(1) Operational ProbleD1.s In Th.e Arctic Islands

By J. L. U8HER*

(12th Annual Technical Meeting, Edmonton, May, 1961) Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021

ABSTRACT certed efforts of the many expedi­ provided us with the basic knowl­ Geological exploration on the tions that attempted to reach the edge of how to live and work in the Arctic Islands encounters many North Pole. These numerous voy­ area. operational problems that are new ages established the basic carto­ Private companies, and particu­ to most Canadian geologists. Al­ graphy of the Islands, but yielded though conditions are similar to larly consultant firms, beginning those of the tundra on the northern only a smattering of geological their own exploration of selected Mainland, climatic and physiogra­ knowledge from widely separated blocks of land on the Islands, must phic differences impose modifica­ points. It was not until the post­ base their initial mode of operation tions in transportation to the field, war years of the late 1940's that the in planned reconnaissance and de­ on the information gained by the tailed surface studies, and in living first long-range, systematically plan­ Survey's previous experience. Gen­ conditions in the field. The relative ned, geological exploration of the erally, however, because their oper~ merits of small single-winged air­ Islands was instrumented by the ations are limited 'by economy and craft and helicopters are discussed; Canadian Government. To day, the change of method of field work time factors, they cannot plan very with change of ice conditions from through the efforts of the Geologi­ far ahead. The more detailed work spring to fall are examined; the cal Survey of Canada, whose work which they must perform on small effect of various topographies and has 'been immeasurably aided by areas, to be covered in one or two bedrock on relative ease of move­ complete photographic coverage of ment are considered. seasons, and with limited resources, the Islands, regional geological rec· causes problems to arise which onnaissance of the Arctic Archipel­ INTRODUCTION are quite different from those en­ ago is nearly completed. This work countered by the Geological Survey ECORDED exploration of the was obviously basic to the opening in their broad regional studies plan­ R Arctic Islands has been in pro­ of the Islands' territory to oil and ned and carried out over a greater gress for nearly 450 years. It be­ gas exploration and to the acquisi­ number of years. To illustrate a gan with the search for a North­ tion of lands by companies inter­ seemingly casual but indeed very west Passage to the Indies, a search ested in this exploration. The value significant difference between the that was forced upon European of the Geological Survey's explora­ operations of a private firm and entrepreneurs when they realized tion is not, however, limited to geol­ the operations of a Federal Govern­ that not only was the earth spheroi­ ogy; their operations on the Islands ment survey in the Arctic Islands dal hut that a major continent in­ have provided us with important is the problem of manpower. The tervened and barred the western and valuable data on methods of field force of the Geological Survey route between Europe and Asia. In ground and aerial transportation, comprises specialists in all facets the words of Taylor (19'55, p. 8), on the climate, on the terrain, and of geology: structural specialists, " ... North America, in European on logistics. In short, they have igneous specialists, stratigraphers, eyes, was not so much a goal to be and paleontologists specializing in achieved as an obstacle to be sur­ faunas of each and every period of mounted." Polar exploration was (1) The author is indebted to the geological time from Cambrian to further advanced by whaling and geologists of J. C. Sproule and Tertiary. Theoretically, and for sealing enterprises and by the con- Associates, Ltd., who contrib­ the most part practically, teams of uted to the information con­ tained herein, and especially to these specialists can be and have Mr. G. A. Wilson. from whose been sent to study the geology of * Dr. J. L. Usher, J. C. Sproule &; unpublished description of phy­ areas where their training and ex­ Assoc., Ltd., Calgary, Alta.; now siography, climate, transport, Associate Professor of Geology, habitation and settlements the perience will provide optimum re­ Queen's University, Kingston, Onto present author freely drew. sults. Private operators do not have

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 35 this wide choice of specialized man­ but are herein considered part of distinguishes six principal units power at their immediate disposal the eastern sub-group. These two (Figure 1). These are: (i) moun­ but must rely upon their general sub-groups are hereinafter called tains underlain by Precambrian field geologists to gather, study, and the east southern Arctic Islands rocks; (ii) uplands underlain by interpret structural, stratigraphic, and the west southern Arctic Is­ Precambrian rocks; (iii) mountains and paleontologic data in the field. lands. The east southern sub-group underlain by folded sedimentary True, the services of government contains Baffin, Bylot, and adjoin­ rocks; (iv) uplands underlain by specialists are available to aid pri­ ing small islands, as well as Mel­ folded sedimentary strata; (v) pla­ vate concerns in the interpretation ville Peninsula. The west southern teaux underlain by flat-lying strata; of collected data, provided those sub-group includes Somerset, Prince (vi) lowlands unclassified as to specialists are not already overbur­ of Wales, King William, Victoria, structure but underlain by sedimen­ dened with a combination of their Stefansson, Banks, and all adjoin­ tary rocks. The latter unit includes own research and other demands of ing smaller islands; Boothia Pen­ the Arctic coastal plain. Obvious­ industry, but there is a singular insula is considered a natural part ly inherent in this classification is advantage in having, for instance, of this geographic sub-group. the close relation between geology a trained sedimentologist or paleon­ and land form; the physiography The islands lying north of Parry tologist to solve problems in the of a region cannot be intelligently Channel were early referred to as field. contemplated without awareness of the Northern Arctic Islands but

the control imposed on it by the Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 The object of the present paper they are now known as the Queen geology of the region. is to discuss the influence of the Elizabeth Islands. Within this physical environment of the Arctic group the islands of Devon, Corn­ Mountains and Uplands Underlain Islands on surface geological ex­ wallis, Bathurst, Byam Martin, and by Precambrian Rocks ploration, and to report some of the Melville, bounded by Lancaster Precambrian mountains (high­ more consequential problems that Sound, Barrow Strait, and Viscount land regions) are confined to the are encountered in private openy Melville Sound, were named the eastern border of the Arctic Archi­ tions. The vast distance of the Parry Islands by the British Ad­ pelago; from the mountains of Un­ Arctic Islands from well travelled miralty in 1835 in honour of the gava, with which they are co-exten­ routes and centres of supply, and British explorer, Lieutenant W. E. sive, they occupy the entire length the considerable expenditures in­ Parry, who discovered and gave of Baffin Island, extend across the volved in overcoming these dis­ names to them. For the same rea­ east end of Devon Island and along tances, are critical factors in the son Axel Heiberg Island and the the east coast of Ellesmere Island success or failure of current opera­ Ringnes Islands were dubbed the as far north as Bache Peninsula. tions by private individuals or firms "Sverdrup Group" in honour of Cap­ The highest elevations, approx­ attempting to explore and improve tain Otto Sverdrup's 1898 to 1902 imately 8,000 feet, are reached in their holdings on the Islands. explorations during which the group east-central Baffin Island; from was discovered. there northward the summits are A GEOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISION OF between 4,000 and 6,000 feet above A PHYSIOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISION THE ARCTIC ISLANDS sea level. Vast glaciers still occupy OF THE ARCTIC ISLANDS much of this mountainous terrain The Northwest Territories of A relatively simple physiographic and the evidence of extensive Pleis­ Canada comprise most of Canada classification of the Arctic Islands tocene alpine glaciation is freshly north of 60° N. latitude and are divided for practical administrative purposes into three provisional dis­ PHYSIOGRAPHIC MAP. ARCTIC ISLANDS tricts: Keewatin, Mackenzie, and Franklin. The District of Franklin, involving very nearly 550,000 square miles, includes the Hudson Straits - Islands, Boothia and Melville Pen­ ~ insulas,and the Arctic Archipelago. ­S The Arctic Archipelago is, in turn, [2] readily divisible into a southern group and a northern group of islands by the wide straits of water known as Parry Channel, which begins in the east with Lancaster Sound and leads continuously west­ ward through Barrow Strait, Vis­ count Melville Sound, and M'Clure Strait, to the Beaufort Sea. The southern group has been consid­ ered as comprising two subdivi­ sions, an east and a west sub-group lying respectively east and west of Prince Regent Sound and the Gulf of Boothia; the islands in Hudson ! Bay were considered by Lowe (1906) to be a third distinct group within the southern Arctic Islands, Figure 1.

36 Journal of Canadian Petroleum visible in the fiord coastline of east­ the south. The highest part of the have been tilted in that direction. ern Baffin Island, Devon Island, and Ellesmere-Heiberg mountain sys­ In most places elevations are less Ellesmere Island, and in the aretes, tem is on northwestern Ellesmere than 2,500 feet on the plateaux, but horns, and cirques of the rugged Island, where summits are believed on southern Ellesmere Island the mountains. to reach elevations of 10,000 feet. plateaux is nearly 4,000 feet above Inland from the eastern coast of On central Axel Heiberg the high­ sea level. Coastal areas in most places are distinguished by steep Baffin Island the topography and est peaks probably reach over 7,000 relief becomes more subdued; this feet. Glaciers and snowfields are cliffs, such as those exposed on the south shore of Devon Island. In­ is the Precambrian upland area of common in these mountains, and Baffin Island. The uplands slope the visible effects of alpine glacia­ land areas are in a youthfUl stage to the southwest and are less rug· tion are abundant. of erosion and are characterized by steep-walled, deep, V-shaped val­ ged and less deeply eroded than the The most characteristic feature leys, with poorly dissected, nearly mountains to the east. On Devon of these highlands is the pronounc­ flat inter-stream areas. and Ellesmere Islands the Precam· ed parallelism of the ranges and On Banks Island and western Vic­ brian mountains become less rug­ ridges; this parallelism, controlled ged westward and ultimately merge by the folded underlying rocks, toria Island, a plateau area is made up of two parts, one at a lower with the high but only youthfully persists throughout the physiogra­ dissected plateaux of central Devon phic subdivision from the mountain­ elevation than the other. The smaller southern plateau, character­ and south-central Ellesmere. ous terrain of Ellesmere and Axel Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Heiberg Islands to the folded up­ ized by an undulating surface, is Uplands of Precambrian rocks underlain by gently dipping Pre­ extending into the Arctic Archipel­ lands of Bathurst and Melville Islands. Elevations decrease south­ cambrian and Cretaceous strata. ago from the Canadian Shield of The northern and higher plateau the Keewatin and Mackenzie Dis­ west and west from the northern­ most islands, becoming somewhat displays a nearly flat surface with tricts occur in the west southern steep-walled valleys, with cliffs SUb-group of islands. The Boothia more than 2,000 feet on Grinnell Peninsula, 1,600 feet on central along the coast, and is underlain by Arch brings to the surface Precam­ gently folded Paleozoic strata. brian rocks along most of Boothia Bathurst Island, and as low as 300 Peninsula, along the west side of to 1,000 feet on eastern Melville Lowlands Underlain by Sedimen­ Somerset Island and the east side Island; further west on Melville tary Rocks of Prince of Wales Island, whereas Island, in the Blue Hills, elevations Several more or less isolated on Victoria Island the broad east­ rise again to 3,000 feet. The top­ large areas of lowlands occur with-­ west trending Minto Arch exposes ography of the western half of the in the area of the Arctic Archipel­ Precambrian rocks across the sub-province (termed the Parry ago. For purposes of simplicity northwestern part of the Island. Islands fold belt) as present on they can 'be divided into two main These two strips of Precambrian Bathurst and Melville Islands, is varieties. In the Queen Elizabeth exposures are not mountainous thus much more subdued than in Islands, confined to the area north­ highlands but rather are moderate­ the Ellesmere-Heiberg ranges, and west of the Innuitian Orogenic sys­ ly elevated, roughly dissected up­ is approximately described as a tem, and stretching from Axel Hei­ lands. Both are very likely the maturely eroded upland. Neverthe­ berg to northeastern Prince Patrick manifestation of horst·like uplifts less the parallelism of ridges and Island, lies the Sverdrup Basin, a or arches, and their nature and valleys is a reflection of the folded structural unit in which extensive trend is a function of the structural sedimentary strata that underlie Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimenta­ disturbance which elevated them. the Parry Islands fold 'belt and is tion took place. It is bordered on closely associated with the folded the east by the folded highlands Mountains and Uplands Underlain mountains on Ellesmere and Axel of Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg by Folded Sedimentary Strata Heiberg Islands. Both are part of Islands, on the south by the folded A great crescent of folded sedi­ the great Innuitian Orogenic sys­ uplands of the Parry Islands, and mentary strata stretches from the tem. on the northwest by the Arctic northeast tip of Ellesmere Island coastal plain. For the most part southwestward across central and Plateaux on Flat-Lying Strata the area is an undulating lowland, western Ellesmere, through central The Precambrian highlands of the average elevation of which is Axel Heiberg Island, through Ellesmere and Devon Islands are in the order of 400 to 500 feet Raanes and Grinnell Peninsulas, separated from the Innuitian Oro­ above sea level but in which some and westward across Bathurst and genic chain by an irregular discon­ ridges may reach 1,000 feet or more. Melville Islands. It is known as tinuous plateau of gently folded to These lowlands are underlain by the Innuitian Orogenic system (For­ flat-lying sedimentary Paleozoic gently to strongly folded late tier, McNair and Thorsteinsson, strata, standing relatively high Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic 1954). In the north, on Ellesmere above sea level. Plateaux of this sediments and, in places on Sabine and Axel Heiberg Islands, the fold nature are well displayed on south­ Peninsula, on the Ringnes Islands, belt is exposed in a mountainous ern Ellesmere Island, central Devon and on Axel Heiberg Island, the terrain known as the Ellesmere­ Island, Brodeur and Borden Penin­ lowlands are pierced by gypsum Heiberg Mountains. On northern sulas, and eastern Somerset Island, diapirs. Much of the area resembles Ellesmere the mountain system is and in each case they dip gently to a poorly dissected peneplain, the separated into two parts by the the west, away from the Precam­ degree of dissection and the forms Hazen Lake upland region wherein brian highlands with which they produced being dependent upon the underlying rocks are folded but gradually merge. An east dip oc­ local geologic structure. Other where the elevations are much curs in the Somerset Island in­ parts, such as southeast Amund lower and the relief less than in stance where, because of the uplift Ringnes Island and the west coast the mountains to the north and to of the Boothia Arch, the sediments of Axel Heiberg Island, resemble a

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 37 recently elevated marine plain in strata, the structure of which has vious, Precambrian basement ap­ the early stages of erosion. controlled and produced a system pears at the surface and forms a In the east-southern and west­ of parallel ridges and valleys sim­ rough upland terrain. Paleozoic southern sub - groups of Arctic ilar to the Appalachian system of rocks lying east and west of the Islands, levels of very gently and continental North American. Like Arch in this area are gently dipping broadly rolling lowlands are under. the Appalachians the synclines of and moderately thick, and form lain by flat-lying lower to middle the Innuitian Orogenic belt are pre­ relatively high, youthfully dissected Paleozoic rocks, mainly carbonates. served as hills and the anticlines plateaux. No basement is exposed They form extensive areas south of are the loci of valleys. The Paleo­ on Cornwallis lsland. The thick the Minto Arch on southern Vic­ zoic sediments forming the system Paleozoic section there is folded in toria Island, on southwestern are carbonates and clastics of mio­ a broad anticlinal structure and the Prince of Wales Island, on King geosynclinal origin ; (iii) the plat­ island is essentially a modified William Island and in Foxe Basin. eaux that lie between and adjacent western extension of the Devon Elevations are low, seldom exceed­ to the above two physiographic Island Plateau. The Minto Arch on ing 300 feet. and surface features units are developed on thick accum­ Banks Island is probably of some­ are principally those wrought by ulations of Paleozoic sediments, what similar origin as the Boothia glaciation and frost action. The mainly carbonates, that have suf­ Arch but has, as yet, not been underlying rocks are platform de­ fered only minor gentle folding and thoroughly studied. posits that form a relatively thin broad uplift. These gently dipping (2) The term epigeosyncline (mean­ Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 veneer on the Precambrian base­ to flat-lying rocks are also most ing "above the geosyncline") likely of miogeosynclinal origin has been coined by McNair ment and have suffered little to no (Ormiston, 1960) in an unpub· deformation. deposited on the cratonic (contin­ ental) or shoreward side of the lished thesis to describe the Fringing the northwestern Queen situation where thick accumula­ miogeosyncline; (iV) lowlands are tion of sediments in a struc· Elizabeth Islands, from Prince Pat­ developed on either of two geologic tural basin rest upon both the rick in the west to Meighen in the settings; they are present as thin miogeosynclinal and eugeosyn, east, is a very low, nearly flat plain carbonate platform sediments that clinal parts vi a previously that slopes northwestward toward existing orthogeosyncline (Kay, overlie the Precambrian Shield of 1951>' In the present case the the Arctic Ocean and merges to the northern Canada and mark the Sverdrup epigeosyncline exists east and southeast with the Sver­ transition from the continental cra­ above the former Franklinian drup Basin lowlands. This Arctic ton to the miogeosyncline, thus geosyncline. coastal plain, recently emerged, is forming a series of disconnected Many dangers exist in over-sim­ underlain by late Tertiary and lowlands in the southern Arctic plifying the gross regional geology Quaternary unconsolidated silts, Islands; or they are developed on of an area. The foregoing general· sands, and clays, and is drained by the thick, late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, izations, for instance, emphasize sub-parallel dendritic streams that or Cenozoic clastics of the Sver­ the relation of geology to physio· move sluggishly across its low-ly­ drup Basin where they form a roll­ graphy but only scant attention is ing surface. Elevations of the plain ing lowland along the northwestern given to the structural units in­ are for the most part less than 200 side of Queen Elizabeth Islands. volved; lithologv was barely men­ feet and the strata are flat-lying to This structural basin is an example tioned and the historical sequence gently northwestward-dipping. It of an "epigeosyncline" (Ormiston, of events, particularly orogenic seems reasonable to include the 1960) (2) presumably superposed events, is not considered. Arctic coastal plain within the low­ above the northern side of the lands physiographic unit described Paleozoic geosyncline from which CLIMATE above. the folded uplands of the Innuitian No single factor has been more system developed. Miogeosynclinal, instrumental in restricting develop­ GEOLOGIC SUBDIVISIONS OF THE and possibly eugeosynclinal, depos­ ment of the Arctic Islands than the its of this Paleozoic geosyncline climate of the area. When mean ARCTIC ISLANDS underlie the Sverdrup Basin; (v) temperatures are below zero five to A comprehensive discussion of the Arctic coastal plain, developed seven months of the year, and be­ the geological subdivisions of on the Arctic Ocean side of the low freezing eight to nine months the Arctic Islands would necessitate Sverdrup lOWlands, is a young geo­ of the year, and when one-quarter a separate treatise. The purpose graphic feature underlain by the of the year (early November to of the ensuing section of the pres­ youngest of marine sediments and early February) brings complete ent paper is merely to reiterate and only recently emerged from the darkness, enthusiasm for living and stress the close relation between sea; (vi) a sixth geological feature working in the area is felt by only physiography and geology. If the of considerable importance is the the most hardy, intrepid, and ded­ reader will recall the aforemen­ Boothia Arch. This Arch extends icated souls. As scientific research tioned simple geographic subdivi­ from Boothia Peninsula through and the steady accumulation of sions of the Islands, he will note Cornwallis Island and intersects in experience adds more to our knowl­ that each is underlain by a char­ a north-south direction the Innui­ edge, and as technological advances acteristic rock section accompanied tian Orogenic belt. In so doing, provide us with improved equip. by distinctive geologic structure. the Arch more or less separates the ment and gear for our survival, we Briefly: (i) the Precambrian high­ Parry Islands folds in the west will become more prepared and ac· lands and uplands are eroded com­ from the Ellesmere-Heiberg fold customed to existing under the ex· plexes of Precambrian sediments, system to the northeast. Physio­ tremities of Arctic climate. Cer· volcanics, metamorphics, and intru­ graphically the structure is not tainly seismic and drilling opera­ sive rocks; (ii) the folded highlands markedly pronounced. On Boothia tions can be carried on more ad· and uplands are developed in an Peninsula and western Somerset vantageously in the winter months arcuate belt of folded Paleozoic Island, where the Arch is most ob- when the land and sea are solid

38 Journal of Canadian Petroleum with frost and ice, permitting move· stances, small permanent snow and plane and flying boat landings in ment of heavy loads from place to ice accumulations may carryover lakes on the southern Arctic place, if We can devise the means from year to year in the most pro­ Islands are possible during August, to keep machinery operating in con· tected parts of a river valley and but in the latter part of that month tinuous extreme cold. Surface geo­ the rock section at these points freezing spray is common. In the logical exploration, however, must never becomes accessible. Queen Elizabeth Islands, float plane be restricted to short summer Although continuous daylight is operations are limited both by the months when the snow cover has present throughout the period from sparsity of lakes and the very been melted off. late April to mid-August, Arctic short period when the lakes are ice· free. Only the middle two weeks of Precipitation and Temperature summer does not begin until the last week in June or the first week August can be relied upon to make Precipitation is not particularly of July; it continues until August landings. Coastal inlets and bays heavy in the Arctic Islands, and 15 when the sun once more dips are open for a longer period of the depth of snow is never exces­ below the horizon. The short sum­ time, but they are unpredictable be­ sive except in valleys and depres­ mer is characterized by pleasant, cause winds may cause constant sions, and in the lee of obstacles moderately warm days interspersed shifting of the ice pack; tidal haz­ where the wind has banked it; by with periods of fog, rain, wind, and ards in narrow inlets and fiords the same token the wind common· occasionally snow flurries. After further complicate landings by float ly keeps uplands and exposed sur­ August 15 temperatures at night planes. faces swept free of snow. Table Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 are generally below freezing. Late Sea Ice I (Rae, 1951) shows the average in August or early in September annual precipitation of six localities mean daily temperatures are below The seas surrounding the islands in the Arctic. freezing, and snow begins to ac­ of the Arctic Archipelago are ice­ cumulate. By mid-September lakes covered much or all of the year; patches may stay open during the TABLE I. are frozen and shortly thereafter winter in some of the larger sounds AVERAGE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION the more sheltered coastal waters begin to freeze. Continuous dark­ or straits, such as Lancaster Strait, Totol Davis Strait, and Baffin Bay, by Rain Snow Precip. ness begins at Resolute Bay during (Ins.) (Ins.) (Ins.) the first week of November and virtue of tidal currents. During the Dundas Harbour 3.93 47.8 8.71 ends during the first week of Feb­ summer, conditions vary from areas Eureka 0.49 12.5 1.74 ruary. Throughout this period and where there is essentially no break­ Holman Island __ 2.75 36.1 6.36 into early May, sub-zero tempera­ up (the ice pack of the Arctic Isachsen 0.80 21.5 2.95 tures are the norm. Ocean and the channels and straits Mould Bay 1.14 15.0 2.64 surrounding the northwesternmost Resolute Bay 2.44 29.1 5.35 Ice melts more slowly than snow Queen Elizabeth Islands) to areas and as a result the uplands may virtually free of ice (the southeast· In general, precipitation is be free of snow for two or three ern straits such as Lancaster, heavier in the southern islands and weeks before ice breaks up in the Davis, and Baffin Bay). Between decreases northward. Bedrock is lakes and marine inlets and bays. these two extremes are areas where exposed early in April in the steep It is about mid-July before small floating ice exists all summer in fiord canyons on Axel Heiberg and lakes are completely free of ice, lesser or greater quantities and Ellesmere Islands because of low and in many of the larger ones ice where it is shifted about by winds precipitation and the more rapid may remain all summer. Float and currents. Areas affected by thawing brought on by heat radia­ ,------, tion from the exposed rock walls SUMMER ICE of the canyons. In the central and western Queen Elizabeth Islands [_J PERMANENT ICE thawing conditions occur occasion­ 0- 40 % ally in late May but do not mater­ GREENLAND OJ 40 - 70 % ially affect the snow cover. The 70 - 100 % mean daily temperatures here do ICE CA P not rise above zero until early May. On these islands thawing does not effectively begin until the mean daily temperature rises above the freezing point, sometime dUring the second week in June. From then on snow disappears rapidly and by the third week in June many out­ crops are exposed. By the last week in June most of the remaining snow is confined to deeper drifts in the shelter of obstacles, and in gul­ lies and river valleys. Unfortunat­ ely, many of the best bedrock sec­ tions are limited to river valleys, MAINLAND and study and measurement of these may be restricted until late July or August when the last of the snow has melted. In a few in· Figure II.

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 39 these conditions surround the south­ commonly produces open leads site of the first exploratory well at ern and central Queen Elizabeth along the shore and the surface of Winter Harbour will be of vast Islands and, to some extent, the the ice becomes covered with pud­ benefit to future operations of this deep bays of the southern Arctic dles. Large cracks, stretching nature. Islands. Figure II indicates the many miles in length, appear and general distribution of open water, adjoining masses of ice separate Fog and Cloud floating pack ice, and solid ice pack. and the cracks widen. Shift of The short summer season im­ Where summer geological opera­ wind may cause the cracks to close, poses a considerable limitation on tions require movement from one and thrusting of one mass over an­ the amount of surface exploration island to another it is always im­ other occurs. Ice travel by dogs that can be accomplished in any portant to plan the field season so and sled is curtailed at this time. one year; it is unfortunate that a that small aircraft are not required Minimum ice coverage is reached further reduction of this time is to fly across wide channels of open in late August or early September. wrought by the periods of excessive water or floating ice. Helicopters Cargo ships can enter Lancaster cloud and fog that the summer should be equipped with floats in Sound in early July. Since the months bring. Visibility is one of case mechanical failure forces the southern harbours are open earliest, the most important factors in Arc­ craft to settle onto floating ice or vessels bringing supplies to the tic exploration; as would be antic­ water. Department of Transport stations ipated, it varies with geographical

call at the southern ports in July location and season. Ice crystal Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Freeze-up begins in September or early August and then proceed fog, a winter phenomenon, orig­ and, in the Queen Elizabeth Islands, to the northern ones, such as Reso­ inates either through radiant cool­ ice has begun to accumulate in the lute Bay, in middle to late August ing of the air mass just above the protected bays and inlets by the or September. They must leave the earth, or by chilling of moisture middle of that month. Such condi. area no later than mid-October. and precipitation from thin clouds tions occur late in September in the Companies that are able to plan as high as 2'2,000 feet above the southern Islands. All the northern their activities well in advance are earth. The former seldom reduces channels are covered with ice by advised to take advantage of the visibility to less than one mile. The mid-November; by April, ice cover­ cheaper transportation costs af­ latter condition sometimes limits age is at a maximum and varies in forded by cargo vessel. The exper· visibility to the vertical direction places from five to eight feet thick ience gained by Dome Petroleum only, and may cause extremely in bays and inlets and somewhat et al. in the use of Arctic cargo hazardous flying conditions. In less in the wide channels. Break-up vessels for transporting large quan­ spring, after the air warms up begins with the spring run-off. This tities of massive equipment to the enough that ice crystal fog is un·

100

90 MOULD ...... BAY ~/ .... ~~ ... BO ,/ ...... "'>...... - .... /~ , ISACHSEN /_, . ~ \ .... \.. '\ 'I' I:' I ~"" 70 ~'\/ :, ~ I '.' /', .. .' CAMBRIDGE BAY .., I.'//• '\ I ~-. .: y.. , '" ". ,\, 60 ::D II /' n RESOLUTE BAY , // '"z ..... EUREKA ' ,.,." \\, .... '/ ./ 50 \' ~., ~. ;,f If/' ,\..., I : f .' t·

AVERAGE MONTHLY CLOUDINESS At Various Observation Stations in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

FIGURE-DJ:

40 Journol of Canadian Petroleum likely to occur, and before thawing of habitation in the Queen Elizabeth Islands are visited each year by has produced either extensive open Island. supply ships that bring cargo from water or excessively moist ground, These simple graphs show that the west coast of North America visibility conditions are generally cloudiness is more prevalent in the via Bering Strait, or from Tuktoy­ at their best. western and central Queen Eliza­ aktuk, near the Mackenzie River Fog is most common during late beth Islands than on those to the delta. The Hudson's Bay Company spring and early summer but, in northeast. At Eureka, for instance, and the Yellowknife Transportation the Queen Elizabeth Islands, it long periods of uninterrupted sun­ Company Ltd. both participate in may occur throughout the entire light occur during late June and Arctic shipping. At Cambridge Bay, summer. It is caused by moist air July, whereas during the same ships are expected anytime after which passes over wide stretches time on Cornwallis Island, such the first of August. Resolute Bay of open water, becoming cooled weather is interspersed with con­ can generally be reached between either by contact with ice or by siderable periods of cloudiness and August 10 and October 10. rising along shore lines. Customar·. fog. In the eastern islands of the By, the heaviest and most persist­ Archipelago, Hudson's Bay trading ent fogs occur along the margins Wind posts are supplied by their com­ of the islands and do not persist, Wind, another important factor pany's vessels. The Government of or are thin inland, unless driven in the degree of comfort or lack of Canada has two icebreakers, the C. there by strong winds. After freeze­ it in any climate, is not very dif­ D. Howe and the d'Iberville, which Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 up in late August or early Septem­ ferent in velocity from other parts navigate in Arctic waters. These ber, the open water conditions no of Canada. Table II (Rae, 1951) ships carry supplies for Department longer prevail and fog occurs less compares the mean annual wind of Transport and the Royal Cana· frequently. The combination of fog velocity of three Arctic centres and dian Air Force bases, but will also conditions and snow-covered ter­ two southern Canadian cities. take cargo for private operators. rain, known as "whiteout" is prob­ Sailing from Montreal, cargo ves· ably the most dangerous flying TABLE II. sels supported by the icebreakers hazard in the Arctic. The uniform MEAN ANNUAL WIND VELOCITY are able to reach Alert, Resolute whiteness of sky and land obliter­ Miles p3r hour Bay, and Eureka during most sum· ates the horizon and the sense of Isachsen 5.6 mers. A Danish shipping firm, J. perspective is lost. Resolute Bay 10.6 Lauritzen Lines, Copenhagen, oper· Throughout the Arctic Archipel­ Coral Harbour 13.6 ates 14 vessels that are specially designed for Polar navigation. ago there are two periods of Medicine Hat 10.0 Ships of this fleet have cargo space maximum cloudiness, spring and Toronto 11.4 autumn, alternating with two per­ ranging from 55,000 to 253,000 cubic iods of minimum cloudiness, sum­ The effect of wind on personal feet. A vessel of this fleet was mer and winter. Of the latter, the comfort is more severe in the Arc­ used by Dome Petroleum et al. in period of least cloudiness is dur­ tic than in southern Canada be­ the summer of 1961 to transport the drilling and camp equipment to ing the depth of winter. In the cause of lack of shelter. Since extreme western and northwestern campsites must be situated close to, Winter Harbour. Queen Elizabeth Islands, spring or on, level and exposed upland Transportation of men and equip. cloudiness lasts longer and autumn areas for the convenience of air­ ment by air to the region has in· cloudiness begins earlier than in craft landings and dry surface con· creased over the last 15 years. Two the islands to the east and south. ditions, and since no forests exist settlements in the Arctic Archipel­ As a result, the summer minimum to provide shelter, the camps suf­ ago may be reached 'by scheduled cloud period is very short and max­ fer from exposure to the wind. flights of civilian airlines. Cam· imum clarity is never experienced Constant strain is imposed on the bridge Bay, on Victoria Island in for more than a few days at a tents, and ground pegs and poles the western Arctic, is visited once time. March and April are the best are difficult to keep in place unless every week by a DC-4 aircraft oper­ months for Arctic flying with re­ special tents with long poles and ated by Pacific Western Airlines, gard to cloud and fog prevalence. extra strong pegs and guy ropes whereas Frobisher Bay on Baffin Since sea ice is thickest and most are used. Fabrics must be strong Island can be reached weekly by widespread during these months, and thoroughly waterproof; persis­ the same type of aircraft from Mon· and the ground thoroughly frozen tent or high winds accompany rain treal by Nordair. and snow-covered, these months are storms and it takes first-class tent­ the best for setting out gasoline ing to keep water from entering To reach Resolute Bay in the caches, for summer operations, by the interiors. Queen Elizabeth Islands by air, one ski planes. The greatest drawback has to go 'by military aircraft or by chartered plane. The R.C.A.F. to such operations at this time is TRANSPORTATION TO THE ARCTIC maintains a fairly regular weekly that it is not always possible to ISLANDS exactly locate shore lines, and care air service between Churchill in must be taken to put out caches on The Arctic Islands are reached Manitoba, Resolute Bay on Corn­ land that will be dry and accessible by aircraft and, in part, by ships. wallis Island, and Alert on Elles­ for wheeled aircraft the following It has' already been pointed out mere Island. On these military summer. that the shipping season for sea­ flights, civilian passengers and going vessels lasts a few months freight are admitted for a nominal Visibility, as mentioned above, and, in some years when ice condi­ fee, with the understanding, how­ varies according to locality. To tions are unfavourable, a large part ever. that military personnal and illustrate, Figure III compares the of the Archipelago is inaccessible. freight have priority and times of relative visibility at several centres Southern Banks and Victoria departure and arrival are entirely

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 41 up to the military authorities. Var­ ious sizes and types of aircraft for transportation of men and supplies can be chartered at Yellowknife ""t AIRSTRIP (Wardair, Pacific Western Airlines) @) WEATHER STATION and at Churchill (Transairl. The @ DEPT TRANSPORT RADIO services of small, single engine * DEW LINE planes can also be obtained at other Q R.C.M.P. places, such as Fort McMurray, Uranium City, and Inuvik. Resolute Bay can be reached both summer and winter but most other air strips are closed in winter and during spring break-up. With the weather being the most important factor in Arctic flying, travellers must be prepared to wait a week or more for a break in the weather at Cambridge Bay or at Thule, in Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 Greenland, en route to one of the 'bases on the Queen Elizabeth Islands.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICA­ TION ON THE ISLANDS Figure IV. Travel in the Arctic Archipelago is done in summer by fixed wing found that only a limited number ground conditions or even the dis­ aircraft or by helicopters and, if of places suitable for landing in tance to the ground. When the there is sufficient open water, by summer could be selected for these snow lies thick over frozen ground Eskimo fishing boat. Walking on craft; they were not, however, the wheels may be exchanged for land is unrestricted in most places equipped with oversize tires. The skis. The hazard of human error except for those instances where Otters were most effective for cach­ on the part of the pilot is some­ soft, muddy stretches may be al­ ing trips in the early spring when what higher in the Piper Cub than most impassable; muskegs, as they they are equipped with ski-wheel in the helicopter. are known in the tundra area of landing gear for use on land or continental North America and in The G-2 and G-3-B Models of Bell sea ice. The Piper Super Cub and helicopters have been used by J. C. areas of the south, are practically Beaver can be used in most places unknown in the Arctic Islands. In Sproule and Associates during the at or close to the objective. The period from mid-June to the middle winter and early spring, travel is performance of these planes is largely restricted to dog teams or of September. The former craft quite satisfactory. The Heliocour­ was most satisfactory when it was motor toboggans, and ski-equipped ier used in 1961 by J. C. Sproule planes. used for flights within a radius of and Associates turned in an equally 80 miles from camp; the latter has Prepared landing strips on the good performance. somewhat greater range. With Arctic Islands are indicated on Fig­ The Super Piper Cubs carry one numerous gas caches established ure IV. In dry weather these can passenger and 150 pounds of equip­ by Beaver or Otter, the radius of all be used 'by large aircraft. Planes ment and have proved to be excel­ safe operation by helicopter would such as a DC-3 and DC-4 can also lent aircraft for long reconnais­ be much greater. Landing and be landed on unprepared ground at sance flights. They are particularly take-off are accomplished under ad­ various places. Other localities may suited for this purpose because of verse conditions, such as 40 m.p.h. be transformed into useful strips low gas consumption and their winds, low clouds, and snow on the with little effort, but a thorough ability to fly slowly as well as at ground. The main disadvantage of preliminary reconnaissance for all high speeds. A disadvantage of the helicopter use is, however, that the aircraft should be made prior to the Piper Cub is that it is more depen­ craft are somewhat delicate and use of such makeshift air strips. dent on good weather than the spare parts are difficult to secure. Wheel - equipped airplanes are Beaver or a helicopter. The Cub The Polar Continental Shelf GroulJ more widely used on the Islands needs a minimum ceiling of 500 or and survey teams of the Canadian than aircraft equipped with pon­ 600 feet to be operated safely. Army used Sikorsky S-55 helicop­ toons. Among the single engine Government regulations prohibit ters in their operations in the aircraft the Piper Super Cub, the its flying above the clouds, and be­ northern Queen Elizabeth Islands, Beaver, and the Otter are the most cause of weight it does not carry and the Army used, as well, Sikor­ commonly used. All these models de-icing equipment. Normally, the sky 8-62 craft. These were found are, or can be, equipped with over­ Cub should not be used at wind to be very effective for the trans. size tires to provide greater safety speeds of more than 35 m.p.h., and port of large quantities of freight on soft ground. The Dominion strong winds are quite common on and men from 'base camp out to Government Polar Continental the Islands. A thin cover of snow secondary camps, and on field work Shelf Group used two Otters, but makes landing and take-off hazard­ out of camp where several men and apart from the obvious advantage ous on unprepared ground because considerable equipment were nec­ of a large loading capacity it was it is difficult for the pilot to judge essary. Round Valley Oil Company

42 Journal of Canadian Petroleum found the Bell J-model helicopter islands can be done from the end men are working part-time at the to be an extremely efficient craft of February to the end of May, Resolute Bay RC.A.F. base. Other during their 1961 operations on when the ice has a thickness of small Eskimo settlements exist on Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg Islands. more than six feet. Narrow cross­ eastern and southern Ellesmere Trial use of Canso transport was ings are preferred because pressure Island. made by J. C. Sproule and Asso· ridges are lower and less numerous ciates during August, 1961. It than on wide ice-covered stretches The Eskimos can be most useful proved to be of less use than had of water. When there is enough as guides, sled drivers, boat men, been anticipated; shifting ice floes, open water, crossings can be made and labourers Because of their freezing spray, and unknown shore by ship. Most of the western Islands knOWledge of Arctic conditions, conditions are among some of the slope gently towards the sea and their ingenuity and their cheer­ restrictions imposed on Cansos. the loading and unloading of ships ful disposition, they make good helpers. It should be kept in Best flying weather is in April, may present difficulties in the shal­ low coastal waters. In the north· mind, however, that these men still Mayor early June, when it stays depend to a large extent on hunt­ generally clear. As pointed out western Arctic, tides are of little consequence, and changes in water ing for their livelihood. The em­ earlier, April and early May are ployer should be prepared to allow the best times for making gasoline level do not amount to more than two to six feet. the Eskimos occasional unscheduled caches, for during those months the hunting trips during their employ­ The most important means of ice is thick and the ground is still ment, if the opportunity of obtain· Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 frozen. After the middle of June communication in the northern re­ ing a good supply of meat for the gions is the radio. The main radio low stratus clouds begin to form, winter presents itself. Officials of and predominate during July and stations on the Islands, operated by the Department of Northern Affairs the Department of Transport, have August. Low clouds are a menace and the Royal Canadian Mounted been indicated in Figure IV. These to the schedule of field operations Police act as guardians for most of stations relay messages to other and, frequently, cause the cancella­ the Eskimos in financial matters. operators on the Islands or to south· tion or change of existing plans. It is recommended, therefore, to In September, the danger of icing ern stations. The DEW line sta­ negotiate wages and to make pay_ tions are equipped with radio for on small aircraft becomes greater ment through these officials rather emergency and military use only. than during the previous summer than directly with the Eskimos. All aircraft flying in the DEW line months and pilots are reluctant to The daily wages for a man and his control zone are obliged to con­ fly unless weather conditions are dog team for travelling over snow tact, by radio, the nearest station decidedly favourable. The icing are $12.00 to $15.00. Small power­ and report their course. Most Hud­ hazards also affect helicopters, but driven whaling boats that are avail­ son's Bay posts have radios with to a lesser degree than Piper Super able at Resolute Bay cost $35.00 limited range. All aircraft oper­ Cubs or Beavers. per day with $20.00 per day extra ating in the region must carry Several types of land vehicles for each man. The crew consists radio equipment and can relay have been tried out on the Arctic of two or three Eskimos: Only a messages to the main D.O.T. sta­ Islands. Conventional equipment few of the Eskimos at Resolute Bay tions. Field camps may arrange works well on stabilized roads at speak English. Cambridge Bay and Resolute Bay. schedules with the D.O.T. at Reso­ Where moves must be made over lute Bay or with other stations. White Residents unprepared terrain in the summer Apart from occasional "blackouts" There are no white settlers liv· months, the most satisfactory equip­ which may last for several days, ing permanently in the Arctic radio communications are generally ment to date has been the Nodwell Archipelago, but the number of tracked·carrier Model RN-75. A good. It should be mentioned that white residents who are spending a "ham" radio station has been in­ D-7 caterpillar with a train of summer and winter in periods of tracked Athey wagons has also stalled by the RC.A.F. at Resolute one to several years is probably proved to be a satisfactory and Bay. This set provides possibilities nearly 1,000. The majority of these of direct communication with ma­ economical means of transporting men are personnel on the Distant heavy equipment over unprepared jor centres in southern Canada by Early Warning Line (DEW line) means of local "ham" operators. terrain. At Resolute Bay, the and on RC.A.F. bases. Others are R.C.A.F. has three sizes of tractors, HABITATION AND SETTLEMENTS employed by various government front·end loaders, fork lifts, mobile Eskimos departments, such as the RC.M.P., cranes, heavy-duty trucks, high-boy The Arctic regions are sparsely or serve as missionaries and trailers, graders, cement mixers, populated by Eskimos and white traders. and a variety of light trucks and men. The Eskimos inhabit the In summer, the number of white bombardiers. southern Arctic from eastern Siber­ people increases considerably by As long as the snow cover is in­ ia to eastern Greenland, but the the influx of geological and other tact, transport is possible across majority of Canadian Eskimos live scientific explorers, construction the Islands by dog sled or by motor on Baffin Island and near to the workers, and seasonal supervisors toboggan. Motor toboggans with coast of the mainland, while only and observers. The Geological a load capacity of 1,000 pounds a relatively small number have Survey of Canada has had field were used extensively for seismic taken up permanent residence on parties on the Arctic Islands each operations by the Polar Continen­ the Queen Elizabeth Islands. About summer since 1949. During 1960 tal Shelf Project, and these were 20 families live near Resolute Bay, and 1961 the Polar Continental operated on both snow·covered land on Cornwallis Island, having moved Shelf Project proceeded with its and on sea ice until break-up. from Pond Inlet and Whale River program of scientific reserach, spon­ Travel and transport with tractor upon advice from the Department sored by the Department of Mines trains across channels between the of Northern Affairs. Some of the and Technical Surveys. The base

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 43 of operations for this group is at son per day. The Department of food and shelter. During 1960 and Isachsen, the site of the weather Northern Affairs is also able to 1961 personnel of the Polar Contin­ station on Ellef Ringnes Island. The house a limited number of visitors. ental Shelf Project were camped "Shelf Project" is being carried out Cambridge Bay can be reached by near the weather station, and by a team of some 30 specialists seagoing ships in early August. Isachsen will continue to be their with their assistants and other tech­ base of operations during the 1962 nical personnel. Such diverse fields Resolute Bay season. The port cannot be reached as hydrology, glaciology, oceano­ Resolute Bay is situated on the by ordinary sea going vessels, since graphy, biology, meteorology, geol­ south coast of Cornwallis Island. only the bays and a narrow strip ogy, and geophysics are covered. Due to its central position on the along the shore are open during The results of seismic work on the southern Queen Elizabeth Islands late summer. The airfield is a bull· Islands and the attempts to mea­ and because of the presence of a dozed clay strip which is adequate sure the thickness of the mantle well-equipped airfield, Resolute is during dry weather but which is of sedimentary rocks are of partic­ generally used as a starting point unusuable during spring thaw or ular interest to petroleum geolo­ for further travel on the Islands. if heavy rain has fallen. Bulldozers gists. Another scientific expedition Much equipment and supplies are and a fork lift are available there was conducted in 1960 under the stored in this settlement for pri­ for the unloading of heavy equip. supervision of members of the staff vate distribution and consumption. ment from large aircraft.

of McGill University in Montreal. There are no stores at Resolute, Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 These studies were carried out on but the Air Force canteen sells a Sachs Harbour, Mould Bay, Axel Heiberg Island, and the activo few minor items. The Department of Eureka, and Alert ities also covered a wide field of National Defence offers temporary These four settlements are also endeavour. During 1959, 1960 and accommodation, including meals, at of importance to explorers of the 1961 several geological field parties the rate of $9.00 per man per day. Queen Elizabeth Islands. All four sent out by private companies and The clinic of the RC.A.F. is period­ posts have a weather station, radio geological consultant firms were ically visited by medical doctors, communications and an airfield. operating on the Queen Elizabeth but it is generally attended by only Eureka and Alert are visiting by Islands for the exclusive purpose of a trained technician. Resolute Bay ocean going cargo from the Atlantic exploration for petroleum and nat­ is principally an RC.A.F. base, con­ Ocean during the late summer, and ural gas. sisting of a large number of build­ Sachs Harbour is reached by ships from the Pacific. Mould Bay can­ There are several important ings that are used as living quar· not generally be reached by any settlements widely scattered across ters, stores, and garages. Part of of these vessels because of the the Arctic Archipelago: these buildings is occupied by the radio operators of the Department Arctic Ocean ice pack. Cambridge Bay of Transport and by personnel of Cambridge Bay lies on the south the combined Canadian and United LOGISTICS shore of Victoria Island. It is the States weather station. An R.C.M.P. The writer has no intention of only settlement in the western constable, who supervises the Eski. presenting a detailed account of Arctic Archipelago which has reg­ mo village located a few miles equipment requirements for surface ular civilian airline connections to south of Resolute Bay, is also geological operations on the Arctic the south; Pacific Western Airlines housed in the RC.A.F. base. Reso­ Islands. Rather, the intent behind maintain a weekly service by DC-4 lute Bay is seriously affected by this section of the paper is to make aircraft between Yellowknife and adverse weather conditions, and comment and suggestions on some Cambridge Bay. There are no air· consideration has been given to of the requirements that differ from craft available for charter at the moving the entire base to a differ­ those in more southerly parts of airport. Buildings are scattered ent locality; high winds and fog are Canada. Any company entering over a wide area of rolling and more common at this location than exploratory work on the Arctic for rocky land and close to the airfield at other places within the southern the first time is well advised to is a large DEW line station. Other Queen Elizabeth group. The ad­ consult with the Geological Survey establishments are several miles vantage of Resolute Bay as a start· of Canada on the matter of logis­ away near the salt water bay. ing point for further travel on the tics and survival; the more-than-ten There are some 40 white residents Islands lies in the fact that the years that the Survey has worked other than those who man the base and the air strip are equipped on the Arctic Islands have yielded radar station. About 150 Eskimos with adequate machinery for quick an immense amount of valuable ex­ live in the vicinity. Radio com­ loading, unloading, and assembling perience and information on how munications are maintained by the of heavy equipment, and by the fact to live and work in the area. Department of Transport, and rep­ that Eskimo labour is available for resentatives of the Department of these purposes. Food Northern Affairs and their families A full summer's supply of food, live there. There is a relatively Isa.chsen air freighted in the beginning of large detachment of RC.M.P., a Isachsen is a small settlement on the season, is the surest method of nursing station, a Hudson's Bay northern Ellef Ringnes Island. A supply; if operations can be plan­ store, a welfare officer, a school few buildings are occupied the year ned a year in advance it is possible and a residence for children, and around by combined Canadian and to have bulk quantities of non-per­ there are Anglican and Roman U.S. weather station employees, but ishables sent in by cargo vessel and Catholic missions. Accommodation there is no military detachment and stored at some pre-selected site or at Cambridge Bay is not ordinarily Eskimos do not live in the area. to arrange storage through the provided. A construction camp lo­ Radio communications are main­ Department of Transport officials. cated there may provide food and tained by the D.O.T. Visitors to Canned liquid foods will survive, shelter at a rate of $18.00 per per- Isachsen must provide their own without deterioration, over a win-

44 Journal of Canadian Petroleum ter; dried food items should be in 1960. They proved to be comfort­ flares, and medical aid equipment stored in a completely enclosed and able and efficient housing, relatively should accompany every work snow-tight cache. Sending food easy to set up and dismantle, but party when it is operating a con­ supplies in with the man force and the size of the sections necessitated siderable distance from base camp. equipment at the start of the sum­ extra and costly Beaver flights to Low clouds, fog, and wind have mer's operations insures freshness be moved from one base to another. been known to keep fly camps and wider selection; foods bottled stranded for nearly two weeks in in liquid are then fairly free from Clothing summer operations before planes loss by excessive freezing, and such Warmth and dryness are the can reach them. items as cheese, which deteriorates qualities to be desired in the choice Surface work in the Queen Eliza­ with over-winter freezing, can be of summer clothes worn. With the beth Islands has one distinct ad­ included in the diet. Dried veg­ numerous wind and waterproof vantage over operations in the etables are an extremely poor sub­ materials now available, it is not southern Arctic Islands and the stitute for the fresh article; their necessary to be excessively over­ mainland, in that mosquitoes and only advantage is that they are burdened with clothing for normal black flies are virtually absent. considerably less bulky, less expen­ summer operations. Footwear, Animal pests are absent as well sive, and are easier to store and above all, needs to be waterproof; and the only beast that might prove transport. If the operation has with permafrost so close to the sur­ dangerous if it happened by is the good air communication between face in the summer, only the high­ polar bear. The Arctic fox is a the main field camp and a Depart­ est part of the uplands are dry. Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 persistent camp robber but care­ ment of Transport base, such as Most of the terrain is damp and ful storage of meat eliminates the Resolute Bay, it is possible to make much of it wet and saturated. necessity of ridding the camp of arrangements to have fresh vege· Parkas or windproof jackets are such marauders by drastic means. tables, eggs, and meat flown in essential, as are mitts and gloves. Besides, it is unlawful for anyone from Churchill once or twice dur­ Bright coloured jackets worn by the except Eskimos to kill wild life in ing the summer to refurnish dwindl­ field men are an aid to pilots when the Archipelago. ing supplies. Meat, pre-cut, pack­ rendezvous is made at the end of aged and frozen at Churchill or the day's traverse; signal cloth and points of departure, can be carried flares are a necessity in the drab SUMMARY landscape. north and kept easily by digging a Geological surface operations in natural refrigerator into the perma­ Geological Equipment the Arctic Islands present problems frost. Presumably frozen fresh different from those in more south­ Because there are as yet no con· vegetables could be handled in the ern parts of Canada because of the tour maps of any of the Arctic same manner. Fresh vegetables high northern latitude and atten­ Islands mapping is best done on and fruits can be preserved for dant climatic conditions, and the in_ aerial photos and photomosaics. several weeks in the natural ice sular nature of the area. The prob­ Ozalith reproductions from trans· box that the Arctic presents. Diets lems are essentially those of com­ parent positives (such as Chrono­ can be supplemented with vitamin munication, transportation, climate flex positives) of aerial mosaics and mineral tablets. and supply. Private companies provides, at little cost, as many planning to do work in the Arctic Tents copies (for convenience at half­ Islands should take advantage of scale) of mosaics as need to be Many types of tents can and have the experience and information been used by various operators in used by the geologists and pilots gained by the Geological Survey of for making and plotting daily tra­ the Arctic. The style and size de­ Canada during their more than a pends on the size of the operation, verses, plotting flight lines, locating decade of exploration on the its relatively permanency at any campsites and caches, and general Islands. Two published works are one camp, and the use to which it rough reconnaissance. Because of of great value in obtaining a gen­ is put. Large tents for cooking and the proximity to the north mag­ eral appreciation of climate and eating, or for office work, require netic pole, directional bearings and terrain: "Arctic Canada from the sturdy, locking poles or a locked the strike of the inclined strata Air," by Dunbar and Greenaway, metal frame and secure floor an­ read from Brunton compasses are issued by Canada Defence Research chorage. Large tents of this nature of little value. In areas of gentle Board, 1956, and "Pilot of Arctic can be used for sleeping quarters dip, or where cliffs prevent foot· Canada," Volumes I, II and III, is­ for several men as well. Some oper­ by-foot measuring, thick sections of sued by the Canadian Hydrogra­ ators prefer small, light-weight rock can be effectively and rapidly phic Service, Surveys and Mapping tents that will house one or two measured on the ground with use Branch, Department of Mines and men, and which can be set up and of carefully calibrated pocket range Technical Surveys, Ottawa, 1959. taken down quickly when the type finders. These instruments are of exploration requires rapid move­ especially serviceable in reconnais­ Summer surface operations must ment with numerous camps or fly sance geology where gross thick­ be practical, economic, and safe, camps over a large area. Sturdy, nesses are wanted. Distances up to relative to the extremities of the windproof, waterproof, and rotproof and over 1,000 feet can be mea­ Arctic area. The following aspects fabrics are mandatory to resist the sured in a single reading and the of the operation are to be carefully dampness and the wind-driven rain percentage of error can be reduced considered: which may be frequently encoun­ to less than 5 percent by back-check 1. Travel to the Arctic: Private tered. Prefabricated plywood huts shots. Survival equipment should plane or private charter of large 8 feet x 16 feet long and 7 feet high be carried on all traverses where aircraft is the surest and fastest with a single door and a window men cannot reach the main camp method of transportation into the on each side, were used by the J. by walking. Emergency rations, area. Bulk shipments by cargo C. Sproule and Associates parties small compact tents, sleeping bags, vessel require a year's advance

Technology, Spring, 1962, Calgary 45 planning. Military flights are records of the several weather ob­ Dunbar, M. and Greenaway, K. R, available but civilian transport on servation outposts on the Islands. 1956: Arctic Canada from the them is not assured. Landing Heed should be given to informa­ Air. Published by the Defence strips and unloading equipment tion gained from explorers and Research Board of Canada. are available at a number of widely pilots who have previously worked Fortier, Y. O. and McNair, A. H., separated Department of Transport and flown in the area. and Thorsteinsson, R, 1954: Geol­ ogy and Petroleum Possibilities stations on the Islands. Temporary 4. Inaccessibility of the area de­ in Canadian Arctic Islands; Bull. accommodation for private person­ mands that careful attention be Amer. Assoc. Pet. Geol.. Vol. 38, nel is available at only one or two paid to having a complete supply No. 10, pp. 2075-2109. of the D.O.T. and RC.A.F. stations. of gasoline, food, equipment, and Fortier, Y. 0., and Thorsteinsson, R, 1953: The Parry Island Fold­ 2. Travel in the Arctic: Island spare parts for aircraft at the be­ ed Belt in the Canadian Arctic and inter-island travel to unpre­ ginning of the operation. Archipelago; Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. 251, pp.259-267. pared landing sites can be accom­ 5. The shortness of the season plished in the summer only by is an established fact and, although Kay, Marshall, 1951: North Ameri­ small fixed wing, wheeled aircraft can Geosynclines; Geol. Soc. the duration of summer can be Amer., Mem. 48. or by helicopter. Winter flying can closely predicted, and the continu­ be done with ski-equipped planes. Low, A. P., 1906: Course of the ous daylight allows longer working Neptune; Government Printing Inter-island travel for these small hours, generous allowance for loss Bureau, Ottawa, pp. 183-247. Downloaded from http://onepetro.org/jcpt/article-pdf/1/01/35/2165490/petsoc-62-01-07.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 craft is not advised where large of time due to poor flying condi­ Ormiston, Allen R. 1960: The Re­ stretches of open water lie between tions should be carefully considered gional Stratigraphy and Paleon­ points of travel. Where Eskimo in the advanced planning stages; tology of the Devonian Rocks of settlements are present, small boats a termination date of the operation, Bathurst Island, N.W.T.; Unpub­ may be chartered for sea travel, lished thesis submitted to Dart­ based on past experience of other mouth College for degree of usIng Eskimo labour. operations, should be early estab­ Master of Arts. 3. Climatic conditions require lished and maintained. Rae, R. W., 1951: Climate in the thorough study and a healthy re­ Arctic Archipelago; Dept. of spect. Government meteorological BIBLIOGRAPHY Transport, Canada. statistics are available, and it is Armstrong, J. E., 1947: The Arctic Taylor, A., 1955: Geographical Dis­ possible to chart the yearly varia­ Archipelago, Geology and Econ­ covery and Exploration in the omic Minerals of Canada; Geol. Queen Elizabeth Islands, Geog. tion of precipitation, temperature, Surv., Canada, Econ. Geol. Ser. Br. Memoir 3, Dept. of Mines and cloud cover, fog, and wind from the No.1, 3rd ed., p.320. Tech. Survey.

46 Journal of Canadian Petroleum