of the whole system of evacua­ field hospitals, Faure and Read at Valenciennes. tion of wounded on cities of the north of France; Garengeot was, I presume, with his regiment, du Ravaton was at one of these, and La Peyronie, its Roi, one of those at the centre of the conflict; An- President, operated on the field. A CHECK LIST OF MEDICAL INCUNABULA

IN THE SURGEON GENERAL’S LIBRARY, WASHINGTON, D. C., 1 9 1 8

HE following check list of incunabula ministration have succeeded in increasing in the Surgeon Generals Library is the number of our incunabula. Tcompiled not only for only for the convence This list is published in the A nnals of of the library, to enable us to state at a glance M edical H istory to give the material a what it possesses of early printed books, wider circulation among readers of medical flut also in the interest of the students of literature. I hope that other lists of the medical history. The list does not make a medical incunabula available in public and pretentious claim to bibliography. private libraries may be presented to the Dr. Arnold C. Klebs has in preparation public through this medium so that the a bibliography of all medical incunabula, files of the A nnals will eventually contain including those in our library and those in a complete bibliography of the medical other American libraries, in which the en­ incunabula in this country. tries will be given in full. As I have already stated in my paper C hampe C arter M cC ulloch “ On Incunabula,” published in the Bulletin Librarian 0/ the Medical Library Association, N. S., LIST OF INCUNABULA Vol. V, No. 1 (July, 1915), the first attempt at listing medical incunabula was made by 1. ABIOSUS, JOANNES. Trutina rerum the late J. Stockton Hough of Trenton, coelestium et terrestrium. [Venezia, New Jersey. J oannes R u beu s, a. 5 February, 1498.] It cannot be the aim of our library, just Quarto. as it cannot be the aim of any library, no Reichling, IV, p. 97. Hain 25. matter how large its endowment or ap­ 2. ABRAHAM BEN EZRA. De nativita- propriation, to own all the incunabula in tibus. Venezia, E rhard R atdolt, 24 existence, especially when one takes into December, 1485. Quarto. Bound with: account the fact that there are about 28,000 Prognosticon, etc. Venezia, 1485. of these rare volumes, and that in some Hain-Copinger *21. Proctor 4407. Pel- instances only a few copies have been pre­ Iechet 16. Walters p. 2. Redgrave served and in some, only one. Prof. Karl 46. Sudhoff, of Leipzig, estimated the number of medical incunabula at about 2,000. We 3. ABULCASIS. Liber servitoris. Venezia, are inclined to place the number much lower, N icolas J en sen , 14 7 1. Quarto. but refrain from giving any approximate Bound with: N icolaus. Antidotarium. figure. Pellechet 411. Proctor * 4075. Early printed books must be judged from 4. TXJIDIUS CORBOLIENSIS. De two points of view; first, from the standpoint pulsibus. Commentator: G en tilis de of the intrinsic value of the book itself, and, F ulgineo. Editor: A ven an tiu s M u - second, from a bibliographical standpoint. tius de C am erino. Padova, M at- This must be the guiding principle for a thaeus C erdonis, January, 1484. special library like ours, when making a Quarto. collection of incunabula. If possible, every printer and every town should be repre­ Hain * 103. Pellechet 64. Proctor sented by a good specimen dealing with the 6815. subject in which the library in question is 5. ^GIDIUS CORBOLIENSIS. Car­ most interested. men de urinis cum commentario. Car­ On this principle the incunabula for the men de pulsibus. Commentator: G en ­ library of the Surgeon General’s Office were tilis de F ulgineo. Editor: A ven an ­ collected; notwithstanding the limited tius de C am erino. Venezia, B ernar- means I have tried to enlarge our collection dinus de V italibu s, 16 February, 1494. of early printed books and during my ad­ Quarto. 301 302 Annals of Medical History

Hain * io i. Pellechet 62. Proctor primam. Ferrara, A ndreas B elfor- 5522. t is. 24 January, 1489. Folio. Imperfect. Hain 1552. Burger p. 340. Reichling 6. ALBERTUS MAGNUS. Liber aggre­ II, p. 118. gations de virtutibus herbarum. [Ant­ 15. ARCULANUS, JOANNES. Practica werp, M athias van der G oes, c. i486.] seu expositio in IX Iibrum Rhazis ad Quarto. Almansorem. Venezia, B ernardinus Campbell’s Annales 80+Supp. II, *80 Stagninus, 12 November, 1493. Folio. Burger p. 418. Hain-Copinger * 13899. 7. ALBERTUS MAGNUS. De animali- 16. ARCULANUS, JOANNES. Exposi­ bus. Venezia, J oannes & G regorius tio in Avicennse canonis quarti Fen onetus ocatel de G regoriis, 21 May, 1495. Lolio. primam. Venezia, B L - lu s, 27 October, 1496. Folio. Bound Hain * 547. Pellechet 341. Proctor with Gian Matteo Ferrari da Grado, 4541. 7502. 8. ALBERTUS MAGNUS. Liber aggre­ Hain-Copinger * 1553. CoIIijn Up- gations de virtutibus herbarum. sala 788. [Speier, C onrad H ist, or E ich statt; 17. ARCULANUS, JOANNES. Practica M ich ael R e y s e r .] Quarto. seu expositio in IX Iibrum Rhazis ad Pellechet 343. Almansorem. Venezia, B onetus L o - 9. ALCANIS, LUIS. Regiment preser- CATELLUS for OCTAVIANUS ScOTUS, l8 vatiu e curatiu de la pestilencia. [Va­ September, 1497. Folio. lencia, N icolaus S pin d eler, c. 1490.] Hain-Copinger * 13900. Burger p. 482. Quarto. 18. ARGELLATA, PETRUS DE. Chirur- Undescribed. gia. Venezia, B enedictus of G enova, 10. ALEXANDER OP APHRODISIAS. 9 August, 1480. Folio. Problemata. Latin translation by Proctor 4596. Pellechet 1161. Hain G eorgius V a l l a . A r isto teles: 1635. Reichling IV, p. 120. Problemata. P lutarch : Problemata. 19. ARGELLATA, PETRUS DE. Chirur- Venezia, A ntonius de Strata, 24 gia. Venezia, [Joannes & G regorius November, 18 December, 1488—3 Ja n ­ G regoriis], 12 September, 1499. Folio. uary, 1489. Polio. Bound with: A lsaharavius. Liber Hain-Copinger * 658. Pellechet 439. theoricse nec non practicse, 7 5 7 9 . VouIIieme Berlin 3917. Proctor 4594. Hain 1639. Copinger III, 241. Proc­ 11. ALFONSUS BONI HOMINIS. Libel- tor 5703. Reichling IV, p. 121. Ius arabicus contra malos medicos. Edi­ 20. A R IST O T E LE S. Opera. [Latin.] [4 tor: J oannes E lisius N eapolitanus, parts.] Augsburg, A mbrosius K e l l e r , 7500. Quarto. 75 September—21 October, 1479. Folio. Hain * 1658 [4]. Pellechet 1176. 12. ALMENAR, JOAN. De morbo gal- British Museum Catalogue II, 361 Iico. Venezia, 1502. T orrella, C a s­ [ I—III ]. VouIIieme Berlin 195-197. par. De dolore cum tractatu de ulceri- Proctor 1747-1749. bus in pudendagra. Roma, J ohann B esick en with M artin of A m ster­ 21. ARISTOTELES. Problemata. Ad­ dam. 3 1 October, 1300. Quarto. dition: De vita et morte Aristotelis. Proctor 4000. Hain-Copinger 15559. [Coin, H einrich Qu e n t e ll. c. 1490- VouIIieme Berlin. 3547. 1495.] Quarto. Woodcut. Hain * 1721. Pellechet 1220. Proctor 13. A RC A N A . Arcana Medicinse. [Ge­ 1410. Burger p. 552. British Mu­ neve: Louis C ru se, c. 1490.] Quarto. seum Catalogue I, p. 281. Pellechet 1105. 22. ARNOLDUS DE VI LLANO V A. Trac- 14. ARCULANUS, JOANNES. Exposi- tatus de venenis. Addition: V alascus tio in Avicennse canonis quarti Fen de T ar an ta. De epidemia et peste. A C heck L ist of M edical Incunabula 3 0 3

[Mantova, J ohann B urster & T homas 29. A R T IC E L L A . Seu thesaurus operum of H ermannstadt. 1473.] Quarto. medicorum antiquorum. Editor: Hain-Copinger * 1805. Pellechet 1307. G regorius a V u lpe. Venezia, B one­ Proctor 6884. tus L ocatellus for Octavianus Sco­ tu s. [20 December, 1492.] Folio. 23. ARNOLDUS DE VILLANOVA. Prac- Reichling App. IV, p. 124. Pellechet tica. [Pavia, A ntonius C arcanus, c. 1379. Hain 1872. 1482.] Folio. Bound with: A ntonio G u ain er i. Opera medica. Pavia. 30. AUGUSTIS, QUIRICUS DE. Lumen Copinger II, 647. CoIIijn Stockholm apothecariorum. [ Lyon: M athieu 103. Husz, a. 15 November, 14 9 1.] Folio. Hain *2116. Pellechet 1595. Burger 24. ARNOLDUS DE VILLANOVA. Prac- p. 442. tica medicina. Venezia, B aptista de T ortis, 21 February, 1494. Folio. 31. AVENZOAR. Libri Theizir Averroes CoIIiget. Venezia, J oannes & G rego­ Hain * 1801. Proctor 4646. Burger rius, 4 January, 1490. Folio. Hain* p. 614. 2186. Proctor 4513. Pellechet 1952. 25. ARNOLDUS DE VILLANOVA. Prac- Hain-Copinger 7501. Pellechet 5003. tica. Venezia, Otinus de L una, 21 Proctor 4508. October, 1497. Folio. Bound with: R hazes. Opera varia. [Venezia,] 32. AVENZOAR. Libri Theizir Averroes B onetus L ocatellus, 1497. CoIIiget. Venezia, B onetus L ocatel­ lus for Octavianus Scotus, 31 May, Hain Copinger * 1802. Pellechet 1275. 1496. Folio. Proctor 5606. Burger p. 487. Pellechet 1653. Hain-Copinger. 2187. 26. ARN O LD U S D E VILLANO VA. De 33. A V IC EN N A . Canonis medicinse libri virtutibus herbarum. Venezia. S imon V. Translated by G erard of C re­ [de G ab is] B evilaq ua. 14 December, mona. Libellus de viribus cordis. 1499. Quarto. Numerous woodcut il­ Translated by A rnold of V illano va. lustrations [colored]. Padova, [ Johann Herbort,] 19 August, Hain* 1807. Pellechet 1315. Proctor 27 August, 27 October, 6 November, 5415. 1479. Folio. 27. ARNOLDUS DE VILLANOVA. Op­ Hain-Copinger * 2202. Pellechet 1661. era. Letter: T homas M urchius of Proctor 6800. G enoa. Venezia, B onetus L ocatel­ 34. A V IC EN N A . Canonis medicinse libri lus for the heirs Octavianus S cotus, V. Translated by G erard of C re­ 19 January, 1505. Folio. Bound mona. Libellus de viribus cordis. with this: D inus de G arbo. Gentilis Translated by A rnold of V illano va. de Fulgineo, Gentilis de Florentia: Ex- Cantica, with commentary of Averroes. positio partium quarti canonis Avi- Translated by A rmengaud [ B lasius ] cennse. Additions: D inus de G arbo. of M onte P essu la n a . Venezia, Tractatus de ponderibus et mensuris. Pier r e M au fer with N icolaus de Compilatio emplastrorum et unguent- C o N T E N G O OF FERRARA. 1482-3. orum. Venezia, J ohann H erzog for Folio. A ndrea de T orresani, 4 December, Copinger III, p. 243. Hain 2203. 1499. Folio. Pellechet 1662. Hain * 6168. Pellechet 4252. Proctor 35. AVICENNA. Canon. Venezia, P i ­ 5203. er re M au fer cum sociis, 10 June, 28. ARTICELLA. Seu thesaurus operum i486. Quarto. medicorum antiquorum. Editor : Hain-Copinger * 2205. Proctor 4602. F ranciscus A rgilagnes. Venezia, Pellechet 1664. B aptista de T ortis, 20 August, 1487. 36. AVICENNA. De animalibus [ Aristo- Folio. teles ]. [ Venezia, J oannes & G rego­ Hain-Copinger 1870. Pellechet 1378. rius de G regoriis, 7500.] Folio. 304 Annals of Medical History

Hain-Copinger * 2220. Pellechet 1672. J oannes & G regorius de G regoriis, Proctor 4563. 29 July, 1493. Quarto. 37. AVERROES. Liber colliget. Venezia, Hain-Copinger * 807. Pellechet 456. L aurentius de V alen tia [ de Ru- Proctor 4530. b e is, ] et socn, 3 October, 1482. Folio. 46. B E N E D IC T U S D E N U RSIA . De Hain * 2189. Burger p. 570. Pelle­ natura rerum et valetudine conservan- chet 1655. [ diff.] da. Roma, J oannes Philippus de L ignam ine, 14 January, 1475. Quarto. 38. B A G E LLA R D U S, PAULUS. De in- Hain * 11919. Burger p. 478. fantium aegritudinibus. Padova, B ar­ tholomews DE V a LDIZOCCHO & M a R- 47. BENEDICTUS DE NURSIA. De tinus de S eptemarboribus, 2 1 April, conservatione sanitatis. Bologna, 1472. Quarto. D ominicus de L apis, 1477. Quarto. Hain * 2244. Pellechet 1688. Proc­ Hain * 11920. Proctor 6536. Voul- tor 6756. Iieme Berlin 2735. 39. BAGELLARDUS, PAULUS. Deaegri- 48. B E N E D IC T U S D E N U RSIA . De tudinibus infantium. [ Padova, ] M at- conservatione sanitatis. [Roma, Ste­ THEUS [ C e RDONIS ] DE WlNDISCH- phen P lannck.] Quarto. gretz, 10 November, 1487. Quarto. Copinger II, 4444. Proctor 3768. Reichling I, p. 99. Hain 2245. 49. BEROALDUS, PHILIPPUS. Decla- 40. BARTHOLOIVLEUS ANGLICUS. De matio an orator sit philosopho et medi­ co anteponendus. Bologna, B enedic- proprietatibus rerum. [ Basel, B er- tus H ectoris F eEllli, 13 December, thold R uppel, Not after 1468.] Folio. 1497. Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 2499. Pellechet 1866. Proctor 7452. Burger p. 574. [ Undescribed ]. 50. BRUNSCHWIG, HIERONYMUS. 41. BARTHOLONLEUS ANGLICUS. De Buch von der pest. Strassburg, J ohann proprietatibus rerum. Strassburg, G runinger, 18 August, 1300. Folio. [ Printer of J ordanus of Quedling- Numerous woodcut illustrations. BURG,] II August, I4QI. Folio. Hain * 4020. Pellechet 3040. Proc­ Hain-Copinger * 2509. Pellechet 1875. tor 495. [ Flach. ] Proctor 665. Burger p. 329. 51. CANDIDUS, PETRUS DECEM- 42. BARTHOLOJVLEUS DE PISIS. Epi- BR IU S. De genitura hominis. [ Roma, toma medicinse. [ Firenze, L orenzo S tephanus P lannck, c. /490.] Quarto. M orgiani & J ohann P etr i.] Quarto. Reichling I, 104. Proctor 3772, Pellechet 1896. Hain-Copinger 2531. Burger p. 542. 43. BARZIZIUS, CHRISTOPHORUS. In- 52. CASTELLO, TURAN DE. De bal- troductorium ad opus practicum medi­ neis. San£[orso], J ohannes de R eno, cinse, cum commentario in IX Iibrum 24 March, 1473. Quarto. Rhazis ad Almansorem. Corrector: Hain * 4592—Hain 7571. Burger p. P etrus B ucius. Pavia, A ntonius C ar- 560. canus, 20 August, I4Q4. Folio. 53. CELSUS, AURELIUS CORNELIUS. Hain * 2666. Pellechet 1975. Proc­ De medicina. Firenze, N icolaus L au- tor 7066. RENTII, I478. Folio. 44. B A V E R IU S D E B A V E R IIS , [Jo an ­ Hain-Copinger * 4835. Proctor 6116. nes ]. Consilia medica. Bologna, Burger p. 464. F ranciscus [ P lato ] de B ened ictis, 54. CELSUS, AURELIUS CORNELIUS. 5 November, i48g. Folio. De medicina. Milano, L eonardus Pellechet 2010. Proctor 6589. Hain- Pach el & U ldericus S cinzenzeler, Copinger 2712. 1481. Folio. 45. BENEDICTUS, ALEXANDER. De Pellechet 3465. Proctor 5940. Burger observatione in pestilentia. Venezia, p. 516. Hain-Copinger 4836. A C heck L ist of M edical Incunabula 305 55. CELSUS, AURELIUS CORNELIUS. 63. DINUS DE GARBO, GENTILIS DE De medicina. Addition: G a l e n . De FULGINEO, GENTILIS DE FLO- affectorum Iocorum. [Venezia, J o­ RENTIA. Expositio partium quarti hannes Hamman, 1500.] Venezia, canonis Avicennse. Additions: D inus J ohannes R u beu s, 8 Ju ly, 1493. Folio. de G arbo. Tractatus de ponderibus Hain-Copinger * 4837. Pellechet 3466. et mensuris. Compilatio emplastrorum Proctor 5134. et unguentorum. Venezia, J ohann H erzog for A ndrea de T orresani, 4 56. CELSUS, AURELIUS CORNELIUS. December, 1499. Folio. De medicina. Venezia, Philippus P in- zius, 6 May, 1497. Folio. Hain *6168. Pellechet 4252. Proctor 5203. Hain-Copinger * 4838. Pellechet 3467. Proctor 5316. S illanus de N igris. Expositio in IX Librum Rhazis ad Almansorem. Addi­ 57. CHIROMANTIA. Chiromantia ex tion: P etrus de T ussignano. Recep- divina philosophorum academia. Vene­ ta Rhazis. Venezia, Otinus de L una, zia, B ernardinus de B en a liu s, Octo­ [21 July,] 1497. Folio. ber, 1493. Quarto. Woodcuts. Hain-Copinger * 13897. Proctor 5605. Reichling IV, p. 188. Hain-Copinger 4976. 64. D IN U S D E GARBO. Gentilis de Ful- gineo; Gentilis de Florentia; Expositio 58. Descriptiones Morborum. Descrip- partium quarti canonis Avicennse. Ad­ tiones morborum in corpore hu- ditions: D inus de G arbo. Tracta­ manorum. Addition: A rnoldus de tus de ponderibus et mensuris. Com­ V illano va. Tractatulo de virtutibus pilatio emplastrorum et unguentorum. quercus. [ Memmingen, A lbrecht Venezia, J ohann H erzog for A ndrea K u n n e, ] 1496. Quarto. de T orresani, 4 December, 1499. Folio. Hain * 6096. British Museum Cata­ Hain * 6168. Pellechet 4252. Proctor logue II, 606. Proctor 2798. 5203. 59. DESPARTS, JACQUES. Summula 65. DONDI, GIACOMO DEL Aggrega­ super remediis ex Mesue Iibris. Lyon, tor. [ Strassburg, A dolph R usch, c. [J oannes T r ech sel, c . 1300]. Octavo. 1470. ] Folio. Copinger, II, 6609. Hain 12425. Reichling, III, p. 132. Hain-Copinger * 6395. Pellechet 4435. British Museum Catalogue I, p. 64. 60. DINUS DE GARBO. Expositio par- Proctor 248. VouIIieme Berlin 2119. tium quarti canonis Avicennse. Fer­ rara, A ndreas de B elfo rtis, 27 66. FALCUCCI, NICCOLO. Sermones October, 1489. Folio. medicinales V II. [4 volumes.] Vene­ Hain * 6166. Pellechet 4250. Burger zia, B ernardinus Stagninus, 24 De­ p. 340. cember, 1490—8 October, 1491. Folio. Hain * 11768. 61. D IN U S D E GARBO. Compilatio em- plastrorum et unguentorum. Ferrara, 67. FICINO, MARSILIO. De triplici vita. A ndreas de B elfortis, 28 October, Venezia, [ B artholomeo of C a p o d T s- 1489. Folio. Bound with his Exposi­ tr ia. ] 1498. Quarto. tio. Proctor 5639. Hain * 7066. Burger Hain * 6170. Pellechet 4253. Burger, p. 530. Gunther Leipzig 3112. p. 340. 68. F IE R A , B A PT ISTA . Coena seu de ci- 62. D IN U S D E GARBO. Tractatus de borum virtutibus. [Roma, E ucharius ponderibus et mensuris. Compilatio em­ S ilb er , c. 1484. ] Quarto. plastrorum et unguentorum. Venezia Reichling II, p. 169. Hain 7084. J ohann H erzog for A ndrea de T or- r esan i, 4 December, 1499. Folio. Copy II. Hain * 6168. Pellechet 4252. Proctor 69. GADDESDEN, JOHN OF. R o sa a n - 5203. glica practica medicinse. Pavia, L e o - 306 Annals of Medical History

n a r d u s G e r l a , 24 January, 1492. C e r d o n is 2 December, i486. Folio. Folio. Copinger II, 2653. Hain-Copinger * 1108. Pellechet 764. 78. GERSO N , JO A N N ES D E [ CH AR- Proctor. 7106. LIER ]. De pollutione nocturna et 70. G A LEN . Opera. Venezia, P h i l ip p u s diurna. De cognitione castitatis. P i n z i u s , 27 August, 1490. Folio. Forma absolutionis sacramentalis. Hain * 7427. Pellechet 4975. Burger [ Coin, U l r ic h Z e l l , c . 1467. ] Quarto. p. 537. Gunther Leipzig 3535. Hain 7697+Hain * 7690 [ Hain-Co­ 71. G A LEN . De affectorum Iocorum no- pinger 7704.] Pellechet 5212 + Pelle­ titia. [ Venezia, J o h a n n e s HA m m a n chet 5135. Proctor 806+Proctor 807. (H e r t z o g ), 1500. ] Folio. Bound with: 79. GERSON, JOANNES DE [ CHAR- C e l s u s . De medicina. Venezia, Ru- LIER ]. De pollutione nocturna et b e u s , 1493. diurna. De cognitione castitatis. F[ain 7428. Burger p. 430. [ Coin, L u d w ig o f R e n c h e n . ] Quarto. 72. Gart der Gesundheit. Maintz, P e t e r Hain* 7701. Proctor 1275. Burger S c h o f f e r , 28 March, 1483. Folio. p. 559. Numerous colored illustrations. Imperfect. Proctor 123. Hain * 8948. VouIIieme 80. GORDON, BERNARDUS DE. Prac- Berlin 1542. tica dicta Lilium medicinse. Ferrara, Imperfect. A n d r e a s B e a u f o r t , 18 May, i486. Folio. 73. GAZIO, ANTONIO. Corona florida Hain-Copinger * 7796. Pellechet 5274. medicinse. Venezia, J o a n n e s & G r e g o ­ Proctor 5749. r iu s d e G r e g o r iis , 20 June, 1491. Addition: Manuscript. Folio. Bound with this: A v e n z o a r . Libri Theizir Averroes CoIIiget. 81. GORDON, BERNARDUS DE. Prac- Venezia, J o a n n e s & G r e g o r iu s d e tica dicta Lilium medicinse. Lyon, A n - G r e g o r iis , 4 January, 1490. Folio. t o n iu s L a m b il l o n e t M a r in u s S a r a - Hain *2186. Proctor 4513. Pellechet s i n , 2 May, 1491. Folio. 1652. Pellechet 5275. Burger p. 461. Hain- Hain-Copinger*7501. Pellechet 5003. Copinger 7797. Proctor 4518. 82. GORDON, B E R N A R D U S D E. Prac- 74. GEMINIANO, JOANNES DE tica dicta Lilium medicinse. Venezia, SANCTO. Liber de exemplis et simili- J o a n n e s & G r e g o r iu s d e G r e g o r iis , tudinibus rerum. Venezia, J o a n n e s 16 January, 1496. Quarto. e t G r e g o r iu s d e G r e g o r iis , 12 Ju ly, Hain * 7799. Pellechet 5276. Proctor 1499. Quarto. 4551. Hain-Copinger * 7547. Proctor 4560. 83. GORDON, B E R N A R D U S D E. Prsic- 75. GENTILIS DE FULGINEO. Super tica dicta Lilium medicinse. Venezia, fen unum quarti canonis Avicennse de B o n e t u s L o c a t e l l u s , 2 2 December, febre et de majoritate morbi. Padova, 1498. Folio. N ic o l a u s P e t r i d e H a r l e m , 19 Febru­ Hain * 7800. Pellechet 5277. Proctor ary, 1476. Folio. 5095. VouIIieme Berlin 4200. Pellechet 5025. Reichling I, p. 147. 84. GRADO, GIAN MATTEO FERRARI Burger, p. 533. Hain 7565. DA. Practica. Pavia, [ J o a n n e s d e 76. GENTILIS DE FULGINEO. Con­ S i d r ia n o , ] 29 September, 1471. Folio. silium contra pestilentiam. [ Colie, Reichling II, p. 177. Hain f 7836. B o n u s G a l l u s , 1478-9. ] Quarto. 85. GRADO, GIAN MATTEO FERRARI Pellechet 5021. Reichling II, 530. DA. Super XXII fen tertii canonis 77. GENTILIS DE FULGINEO. Tracta- Avicennse. Milano, J a c o b u s d e S a n tus de febribus. Padova, M a t t h a u s N a z a r r o , 17 November, 1494. Folio. A C heck L ist of M edical Incunabula 307

Hain * 7840. Pellechet 5286. Burger Venezia, N icolaus G irardengus, 2 p. 575. November, 1480. Folio. 86. GRADO, GIAN MATTEO FERRARI Copinger II, 1548. Reichling II, p. DA. Opera medica, seu practica cum 146. Burger p. 417. textu Iibri noni Rhazis ad Almansorem. 94. GUY DE CHAULIAC. Chirurgia. Venezia, B onetus L ocatellus for the Venezia, B onetus L ocatellus for heirs of Octavianus S cotus, [ 12 June,] Octavianus S cotus, 21 November, 1502. Folio. Bound with this: A rcu- 1498. Folio. lan u s, J ohannes. Expositio in Avi­ Hain-Copinger 4811. Pellechet 3530, cennse canonis quarti Fen primam. Proctor 5093. Venezia, B onetus L ocatellus, 27 October, 14Q6. Folio. 95. GUY DE CHAULIAC. Chirurgia. Venezia, S imon of L o vere, 23 Decem­ H ain* 1553. CoIIijn Upsala 788. ber, 1499. Folio. 87. GRASSI, BENEVENUTO. Deoculis. Hain-Copinger * 4812. Pellechet [ Ferrara, S everin u s de F errara, 3531. Proctor 5626. 1474. ] Quarto. 96. GUY DE CHAULIAC. Chirurgia. Pellechet 5300. Reichling II, p. 179. Burger p. 398. Hain 7869. [ Lyon, ] [ V incentius de Portonariis, 1499. ] Quarto. 88. GRUNPECK, JOSEF VpN BURCK- Copinger i546 = Peddie Conspectus: HAUSEN. De pestilentiali scorra sive Lyon, 1499. Burger p. 544. mala Franczos. [ Coin, C ornelis de Z ie r ik z e e . ] Quarto. Two illustra­ 97. HALY ABBAS. Liber regalis. Vene­ tions. zia, B ernardinus R icius, 25 Septem­ ber, 1492. Folio. H ain* 8092. Proctor 1501. Burger p. 655. Hain-Copinger * 8350. Proctor 4964. Burger p. 563. 89. GUAINERI, ANTONIO. De pro- priis mulierum segritudinibus. [ Padova, 98. H IPPO CRA TES. De natura hominis. C onrad de Paderborn. ] 1474. [ Roma, G eorg H erolt or Steph en Quarto. Plannck. ] Quarto. Reichling II, p. 182. Burger p. 517. Hain-Copinger * 8669. Proctor 3943. Hain-Copinger 8104. Burger p. 434. 90. GUAINERI, ANTONIO. Opera med­ 99. HORTUS SANITATIS. Ortus sani- ica. Addition: De febribus. De bal- tatis. Mainz, J acob M eydenbach , 23 neis. Pavia, A ntonius C arcanus, June, 1491. Folio. 1481. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 8944. British Mu­ Reichling V, p. 130. Burger p. 371. seum Catalogue 44. Hain 8097. 100. HORTUS SANITATIS. Ortus sanita- 91. GUAINERI, ANTONIO. Opera med­ tis. [ Strassburg, J ohann G runinger, ica. Addition: A rnoldus de V illa - b. 1497. ] Folio. nova. Practica. [Pavia, A ntonius Hain-Copinger * 8942. C arcanu s. ] Copinger II, 647. CoIIijn 101. HUGO [ BENCIUS ] SENENSIS. Su­ Stockholm 103. Pavia, A ntonius C ar­ per IV Fen primi canonis Avicennse. canus, 70 January, 1488. Folio. Venezia, A ndreas C ala br en sis of Hain-Copinger * 8098. Proctor 7057. Pa v ia , 4 February, 1485. Folio. 92. G U A IN E R I, ANTONIO. De febri­ Hain-Copinger * 9018. Proctor 4965. bus. [ Padua, C onrad de Paderborn.] 102. HUGO [BENCIUS] SENENSIS. Su­ Folio. per I Fen primi canonis Avicennse. Reichling II, p. 183. Copinger II, Ferrara, A n d r e a s B e l f o r t is , 73 2803. Burger p. 517. August, 1491. Folio. Bound with 2 other works of Guaineri. Hain-Copinger 9016. Proctor 5751. 93. GUY DE CHAULIAC. Chirurgia. 103. HUGO [ BENCIUS ] SENENSIS. Su­ 308 Annals of Medical History per aphorismos Hippocratis cum com- Hain * 9472. British Museum Cata­ mento Galeni. Ferrara, L o r e n z o R o s s i logue II, p. 368. with A n d r e a s D e G r a s s is , 15 Novem­ h i . KAMINTUS. Regimen contra pesti- ber, 1493. Folio. Ientiam. [ Antwerp, M a t h ia s v a n d e r Hain * 9011. VouIIieme Berlin 2873. G o e s . c . 1484. ] Quarto. 104. HUGO [ BENCIUS ] SENENSIS. Campbell’s Annales 1066. Copinger II, Consilia aurea. Pavia, [ L e o n a r d u s 3431- G e r l a , ] 14 April. [ 1498. ] Folio. 112. KAMINTUS. Regimen contra pesti- Reichling V, 1544. Ientiam. [ Leipzig, ] A r n o l d u s v o n Bound with another work of Hugo C o l n , [ a. 1493. I Quarto. Bencius Senensis. Hain * 9757. Proctor 3004. British 105. HUGO [ BENCIUS ] SENENSIS. Su­ Museum Catalogue III, 645. per I Fen quarti canonis Avicennae. Ad­ 113. KETHAM, JOHANNES DE. Fasci­ dition: De regimine sanitatis. Pavia, culus medicinae. Venezia, J o a n n e s & [ A n d r e a s d e B o s c o . ] Pavia, A n ­ G r e g o r iu s d e G r e g o r iis , 13 October, d r e a s d e Bosco, 29 October, 1498. 1493. Folio. Numerous illustrations. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 9775. Proctor 4550. Reichling VI, 1766. Choulant Abbildung p. 20. 106. HUGO [ BENCIUS ] SENENSIS. Su­ 114. KETHAM, JOHANNES DE. Fasci­ per I & II Fen primi canonis Avicennae. culus medicinae. Venezia, J o a n n e s & Addition: Super quarta fen primi Avi­ G r e g o r iu s d e G r e g o r iis , 17 February, cennae cum annotationibus Jacobi de 1300. Folio. Numerous illustrations. Partibus. Venezia, B o n e t u s L o c a - Hain* 9777. Proctor 4561. Chou­ TELLUS for OCTAVIANUS ScOTUS, 6 lant Abbildung p. 22. August, 1502. Venezia, B o n e t u s L o - 115. LANFRANCI. Cirurgia menor. Se­ CATELLUS for OCTAVIANUS SCOTUS, [ 2 J villa, Pro tres Alemanes companeros, 13 April,] 1498. Folio. May, 1493. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 9017. VouIIieme Ber­ Reichling I, p. 162. Haebler 349. lin 4204. Proctor 9523 A. 107. JACOBUS FORLIVIENSIS. Exposi- 116. LAPIDARIUM. Lapidarium medici­ tio in Hippocratis aphorismos cum nae experimenta complectens. Wien, Marsilio di Sancta Sophia. [ b. 1480. ] J o h a n n o f W i n t e r b u r g , I c. 1493 ]. Folio. Quarto. Hain 7246. [ diff. ] Copinger 3492. 108. JACOBUS FORLIVIENSIS. Expo- sitio in Hippocratis aphorismos cum 117. LEONICENUS, NICOLAUS. De Marsilii de Sancta Sophia super apho­ Plinii et plurimorum aliorum in medi- cina erroribus. Ferrara, L o r e n z o R o s ­ rismos Hippocratis. Venezia, B o n e ­ s i with A n d r e a s d e G r a s s is , 18 De­ t u s L o c a t e l l u s for O c t a v ia n u s S c o - cember, 1492. Quarto. t u s , 10 March, 20 May, 1495. Folio. Hain-Copinger 7251. VouIIieme Ber­ Hain-Copinger * 10021. Proctor lin 4188. Copinger III, p. 261. 5760. VouIIieme Berlin 2872. 109. JO A N N IT IU S. Isagogae in tegni 118. LEONICENUS, NICOLAUS. De morbo gallico. Milano, G u i l e l m u s Si- Galeni. Leipzig, W o l f g a n g [ S t o c k e l ] g n e r r e , 4 Ju ly, 1497. Quarto. o f M u n c h e n , 27 May, [ 14 ] 97. Quarto. Reichling V, p. 172. Hain 10020. Hain-Copinger 9435. Copy I. no. JUNG, AMBROSIUS. Tractatulus 119. LEONICENUS, NICOLAUS. De perutilis de pestilentia. Augsburg, morbo gallico. Milano, G u i l e l m u s S i- J o h a n n e s S chonsperger , 20 Novem­ g n e r r e , 4 Ju ly, 1497. Quarto. ber, 1494. Quarto. Reichling V, p. 172. Hain 10020. A C heck L ist of M edical Incunabula 309 Copy II. With which are bound: Burger p. 450. Hain 10486. British M ondini. Anatomia, 1494. T ra- Museum Catalogue III, 771- n e n sis. D e ingenuis moribus, 1496. Variant II, ib contains Letter. Savonarola. Psalm L. [ 1498 ] 129. MAGNINUS. Regimen sanitatis. 120. LEONICENUS, NICOLAUS. De Additions: R eginaldus de V illano va. morbo gallico. Venezia, A ldus M anu- De phlebotomia. H ippocrates. De tiu s, June, 1497. Quarto. astronomis: secreta. A verro es. De Hain-Copinger * 10019. Proctor 5557. venenis. N icolaus Salernitanus: VouIIieme Berlin 4493. Quid pro quo. A vicenna et a l . 121. LOCHER, JACOBUS. De partu [ Lyon. ] Quarto. monstroso carmen. Ingolstadt, [ J o ­ Hain *10482. Proctor 8705. Burger hann K ach elo fen, a. 26 November, p. 486. 1499. ] Quarto. Two woodcuts. 130. MAIMONIDES, MOSES. De regi- Hain * 10162. Proctor 3165. British mine sanitatis. Firenze, Sanctus J a ­ Museum Catalogue III, p. 679. cobus de R ipoli. [ c. 1478. ] Quarto. 122. MACER FLORIDUS. De viribus Hain-Copinger* 10525. Proctor 6109. herbarum. [ Geneve, Louis C ru se, Burger p. 403. 1483-95. ] Quarto. 131. MAIMONIDES, MOSES. Aphorismi Last leaf missing. medici. Addition: Johannis Damas- 123. MACER FLORIDUS. De viribus ceni aphorismi, Bologna, F ranciscus herbarum. [ Paris, L e Petit L a u ­ [ Plato ] de B ened ictis, 29 May, 1489. r en s, c. 1500. ] Quarto. Hain-Copinger 10418. John Pierpont Hain-Copinger * 10524. Proctor 6588. Morgan Catalogue 541. VouIIieme Berlin. 2750. Imperfect. 132. MANFREDI, GERONIMO. Liber de homine et de conservatione sanitatis. 124. MACER FLORIDUS. De viribus [ Italian ] Bologna, U go R ugerius & herbarum. [ Paris, Gui M archand. ] D oninus B ertochus, 1 July, 1474. Quarto. Numerous woodcuts. Folio. Hain * 10417. VouIIieme Koln p. 340. Reichling VI, p. 94. Copinger II, 125. MAGNINUS. Regimen sanitatis. 2623. Proctor 6529. Hain 10689. Louvain, J ohann of W estph alia, 133. MANFREDI, GERONIMO. De 1482. Quarto. peste. Bologna, [ J ohann V a lb e c k , ] Campbell’s Annales * 1188. Proctor 31 December, 1479. Quarto. 9230. Burger p. 638. Hain-Copinger Reichling VI, 94. Hain* 10696. 10483. 134. MANLIIS, JOANNES JACOBUS 126. MAGNINUS. Regimen sanitatis. DE. Luminare majus. Pavia, A n - Paris, Udalricus G ering, 5 March, tonius de C archano, 9 April, 1494. 1483. Quarto. Folio. Hain * 10484. Proctor 7869. Reichling III, p. io i. Proctor 7065. 127. MAGNINUS. Regimen sanitatis. Ba­ Hain 10711. sel, N icolaus K e sl e r , [ c. 8 November, 135. MANLIIS, JOANNES JACOBUS 1493. ] Quarto. DE. Luminare majus. Venezia, B on- Copinger II, 3756. Proctor 7701 A. etus L ocatellus, 28 May, 1496. Folio. Burger p. 450. Hain 10486. British Hain-Copinger * 10712. Proctor Museum Catalogue III, 771. 5070. VouIIieme Berlin 4192. Variant I, ib is blank. 136. MATHEOLUS, PERUSINUS. De 128. MAGNINUS. Regimen sanitatis. memoria augenda. [ Roma, J o h a n n Basel, N icolaus K e s l e r . [ c. 8 No­ B e SICKEN & SlGISMUND M a YR. ] vember, 1493. ] Quarto. Quarto. Copinger II, 3756. Proctor 7701 A. Hain-Copinger* 10906. 3io Annals of Medical History

137. MESUE. Opera medicinalia. Vene­ tionibus. Venezia, B o n e t u s L o c a t e l - zia, C lem ens Patavinu s Sacerdos, l u s for O c t a v ia n u s S c o t u s , 2 August, 18 May, 1471. Folio. 1497. Folio. cf. Hain-Copinger 11118. Proctor Hain-Copinger * 11552. Proctor 5081. 4142. VouIIieme Berlin 4198. 138. MESUE. Opera medicinalia cum 148. MONTAGNANA, BARTHOLO- additionibus. Venezia, R enaldus of M E U S . [ or by Z a c h a r ia d e F e l - N ijm eg en , 37 January, 1479. Folio. t r e . ] De urinarum judiciis. Padova, Hain-Copinger* 11108. Proctor4432. M a t t h a e u s C e r d o n is , 77 February, 139. MESUE. Opera medicinalis cum ad­ 1487. Quarto. ditionibus. Venezia, D ionysius B erto- Reichling V, p. 198. Proctor 6821. chus, 1484. Folio. Hain-Copinger 11553. 140. MESUE. Opera medicinalis cum ad­ 149. MULLER, JOHANN [ REGIOMON­ ditionibus. Venezia, Peregrino de TANUS] Kalendarium. Venezia, E r ­ Pasq u ale, 2 December, 1489, 2 1 Novem­ h a r d R a t d o l t , 70 October, 1483. ber, 1490, 18 July, 14QI. Folio. Quarto. Numerous diagrams. Hain * im o. Choulant, p. 354. Hain-Copinger * 13779. Proctor 4405. 141. MESUE. Liber de consolatione 130. NICANDER. Theriaca et alexiphar- medicinarum simplicium. Venezia, maca. Venezia, A l d u s M a n u t i u s , P etrus de Quarengis, 12 December, July, 1499. Folio. 1493. Folio. Hain-Copinger* 6257. Proctor 3571. Reichling VI, p. 97. Hain-Copinger VouIIieme Berlin 4306. 11116 . 131. NICpLAUS SALERNITANUS. Anti- 142. MESUE. Opera medicinalis addi­ do tar ium. Quarto. tionibus. Venezia, B onetus L ocatel- Reichling VI, p. 97. Proctor 4076. lus for Octavianus S cotus, 3 1 March, Hain 11764. 1497. Folio. Bound with this: A b u l c a s is : Liber Hain * 11111. Proctor 5059. servitoris. Venezia, N ic o l a s J e n s e n , 143. METLINGER, BARTHOLOMEW. 1471. Regiment der jungen Kinder. [ Augs­ Pellechet 4 11. Burger p. 444. burg, G unther Z ain er c . 7 December, 132. NICOLAUS SALERNITANUS. An- 1473. ] Folio. tidotarium cum Mesue. [ Strassburg, Proctor 1537. Hain-Copinger 11127. J o h a n n P r u s s , c. 1480. ] Folio. 144. METLINGER, BARTHOLOMEWS. Hain* 11763. VouIIieme Berlin 2387. Regiment der jungen Kinder. Augs­ 133. ORTOLFF VON BAYERLAND. burg, J ohann B am ler, 28 August, Arzneibuch. Niirnberg, A n t o n K o - 1474. Folio. b u r g e r , 77 March, 1477. Folio. 145. METLINGER, BARTHOLOMEWS. Hain* 12112. Proctor 1977. VouI­ Regiment der jungen Kinder. Addi­ Iieme Berlin 1646. tion: S chrick. Ulm, 1301. Augs­ 134. ORTOLFF VON BAYERLAND. ans chauren burg, H S , 13 February, Arzneibuch. Augsburg, A n t o n S o r g , 1300. Quarto. Four illustrations. 11 August, 1479. Folio. SudhofF 39. Hain * 12113. 146. MONDINI DEI LUZZI. Anatomia. 133. ORTOLFF VON BAYERLAND. [ Leipzig, M artin L andsberg, c. 1493.] Frauenbiichlein. [ Ulm, c. 1493. ] Quarto. 136. Pestilentia. Perutilis tractatus de pes- Hain-Copinger * 11633. Proctor 2994. tilentia. [ Augsburg, J o h a n n K e l l e r , VouIIieme Berlin 1342. c. 1480. ] Quarto. 147. MONTAGNANA, BARTHOLO- Hain * 12743. Proctor 1746. British MEUS. Consilia medica cum addi­ Museum Catalogue II, 361. A C heck L ist of M edical Incunabula 3ii

157. PETRARCA, FRANCESCO. Epis- medicos. Tractatus de venenis. Vene­ tolae familiares. Venezia, J oannes & zia, B onetus L ocatellus for Octavi- G regorius de G regoriis, 73 Septem­ anus S cotus, [ 75 March, ] 7496. Folio. ber, I4Q2. Quarto. Woodcuts. Hain-Copinger * 12811. Proctor 4526. Hain-Copinger * 4. Pellechet 4. Proc­ Ashley 318. tor 5069. Imperfect. 158. PETRUS DE ABANO. Conciliator differentiarum inter philosophos et 165. PETRUS DE ABANO. Conciliator medicos. Tractatus de venenis. Edi­ differentiarum inter philosophos et tor: Petrus de C arariis de M onte medicos. Venezia, J ohann H erbort, S ilic e . De terminatione venenorum. 9 February, 1483. Folio. Venezia, G a b r iele Petri for D. Hain-Copinger * 6. Pellechet 3. Proc­ T homas of T reviso [ Corrector ], 1476. tor 4689. Folio. 166. PETRUS DE ABANO. Expositio Hain-Copinger * 2. Pellechet 2. Proc­ problematum Aristotelis. [ Venezia, ] tor 4196. Burger p. 532. J ohann H erbort, 25 February, 1482. Imperfect. Folio. 159. PETRUS DE ABANO. Conciliator Hain-Copinger * 17. Pellechet 12. differentiarum inter philosophos et Proctor 4686. Burger p. 433. medicos. Tractatus de venenis. Edi­ 167. PETRUS DE ARGELLATA. Libir tor: P etrus de C arariis de M onte sex chirurgia. Venezia, [ J oannes S ilic e . De terminatione venenorum. & G regorius de G regoriis, J 72 Sep­ Venezia, G a b r ie le Petri for D. tember, 14pp. Folio. Bound with T homas of T reviso [ Corrector ], 1476. Abulcasis. Folio. Copinger III, p. 241. Hain 1639. Hain-Copinger * 2. Pellechet 2. Proc­ tor 4196. Burger p. 532. 168. PETRUS HISPANUS. Practica medicinae seu Thesaurus pauperum. 160. PETRUS DE ABANO. De venenis. [ Firenze, B artolomeo de L ibri, c. Padova, [ LEONARDUS (Achates) of 1480. ] Quarto. B a se l ], 7473. Quarto. Reichling II, p. 191. Hain 8713 or Pellechet 7. Hain-Copinger 8. Proc­ 8714? tor 6775. 169. PETRUS HISPANUS. Practica 161. PETRUS DE ABANO. De venenis. medicinae seu Thesaurus pauperum. Roma, J oannes Philippus de L igna- Antwerp, T h ierry M ar ten s, 2 May, m ine, 27 January, 1475. Quarto. I4P7- Folio. Pellechet 8. Hain 9. Campbell’s Annales * 1395. Proctor 162. PETRUS DE ABANO. De venenis. 9453. Hain-Copinger 8712. Addition: A rnoldus de V illano va. 170. PEYLIGK, JOHANNES. Compen­ De arte cognoscendi venena. V alesco dium philosophiae naturalis. Leipzig, de T aran ta. De epidemia et peste. M elchior L otter, 12 September, I4gg. [ Padova ], M a tth a u s C erdonis, 18 Folio. Woodcut illustrations. December, 1487. Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 12861. Proctor 3036 Hain* 12. Pellechet 10. Proctor A. VouIIieme Berlin 1393. 6826. Burger p. 376. 171. PISTOR, SIMON. Declaratio defen- 163. PETRUS DE ABANO. De venenis. siva positionis de mala franco. Leip­ Emendator: W ilhelm Haldenhoff. zig, [ C onrad K ach elo fen, a 3 Jan u ­ Leipzig, J acob T h anner, g November, ary, 7300]. Quarto. 7500. Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 13021. Proctor 2878. H ain* 15. Burger p. 608. British Museum Catalogue III, 629. 164. PETRUS DE ABANO. Conciliator 172. PLATINA, BARTHOLOALEUS. De differentiarum inter philosophos et honesta voluptate. Venezia, L au ren - 312 Annals of Medical History

TIU S DE A q UILA & SlBYLLINUS UMBER, noldi d e V illano va. [Possibly French, 13 Ju n e, 1475. Folio. c. 1485. ] Quarto. Hain * 13051. Proctor 4355. VouI­ Hain-Copinger III, 5051. Proctor Iieme Berlin 3765. 7418. 173. PLINIUS SECUNDUS, CAIUS 181. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis. [ t h e e l d e r ]. Historianaturalis. With Ulm, C onrad D inckmut, 5 October, the corrections o f P h i l ip p u s B e r o a l - 1482. Folio. Illustration. d u s . Parma, S t e p h a n u s C o r a l l u s SudhofF 16. Hain 13742. [ o f L y o n ], 1476. Folio. 182. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis Hain-Copinger 13091. Proctor 6842. salernitanum cum commentario A r ­ VouIIieme Berlin 3221. CoIIijn Stock­ noldi de V illano va. [ Louvain, J o ­ holm 873. hann of Paderborn, a. 14 8 0 .1 174. Prognosticon: Prognosticon de muta- Quarto. tione seris. Addition: H ip p o c r a t e s : Pellechet 1279. Campbell’s Annales Libellus de medicorum astrologia. 1469. Translator: P e t r u s d e A b a n o . Vene­ 183. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis. zia, E r h a r d R a t d o l t , 1485. Quarto. Augsburg, Hans B am ler, 23 April, Redgrave 56. Reichling III, p. 160. 1472. Folio. Proctor 4401. Hain-Copinger 13393. SudhofF 10. H ain* 13736. Copy I. Incomplete. 175. PUFF, MICHAEL, OF SCHRICK. 184. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis Von den ausgebrannten Wassern. salernitanum cum commentario A r ­ Augsburg, J o h a n n S chonsperger , noldi de V illano va. [ Venezia, B er- 1484. Folio. NARDINUS DE VlTALIBUS, a. iyOO. ] Copinger III, 5320. SudhofF 160 a. Quarto. Woodcut. 176. Qusestiones. Quaestiones naturales an­ Hain-Copinger 13750. tiquorum philosophorum. Coin, C o r - 185. RHAZES. Liber dictus Elhavi. Bres­ n e l i s d e Z i e r i k e e , [ 1500 ]. Quarto. cia, J acobus B ritannicus, 18 October, Copinger, III, 5004. Proctor 1500. i486. 177. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanita- Hain-Copinger* 13901. Proctor 6984. tis salernitanum cum commentario VouIIieme Berlin 2823. A r n o l d i d e V i l l a n o v a . Strassburg, 186. RHAZES. Libri ad Almansorem. [ P r i n t e r o f J o r d a n u s o f Q u e d l i n g - Milano, L eonhard Pach el & U lrich b u r g ], 29 December, 1491. Quarto. S cinzenzeler, 14 February, 1481. Hain-Copinger * 13758. Pellechet Folio. 1292. Proctor 666. VouIIieme Berlin Hain-Copinger 13891. VouIIieme Ber­ 2446. lin 3087. 178. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis 187. RHAZES. Opera varia. Addition: salernitanum cum commentario A r n o l d i A rnoldus de V illano va. Practica. d e V i l l a n o v a . Paris, F e l i x B a l l i - Venezia, B onetus L ocatellus, 7 Octo­ g a u l t , 17 November, 1493. Quarto. ber, 1497. [ Venezia ], B onetus L oca­ Pellechet 1296. Proctor 8246. Hain- t e l l u s, 7 October, 1497. Folio. Copinger 13760. Hain-Copinger * 13893. Proctor 5082. 179. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis 188. RHAZES. Libri ad Almansorem cum salernitanum cum commentario A r ­ additionibus. Venezia, [ B onetus L o ­ n o l d i d e V il l a n o v a . Paris, A n d r e a s catellus ] for OCTAVIANUS SCOTUS, 70 B o c a r d , 77 November, 1493. Quarto. April, 1490. Folio. Pellechet 1295. Copinger III, 5069. Hain * 13896. Proctor 5022. Chou- 180. Regimen Sanitatis. Regimen sanitatis Iant p. 344. salernitanum cum commentario A r ­ 189. ROLANDO CAPELLUTI. Tracta- A C h e c k L i s t o f M e d i c a l I n c u n a b u l a 3i3

tus de curatione pestiferorum aposte- nezia, B onetus L ocatellus for Oc- matum. [ Roma, Stephan Plannck, tavianus S cotus, 27 June, 1497. Folio. a. 1480. ] Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 14484. Proctor 5080. Hain * 4375. Pellechet 3228. Proctor VouIIieme Berlin 4197. * 3773- 199. SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MI­ 190. ROLEVINCK, WERNER. Fascicu- CHELE. Canonica de febribus et alii Ius temporum. [ Strassburg, J ohann tractatus. Venezia, B onetus L oca­ P russ, not before i4go. ] Folio. Wood- tellu s for Octavianus S cotus, 22 cuts. November, I4g8. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 6916. Hain-Copinger 14489. Proctor 5094. 191. SALICETO, GUILIELMUS DE. VouIIieme Berlin 4209. Chirurgia. ig December, i486. Quarto. 200. SAVONAROLA, GIO VANNI M I­ Reichling III, 314. C H E LE . De febribus, de balneis, de 192. SALICETO, GUILIELMUS DE. pulsibus, urinis, et egestionibus. Vene­ Summa conservationis et curationis zia, C hristophorus de Pen sis, 16 cum chirurgia. Venezia, [ J oannes & October, i4g6-io, February, I4g7. Folio. G regorius de G regoriis, ] 8 May, Hain-Copinger * 14491. Proctor 5240. i4go. Folio. VouIIieme Berlin 4303. Hain-Copinger 14145. Proctor 4515. 201. SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MI­ VouIIieme Berlin 3862. C H E LE . De pulsibus, urinis, et eges­ 193. SALICETO, GUILIELMUS DE. tionibus. Bologna, H enricus de Har­ lem & J oannes W a lb e c k , 8 1487. De salute corporis. Addition: J o­ May, an n es de T urrecremata. De salute Folio. animse. [ Mantova, Paulus J oannes Hain-Copinger * 14490. Proctor 6559. de B utzbach, c. 1480. ] Quarto. 202. SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MI­ Woodcut. C H ELE. Canonica de febribus. Vene­ Hain-Copinger * 14150. Proctor 4014. zia, C hristophorus de L en sis, 16 Oc­ A. VouIIieme Koln 540. Burger p. tober, I4g6. Folio. 365^ Hain-Copinger 14488. Proctor 5238. 194. SALICETO, GUILIELMUS DE. VouIIieme Berlin 4302. Chirurgia. Lyon, M atthieu H usz, 16 Bound with 2 other works of Savon­ November, I4Q2. Quarto. arola. Copinger III, 5212. 203. SAVONAROLA. GIOVANNI MI­ 195. SALICETO, GUILIELMUS DE. C H E LE . De balneis. Ferrara, A n ­ Summa conservationis et curationis dreas de B alfortis, 10 November, cum Chirurgia. Piacenza, 25 May, 1483. Folio. 1476. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 14493. Proctor 5748. Reichling, III, p. 169. Burger, p. 539. VouIIieme Berlin 2865. Hain 14144 [ 1475 ] f Hain 14146. 204. SA LICETO , G U ILIE L M U S D E. 196. SALICETUS, NICOLAUS. Antido- Summa conservationis et curationis tarius animse. Strassburg, J ohann cum chirurgia. Venezia, [ J ohannes & G runinger, 4 March, 1493. Quarto. G regorius de G regoriis, ] 8 May, Hain-Copinger * 14161. Proctor 463. i4go. Folio. 197. SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MI­ Hain-Copinger 14145. Proctor 4515. C H E LE . Practica de segritudinibus. VouIIieme Berlin 3862. Venezia, A ndreas de B o netis, 10 205. SCHEDEL, HARTMANN. Liber May, i486. Folio. chronicarum. Niimberg, A nton K o - Hain-Copinger * 14481. Proctor 4819. ber ger, 12 Ju ly, I4 g 3 . Folio. Nu­ VouIIieme Berlin 4036. merous woodcut illustrations. 198. SAVONAROLA, GIOVANNI MI­ Hain-Copinger * 14508. Proctor 2084. C H E LE . Practica de segritudibus. Ve­ British Museum Catalogue II, p. 437. 3i4 Annals of Medical History

206. SCHELLIG, CONRAD. Ein kurz h a n n o f C o l n & J o h a n n M a n t h e n , Regiment der Pestilenz. [ Speier, C o n ­ 10 October, 1480. Folio. rad H i s t ., 1502. ] Quarto. Hain * 15198. Proctor 4347. Proctor 11605 A? 215. SIMON [ A CpRDO, ] GENUENSIS. 207. SCOTUS, MICHAEL. Liber physi- Clavis sanationis seu synonyma medici­ onomise et procreationis. [ Venezia, nse. Milano, A ntonius Z arotus, 5 J a c o b u s d e F i v iz z a n o , ] 1477. Quarto. August, 1473. Folio. Hain-Copinger * 14550. Proctor 4364. Hain-Copinger 14747. Proctor 5774. VouIIieme Berlin 3766. Burger p. 398. VouIIieme Berlin 3027. 216. SIMON [A CORDO,] GENUENSIS. 208. SCOTUS, M IC H A EL. Liber physio- Clavis sanationis. Venezia, G u il e l - nominse et procreationis. [ Treviso or mus de T ridino, 12 November, i486. Venezia? J o a n n e s R u b e u s , 1483.] Folio. Maps. Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 14749. Proctor 5109. Hain-Copinger * 14546. Proctor 5128. VouIIieme Berlin 4217. [ Venezia. ] Burger p. 572. 217. SOLDUS, JACO BUS. Opus de peste. 209. SERAPIO N , “ JU N IO R ” . Aggrega­ Bologna, J ohann S ch reiber, 1478. tor in medicinis simplicibus. Milano, Quarto. A n t o n iu s Z a r o t u s , 4 August, 1473. Hain-Copinger * 14870. Proctor 6548. Folio. VouIIieme Berlin 2736. Hain-Copinger * 14691. Proctor 5775. 218. STEBER, BARTHOLOMEWS. A VouIIieme Berlin 3028. mala franczos morbo gallorum prse- 210. SERAPION, “JUNIOR”. Aggrega­ servatio ac cura. [ Wien, J ohann W i n - tor in medicinis simplicibus. Addition: t e r b u r g , 1497-8. ] Quarto. S e r a p io n , “ s e n i o r ” . Brevarium me­ British Museum Catalogue III, p. 811. dicinse. Venezia, R e n a l d u s o f N i j m e ­ Proctor 9483. VouIIieme Berlin 2684. g e n , i August, 1479. Hain-Copinger 15053. Hain-Copinger * 14693. Proctor 4434. 219. STEINHOWEL, HEINRICH. Folio. Venezia, R e n a l d u s o f N i j m e ­ Krankheit der Pestilentz. Ulm, C on­ g e n , 1 June, 1479. rad D inckmut, [ c. 1482 ]. Folio. Hain-Copinger* 14692. Proctor 4433. SudhofF 191. Hain 15057. Proctor 2560 A. 211. SILVATICUS, MATTHEUS. Liber pandectarum medicinse. Venezia, 220. TORNEMIRE, JEAN DE. Clarifi- P h i l ip p u s P i n z iu s fo r B e r n a r d in u s catorium super nono Almansoris cum F o n t a n a , 16 June, 1492. F o lio . textu Rhasis. Lyon, J ohann T rech- Hain * 15021. Proctor 5292. VouI­ s e l , 1490. Folio. Iieme Berlin 4343. Hain-Copinger * 15551. Proctor 8598. 221. TORRELLA, CASPAR. De dolore 212. SILVATICUS, MATTHEUS. Liber Addition: De ulceribus. Roma, J o ­ pandectarium medicinse. Venezia, hann B esick en with M artin o f A m ­ B e r n a r d in u s S t a g n i n u s , 27 March, sterdam, 31 October, 1300. Quarto. 1499. Folio. Proctor 4000. Hain-Copinger 15559. Hain-Copinger * 15199. Proctor 4840. VouIIieme Berlin 3547. VouIIieme Berlin 4058. 222. TORRELLA, GERONIMO. De 213. SILVATICUS, MATTHzEUS. Liber imaginibus astrologicis. Valencia, A l ­ pandectarum medicinse. [ Strassburg, fonso d e Orto, [ a. 1 December, 1496. ] A d o l p h R u s c h , t h e R P r i n t e r .] Folio. Quarto. Hain-Copinger * 15192. Proctor 251. Proctor 9507. Hain-Copinger 15560. VouIIieme Berlin 2128. 223. TUSSIGNANA, PIETRO DE. Trac- 214. SILVATICUS, MATTHEUS. Liber tatus de peste. Quarto. pandectarum medicinse. Venezia, J o ­ Compare Hain-Copinger * 15750 [ diff.] A C h e c k L i s t o f M e d i c a l I n c u n a b u l a 3i5

224. VALASCUS DE TARANTA. Deepi- Ehr und Gut. Numberg, [ P e t e r W a g ­ demia et peste. [ Basel, M a r t i n F l a c h n e r , 1 4 1 89. Quarto. Woodcut. c. 1470 ]. Folio. SudhofT 230. Hain-Copinger * 16019. Hain-Copinger 15244. Proctor 7552. Proctor 2244. VouIIieme Berlin 1873. VouIIieme Berlin 424. British Museum Catalogue II, p. 463. 225. VALASCUS DE TARANTA. Prac- 229. WIDMANN, JOHANN. Tractatus tica seu philonium. N ic o l a u s W o l l f , de pustulis quae dicuntur Mai de Franzos. 10 March, 1500. Quarto. [ Strassburg, J o h a n n [ R e i n h a r d ] Hain-Copinger * 15252. [ diff.] Gun­ G r u n i n g e r , a. 1 February, 1497. ] ther Leipzig. 1715. Quarto. 226. VALASCUS DE TARANTA. De Copinger III, 6573. Proctor 478. epidemia et peste. Hagenau, H e i n ­ VouIIieme Berlin 2332. Hain-Copinger r ic h G r a n , 25 November, 1497. Quarto. 16160. Hain * 15247. Proctor 3190. VouI­ 230. ZERBI, GABRIELE. De cautelis Iieme Berlin 1178. British Museum medicorum. [ Venezia, C hristophorus Catalogue III, p. 685. d e P e n s is , n. b. 1495. ] Quarto. 227. VALLA, GIORGIO. Interpretationes Hain-Copinger * 16286. Proctor 5235. variae. Venezia, S im o n B e v i l a q u a , 30 231. ZERBI, GABRIELE. Gerontocomia. September, 14Q8. Folio. Roma, E u c h a r iu s S i l b e r , 27 Novem­ Hain-Copinger 11748. Proctor 5408. ber 1489. Quarto. VouIIieme Berlin 4410. Reichling VI, p. 181. Proctor 3840. 228. VERSEHUNG. Versehung, Leib, Seel, VouIIieme Berlin 3486. Hain 16284.

*

I f our young medical student would take strong against the literae humaniores—have our advice, and for an hour or two twice a come off with some Greek or Latin, we would week take up a volume of Shakespeare, Cer­ supplicate for an ode of Horace, a couple of vantes, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Cowper, Mon­ pages of Cicero or Pliny once a month, and a taigne, Addison, Defoe, Goldsmith, Fielding, page of Xenophon. French and German Scott, Charles Lamb, Macaulay, Jeffrey, Syd­ should be mastered either before or during the ney Smith, Helps, Thackeray, etc., not to men­ first years of study. They will never after­ tion authors on deeper and more sacred sub­ wards be acquired so easily or so thoroughly, jects—they would have happier and healthier and the want of them may be bitterly felt when minds, and make none the worse doctors. I f too late. they, by good fortune—for the tide has set in Horae Subsecivae, by John Brown. NOTES AND QUERIES [In the initial volume of the Index Medicus (1879) a department ot “ Notes and Queries,” relat­ ing to medical history and medical bibliography, was established by Dr. Billings, Dr. Fletcher, Thomas Windsor and others, but from lack of interest in the readers of the journal, due no doubt to the backward state of medico-historical investigation in this country at that time, the project did not take hold and was soon abandoned. In a journal devoted exclusively to medical history it seems fitting and proper that items of this kind should be introduced from time to time, with the proviso that both questions and answers be brief and to the point. Those subjoined are believed to be difficult of solution.—Editor.]

1. P u r p o s e f u l D e f o r m a t io n o f C h i l ­ form, in Baas’s “ History of Medicine.” d r e n ( C h i r u r g i e a u r e b o u r s ).—In Victor Was the original writing of Mathilde Mar­ Hugo’s “ L ’bomme qui rit” (I, 2; III, 6), card ever published, and, if so, where, when considerable space is devoted to an affilia­ and by whom? tion of seventeenth century criminals (los 3. L i f e o f A l o is B e d n a r .—Nothing is comprachicos) who bought and sold friend­ known of the life of the Viennese pedia­ less or abandoned children for the purpose trician, Alois Bednar, beyond the few lines of maiming or disfiguring them by reversed given by Gurlt, in Hirsch’s “ Biographisches orthopedic procedure (chirurgie au rebours), Lexicon” (VI, 470), which merely states in order to turn their deformities to profit. that Bednar was a Privatdocent at the Hugo mentions a certain Dr. Conquest University of Vienna, giving a list of his as the author of a Latin treatise on this three treatises on diseases of infancy (1850- variety of “ reversed orthopedics,” and from 53), pediatrics (1856) and dietetics of in­ an alleged chapter, “ De denasatis, ” he fancy (1857). Can the dates of his birth gives the citation “ Bucca fissa usque ad and death, with any other biographical aures, genzivis denudatis, nasoque murdridato, data (with sources) be supplied? masca eris, et ridebis semper” as the recipe 4. L i f e o f F r e d e r ic k C o r b y n .— Fred­ employed in the disfigurement of the un­ erick Corbyn, a surgeon in the Indian Med­ fortunate Gwynplaine. Did Conquest really ical Service of Great Britain, was editor of exist, and if so, what was the title of his the India Journal of Medical and Physical treatise? When and where was it published? Science (Calcutta, n.s., v. 1-7, 1836-42), Or were these chapters in ((Uhomme qui rit” usually known as Corbyn s Journal, which mere romancing and literary supercherie? was started by John Grant and J. T. Pear­ 2. M a t h i l d e M a r c a r d a n d W e r l h o f ’ s son as the India Journal of Medical Science W e d d i n g . — In H. Rohlfs’ biographical (Calcutta, 1834-5), and is remarkable for sketch of Werlhof, it is stated that Mathilde its outline portraits of prominent medical Marcard wrote, from reports of eye wit­ officers of the Indian Medical Service. nesses and personal letters, an interesting Corbyn was also the author of the “ Manage­ account of the ceremonies of Werlhof’s ment and Diseases of Infants under the second marriage, which is described as of Influence of the Climate of India” (Calcut­ considerable cultural value. Some pleasant ta, 1828), which is the earliest treatise on details of this account have been reproduced tropical pediatrics, and also of “ A Treatise by Rohlfs and are again given, in condensed on Epidemic Cholera as It Has Prevailed in N o t e s a n d Q u e r i e s 3r7

India” (Calcutta, 1832). No details of The standard work of Overbeck on the Corbyn’s life are given in Lieut. Colonel excavations at Pompeii contains the same D. G. Crawford’s “ History of the Indian old wood-cuts published over thirty years Medical Service” (London, 1914) or else­ ago. The reproductions, in atlas, of these where. Can the dates of birth and death be instruments by Vulpes are almost inacces­ supplied, with sources? sible, in the city of New York, at least. The 5. J o h n B e l l .—Is any portrait of the illustrations used by Vedrenes in his trans­ artist surgeon John Bell [1763-1820], of lation of Celsus are very clear, but they are Edinburgh, extant, and if so, where can almost too perfect drawings to be correct it be obtained? reproductions. The latest and most com­ 6. E m i l N o e g g e r a t h [1847-95].—Be­ plete book on this subject was by the late yond a brief memorial note in Virchow’s Dr. Milne of England. In the back of his Archiv (1896, C X L III, 680), and the per­ book are a series of half-tone reproductions sonalia in Dr. Arpad G. Gerster’s “ Recol­ of instruments from various Museums of lections” (New York, 1917, 200), no bio­ Europe. The half-tones, however, are ex­ graphical data exist about the late Emil tremely poor and do not give a good idea of Noeggerath, a gynecologist who introduced the character of the instruments. The gen­ the theory of latent gonorrhea and the op­ eral impression is that the surgical instru­ eration of epicystotomy, and was associated ments of ancient days have only been found with Jacobi in “ Contributions to Mid­ at Pompeii and Herculaneum. As a matter wifery, and Diseases of Women and Chil­ of fact, collections have been made from dren” (1859) and in the editorship of the many other sources, Baden, Cologne, Paris, American Journal oj Obstetrics (1868-71). for example. Perhaps some reader can tell Can any other facts be supplied, from per­ us whether there are any better illustrations sonal knowledge or otherwise? F. H. G. than are mentioned here, and especially 7. S u r g ic a l I n s t r u m e n t s .—Satisfactory whether there are any collections in this illustrations of early surgical instruments country. In France Dr. Hamonic, of Paris, of the time of the ancient Greeks and Ro­ had a good collection, and so I am informed, mans are at the present time difficult to find. had Dr. Milne. EDITORIALS

DR. STEPHEN SMITH, THE NESTOR OF criticism of the evils and deficiencies AMERICAN SURGERY of medicine and hygiene in their time; both are universally beloved and respected. T h e publication of Dr. Smith’s charm­ The only difference is that one is seven ing “ History of Surgery,” in the con­ years older than the other. cluding volume of Stedman’s “ Refer­ Dr. Stephen Smith was born in Onondaga ence Handbook” (viii, 28-57), reminds County, New York, on February 19, 1823, us of the debt of gratitude which the Ameri­ and is a descendant of Job Smith, an officer can profession owes to this remarkable of the Fifth Regiment of the Connecticut man whose public activities have extended line in the War of the Revolution. Brought over half a century and, apart from his own up on his father’s farm in the central part of specialty, have included the broadest and the state, his own native industry soon car­ most beneficent kinds of social service, ried him beyond the slender attainments from hospital construction and the im­ possible in common schooling, and when, provement of homes of the laboring and at the age of twenty, he was able to attend tenement house population of New York the Cortland Academy (Homer, New York), City to the sane and humane treatment of he had already taught himself Latin, Greek the insane and the advancement of public and the ordinary branches of the higher hygiene in his own state. mathematics. Dr. Smith’s brother was the On February 19, 1918, Dr. Smith celebrated Dr. J. Lewis Smith, a physician attained the ripe age of ninety-five. whose fame, as Billings said of Daniel On M ay 6 following, Dr. Jacobi will be Drake, “ will probably be greater a hundred eighty-eight. One is the Nestor of American years hence than it is now.” Although he surgery, the oldest living representative of disliked and resented the appellation of the surgical profession in the United States; “ specialist,” J. Lewis Smith and Jacobi the other is the father and founder of Ameri­ were the first in this country to teach and prac­ can pediatrics, and by the same token, the tice pediatrics as a distinct and separate Nestor of our internists. For what is pedi­ branch of internal medicine. Wonderful to atrics but internal medicine applied to relate, when we consider the period, Dr. children? Both are still youngish men, out­ Smith’s well-known textbook, which was standing examples of la jeunesse de la vieil- based mainly upon his own clinical and post­ lesse, that is, of those whose future is “ before mortem experience, passed through no them, not behind them.” Both are still able, less than eight editions (1869-96). Dr. vigorous thinkers; both have been upstand­ Lewis Smith was a man who was so in­ ing champions of the right, outspoken in trinsically good, so unworldly and unselfish, E d it o r ia l s 3i9 that, in our time—the age of the struggle- Bellevue was the celebrated Alonzo Clark, for-Iifer, the arriviste and the parvenu—he whose name is historically associated with would need a guardian. Externally he was the therapeutic “ wrinkle” of exhibiting only the plain, unassuming family doctor large doses of opium in puerperal peritonitis of the old-fashioned American type; but (1855) and with several witty epigrams. in the history of medicine he has a place One of these completely reverses and ob­ with men like Charles West and Jacobi as literates the poesy of the French byword: one of the forerunners of humanistic pedi­ Si jeunesse savait, si vieillesse pouvait. As a atrics, the practice of internal medicine student, Clark wished to marry a daughter among children, not as a cold, lifeless busi­ of a wealthy man but was rejected by her ness or laboratory “ specialty,” but from parent on the ground that there was not a peculiar affection for the children them­ enough money. When Clark became a selves. When we have named these three, celebrity, the proposition of marriage was we can think of but few others in the revived by the parent himself. “ Alonzo same class: Chapin, notably, among the Clark, the student, couldn’t; Alonzo Clark, living, and Theophile Roussel, among the the professor, wouldn’t,” was the somewhat dead. metallic reply. During his incumbency at The two brothers Smith attended Cort­ Bellevue, Dr. Smith had charge of the lying- land Academy together and studied medi­ in wards, and was requested by Clark to cine together. Their first preceptor was put the opium treatment to the test in the Dr. Caleb Green, of Homer, New York, cases of puerperal peritonitis, then so fre­ formerly Professor of Materia Medica at quent. Clark’s requirement was no less the Geneva Medical College, at which in­ than saturation of the system with opium stitution Stephen Smith took his first course to the point of semi-narcotism, but young of lectures, under such masters as Frank Smith was cautious and, at first, got no Hamilton and Austin Flint. Entering Ham­ results from his administration of the drug. ilton’s office, at Buffalo, New York, he at­ Clark then took him aside, and the follow­ tended his second course of lectures at the ing conversation ensued: Buffalo Medical College, and, in 1849, “ Dr. Smith, have you ever attended became interne or resident pupil in the a common school?” Buffalo Hospital of the Sisters of Charity, “ Yes, sir.” where he had considerable experience with “ Did you ever have a teacher say cholera, which was then epidemic. In the to you, ‘ I will whip you within an inch autumn of 1849 he entered upon his third of your life?” ’ course at the College of Physicians and “ Yes sir, I have, and I have also Surgeons, New York City, from which he had it applied to myself.” was graduated in the spring of 1850, and, “ Well, that is the way I wish you to as an earlier sketch of him relates, “ found give opium to these patients—let it be himself in a strange city, with legalized to ‘within an inch of their lives!” ’ power to practice, and nobody to treat.” There happened, providentially, to be a va­ This heroic treatment was then carried cancy in the resident staff of Bellevue Hos­ out upon four patients, under two reliable pital at the time. Dr. Smith was one of nurses, Dr. Smith visiting each patient twelve applicants for the place. He passed every hour, night and day. One patient the rigid examination of the Board success­ yielded to treatment under two grains fully and at once entered upon his duties. of opium hourly; the second nearly suc­ In this period, the leading figure at cumbed under three grains; the third re­ 320 Annals of Medical History quired four grains; and in the fourth the he made a reputation by his ability, his gigantic tolerance of the human system unfailing self-possession, his humane efforts for opium was such that 4J/2 grains hourly in behalf of the patients, and his power of were required to produce a semi-comatose concise expression in lecturing. These were condition, and no less than 1,900 grains the early post-anaesthetic days, when pain­ were taken, without vomiting or purging, less surgery had not yet become firmly before the course of treatment was com­ established, and when patients, writhing pleted. Yet all the patients recovered, and with pain, were sometimes lectured over. through such experiences this therapeutic Although he frequently taught major sur­ device acquired a certain vogue in gyne­ gery at the operating table, Dr. Smith would cology, by reason of the diminution of the never lecture during an operation, but only mortality rate in puerperal peritonitis. In before or after removal of the patient. his early period at Bellevue, Dr. Smith was Among his earlier surgical feats were a liga­ consulted in a medico-legal case of rupture tion of the common iliac artery and the of the bladder, from external violence, the first Syme amputation at the ankle joint possibility of which had been doubted in in this country after Carnochan’s case. At the court room evidence on account of the the beginning of the Civil War, a number of rarity of the condition. He was able to books on military medicine, surgery and collate and tabulate some 78 cases from the hygiene were published by S. D. Gross, literature—a remarkable piece of painstak­ Roberts Bartholow, William A. Hammond, ing work, in the days when medical bibli­ J. J. Woodward and other well-known ographies, in Billings’ sense, were non­ American physicians. This characteristic existent. This, his first important paper, tendency goes back to the American Revo­ was published in May, 1851.1 Later, it lution (John Jones, Benjamin Rush, Wil­ was translated into German and French, liam Brown), and, judging by the large which led to his being made a member of crop of medico-military manuals on hand, the Surgical Society of Paris. is now in evidence in all the warring coun­ On leaving Bellevue Hospital Dr. Smith tries. In 1862, at the suggestion of profes­ commenced practice in New York City sional friends who had entered the medical where, through his contributions to the staff of the Volunteer Army, Dr. Smith New York Journal of Medicine, he came in published a “ Hand-book of Surgical Opera­ contact with its editor, Dr. Samuel S. tions,” designed as a pocket manual, for use Purple, who was one of the earliest physi­ in the field. Of the large group of such books cians to follow medical history and to col­ above mentioned, this was the only one lect rare medical books in this country, and which survived a first edition. The fifth whose choice collection is now in the Library edition of Dr. Smith’s Hand-book was pub­ of the New York Academy of Medicine. lished in 1863, a triumph for that darling In 1853, Dr. Smith became joint proprietor of the medical publisher and his clientele, and co-editor of the Journal, and, in 1857, the small-sized book. The reasons for its after the retirement of Doctors Purple and success were not only its size, shape and Bulkeley, he assumed full editorship. In flexible covers, but its well-arranged, ex­ i860, the New York Journal of Medicine haustive index, its useful illustrations, the became the American Medical Times, which large amount of information compressed Dr. Smith continued to edit until 1864. into its 274 pages, and its eminently prac­ In 1854, Dr. Smith was elected one of tical tendency. It plunges, at the open­ the attending surgeons at Bellevue, where ing of Chapter I, without preliminaries, 1 New York J. M., 1851, vi, 336-375. into the make-up of a surgeon’s pocketcase,

E d it o r ia l s 321 the proper way to make incisions with marized in his book “ Who Is Insane?” scalpel and bistoury, and the suturing and (1916), which is a large-minded considera­ dressing of wounds. In this connection, we tion of “ the illusive nature of insanity, its are reminded of the fact that the most suc­ origin in the derangement of the functions cessful and useful medico-military text­ of the brain-cells, the extreme impressibility books published at the present hour have of these cells and our power to increase or been written in the same concise, precise repress their activities,” a series of piquant manner. The sentiment of the officer in the homilies on the Horatian “ naviget Anti- field would seem to be: “ Long life to the cyram.” The book is highly practical, and small-sized book!” Prolixity at the battle- leaves one with the humorous impression front is unthinkable. that the whole world is potentially or (as in During 1861-1865 Dr. Smith was Pro­ present Eastern Europe) actually mad. “ A fessor of Surgery in Bellevue Hospital mad world, my masters.” We may take Medical College, after which he held the comfort in the observation, quoted by Osier: chair of anatomy until 1874, in which year “ Every man has a sane spot somewhere.” he became Professor of Clinical Surgery in As to “ the failure of the alienists to formu­ the Medical Department of New York late an acceptable definition of insanity for University. In 1865, he made an investiga­ the profession and the courts,” Dr. Smith tion of the sanitary condition of New York is at one with Shakespeare: and reported his findings to the legislature. To define true madness, In 1866, he made a report on hospital con­ What is it but to be nothing else but struction to the trustees of Bellevue Hos­ mad? pital, and was one of the five physicians who submitted plans for the construction Among Dr. Smith’s other public activities of the Johns Hopkins Hospital (1875), the have been his services as member of the award in this competition being made to city and national Boards of Health, and the late Dr. John S. Billings. His papers on the State Board of Charities, his work with the improvement of the homes of the tene­ the United States Sanitary Commission, ment house population in New York City and his Commissionership to the Ninth In­ were published in 1873-1875. In 1882, Dr. ternational Sanitary Convention at Paris Smith was appointed State Commissioner (1894). He was one of the founders and also in Lunacy of New York by Governor first president of the American Public Alonzo B. Cornell, and during his incum­ Health Association (1873), has published bency (1882-1888) the following reforms many contributions to public hygiene, and were effected: (1) the introduction of a has done much for the improvement of the training school for attendants, (2) the crea­ Department of Health of New York City. tion of a State Commission in Lunacy, (3) To the literature of surgery, Dr. Smith the removal of the insane from county to has contributed many papers, notably his state care—in other words, a steady im­ analysis of 439 recovered amputations in the provement over the old conditions, in continuity of the lower extremity, one of which the insane were pauperized “ in the surgical memoirs of the United States filthy cells and stalls, shackled hands and Sanitary Commission (1871). In 1879, he feet, and fed like swine,” up to the “ kindly published a “ Manual of the Principles and care, good food, clean sanitary dormitories Practice of Operative Surgery,” a large and freedom from cruel forms of restraint” treatise of 689 pages, which was re-issued, of the now unrivalled State hospitals of New enlarged and revised in 1887. To the history York. Dr. Smith’s experiences are sum­ of surgery, he has made two important 322 Annals of Medical History contributions, viz., his monographs on “ The treatment of the larynx was first shown, Evolution of American Surgery” published and here that intralaryngeal surgery had in Bryant and Buck’s “ American Practice its birth. The art of photographing the of Surgery” (1906), and “ The History of larynx was perfected by a Brooklyn laryn­ Surgery” in Stedman’s “ Reference Hand­ gologist. The causes of nasal obstructions book” (1917). These are both able and were discovered and the methods of reliev­ vigorous contributions, worthy of a place ing them devised by New York surgeons. beside the writings of Gross, Billings, There followed from this definite knowledge Pilcher, Dennis and other Americans who concerning sinus diseases. Intubation was have worked in this field. made a practical measure here. Graduate Personally, Dr. Smith is a valiant, up­ courses in laryngology and rhinology were standing character, straight, erect, and established in New York, and the first so­ self-disciplined as an army officer, keen and ciety of laryngologists that was ever organ­ quick of perception, yet with the genial, ized was established here. Dr. Delevan has humorous “ twinkle.” No one could clasp done much to infuse a civic pride in New his hand and look into his face without feel­ Yorkers over the work done in laryngology ing impressed with his astonishing vitality in this city. and virility. Those of us who heard his C h a r l e s L. D a n a . vivacious address to the medical students at Syracuse, in 1915, were treated to a cap­ tivating volley-fire of humorous recollec­ The history of medicine furnishes a sub­ tions and anecdotes which carried the ject which can be approached from several younger men quite away. As we listened, points of view, and it is one that may be with shaking sides, some of us could but treated in various ways, excellent or dis­ re-echo the sentiment expressed by Pro­ tressing. No doubt the best one is that of fessor Thayer at a banquet given to another scientific research, by means, for example, of distinguished physician: a study of original documents. Through this we secure new data and gain new interpre­ Long may he live to taste alike tations. This kind of work is essential to Of age and youth the joys; progress. It is the laboratory method, and Old, yes, in years, but in his heart, justly acclaimed by the chosen few, who A boy among the boys. are in the position to follow it. Medical his­ F. H. G. tory may also be approached by the de­ scriptive and literary method, and it is through this method that historical matter It has been especially through the indus­ is made vital and brought into touch with try, zeal and historical activities of Dr. D. current life, contributing to education, Bryson Delevan that New York City has recreation and art. The descriptive his­ been shown to have unusual importance in toriographer must have not only literary the history of the development of laryngol­ skill, but a sense of the proportion of things; ogy- he must have some learning and do some According to Dr. Delevan, it was in New research also. As this kind of writing is York that attention was first especially open to any one trained or untrained, it called to the diseases of the throat by the may be done and often is done stupidly and establishment of special public clinics and verbosely, with little result of real import­ of professorships in this branch of medicine. ance to the world. Medical history and It was here that the possibility of topical epidemiology may also be studied for their

E d it o r ia l s 323 use in contributing toward the larger prob­ in innovations or that any improvement lems of general history and of human prog­ could be made in the science and art of medi­ ress, being drawn upon as an ancillary to cine as laid down by Galen. more serious and important work. This has He was learned in the classics and in liter­ been done in efforts to explain the extinc­ ature; he had a ready and prodigious mem­ tion of the Grecian States, and the decline ory. He was an eloquent and witty speaker, of the imperial power of Rome. and his lectures were so popular that the Medical history is drawn upon to illus­ laity crowded into his amphitheater to trate social customs, criminology, extraor­ hear him. dinary human characters, and causes, and He became one of the most popular and the stupidities of legislation. There is an successful physicians of his day, and was interesting form of medical history which invited by the Queen of Sweden to be physi­ is strictly biographical, and this is by no cian at her court, and by the Senate of means the least important of the methods Venice to establish himself in that city. He of historical work. was a bit litigious: he had a serious law­ There is thus a long list of phases and suit against the famous Renardot, who tried types of medico-historical writing, and to start a commercial dispensary, and he an application of data obtained throws light was sued by the apothecaries because he upon a number of present-day human prob­ publicly attacked their popular mixtures. lems. It is wise to encourage all kinds of He was one of the first to denounce publicly historical writing and to censure only that the secret and proprietary medicine busi­ work which is insincere, careless and, per­ ness, and he won out in his fight. haps, that which attempts to be funny. Patin believed in bleeding, senna and The gods forgive everything but dullness; ptisanes, and he denounced the chemical those who are interested in medical history remedies and polypharmacy with its mithri- must sometimes forgive even this. Let those dates and theriacs and benzoar compounds. who would avoid this, study the contribu­ He was even a little doubtful of quinine, tions of Sir William Osier. and was cautious in the use of opium and C h a r l e s L. D a n a alcohol. He wrote a little book on the preservation of health, and always maintained it was Guy Patin (1601-1672), Dean of the easier to keep well than to get well. Were Faculty of Medicine of the University he living now he would have been a zealous of Paris, Professor of Surgery and, later, sanitarian. of Medicine, was an important person in He had a large acquaintance and wrote the medical life of Paris in the seventeenth many letters, and he called himself of the century. Although he contributed nothing “ literary group.” In those days stone in to medical science, he made a place for him­ the bladder was considered the penalty of self in medical history and, to an extent, in being learned. Patin thought the best pre­ the world of letters, through the force of ventative was vini privatio, but to make his personality and his gifts of erudition, additionally sure he gave himself i(cinq ou eloquence and satirical wit. six bonnes saignees de precaution par an.” Patin was a reactionary, a follower of After his death, his letters were published; Hippocrates and Galen, a hater of the they were eagerly read, and went through chemical school, and was defiant of the value several editions. They told the gossip of of the antimony which was then becoming the town, and threw interesting side lights a substitute for bleeding. He did not believe on life in Paris in the seventeenth century. 3 2 4 Annals of Medical History f Few medical men of that century have feels with regard to the qualities of his char­ been more written about or had their lives acter and the work that he did—and he was and characters more frequently commented fiercely honest, genuinely learned, brilliant upon. in lecture and conversation, true in his A very considerable literature has grown many friendships and devoted to his family up around Guy Patin and his family, for he —one cannot help feeling kindly towards had an unusually talented wife, and he had the man who said: two sons who became physicians. One of “ J ’aime bien Ies enfants; j’en ai six et il them, Charles, became a professor at the me semble que je n’en ai point encore assez. University of Padua and gained a very con­ Je suis bien ayse qu’ayez une petite fille. siderable distinction in medicine and numis­ Nous n’en avons qu’une, Iaquelle est si matics. The tons mots of Patin were pub­ gentille et agreable que nous I’aimons pres- lished in a book, entitled “ Patiniana.” que autant que nos cinq gar^ons.” M any editions of his letters were pub­ C h a r l e s L. D a n a . lished, and comments on his life and career have appeared by various authors. Dr. Pierre Pic published a work on the career The publication of this, the third number and character of Patin, Paris, 1911. Dr of the A n n a l s o f M e d ic a l H is t o r y , has Felix Larrieu published a monograph on been greatly delayed owing to the fact that “ Patin, His Life, His Work and His Thera­ the editor has been called into service and peutics,” in 1889, and a very elaborate to the fact that all the gentlemen connected work was published in 1898, by L. Vuil- with the editorial work have been very much horgue. occupied by duties in connection with the The comments on the career and char­ war. The material for the fourth number is acter of Patin have not always been by any now in hand and it will appear with very means commendatory. But whatever one much less delay. BOOK REVIEWS

E a r l y H i s t o r y o f N o r t h C a r o l i n a M e d i c a l appointed a committee to found a botanical S o c i e t y . By Dr. Wesley Long, M.D., Greens­ garden and a medical library. boro, N . C. A reprint of an address delivered at All together, from the scanty records of the sixty-fourth annual meeting of the North this pioneer organization, we feel sorry that Carolina Medical Society. it did not go on. The author has spent two years of hard The present North Carolina Medical work in obtaining the data regarding the Society dates from 1849. L)r. Long gives a organization about which he writes and he brief summary of the work of these meet­ has succeeded in bringing to light many ings, year by year, up to 1861, and he adds interesting facts about the pioneer work of biographical notes of the presidents and the North Carolina Medical Society. important officers during that time. He It seems that North Carolina was one of made a careful search for the portraits of the first states to have a medical society. the officers of the Society in the early days. Such a society was organized in 1799, and Dr. Long is a resourceful man, and when he met yearly for five successive years, when could not get a picture of an ancient father it dropped out of existence, and there was he put in a picture of his grave. The oldest then no state organization until the present portrait is that of Dr. James Webb, who society came into existence in 1849. The was a censor in 1801 and a very handsome first society was evidently composed of man. men of intelligence and vision. They recom­ The pictures of other men who are in­ mended the establishment of a board of corporated in this monograph show them medical examiners, and the dividing of the to be persons of intelligence and force. state into districts, with meetings in these Undoubtedly it required those qualities to various districts. be a successful physician in pioneer days. Dr. Charles Smith was perhaps the first Dr. Long has made an original and very American physician on record who was sub­ interesting contribution to American med­ jected to examination by a board of exam­ ical biography. ^ T & ^ J C h a r l e s L. D a n a iners. Dr. Long suggests that he ought to have a monument. T h e N u r s e i n G r e e k L i f e . By Sister Mary Ro- The Proceedings of the early North Car­ saria, M.A., of the Sisters of Charity, Halifax, olina Society show that they were a serious N. S. A dissertation submitted to the Catholic as well as an intelligent set of men, and Sisters College of the Catholic University of the local paper states that at the meeting America in partial fulfillment of the require­ in 1801, a “ considerable number of respect­ ments for the degree, Doctor of Philosophy. able physicians” were present. The presi­ 51 pp., 1 . 1., 8°. Boston, June, 1917. dential address contained “ a cursory nar­ This is a beautiful piece of synthetic rative of the progress of the science of work. What purports to be a dissertation medicine from the earliest ages,” showing in classified philology is, for the physician that the gentlemen of those days took an at least, a most fascinating study of the interest in the history of medicine. They also cultural history of Greek pediatrics. 326 Annals of Medical History

On the textual side, admirable analyses ical history, and no great amount of fore­ of the Hippocratic and post-Hippocratic cast would be required to predict a second pediatrics have been made by Kroner, edition. When this comes to pass, we hope Troitzky and others, but this is the first that Sister Mary Rosaria will add transla­ extensive handling of the present theme. tions to the citations chosen with such skill, Hitherto, the subject has only been adum­ if only that busy physicians may be spared brated in such things as the section on the necessity of painfully picking out the “ Kinderpflege, ” in SudhofPs Catalogue of meaning from Bohn’s ponies or from the the Dresden Hygienic Exhibit (1911, pp. bilinguals in Loeb’s Classical Library. 138-144) or the charming pages in J. P. F. H. G a r r is o n Mahaffy’s “ Social Life in Greece from Homer to Menander” (London, 1913, 29-31, 163-168). Sister Mary Rosaria builds L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i : Quaderni d’Anatomia V. up the whole cultural scheme of Hellenistic Ventisei fogli della Royal Library de Windsor. pediatrics from citations from the poets, Vasi-muscoli cervello e nervi— anatomia topo- graphica e comparata. Quaderni d’Anatomia dramatists, orators, philosophers and physi­ V I. Ventitre fogli. . . Proporzioni-funzioni dei cians of classical antiquity. muscoli— anatomia della superficie del corpo Beginning with a short introductory chap­ humano, pubblicate da Ove C. L. Vangensten, ter on the Greek terms used for “ nurse” A. Fonahn, H. Hopstock. Con traduzione inglese (rpo(f)6s, TiOrjvri fxala, and rirdr]), the suc­ e tedesca. Christiania, Casa editrice Jacob Dyb- cessive sections deal with the social status wad, 1916. of the nurse, the nurse and the family, We have now before us complete the gi­ including bathing, swaddling, wet-nursing, gantic work which began to appear in 1911. cradling, fondling, humoring and all other If the war has hindered the industrious co­ phases of “ mothering” the infant, also toys workers in their plan of issuing an annual and games, nursery tales and lullabies, volume regularly, in the beginning of Sep­ closing with a chapter on monuments to tember of each year, it has not hindered the nurse, and a bibliography of sources. them and the doughty publisher from com­ The high esteem in which the nurse was pleting the publication by the appearance held in ancient Hellas, even when her tender of the sixth and last volume on September charges had grown up to be men and women, 2, 1916, although the four non-Norwegian is plain. As in Elizabethan England, and collaborators have been called to military even later in Scotland, the nurse remained duty in the warring nations, two in Ger­ a very important and influential personage many and Austria, two in England and in the household. Italy. We have, then, the complete graphic The poetic citations—particularly the and textual material of Leonardo on anat­ lullabies from Theocritus, Simonides, Soph­ omy at hand in an exemplary edition, as ocles and Euripides are beautiful, and we far as the Royal Library of Windsor Castle can only regret that our authoress, who possesses it. Unfortunately, the original commands a literary style of such pleasing material was not accessible, since physicians simplicity, has chosen to give them only have had little opportunity for spending in the Greek. In an essay intended, in the afternoons at Windsor for three years. first instance, for Greek scholars, this was Not only these six volumes, which the pub­ natural and to be expected. But this is a lisher, the Heliotype establishment at Chris­ work which can hardly be bettered of its tiania, the London publishers in small part, kind, one which will be in demand among and the three scholars of the northern uni­ professional pediatrists and students of med­ versity with their staff, have given us in B o o k R e v i e w s 327 such admirable and splendid style, but these bloodletting manikin, but reveals exten­ volumes, combined with the two earlier sive post-mortem dissection in the delinea­ volumes which Piumati in Paris (1898) and tion, of the course of the veins, or the won­ Sabachnikoff in Turin (1901) published as derfully fine silver-crayon drawings of the Feuillets A and B respectively, with Italian topographical anatomy of the neck, etc. The textual script and English translation, make publisher has done his part as well, as thor­ up the whole. In the Christiania edition, the oughly and with the same restless zeal as Italian original text is accompanied by an the worthy editors. English and a German translation, closely K a r l S u d h o f f following the Italian text. The English ver­ (Translated from Munchen. med. Wchnschr., sion is the work of W. Wright. The German 1916, LXIII, 1622.) rendition was made through the collabora­ tion of M. HoII and K. Sudhoff, HoII having R ecollections o f a N e w Y o r k S u r g e o n . B y naturally and rightly supervised the ana­ Arpad G. Gerster, M.D. Paul B. Hoeber, New tomical interpretation of the text. We have York, 1917; 8vo, Cloth, 347 pages, 10 plates, 16 illus. $3.50 . now a reasonable basis for utilizing and evaluating the material in its relation to There are several types of autobiograph­ the history of anatomy and physiology, a ical writing. In some the writer pours out field which Hopstock and Fonahn, as well his heart or lays bare his soul to the au­ as M. HoII, have made legitimately and pe­ diences for which he writes. Of such a kind culiarly their own. While the sixth volume were the “ Confessions” of St. Augustine deals almost exclusively with surface anat­ and those of Rousseau. Other autobiogra­ omy, muscular function and the theory of phies are not much more than a series of proportions, the fifth volume, made up of literary or critical essays, of which the most leaves from all of Leonardo’s periods of interesting example is the recently published anatomical study, from the Florentine days “ Recollections” of Viscount Morley. Some onward, contains great masterpieces of his autobiographies are the simple, straight­ skill in the art of anatomical preparation, forward, unvarnished tales of the writer’s particularly his delineations of the muscles career. Such was the “ Vita Propria” of and tendons of the leg and foot, his original Cardan and the story of Benjamin Franklin injections of masses of wax into the ven­ himself. tricles of the brain, to the cortex of which, Dr. Gerster has written his autobiography as well as the peripheral nerves, many stud­ along the lines of the last type. He tells his ies are devoted. The topographical anatomy story with simplicity, directness and vivac­ of the neck is set forth in countless prepara­ ity. tions; the supply of muscles, tendons, The author has had a much more varied bloodvessels and nerves of the lower ex­ experience than the average surgeon, who tremity is elucidated by serial sections; the has lived a fairly long and very successful course of the intestines is traced by occa­ life. Dr. Gerster grew up in picturesque sional separation of the intestinal coils from Hungary; he finished his education in the omentum. Physiological questions, such Vienna; he had an experience in the Aus­ as the action of the heart and fetal respira­ trian army. He made a great adventure to tion, are also attacked. The careful delicacy America and a still greater one to Brooklyn; of the excellent reproductions will be a he had the daring later to transfer himself constant source of delight to the beholder, to Manhattan. All of these enabled him to from the very first picture of the venous give picturesqueness and a certain dramatic system, which in posture resembles the old quality to his story. 328 Annals of Medical History Readers will be generally more interested, that there is nothing in his book which ex­ we think, in the story of his home life and ploits himself. We should rather be in­ early education. This presents to us in a clined to say that the author is almost too singularly direct and felicitous way the shy in recounting his achievements. He kind of family life which the Hungarian seems more interested in the personalities boy led. We must say after all that it was about him. He shows that he likes to esti­ not very remote in method and type from mate and esteem his fellow men, and con­ that of New England of forty to one hundred fesses that he has been well-treated by years ago. those in his profession. He shows himself We are a little disappointed that the very keen and very sound on problems of author has not given us more gossip and education. He is a lover of art, of music, of comment on the surgery of his early days books and of all the phases of outdoor life, in New York. There were great men in his own experience in which he felicitously those times and some fierce controversies portrays. If the traveler from Mars should and personal incidents which Dr. Gerster pick up the work, he would say, we think, could have given with great effect. He is, that it tells a story of a very unusual man, we might say, almost too kind to his progressive, and sometimes aggressive, tenax medical brethren. The members of that his­ propositi, broadly educated, widely endowed toric band known as the Charaka Club are and a mighty good fellow. The book is well given a chapter and receive thereby a con­ printed, and illustrated with some very inter­ ditional immortality. esting plates of his family and environment. Those who know the author would know C h a r l e s L. D a n a