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A Review of Argumentation for the Social Semantic Web Undefined 0 (0) 1 1 IOS Press A Review of Argumentation for the Social Semantic Web Jodi Schneider a, Tudor Groza a,b, and connected arguments posted by individuals to express Alexandre Passant a their opinions in a structured manner” [5]. a Digital Enterprise Research Institute, National Decision-making often requires discussion not just University of Ireland, Galway, of agreement and disagreement, but also the principles, fi[email protected] reasons, and explanations driving the choices between particular options. Furthermore, arguments expressed b School of ITEE, The University of Queensland, online for one audience may be of interest to other Australia, [email protected] (sometimes farflung) audiences. And it can be difficult to re-find the relevant spot of an argumentative discus- sion in which we have participated. Yet on the Web, we cannot subscribe to arguments or issues, nor can we Abstract. Argumentation represents the study of views and search for them. Nor can we summarize the rationale opinions expressed by humans with the goal of reaching a behind a group’s decision, even when the discussion conclusion through logical reasoning. Beginning with the took place entirely in public venues such as mailing 1950’s, several models were proposed to capture the essence lists, IRC channels, and Web forums. of informal argumentation in different settings. With the By providing common languages and principles to emergence of the Semantic Web, this modeling shifted to- model and query information on the Web (such as RDF wards ontologies, while from the development perspective, [6], RDFS [7], OWL [8], SPARQL [9], Linked Data we witnessed an important increase in Web 2.0 human- principles [10], etc.), the Semantic Web [11] is an ap- centered collaborative deliberation tools. Through a review of more than 100 scholarly papers, this article provides a propriate means to represent arguments and argumen- comprehensive and comparative overview of the argumenta- tation uniformly on the Web, and to enable for instance tion domain. We start from the early theoretical foundational browsing distributed argumentation patterns that ap- models, then look into Semantic Web argumentation mod- pear in various places on the Web. Indeed, researchers els, and finally end with Social Web tools for argumentation, have shown that The Semantic Web can help visualize also focusing on online applications combining Web 2.0 and and compare in decision rationale [12]. Semantic Web technologies, following the path to a global In this context, this paper discusses argumentation World Wide Argument Web. in relation to the Social Semantic Web [13,14,15], fo- Keywords: Argumentation, Semantic Web, Social Web, Se- cusing on foundational models of argumentation and mantic Web, Ontologies on ontologies (as in Computer Science [16]) which either (i) use argumentation (from the knowledge en- gineering community), or (ii) describe argumenta- tion (from the argumentation community). In par- 1. Introduction ticular, our purpose is to investigate ontologies and tools which may be useful for argumentation on the In recent years, large-scale argumentation on the Social Semantic Web, a field where the aforemen- Web has attracted the attention of scholars from fields tioned Semantic Web technologies support Social Web such as artificial intelligence [1], communication the- [17] applications, while at the same time Social Web ory [2], business management [3] and e-government paradigms are used to generate Semantic Web data [4]. At the same time, argumentation researchers be- collaboratively and at large-scale. This convergence gan establishing the foundations for a World Wide Ar- aims at providing new and improved ways to integrate gument Web (WWAW) as “a large-scale Web of inter- and discover data, following the vision of Social Ma- 0000-0000/0-1900/$00.00 c 0 – IOS Press and the authors. All rights reserved 2 Schneider et al. / A Review of Argumentation for the Social Semantic Web chines provided by Berners-Lee [18], both on the Web name suggests, IBIS centers around controversial is- and in the enterprise [19]. In the context of argumen- sues which take the form of questions. Specialists from tation, this could help to aggregate arguments from different fields may use the same words with differ- various websites — for instance a discussion start- ent assumptions and intentions1, hampering commu- ing on Twitter and followed up on a mailing list, later nication. IBIS is especially intended to support com- frozen on a wiki once consensus is reached — provid- munity and political decision-making. In this scenario, ing new means to follow argumentative discussions on the participants in a discussion, the relevant experts the Web. and the decision makers may be three separate groups, Yet, Social Web does not yet have widely-used ar- who need to communicate with each other and who gumentative ontologies, though this problem has been must also get information from existing records and noted [20], along with the need for federation infras- documentation. tructures [21]. Then, in order to identify how differ- IBIS, as originally designed, is a documentation sys- ent argumentation models and tools can be used for tem, meant to organize discussion and allow subse- the Social Semantic Web, this paper offers a review of quent understanding of the decision taken; this ex- more 100 research papers on the topic from which we plains the use of “Information System” in its acronym. compare: The context of the discussion is a discourse about a topic. Issues may bring up questions of fact and be – 3 theoretical models from argumentation and de- discussed in arguments. Here, “Arguments are con- cision theory structed in defense of or against the different positions – 6 main approaches to argumentation from linguis- until the issue is settled by convincing the opponents tics and communication theory or decided by a formal decision procedure,” [22]. IBIS 14 Semantic Web models for argumentation – also recognizes model problems, such as cost-benefit 34 tools for representing argumentation on the – models, that deal with whole classes of problems. Web. Several kinds of relationships exist between is- As the focus is on human-centered argumentation, sues: direct successor, generalization, relevant anal- with the goal of improving access and visualization, ogy, compatible, consistent, or inconsistent. The method this article will briefly mention, but not analyze, the also distinguishes issue content, as factual, deonic agent-based argumentation domain. (“Shall X become the case?”), explanatory, or instru- The rest of the paper breaks into three main parts: mental (“Shall we take approach X to accomplish theory of argumentation, ontology-based models, and Y?"). argumentation tools, and is organized as follows. Fol- Originally implemented as a paper-based system, lowing the introduction, we discuss theoretical mod- IBIS influenced several ontologies (as we will see later els of argumentation (§2) and approaches from linguis- in Sections §4.5 and §4.6) and numerous tools as well tics and communication theory (§3). Next, we discuss as procedures such as dialogue mapping [23]. Semantic Web models, distinguishing between twelve general Semantic Web models which incorporate some 2.2. Toulmin aspect of argumentation (§4), and two focused Seman- tic Web models developed by the argumentation com- Informal argumentation originated in philosophy, munity for the legal and argumentation domains (§5). with Toulmin’s 1958 account of informal argumenta- In we compare these Semantic Web models. Then we tion [24]. Toulmin sought to find a common underly- move on to tools: we describe thirty-four tools in §7 ing basis for arguments in every field of human ac- and then provide a comparison table of the tools in §8. tivity. His model applies, for instance, to legal, scien- Finally we conclude the paper in §9. tific, and informal conversational arguments. In Toul- min’s theory, evidence and rules called Warrants sup- port Claims. Claims may also be qualified (i.e. with 2. Theoretical Models of Argumentation constraints or to indicate uncertainty); Rebuttals may be used to argue against an argument. Toulmin’s ar- 2.1. Issue-Based Information System (IBIS) 1“Many central terms used are proper names for long stories spe- IBIS, Issue-Based Information System, is a problem- cific of the particular situation, with their meaning depending very solving structure first published in 1970 [22]. As the sensitively on the context in which they are used." [22] Schneider et al. / A Review of Argumentation for the Social Semantic Web 3 gument pattern is shown in Figure 1: Data is sup- Seeking, Deliberation, and Eristic.2 They are distin- ported by Warrants which have Backings, showing guished by the initial situation, the individual goals that a Claim holds with Qualifiers regarding the situ- of the participants, and the overall goal of the dia- ation, unless there is a Rebuttal. Figure 2 shows Toul- logue. In our own view, these types of dialogue can min’s now-famous argument, presented according to be classified based on whether knowledge plays a this structure. large, middling, or minor role. Inquiry, Discovery, and Information-seeking dialogues are almost entirely knowledge-based, while knowledge plays only a mi- nor role in Negotiation (aiming at a harmonious set- tlement) and Eristic (quarrels, beneficial mainly for venting emotions). Knowledge plays some role in the remaining two types: in Persuasion and Deliberation, opinion and belief also have a large role. According to Rahwan [35], while many taxonomies of argumentation have been proposed [36,37,38,39], Walton’s taxonomy [40] provides the point of depar- Fig. 1. An interpretation of Toulmin’s argument pattern, from [25]. ture for computational models of argumentation. In his detailed classification from 1995 [40], Walton de- scribes each scheme with a name, a conclusion, a set of premises, and a set of critical questions. Critical ques- tions address the points where this argument scheme may break down, and suggest attacks against the argu- ment.
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