Chapter 1 Basics of Computers
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1.1 Introduction to Computers
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and browse the internet. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, database management, presentations, games, and more.
For beginning computer users, the computer aisles at an electronics store can be quite a mystery, not to mention overwhelming. However, computers really aren't that mysterious. All types of computers consist of two basic parts:
• Hardware is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the computer monitor or keyboard. • Software is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. It is what guides the hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task. Some examples of software are web browsers, games, and word processors such as Microsoft Word.
A motherboard (hardware)
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Microsoft Word (software)
What are the Different Types of Computers?
When most people hear the word "computer" they think of a personal computer such as a desktop or laptop computer. However, computers come in many shapes and sizes, and they perform many different functions in our daily lives. When you withdraw cash from an ATM, scan groceries at the store, or use a calculator, you're using a type of computer.
Desktop Computers
A desktop computer
Many people use desktop computers at work, home, school, or the library. They can be small, medium, or large in style, and usually sit on a desk. Once you add a monitor, mouse, and a keyboard, you have what is typically known as a desktop computer.
Most desktop computers are easy to upgrade and expand, or add new parts. Another benefit of desktop computers is the cost. If you compare a desktop and a laptop with the same features, you will most likely find that the desktop computer is priced lower.
Laptop Computers
A laptop computer
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The second type of computer that you may be familiar with is a laptop computer, or laptops as they are often referred to. Laptops are battery or AC-powered personal computers that are more portable than desktop computers, allowing you to use them almost anywhere.
Since a laptop is smaller than a desktop, it's more difficult to access the internal components. That means you may not be able to upgrade them as much as a desktop. However, it's usually possible to add more RAM or a bigger hard drive.
A laptop computer is sometimes called a notebook computer because of its size.
Servers
A server room
A server is a computer that "serves up" information to other computers on a network. Many businesses have file servers that employees can use to store and share files. A server can look like a regular desktop computer, or it can be much larger.
Servers also play an important role in making the internet work: they are where web pages are stored. When you use your browser to click a link, a web server delivers the page you requested.
Other Types of Computers
Today, there are many different types of computers that you can buy, and some of them are even more portable than laptops. Here are a few common examples:
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The iPad, a type of tablet computer
• Tablet Computers: These use a touch-sensitive screen for typing and navigation. Since they don't require a keyboard or mouse, tablet computers are even more portable than laptops. The iPad is an example of a tablet computer. • Mobile Phones: Many mobile phones can do a lot of things a computer can do, such as browsing the internet or playing games. These phones are often called smartphones. • Game Consoles: A game console is a specialized kind of computer that is used for playing video games. Although they are not as fully-featured as a desktop computer, many newer consoles, such as the Nintendo Wii, allow you to do non-gaming tasks like browsing the internet. • TVs: Many TVs now include applications (or apps) that let you access various types of online content. For example, you can view your Facebook news feed or watch streaming movies on Netflix.
PCs and Macs
Personal computers come in two main "styles": PC and Mac. Both styles are fully functional, but they do have a different look and feel, and many people prefer one or the other.
A PC
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A Mac
• PC: This type of computer began with the original IBM PC that was introduced in 1981. Other companies began to create similar computers, which were called IBM PC Compatible (often shortened to PC). Today, this is the most common type of personal computer, and it typically includes the Microsoft Windows operating system. • Mac: The Macintosh computer was introduced in 1984, and it was the first widely sold personal computer with a Graphical User Interface, or GUI (pronounced gooey). All Macs are made by one company, Apple Inc., and they almost always use the Mac OS X operating system.
Although PC can refer to an IBM PC Compatible, the term can also be used to refer to any personal computer, including Macs.
Basic Parts of a Desktop Computer
The basic parts of a desktop computer are the computer case, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and power cord. Each part plays an important role whenever you use a computer.
Computer Case
A computer case
The computer case is the metal and plastic box that contains the main components of the computer. It houses the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), the power supply, and more. Engineering Staff College of India Page 6 of 348
Computer cases come in different shapes and sizes. A desktop case lies flat on a desk, and the monitor usually sits on top of it. A tower case is tall and sits next to the monitor or on the floor. The front of the case usually has an on/off switch and one or more optical drives.
Most of the personal computers you can purchase today include tower cases, rather than desktop cases; however, some computers are being made with all of the internal components built into the monitor, which completely eliminates the tower.
Monitor
A monitor
The monitor works with a video card, located inside the computer case, to display images and text on the screen. Newer monitors usually have LCD (liquid crystal display) or LED (light-emitting diode) displays. These can be made very thin, and they are often called flat panel displays. Older monitors use CRT (cathode ray tube) displays. CRT monitors are much bigger and heavier, and they take up more desk space.
Most monitors have control buttons that allow you to change your monitor's display settings, and some monitors also have built-in speakers.
LED displays are actually LCD displays that are backlit with light-emitting diodes. This allows for greater contrast than a traditional LCD display.
Power Cord
The power cord is the link between the power outlet and the power supply unit in the computer casing. If the power cord is not plugged in, the computer will not power on. To protect your computer from voltage spikes, you can plug the power cord into a surge protector. You can also use an Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS), which acts as a surge protector and also provides temporary power if there is a blackout.
Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the primary ways we communicate with the computer and enter data. There are many different types of computer keyboards such as wired, wireless, ergonomic, multimedia, and more. Although there may be differences in the location of some keys or features, keyboards are very similar and allow you to accomplish basically the same tasks.
Mouse
The mouse is a peripheral that is known as a pointing device. It lets you point to objects on the screen, click on them, and move them. Engineering Staff College of India Page 7 of 348
There are two main types of mice: optical and mechanical. The optical mouse uses an electronic eye to detect movement and is easier to clean. The mechanical mouse uses a rolling ball to detect movement. Generally, a mechanical mouse is cheaper, although it may require regular cleaning to keep it working properly.
Traditionally, a mouse connects to the computer using a USB or PS/2 connection. However, you can also buy a wireless mouse, which can reduce clutter on your desktop.
Mouse Alternatives
There are other devices that can do the same thing a mouse can do, but with a different look and feel. Many people find them to be easier to use, and they also require less desk space than a mouse. The most common mouse alternatives include:
A touchpad on a laptop
• Trackball: A trackball has a ball on top that can rotate freely. Instead of moving the device like a mouse, you can simply roll the ball with your fingers to move the pointer. Some mobile devices have miniature trackballs that can be controlled with your thumb. • Touchpad: A touchpad (also called a trackpad) is a touch-sensitive pad that lets you control the pointer by making a "drawing" motion with your finger. Touchpads are very common on laptop computers.
Front of Computer Case
1. Optical Disc Drive: Often called a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive, these let your computer read CDs and DVDs. Most optical disc drives can also write (or "burn") data to CD-R and DVD-R discs. More recent drives can read Blu-ray Discs and write to BD-R (Blu-ray Disc recordable) discs, and these drives are often called BD-ROM, BD-RE, or Blu-ray drives. 2. Power Button: The power button is used to power the computer on and off. Additionally, you can use the power button on some computers to place the computer in different energy-saving modes such as hibernate, sleep, and standby. It is a good idea to read your manual to learn how these features work on your computer. 3. Audio In/Audio Out: Many computers include audio ports on the front of the computer case that allow you to easily connect speakers, microphones and headsets, without fumbling with the back of the computer. 4. USB (Universal Serial Bus) Port: Most desktop computers have several USB ports. These can be used to connect almost any type of device, including mice, keyboards, printers, digital cameras and more. They will often appear on the front and back of the computer.
A typical Blu-ray disc can hold 25 gigabytes of data, and some can hold 50 gigabytes or more. This is much more than CDs or DVDs, making BD-R discs ideal for storage.
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Back of Computer Case
Back of the computer case
On the back of the computer case are connection ports that are made to fit specific devices. The arrangement of these vary from computer to computer, and many companies have their own special connectors for the specific devices. Some of the ports may be color coded to match a color on the device, which will help you determine which port is used with a particular device.
1. Power Socket: This is where you'll connect the power cord to the computer. 2. Audio In/Audio Out: Almost every computer has two or more audio ports where you can connect various devices, including speakers, microphones, headsets, and more. 3. Ethernet Port: This port looks a lot like the modem or telephone port but it is a little bit wider. You can use this port for networking and also connecting to the internet. 4. USB Ports: On most desktop computers, most of the USB ports are on the back of the computer case. Generally, you'll want to connect your mouse and keyboard to these ports, and keep the front USB ports free so that they can be used for digital cameras or other devices. 5. Monitor Port: This is where you'll connect your monitor cable. In this example, the computer has both a DisplayPort and a VGA port. Other computers may have other types of monitor ports, such as DVI (Digital Visual Interface) or HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface). 6. Expansion Slots: These empty slots are where expansion cards are added to computers. For example, if your computer did not come with a video card, you could purchase one and install it here.
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The following ports are less common today:
7. Serial Port: This is an older port that was frequently used to connect peripherals such as digital cameras, but today it has been replaced by USB and other types of ports. 8. PS/2: These ports are sometimes used for connecting the mouse and keyboard. Typically, the mouse port is green, and the keyboard port is purple. 9. Parallel Port (or Printer Port): This is an older port that is less common on new computers. Like the serial port, it has now been replaced by USB. 10. Other Types of Ports 11. There are many other types of ports that computers can have. For example, some Macs have a FireWire port, which is similar to USB. There are also newer ports such as Thunderbolt, which can transmit data at very high speeds, making them ideal for use with high-resolution monitors and external hard drives. If your computer has ports that you don't recognize, consult your manual for more information.
Peripherals You Can Use with Your Computer
The most basic computer setup usually includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse, but you can plug many different types of devices into the extra ports on your computer. These devices are called peripherals. Below are a few examples of peripherals.
A printer
• Printers: A printer is used to print documents, photos, or anything else that appears on your screen. There are many types of printers available, including inkjet, laser, and photo printers. You can also buy an all-in-one printer, scanner, and copier. • Scanners: A scanner allows you to copy an image or document and save it to your computer as a digital (computer-readable) image. Many scanners are included as part of an all-in-one printer/scanner/copier, although you can also buy a separate flatbed or hand-held scanner. • Speakers/Headphones: Speakers and headphones are output devices, which means that they are devices that communicate information from the computer to the user. They allow you to hear sound and music. Depending on the model, they may connect to the audio port or the USB port. Some monitors also have built-in speakers.
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Computer speakers
• Microphones: A microphone is a type of input device, or a device that receives information from a user. You can connect the microphone to the computer and use the computer to record sound or to communicate with another computer user over the internet. Many computers come with built-in microphones. • Web Cameras: A web camera, or webcam, is a type of input device that can record videos or take pictures. It can also transmit video over the internet in real time, allowing you to do video chat or video conferencing with somebody in a different part of the world. Webcams are used often in business, and they also help many friends and families stay connected.
A webcam
• Joystick or Game Controller: A joystick is a lever that is used to control computer games. There are various other types of controllers that you can use, and you can also use your mouse and keyboard to control most games. • Digital Cameras: A digital camera lets you capture a picture or video in digital form. By connecting the camera to your computer's USB port, you can transfer the images from the camera to the computer. You can then print the images, email them to a friend, or post them on the web. • Mobile Phones, MP3 Players, Tablet Computers and Other Devices: When you buy an electronic device such as a mobile phone or mp3 player, check to see if it comes with a USB cable. If it does, that means you can connect it to your computer. With many devices, you can synchronize (or sync) them with your computer, which automatically keeps your contacts, music, and other data up-to-date whenever you connect the device to your computer.
A Look inside a Desktop Computer
Let's explore the inside of a computer tower.
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CPU/Processor
A CPU
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), also called a processor, is located inside the computer case on the motherboard. It is sometimes called the brain of the computer, and its job is to carry out commands. Whenever you press a key, click the mouse, or start an application, you're sending instructions to the CPU.
The CPU is generally a 2-inch ceramic square with a silicon chip located inside. The chip is usually about the size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by the heat sink, an object that absorbs heat from the CPU.
A processor's speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of instructions per second, and gigahertz (GHz), or billions of instructions per second. A faster processor can execute instructions more quickly. However, the actual speed of the computer depends on the speed of many different components - not just the processor.
There are many processor manufacturers for personal computers, but the most well-known ones are Intel and AMD.
Motherboard
A motherboard
The motherboard is the computer's main circuit board. It's a thin plate that holds the CPU, memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and audio, as well as connections to your computer's ports (such as the USB ports). The motherboard connects directly or indirectly to every part of the computer.
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Power Supply Unit
A power supply unit
The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from the wall outlet to the type of power needed by the computer. It sends power through the cables to the motherboard and other components.
If you decide to open the computer case and take a look, make sure to unplug the computer first. Before touching the inside of the computer, you should touch a grounded metal object (or a metal part of the computer casing) to discharge any static buildup. Static electricity can be transmitted through the computer circuits and ruin them.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM
RAM is your system's short-term memory. Whenever your computer performs calculations, it temporarily stores the data in the RAM until it is needed.
This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off. If you're working on a document, spreadsheet, or other type of file, you'll need to save it to avoid losing it. When you save a file, the data is written to the hard drive, which acts as long-term storage.
RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB). The more RAM you have, the more things your computer can do at the same time. If you don't have enough RAM, you may notice that your computer is sluggish when you have several programs open. Because of this, many people add extra RAM to their computers to improve performance.
A bit is the smallest unit of data in computer processing. A byte is a group of eight bits. A megabyte contains about one million bytes, and a gigabyte is about one billion bytes.
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Hard Drive
A hard drive
The hard drive is the data center of the computer. This is where the software is installed, and it's also where your documents and other files are stored. The hard drive is long-term storage, which means the data is still saved even if you turn the computer off or unplug it.
When you run a program or open a file, the computer copies some of the data from the hard drive onto the RAM so that it can access the data more easily. When you save a file, the data is copied back to the hard drive. The faster the hard drive is, the faster your computer can start up and load programs.
Most hard drives are hard disk drives, which store data on a magnetic platter. Some computers now use solid-state drives (also called flash hard drives). These are faster and more durable than hard disk drives, but they are also more expensive.
A USB flash drive is basically a small, removable flash hard drive that plugs into a USB port. These are a convenient way to bring your files with you and open them on a different computer.
Optical Disc Drive
Also called a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, or Blu-ray drive, this allows your computer to read or write to CDs, DVDs, or Blu-ray discs. From inside the computer, optical drives look very similar to hard disk drives.
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A DVD-ROM drive
If you're using Windows, you can view information about your computer's RAM and processor speed without opening up your computer. Just go to the Control Panel (in the Start menu) and click System and Security. In Mac OS X, you can view this information by clicking the Apple icon and selecting About This Mac.
Expansion Cards
Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) cards. You may never have to add any PCI cards, as most motherboards have built-in video, sound, network, and other capabilities. However, if you want to boost the performance of your computer or update the capabilities of an older computer, you can always add one or more cards. Below are some of the most common types of expansion cards:
Video card
A video card
The video card is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computers have a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) built into the motherboard, instead of having a separate video card. If you like playing graphics-intense games on the computer, you can add a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better performance.
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Sound Card
The sound card, also called an audio card, is responsible for what you hear in the speakers or headphones. Most motherboards have integrated sound, but you can upgrade to a dedicated sound card for higher quality sound.
Network Card
The network card allows your computer to communicate over a network and access the internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or through a wireless connection (often called Wi-Fi). Many motherboards have built-in network connections, and a network card can also be added to an expansion slot.
Bluetooth Card
A Bluetooth dongle
Bluetooth is a technology for wireless communication over short distances. It's often used in computers to communicate with wireless keyboards, mice, and printers. It's often built into the motherboard or included in a wireless network card. For computers that don't have Bluetooth, a USB adapter (called a dongle) can be purchased.
What is a Netbook?
A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable. Netbooks are often cheaper than laptops or desktops. They are generally less powerful than other types of computers, but they provide enough power for email and internet access, which is where the name "netbook" comes from.
In order to save space, netbooks generally have smaller screens and keyboards. Many netbooks also lack certain hardware such as optical drives. However, there are many different models available, and in some cases there isn't much difference between a large netbook and a "regular" laptop.
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Using a netbook
Since netbooks are less powerful, they sometimes use a more simplified operating system. Most new netbooks use Windows 7 Starter, but some use simplified versions of Linux.
What is a Mobile Device?
A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is designed to be extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile devices are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of the same things you can do with a desktop or laptop computer. These include tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
Tablet Computers
Using a virtual keyboard on an iPad
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Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they provide a very different computing experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the entire screen is touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger as a mouse pointer.
Tablet computers are mostly designed for consuming media, and they are optimized for tasks like web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing games. For many people, a "regular" computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use programs like Microsoft Word or Photoshop. However, the convenience of a tablet computer means that it may be ideal as a second computer. Below are some of the main features that you can expect with a tablet computer:
• Mobile OS: Different types of tablets use different operating systems. Examples include Android and iOS. You'll usually be able to download free updates to your OS as they become available. • Solid-State Drives: Tablet computers usually use solid-state drives, which allow the computer to boot up and open programs more quickly. They are also more durable than hard disk drives. • Wi-Fi and 3G: Since they are optimized for internet use, tablet computers have built-in Wi-Fi. For a monthly fee, you can also purchase a 3G data plan, allowing you to access the internet from almost anywhere. • Bluetooth: In order to save space, tablet computers have very few ports. If you want to use an external keyboard or other peripherals, they will often use a wireless Bluetooth connection.
E-Book Readers
A Kindle e-reader with an e-paper display
A Nook Color with an LCD display
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E-book readers (also called e-readers) are similar to tablet computers, except they are mainly designed for reading e-books (digital, downloadable books). Examples include the Amazon Kindle and the Barnes & Noble Nook.
E-book readers have either an e-paper display or an LCD display:
• E-Paper: Short for electronic paper, this type of display can usually only display black and white. It is designed to look a lot like an actual page in a book. Unlike an LCD display, it is not backlit, so the text stays readable even outdoors in full sun. Many people consider e-paper to be more pleasant to read, as it causes less eye strain. However, it generally can't be used for videos or other applications because the refresh rate is too low. • LCD: This is the same type of screen found on tablet computers and laptops. It's more versatile than e-paper, but it's often more difficult to view in bright sunlight, as the image becomes washed out. Since an LCD screen can display colors, this type of e-reader is better for viewing magazines or books with photos. Many LCD e-readers (such as the Nook Color) are basically tablet computers, as they can do many different tasks in addition to displaying e-books.
You don't need an e-reader in order to read an e-book. E-books can usually be read on tablet computers, smartphones, laptops, and desktops.
Smartphones
A phone with a physical keyboard
A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a variety of applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small tablet computers, and they can be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, playing games and more.
Smartphones use touchscreens and operating systems similar to those used by tablet computers. Many of them use a virtual keyboard, but others (such as the BlackBerry Curve) have a physical keyboard, which allows the entire screen to be used for display purposes.
Internet access is an important feature of smartphones. Generally, you will need to purchase a 3G data plan in addition to normal cell service. Smartphones can also connect to Wi-Fi when it is available, which is usually faster than 3G.
A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a mobile device that is used for managing phone numbers, addresses, calendars, and other information. Before smartphones existed, a PDA was usually a separate device. Today, smartphones combine the functionality of a PDA and a mobile phone.
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Setting Up a Desktop Computer
Step 1
Unpack the monitor and computer case from the box. Remove any plastic covering or protective tape. Place the monitor and the computer case where you wish on the desk or work area.
Think about where you want your desk or work area to be located, and where you want your monitor, computer case, and other hardware. Be sure to place your computer case in an area that is well ventilated and that has good air flow. This will help to prevent overheating.
Step 2
A VGA cable
Locate the monitor cable. It will usually be either a VGA or a DVI cable. VGA cables will often have blue connectors to make them easier to identify. (If you have an all-in-one computer that's built into the monitor, you can skip to Step 4).
Step 3
Connecting the monitor cable to the VGA port
Connect one end of the cable to the monitor port on the back of the computer case, and the other end to the monitor. Hand-tighten the plastic-covered screws on the monitor cable to secure it.
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Step 4
Plugging the keyboard into a USB port
Unpack the keyboard and determine whether it uses a USB (rectangular) connector or a PS/2 (round) connector. If it uses a USB connector, plug it into any of the USB ports on the back of the computer. If it uses a PS/2 connector, plug it into the purple keyboard port on the back of the computer.
Step 5
Unpack the mouse and determine whether it uses a USB (rectangular) connector or a PS/2 (round) connector. If it uses a USB connector, plug it into any of the USB ports on the back of the computer. If it uses a PS/2 connector, plug it into the green mouse port on the back of the computer.
If your keyboard has a USB port, you can connect your mouse to the keyboard instead of connecting it directly to your computer.
If you have a wireless mouse or keyboard, you may need to connect a Bluetooth dongle (USB adapter) to your computer. However, many computers have built-in Bluetooth, so a dongle may not be necessary.
Step 6
Plugging the speakers into the audio port
If you have external speakers or headphones, you can connect them to your computer's audio port (either on the front or the back of the computer case). Many computers have color-coded ports. Speakers or headphones connect to the green port, and a microphone can connect to the pink port. The blue port is the line in, which can be used with other types of devices. Engineering Staff College of India Page 21 of 348
Some speakers, headphones, and microphones have USB connectors instead of the usual audio plug. These can be connected to any USB port. In addition, many computers have speakers or microphones built into the monitor.
Step 7
Locate the two power supply cables that came with your computer. Plug the first power supply cable into the back of the computer case, and then into a surge protector. Then, using the other cable, connect the monitor to the surge protector.
Step 8
Finally, plug the surge protector into a wall outlet. You may also need to turn the surge protector on if it has a power switch.
If you don't have a surge protector, you can plug the computer directly into the wall. However, this is not recommended, as electrical surges can damage your computer.
Set Up Complete
Your basic computer hardware is now set up. Before you start it up, spend a little time arranging your workspace. A workspace that is arranged well can improve your productivity and also promote health.
Starting Up a New Computer
When you start up a brand-new computer for the first time, it will walk you through several steps to set up and personalize your computer. These steps usually only take a few minutes, and some of them are optional. The exact steps will vary depending on what type of operating system you are using, but here are a few things that you will usually be able to do:
Selecting a location
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• Choose a Language and Location: Your operating system may have many different languages installed, so you'll need to choose the one that you want to use. You may also have the option of choosing your location. • Watch a Welcome Video: Your computer may play a brief welcome video during the setup process, so it's a good idea to turn your speakers on to get the full experience. • Create a Profile or Account Name: Your computer will need to have at least one account name that you will use to sign in. You can also choose to create a password for extra security. If other people will be using the computer, you can set up a separate account for each person later on. • Choose a Wireless Network: If you have an existing wireless network, you can select it during the setup process. If you don't have one, you can skip this step (we'll talk about internet and network settings in Lesson 13: Connecting to the Internet). • Register Your Computer: You'll probably have the option of registering your computer, which will send your name, address, and other information to the computer company. If you don't want to register at this point, you can skip it.
Migrating Your Files and Settings
Windows Easy Transfer
If you have another computer that has all of your files and settings, you may want to copy them to the new computer. This is known as migrating. It's possible to manually move your files using an external hard drive, DVD-ROM discs, or an existing home network. This can be time-consuming, and you may not be able to move all of your settings to the new computer.
Introduction to programming languages
Todays computers are incredibly fast, and getting faster all the time. Yet with this speed comes some significant constraints. Computers only natively understand a very limited set of instructions, and must be told exactly what to do. The set of instructions that tells a computer what to do is known as software. The computer machinery that executes the instructions is the hardware.
A computer’s CPU is incapable of speaking C++. The very limited set of instructions that a CPU natively understands is called machine code, or machine language, or an instruction set.
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First, each instruction is composed of a number of binary digits, each of which can only be a 0 or a 1. These binary numbers are often called bits (short for binary digit). For example, the MIPS architecture instruction set always has instructions that are 32 bits long. Other architectures (such as the x86, which you are likely using) have instructions that can be a variable length.
For example, here is a x86 machine language instruction: 10110000 01100001
Second, each set of binary digits is translated by the CPU into an instruction that tells it to do a very specific job, such as compare these two numbers, or put this number in that memory location. Different types of CPUs will typically have different instruction sets, so instructions that would run on a Pentium 4 would not run on a Macintosh PowerPC based computer. Back when computers were first invented, programmers had to write programs directly in machine language, which was a very difficult and time consuming thing to do.
Because machine language is so hard to program with, assembly language was invented. In an assembly language, each instruction is identified by a short name (rather than a set of bits), and variables can be identified by names rather than numbers. This makes them much easier to read and write. However, the CPU can not understand assembly language directly. Instead, it must be translated into machine language by using an assembler. Assembly languages tend to be very fast, and assembly is still used today when speed is critical. However, the reason assembly language is so fast is because assembly language is tailored to a particular CPU. Assembly programs written for one CPU will not run on another CPU. Furthermore, assembly languages still require a lot of instructions to do even simple tasks, and are not very human readable.
Here is the same instruction as above in assembly language: mov al, 061h
To address these concerns, high-level programming languages were developed. C, C++, Pascal, Ada, Java, Javascript, and Perl, are all high level languages. Programs written in high level languages must be translated into a form that the CPU can understand before they can be executed. There are two primary ways this is done: compiling and interpreting.
A compiler is a program that reads code and produces a stand-alone executable that the CPU can understand directly. Once your code has been turned into an executable, you do not need the compiler to run the program. Although it may intuitively seem like high-level languages would be significantly less efficient than assembly languages, modern compilers do an excellent job of converting high-level languages into fast executables. Sometimes, they even do a better job than human coders can do in assembly language!
Here is a simplified representation of the compiling process:
An interpreter is a program that reads code and essentially compiles and executes (interprets) your program as it is run. One advantage of interpreters is that they are much easier to write than compilers, because they can be written in a high-level language themselves. However, they tend to be less efficient when running programs because the compiling needs to be done every time the program is run. Furthermore, the interpreter is needed every time the program is run. Engineering Staff College of India Page 24 of 348
Here is a simplified representation of the interpretation process:
Any language can be compiled or interpreted, however, traditionally languages like C, C++, and Pascal are compiled, whereas “scripting” languages like Perl and Javascript are interpreted. Some languages, like Java, use a mix of the two.
High level languages have several desirable properties. First, high level languages are much easier to read and write.
Here is the same instruction as above in C/C++: a = 97;
Second, they require less instructions to perform the same task as lower level languages. In C++ you can do something like a = b * 2 + 5; in one line. In assembly language, this would take 5 or 6 different instructions.
Third, you don’t have to concern yourself with details such as loading variables into CPU registers. The compiler or interpreter takes care of all those details for you.
And fourth, they are portable to different architectures, with one major exception, which we will discuss in a moment.
The exception to portability is that many platforms, such as Microsoft Windows, contain platform-specific functions that you can use in your code. These can make it much easier to write a program for a specific platform, but at the expense of portability. In these tutorials, we will explicitly point out whenever we show you anything that is platform specific.
1. Java
Java is a programming language which was developed by James Gosling and Sun Microsystems team. This language was first released in the year 1995. Java language is much influenced by the languages such as C and C++ , resembling its most of the syntax. When we talk about its principles , it is one of the simple , object oriented programming language. Its secure and more robust then any other languages. Its portable and architecture neutral, which is one of the most plus point for its number 1 spot. Its high Engineering Staff College of India Page 25 of 348
performance extends its usability to more of the developers out there. Its the only language which most dynamic , threaded and interpreted. Its one feature that is automatic memory management leads it to far high compared to other programming languages.
2. C#
C# is yet another most powerful language after Java , designed and developed by Microsoft which appeared in the year 2001. Its one of the language which is multi-paradigm encompassing the features like imperative , functional , object oriented , structured and component oriented. It is mostly influenced by Java. Its secure , dynamic and threaded.
3. C++
C++ is the general purpose programming language. It was designed and developed by Bjarne Stroustrup. It was first available in the year 1983. It is middle level language , that it is been combined by high level language and low level language. The language is an enhancement over C. It was initially named as "C with Classes". It is static and unsafe in most of the applications but its a must for every developer and programmer initially.
4. JavaScript (along with CSS and HTML)
JavaScript is an functional programming language. Its an extension of ECMAScript. It came into being in the year 1995. It was designed by Brendan Eich and developed by Netscape Communications Corporations, Mozilla Foundations. Its dynamic , weak and duck prototype based language. Its provides action to web page. CSS which provides style to webpage and HTML which provides the necessary markup for the webpage.
5. Visual Basic
Visual Basic is the third generation event-driven programming language and integrated development environment. It was developed by Microsoft. This Object based and Event driven language came into being in the year 1991. It is been influenced by Quick Basic. Its strong and static in nature .... Very much famous in its initial phase of release.
6. PHP
PHP is an very much scripting language. It was basically designed for web-development to produce dynamic web pages. Generally PHP code is embedded with HTML which is been interpreted by the Web Server to develop a dynamic web page. It was designed by Rasmus Lerdorf and developed by The PHP group. Influenced by C, perl and java. Its dynamic and weak.
7. Objective - C
Objective - C is an object oriented programming language that combines Smalltalk messaging to the C programming language. It appeared in the year 1986. It was designed by Tom Love and Brad Cox. The developing team behind it is Apple Inc. Its cross platform , static , dynamic and weak.
8. Perl
Perl is very nicely and beautifully built programming language. Its some features are dynamic , general purpose , high-level programming language. It appeared in the year 1987. It was designed and developed by Larry Wall. It was influenced by languages such as Lisp , C and Pascal. Its typing discipline is quite dynamic.
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9. Python
Python is general - purpose high level programming language. It is object oriented , functional , reflective and imperative programming language. It got appeared in the year 1991. It was designed by Guido Van Rossum and developed by Python Software Foundation. Its typing discipline says that its strong , dynamic and duck.
10. Ruby
Ruby is yet another dynamic , object oriented programming language developed by the influence of Smalltalk and Perl. It got appeared in the year 1995. It was designed and developed by Yukihiro Matsumoto. Its typing discipline is duck , dynamic and strong. Its cross platform.
1.2 Grounding Issues in a PC
Ground issues can be really annoying because they are hard to spot, and can be inconsistent at times. But they can also be fairly predictable too so there are a few things we can check if the system is indeed grounding out on the case.
Check for Ground Issues Prior to Building Your Computer
If you have not yet built your system some things to look for ahead of time are.
01. Check the I/O Plate for Your Motherboard
Make sure your motherboard backplate is inserted securely. If you push on it lightly from the rear of the case it should not pop out of place.
02. Check the Tabs on Your I/O (backplate) Insert.
Make sure to bend the tabs on the ports of the backplate “UP” so they are out of the way. These serve no “real” purpose and only stand a chance of getting shoved into a rear port. (ie NIC Port, USB, Firewire, etc.)
03. Check the Metal / Brass Standoffs that Came With Your Case.
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Make sure you are using the metal stand offs that come in the hardware pack with the PC case. Before you install your motherboard hold it up and count how many holes it has it for screws. Make a note of the placement for these screws and be sure to put a stand off in each spot on the case that will line up with these holes.
If you do not have enough stand offs check to see if you have been provided with any plastic stand offs to fill in where needed.
04. Metal vs. Plastic Standoffs on an Old Motherboard
On older boards the screw hole that is most likely to ground out is the one closest to the memory slots. If you are working with an older board it is recommended to use a plastic standoff here if possible.
05. Do Not Use Force when Screwing Down the Motherboard.
When you screw down your motherboard DO NOT use force with the screw. A screw should be tightened to the point where it makes contact with the board. I use light pressure when screwing a board down until I feel the screw stop moving.
Over tightening a screw can strip the area around the screw hole and make contact with a trace which will cause the motherboard to short or ground out.
06. Check for Potential Metal Contacts in Your Case
Make sure any metal inside the case is not touching your motherboard. Some cheaper cases have metal tabs under the power supply that can get bent during the installation of the PSU.
07. Check the Metal Near Your PCI Slots
Make sure you do not bend the metal near the PCI slots. Some PCI slots require you to break out a metal tab to make them available for use. Do not bend the rear slots while doing this. Gently work the metal back and forth like a hinge until the metal tab breaks off.
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08. Check for Wires Making Contact with the Back of the Motherboard
Make sure there are not wires from the case stuck under the motherboard. Common cables to check for are USB, Audio, Firewire, Front panel wiring, wires from the power supply, and wires from fans.
09. Check for Frayed Wiring in the Case.
Check all the wiring in the case and make sure none of it is frayed or exposed.
Grounding Issues in a Computer that is already Built
If you have already built your computer and you think it might be grounding out ask yourself the same three questions:
• Is this a PC you just built? If so does it fail the POST test? • Is the computer locking up or freezing when it happens? • Does the computer reboot when it happens?
01. Shake Your Case to Check for a Grounding Issue
Now let’s check for potential issues by giving the case a shake. Did it freeze or reboot? If a case does this when you shake it, it’s a pretty sure thing the motherboard or wiring is grounding out somewhere.
02. Has Anything Changed Recently in the System?
Ask yourself if anything has change recently in the system? If so can you change it back to try and rule out what may be causing the issue?
03. Has New Hardware Been Installed that may be Causing Ground Issues?
Has any new hardware been installed in the system? If so was it installed correctly? Try removing the hardware and see if the problem persists.
04. Check for Damage that may be Causing Grounding Issues
Has the system recently been bumped, damaged, or dented in anyway. (Getting knocked over? Sliding off a car seat? Been shipped via UPS?)
05. Has Anything Been Spilled on the System that may Cause it to Short?
Has anything been spilt on the system? Soda or Beer perhaps?
06. Check the I/O Backplate for the Motherboard.
Check to make sure the motherboard back-plate has not come loose and started making contact with the board.
Take your finger and press on the backplate to make sure it is not wobbling. Do the edges of the back plate feel the same on all four sides? If not, the backplate may have come loose a little bit.
07. Reseat Expansion Cards in the System.
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Reseat the expansion cards in the system to make sure they have not been knocked loose.
Remove each one and reinstall it into the same slot to ensure it is firmly seated.
Try removing all the expansion cards and seeing if you can recreate the problem.
08. Reseat the Memory in the System.
Reseat the memory in the system to make sure it has not come loose.
09. Check for Frayed Wiring Which Might Cause Shorts.
Check all the wiring in the case and make sure none of it is frayed or exposed.
1.3 Operating Systems
What is an Operating System?
An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer's memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware. It also allows you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's "language." Without an operating system, a computer is useless.
The Operating System's Job
You've probably heard the phrase boot your computer, but do you know what that means? Booting is the process that occurs when you press the power button to turn your computer on. During this process (which may take a minute or two), the computer does several things:
• It runs tests to make sure everything is working correctly. • It checks for new hardware. • It then starts up the operating system.
Once the operating system has started up, it manages all of the software and hardware on the computer. Most of the time, there are many different programs running at the same time, and they all need to access your computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, and storage. The operating system coordinates all of this to make sure that each program gets what it needs. Without the operating system, the software wouldn't even be able to talk to the hardware, and the computer would be useless.
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Windows 7, after starting up
Types of Operating Systems
Operating systems usually come preloaded on any computer that you buy. Most people use the operating system that comes with their computer, but it is possible to upgrade or even change operating systems.
The three most common operating systems for personal computers are Microsoft Windows, Apple Mac OS X, and Linux.
The Windows, OS X, and Linux logos
Modern operating systems use a Graphical User Interface, or GUI (pronounced "gooey"). A GUI lets you use your mouse to click on icons, buttons, and menus, and everything is clearly displayed on the screen using a combination of graphics and text.
Each operating system's GUI has a different look and feel, so if you switch to a different operating system it may seem unfamiliar at first. However, modern operating systems are designed to be easy to use, and most of the basic principles are the same.
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft created the Windows operating system in the mid-1980s. Over the years, there have been many different versions of Windows, but the most popular ones are Windows 7 (released in 2009), Windows Vista (2007), and Windows XP (2001). Windows comes preloaded on most new PCs, which helps to make it the most popular operating system in the world.
If you're buying a new computer or upgrading to a new version of Windows, you can choose from several different editions of Windows, including Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate. For most users, Home Premium offers enough features, but many people choose one of the more expensive editions.
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Mac OS is a line of operating systems created by Apple Inc. It comes preloaded on all new Macintosh computers, or Macs. All of the recent versions are known as Mac OS X (pronounced Mac O-S Ten), and their specific version names are Lion (released in 2011), Snow Leopard (2009) and Leopard (2007). Apple also offers a version called Mac OS X Server, which is designed to be run on servers.
According to Stat Counter Global Stats, Mac OS X users account for 6.3% of the operating systems market as of June 2011 - much lower than the percentage of Windows users (over 90%). One reason for this is that Apple computers tend to be more expensive. However, many people prefer the look and feel of Mac OS X.
Mac OS X Lion
Linux
Linux (pronounce LINN-ux) is a family of open source operating systems, which means that they can be modified and distributed by anyone around the world. This is very different from proprietary software like Windows, which can only be modified by the company that owns it (Microsoft). The advantages of Linux are that it is free, and there are many different distributions (or versions) that you can choose from. Each distribution has a different look and feel, and the most popular ones include Ubuntu, Mint, and Fedora.
Linux is named after Linus Torvalds, who created the Linux kernel in 1991. The kernel is the computer code that is the central part of an operating system.
According to StatCounter Global Stats, Linux users account for less than 1% of the operating systems market as of June 2011. However, most servers run Linux because it's relatively easy to customize.
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Ubuntu Linux
Operating Systems for Mobile Devices
The operating systems that we've been talking about were designed to run on desktop or laptop computers. Mobile devices such as phones, tablet computers, and mp3 players are very different from desktop and laptop computers, so they run operating systems that are designed specifically for mobile devices. Examples of mobile operating systems include Apple iOS, Windows Phone 7, and Google Android.
Operating Systems for mobile devices generally aren't as fully-featured as those made for desktop or laptop computers, and they aren't able to run all of the same software. However, you can still do a lot of things with them, such as watching movies, browsing the internet, managing your calendar, playing games, and more.
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Apple iOS running on an iPad
To Shut Down Windows 7 or Vista:
• Click the Start button and then select the Shut down button (or the power button icon in Vista). You can also click the arrow to the right of the Shut down button for more options.
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Shutting down Windows 7
By default, if you click the power button icon in Vista, your computer will go to Sleep instead of shutting down. Sleep turns off most of your computer's processes, but it remembers which applications and files are open. This allows your computer to start up more quickly, since you don't have to wait for the operating system and applications to load.
To Shut Down Windows XP:
• Click the Start button and then select Turn Off Computer.
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Shutting down Windows XP
To Shut Down Mac OS X:
• Click the Apple icon and then select Shut Down.
Shutting down Mac OS X
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Your Computer's File System
Folders on the desktop
A computer uses folders to organize all of the different files and applications that it contains. A folder looks like a file, except the icon is shaped like a folder. To find a specific file, you will navigate to the correct folder using a specialized application such as Windows Explorer (for PCs - not to be confused with Internet Explorer) or Finder (for Macs).
To Open Windows Explorer (PC):
• Click the Windows Explorer icon on the taskbar, or double-click any folder on your desktop. A Windows Explorer window will open up.
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Opening Windows Explorer
Basic Navigation
Whether you're using Windows Explorer or Finder, basic navigation is the same. If you see the file that you want, you can double-click it. Otherwise, you can use the Navigation pane on the left side of the window to select a different location.
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Navigating Windows Explorer
Deleting Files
Windows and OS X use a Trash can (or Recycle Bin) to prevent you from accidentally deleting files. When you delete a file, it is simply moved to the Trash can. If you change your mind, you can move the file back to its original location. If you're sure you want to permanently delete the file, you will need to empty the trash.
To Delete a File on a PC:
1. Click and drag the file onto the Recycle Bin icon on the Desktop. Alternatively, you can select the file and then press the Delete key.
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Dragging a file to the Recycle Bin
2. To empty the trash, right-click the Recycle Bin icon and select Empty Recycle Bin. All files in the Recycle Bin will be permanently deleted.
1.4 Computer Applications
What is an application?
You may have heard people talking about using an application or an app. But what exactly does that mean? An application (or app) is a type of software that allows you to perform specific tasks. Applications for desktop or laptop computers are sometimes called desktop applications, and those for mobile devices are called mobile apps. When you open an application, it runs inside the operating system until you close it. Much of the time, you will have more than one application open at the same time, and this is known as multitasking.
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Types of Desktop Applications
There are countless desktop applications out there, and they fall into many different categories. Some are more full-featured (like Microsoft Word), while others may only do one or two things (like gadgets). Below are just a few types of applications that you might use:
• Word Processors: A word processor allows you to write a letter, design a flyer, and create many other kinds of documents. The most well-known word processor is Microsoft Word. • Personal Finance: Personal finance software, such as Quicken, allows you to keep track of your income and expenses, create a budget, and more. Most personal finance programs can automatically download information from your bank, so you don't have to manually type in all of your transactions. • Web Browsers: A web browser is the tool that you use to access the World Wide Web. Most computers come with a web browser pre-installed, but you can also download a different one if you prefer. Examples of browsers include Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, and Safari. • Games: There are many different games that you can play on your computer. They range from card games such as Solitaire, to action games like Halo 2. Many action games require a lot of computing power, so they may not work unless you have a newer computer. • Media Players: If you want to listen to mp3s or watch movies that you've downloaded, you'll need to use a media player. Windows Media Player and iTunes are popular media players. • Gadgets: Sometimes called widgets, these are simple applications that you can place on your desktop (or on the Dashboard if you're using a Mac). There are many different types of gadgets, and they include calendars, calculators, maps, news headlines, and more.
Installing Desktop Applications
In order to work, an application usually has to be installed on your computer. Typically, installation is as simple as inserting the installation disc and following the instructions on the screen. For software that is downloaded from the internet, you can usually double-click it after it is finished downloading, and then follow the instructions on the screen. Many applications include a readme file (for example, readme.txt), which includes installation instructions and other information.
To Open an Application on a PC:
• Click the Start button and select the desired application. If you don't see it, you can click All Programs to see a complete list.
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The Start menu
For convenience, commonly-used applications may also have a shortcut on the taskbar or on the desktop.
Adjusting Your Computer's Settings
From time to time, you'll need to adjust your computer's settings. This can range from simple tasks such as changing your desktop background, to more advanced tasks like adjusting your security or network settings. On PCs, the Control Panel is used to adjust settings. On Macs, you'll use System Preferences.
To Open the Control Panel (PC):
1. Click the Start button and select Control Panel. 2. The Control Panel will appear. You can then select the desired category to adjust the settings.
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The Control Panel
1.5 Connecting to Internet
What is the Internet?
The Internet is the largest computer network in the world, connecting millions of computers. A network is a group of two or more computer systems linked together.
There are two main types of computer networks:
1. Local Area Network (LAN): A LAN is two or more connected computers sharing certain resources in a relatively small geographic location, often in the same building. Examples include home networks and office networks.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN): A WAN typically consists of two or more LANs. The computers are farther apart and are linked by telephone lines, dedicated telephone lines, or radio waves. The Internet is the largest Wide Area Network (WAN) in existence.
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How Do I Connect to the Internet?
Once you've set up your computer, you'll probably want to get internet access so that you can send and receive email, browse the web, watch movies, and more. Before you can access the internet, there are three things that you need: internet service, a modem, and a web browser.
Choosing an Internet Service Provider
Once you have decided which type of internet access you are interested in, you can determine which ISPs are available in your area that offer the type of internet access you want. Then, you will need to purchase internet service from one of the available ISPs. Talk to friends, family members, and neighbors to see what ISP they use. Below are some things to consider as you research ISPs:
• Speed • Price • Ease of Installation • Service Record • Extras such as email accounts and web space • Technical Support • Contract Terms
Although dial-up has traditionally been the cheapest option, many ISPs have raised dial-up prices to be the same as broadband. This is intended to encourage people to switch over to broadband. Generally, you should only use dial-up if it's the only option available.
Hardware Needed
Modem
Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to connect to the internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem.
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The type of internet access you choose will determine what type of modem you need. Dial-up access uses a telephone modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem, cable access uses a cable modem, and satellite service uses a satellite adapter. Your ISP may give you a modem (often for a fee) when you sign a contract with them, which helps to ensure that you have the right kind of modem. However, if you would prefer to shop for a better or cheaper modem, then you can choose to buy one separately.
Router
A wireless router
A router is a hardware device that allows you to connect several computers and other devices to a single internet connection, which is known as a home network. Many routers are wireless, allowing you to easily create a wireless network.
You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the internet. It's possible to connect your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also, many modems now include a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a network without having to buy more hardware.
Most routers also act as a hardware firewall, which helps prevent people from gaining access to your computer through the internet.
Network Card
A network card
A network card is a piece of hardware that allows computers to communicate over a computer network. Most newer computers have a network card built into the motherboard, so it probably is not something
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you will need to purchase. The network card will either have an Ethernet port, a wireless connection, or both.
If you have a laptop with a wireless connection, you can access the internet at any place that offers a Wi- Fi connection. Many restaurants, coffee shops, bookstores, hotels and other businesses offer free Wi- Fi. In addition, many cities provide free Wi-Fi in public areas such as parks and downtown areas.
Setting Up Your Internet Connection
Once you have chosen an ISP and purchased the appropriate modem, you can use the instructions provided by your ISP (or included with the modem) to set up your internet connection. Depending on what type of service you have, your ISP may need to send a technician to your house in order to turn the connection on.
After you have everything set up, you can open your web browser and begin using the internet. If you have any problems with your internet connection, you can call your ISP's tech support number.
Opening Internet Explorer
Web Browser
A web browser is the tool that you use to access the World Wide Web. The browser's main job is to display web pages. It also lets you create Bookmarks (sometimes called Favorites) for sites you like, so that you can easily find them again later.
The World Wide Web is a virtual network of web sites connected by hyperlinks (or "links"). Web sites are stored on servers on the internet, so the World Wide Web is a part of the internet.
Your computer probably came with a browser pre-installed; PCs come with the Internet Explorer browser, and Macs come with Safari. If you prefer to use a different browser, you can download Firefox, Google Chrome, or Opera. All of these browsers are free.
The World Wide Web (WWW)
When most people think of the Internet, the first thing they think about is the World Wide Web. Nowadays, the terms "Internet" and "World Wide Web" are often used interchangeably—but they're actually not the same thing.
• The Internet is the physical network of computers all over the world. • The World Wide Web is a virtual network of web sites connected by hyperlinks (or "links"). Web sites are stored on servers on the Internet, so the World Wide Web is a part of the Internet.
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URL
To get to a web page, you can type the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) in a browser. The URL, also known as the web address, tells the browser exactly where to find the page. However, most of the time, people get to a web page by following a link from a different page or by searching for the page with a search engine.
Example of URL: www.google.com, www.yahoo.com, www.escihyd.org
The World Wide Web was created in 1989 by Tim Berners-Lee, a software engineer. Before then, computers could communicate over the Internet, but there were no web pages.
Using the Internet to Communicate With a Web Browser
Browser Basics
A web browser is the tool that you use to access the World Wide Web. In order to get the most out of the Web, it's important to understand the various features of a browser.
Common Web Browsers
Today, Internet Explorer is the most popular web browser. Other browsers include Firefox, Chrome, Safari, and Opera. Each one has its own look and feel, but they have the same goal: to display web pages correctly. For most web pages, any well-known browser will work.
Like most modern programs, browsers use a Graphical User Interface (GUI), which means you can navigate by pointing and clicking with a mouse instead of just typing. Some devices such as mobile phones use different types of GUIs, such as touchscreens. However, many of the principles remain the same.
Address Bar
Browsers have an address bar that shows the web address (also called a URL) of the page you are on. To go to a different page, you can type an address in the address bar and then press Enter (or Return).
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The Address Bar
Links
Most of the time, you will get to a different page by clicking on a link. A link can be text or an image, and it's usually formatted to stand out so you know to click on it. Many text links are blue, and they may also be underlined.
For example, this is a link. It will open a web page in a new window, and you can close it to come back to this page.
A link may lead to another web page, or it could lead to a document, video, or any other type of file. If you're not sure if something's a link, hover the mouse over it. The pointer should change to a hand symbol.
Navigation Buttons
Sometimes, after you click on a link, you might want to go back to the previous page. You can do this using your browser's Back button. Once you've pressed the Back button, you can press the Forward button to follow the link again.
The Back and Forward Buttons
When you use the Back and Forward buttons, your browser may use its web cache to display the page. The web cache stores recently-viewed web pages so that they don't need to be downloaded again. That's usually good because it speeds up your web browsing, but sometimes you want to see the most up-to- date information on the page. You can use the Refresh button (sometimes called Reload) to tell the browser to load the page again.
If a page is taking too long to load, or if you've typed in the wrong URL, you use the Stop button to stop the page from loading.
The Refresh and Stop buttons
There are some instances where you don't want to use the navigation buttons. For example, in some online stores, you shouldn't refresh the page after purchasing an item, as it could cause you to purchase the item twice.
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Search Bar
Most browsers have a built-in search bar for performing web searches. We'll talk more about those in the next lesson.
The Search Bar
Bookmarks
If you've found a page you'd like to go back to later, you can add it to your Bookmarks (sometimes called Favorites). Bookmarks make it easier to find a page later on. Instead of having to remember the exact web address, you can just scroll through your bookmarks until you see the name of the page.
• In Internet Explorer, you can add a bookmark by clicking Favorites and then Add to Favorites. Other browsers are similar, but they may use different wording.
Adding a Bookmark
Browsing History
Suppose you visited a page a few days ago but forgot to bookmark it. You can find the page again by using your history, which is a list of web sites you've visited. Usually, pages will stay in the history for a certain number of days. To maintain privacy, you can delete your history at any time.
Viewing Your History
To view your history in Internet Explorer, click Favorites and then click the history tab.
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Browsing history
Deleting Your History
In Internet Explorer, click Tools and then Internet Options. From there, you'll be able to delete your History or manage your history settings.
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Internet Options
Tabbed Browsing
Many browsers allow you to open a link in a new tab. This allows you to keep the current page open instead of going directly to the new page. For example, if you're reading an article that has a link in it, you can open the link in a new tab so that you can finish reading the article. Then, you can go to the new tab to view the link.
Three different tabs are open in this window.
Tabs are designed to make browsing more convenient. You can open as many links as you want, and they'll stay in the same browser window instead of cluttering up your desktop with multiple windows.
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• To open a link in a new tab, right-click the link and click Open in New Tab (the wording may vary from browser to browser). To close a tab, click the "X" on the tab.
Opening a link in a new tab
Customize Your Home Page
You may wish to change Internet Explorer's default home page to a page that you desire. Click on Tools in the Menu Bar and select Internet Options.
Access Internet Options
Type the URL address of the web page you want to be your home page. You may add more than one address and Internet Explorer will open them as home page tabs. For example, you may wish to check your email and your Facebook page on a regular basis, so it may be convenient to add each of the sites as your home page tabs.
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Set Home Page or Home Page Tabs
Downloading Files
Your computer can quickly become disorganized if you do not know where you are downloading files. The Download category of the Options window and the Firefox Download Manager help you organize and manage your downloads.
To Set the Default Location of Downloaded Files:
• Select Tools from the menu bar. • Select Options from the drop-down menu. • Click on the Downloads category at the top of the window. • Select the Save all files to this folder: button in the Download Folder.
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• Click Browse.
• Select the location where you would like to download the file to by clicking on the appropriate folder in the Browse for Folder dialog box.
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• Click OK to change the location where files will be saved. 1.6 Email Basics
Getting to Know Email
You may know that email (electronic mail) is a way to send and receive messages across the internet, but do you know how individual emails are sent or what are the costs for email or how email compares to traditional "snail" mail? To get a better idea of what email is all about, review the infographic below and consider how you might benefit from its use.
About Email Providers
In the past, people often got their email from the same companies they purchased internet access from. For instance, if AOL provided your internet connection, you'd have an AOL email address. While this is still true for some people, today it's increasingly common to use a free web-based email, or webmail, service. Anyone can use these services, no matter who they get their internet access from.
Webmail Providers
Today, the top three webmail providers are Yahoo, Microsoft's Hotmail, and Google's Gmail. These providers are popular because they allow you to access your email account at anytime through their website at yahoo.com, hotmail.com or gmail.com.
Other Email Providers
Many people also get an email address that is hosted by their company, school, or organization. These email addresses are usually used for professional purposes. For example, the people who work for this website all have email addresses that end with @escihyd.org. If you are a part of an organization that provides it's own email addresses, they will likely show you how to access it. Engineering Staff College of India Page 55 of 348
Many hosted web domains end with a suffix other than .com. Depending on the organization, your provider's domain might end with a suffix like .gov (for government websites), .edu (for schools), .mil (for military) or .org (for non-profit organizations).
Information Management Software
Many companies and organizations use information management software, like Microsoft Outlook, for communicating and managing their email. This software can be used with any email provider, but is usually used with an organization that is hosting their own email.
Email Productivity Features
In addition to email access, email providers also provide other tools and features. These features are part of a productivity suite, which is what we call a set of applications and tools that help you work, communicate, and keep organized. The contents of the providers' productivity suites vary, but the major three providers all offer the following features:
• Instant messaging, or chat, which lets you have informal text-based conversations with other users. You'll learn more about instant messaging in Lesson 2. • An online address book, to store contact information for the people you email frequently.
Gmail's My Contacts address book
• An online calendar to help you keep track of your tasks and schedule, and share that schedule with others.
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Google Calendar
In addition, each provider offers some unique features. For instance, when you sign up for Gmail, you get access to a full range of Google services, including Google Docs, Google Reader, Picasa Web Albums and more. Hotmail, on the other hand, offers connectivity with Windows Live and Microsoft Office Web Apps for Word, Excel and PowerPoint.
Getting Started With Email
You should now have a good understanding of what email is all about. In the next few lessons, we will continue to cover essential email basics, etiquette and safety tips.
We want to encourage you to continue through the rest of the lessons in this topic. Then when you are ready to get started with an email program you can do one or both of the following:
Learn How to Use an Email Program
• Sign up for an email account • Navigate and get to know the email window • Perform the tasks of composing, responding to and managing email • Set up your email on a mobile device
Get Your Own Email Account
When you are ready to sign up for your own email account, we suggest choosing from one of the three major providers.
You can follow the links below to sign up for an email account:
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• Hotmail: Click Sign Up. • Gmail: Click Create an account. See our lesson on Signing Up for a Gmail Account for help.
Inbox Window
The Inbox is where you can view all of the incoming emails you have received. Emails are listed with the name of the sender, the subject of the message and the date received with the most recent at the top.
Sample Gmail Inbox Window
Email Message Window
When you select an email in the Inbox, it will open in the Email Message window. You can read the message and determine how you want to respond to it with a variety of commands.
Compose Message Window
You can click the Compose Message or New command from your Inbox to create an email message of your own. You will need to enter the recipient's email address and a subject. You also have options for uploading digital files (photos, documents, etc.) and formatting the text in your message.
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A Compose Message window will also appear when you select Reply or Forward. It will include the original message text in the body.
Email Do's and Don'ts
Here are some basic Do's and Don'ts that you can follow to write better emails, no matter who you're emailing. In some cases, it's okay to break these rules; for example, if you email someone every day, your subject lines may not need to be that descriptive. You can use these rules as a starting point, and then tailor each email based on the situation.
Email Do's:
• Do keep emails clear and concise. Make sure that your recipient can tell what the email is about. Avoid rambling, but provide enough detail to make the point of the email clear. • Do use a relevant subject line. The subject line lets the recipient know what to expect in the email. Make it clear and relevant. • Do add a greeting and closing line to your email. Just like a written letter, it's nice to add a greeting such as "Dear Amelia," and a closing line such as "Sincerely" or "Thanks" followed by your name. • Do be aware that your tone may not be obvious in an email. Your recipients may not be able to recognize irony and sarcasm in your emails, and this can lead to misinterpretation or confusion. It's best to phrase things in the clearest way possible. • Do resize large photos before attaching them. Large photos take longer to download, especially if someone is viewing them on a mobile device. If you want to send a large photo to someone, resize it before you attach it. • Do check over your email before you send it. Before sending your email, make sure it's free of spelling and grammar errors. Also, for more important emails, take a moment to check the content and wording, to make sure that your message is presented the way you want. Remember, an email generally can't be unsent! • Do check your recipients. Before you send an email, double-check the To, Cc, and Bcc fields to make sure you're sending the email to the right people. This is especially important when you're replying to a message, since it may automatically add unwanted recipients.
Email Don'ts
• Don't use caps lock. Writing in all caps is equivalent to shouting. Your recipient may mistakenly think that you're angry, which can backfire (especially in a business email). Also, emails written in all caps are harder to read. • Don't use an overly long signature. It may be tempting to create an elaborate signature that includes your name, title, address, multiple phone numbers, a Facebook or Twitter link, a picture, a quote, and other information. However, this can quickly turn into a ten-line signature, which may make it harder for your recipients to know how you prefer to be contacted. Instead of including all of your contact info, it's better to focus on your most important or preferred contact info. • Don't use hard-to-read fonts or colors. Your email service may have various text formatting options, but you should be aware that some of them may make your emails difficult to read. In many cases, too much text formatting can also look unprofessional or annoying. • Don't overuse Reply to All. Ask yourself whether every person in the group needs to see your reply. If you're only intending the message for one person, use Reply. On the other hand, if you want to keep everybody in the group informed use Reply to All. • Don't try to cover too many topics. If you find that your email is covering several unrelated topics, consider splitting it into separate emails. • Don't forward chain emails, even if they sound interesting. Chain emails can quickly spread throughout the world because they are forwarded to large numbers of people, who then forward
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them to even more people, and so on. Many of them are hoaxes, and even the ones that aren't may irritate your recipients.
Email Safety
It's important to protect yourself when using email. Email is not totally secure, so you should avoid sending extremely sensitive information, such as credit card numbers, passwords, or your Social Security Number. In addition, you may receive emails from scammers and cybercriminals, and you'll need to know how to deal with those messages. Here are a few things to watch out for:
• Spam: Spam is another term for junk email or unwanted email advertisements. Sometimes, these messages advertise legitimate products, but often they are actually counterfeit goods or scams. It's best to ignore or delete these messages. Luckily, most email services offer some protection, such as filtering messages into a spam folder so they don't end up in your Inbox. • Phishing: Phishing is a type of scam where an email pretends to be from a bank or another trusted source in order to trick you into handing over your personal information, which a scammer can then use to steal money from you. It's easy for someone to create an email that looks like it's from a specific bank or other business, and the person can even include a logo to make the email look legitimate. If you receive an email that sounds urgent, you should be extra wary. • Attachments: Some attachments can contain viruses and other malware. It's generally safest not to open any attachment that you weren't expecting. If a friend sends you an attachment, you may want to ask them if they meant to send it to you. It's also a good idea to use antivirus software and a firewall.
1.7 Protecting Your Computer From Malware
Malware is any type of software that is designed to damage your computer or gain unauthorized access to your personal information. It includes viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, and other types. Most malware is distributed over the internet, often bundled with other software.
The best way to guard against malware is to install antivirus software such as BitDefender, Norton, or Kaspersky. Antivirus software helps to prevent malware from being installed, and it can also remove malware from your computer. New malware is being created all the time, so it's important to update your antivirus software frequently. Most antivirus programs can do this automatically, but you'll need to make sure that this feature is enabled.
It's also important to stay smart when you're browsing the web or using email. If a website or email attachment looks suspicious, trust your instincts. Keep in mind that your antivirus program may not catch everything, so it's best to avoid downloading anything that might contain malware.
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1.8 Backing Up Your Computer
Imagine what would happen if your computer suddenly stopped working. Would you lose any important documents, photos, or other files? It may be possible to repair your computer, but your files may be lost forever. Luckily, you can prevent this by creating backup copies of all of your files (or just the important ones) on an external hard drive or an online backup service.
External Hard Drives
An external hard drive
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You can purchase an external hard drive and copy the contents of your computer to it. The initial backup could take several hours, so you will need to select a period of time where you do not need access to your computer. Running the backup overnight usually works best. Follow-up backups should be conducted on a regular basis, but will not take as long because the drive will only need to copy your most recent files.
One drawback, compared to online backup services, is that your external hard drive can be lost, damaged or stolen just as your computer might be. Therefore, it is important to keep your drive in a secure location when not in use.
An external hard drive is the ultimate computer maintenance backup device. How much data it stores depends on how big the hard drive is inside the external case. If you find that there is not enough storage space you can simply remove the hard drive and replace it with a bigger one. Computer backup devices are a part of our lives now as people are accumulating more and more files. Gone are the days of tape backup devices, external drives are the in thing for now.
Most newer type external hard drives connect to the computer via a USB cable. Most computers have a front USB port and therefore make it easy to plug and play or use your external computer backup devices.
Once connected to the computer, your hard drive backup device will show up in my computer as another hard disc drive. All you have to do is double click on the drive icon and you can paste or drop any file you like there. Now days people have a 500gb external hard drives or even larger, but the smaller ones are fine too. It all depends on how much space you personally need.
The benefits of having an external hard drive
1. It’s a portable device You can easily pick up your external hard drive, take it to a friends house, and connect it to their computer. Most computers have a USB port through which it can be connected. 2. Safe Backup Device Because the external hard drive is not permanently connected to your computer, if your system crashes, the information and files on your external hard drive device will still be safe. There this is a great easy secure backup device. 3. Easily upgradeable If you find that it does not have enough storage space for your backup files you can easily replace the hard drive with a bigger one. You cannot, as yet, upgrade a normal USB Flash drive. 4. Can store a huge amount of Data and files For example if you had a 160gb external hard drive you could fit movies, backup your files such as music, photos, entire programs, and more on it. 5. Will save your computer from getting clogged up with downloads and large files. If you find yourself downloading a lot of files it is always better to remove them from your computer to store somewhere else. This way your computers performance will not be effected by storing unnecessary files, data, and movies.
What size external hard drive do you need?
If you just want to store documents, emails, small backup files, and photos then 20GB is enough for an external hard drive. However if you want to store in type of movie, video footage, large amounts of music, or even entire backups of your system, then you will need at least 100GB or more.
It is very important that we all own an external hard drive to backup our precious files. Engineering Staff College of India Page 62 of 348
1.9 Basic Troubleshooting Techniques
The computer goes blank before the Word document was saved. The browser window freezes for no reason. You can't hear anything from your speakers.
Most people have at one time or another experienced a computer problem like the situations just described, and if you haven't, chances are you will at some point. When a problem occurs, don't panic! Instead, work your way through some basic troubleshooting techniques and try to solve the problem.
General Tips to Keep in Mind
There are many devices, parts, cords, and connections on a computer, which means that there are many possible problems that could arise. In addition, your computer uses a variety of software, which can also cause problems. However, no matter what the problem is, you can use the following tips to help you find a solution:
• Always check the cables, wires, and cords: Many computer problems are related to an issue in the cables and connections. The easiest first step you can take to troubleshoot most problems is to check all related cables and connections. • Isolate the problem: If possible, try to isolate the problem. For example, if you can't get the cursor to move on the screen, try to determine if the issue is with the mouse. If you have an extra mouse, you can alternate devices to see if the one plugged in is the issue, or use the arrow keys on the keyboard to help determine if the mouse is the source of the problem. When trying to isolate the problem, only make one change at a time.
An error message
• Take notes about error messages: If your computer gives you error messages, be sure to write down as much information as possible. If the basic troubleshooting steps don't work, you may need the information. • Remember the steps you've taken, or write them down: Once you start troubleshooting, you will want to remember what you have done, so you don't repeat yourself. If you can't remember it, then write it down. If you end up asking someone for help, it will be much easier if they know exactly which steps you've taken.
Simple Solutions to Common Problems
Most of the time, problems can be fixed by using simple troubleshooting techniques, such as closing and re-opening the program. It's important to try these simple solutions before resorting to more extreme measures. If the problem still isn't fixed, you can then try other troubleshooting techniques, such as reinstalling the software.
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Program Runs Slowly or Isn't Working Right
• If a program is running slowly or otherwise isn't working right, the first thing you should try is closing the program and re-opening it. • You can also shut down your computer, wait a few seconds, and boot it up again. Some minor problems will work themselves out when you do this. • Check with the company for any known problems or updates to the software.
Program is Completely Unresponsive
• If a program has become completely unresponsive, you can press (and hold) the Control, Alt, and Delete keys to open the Task Manager. You can then select the program that isn't working and click End Task. If you are using a Mac, you can press Option, Command, Esc to open a similar dialog box.
The Task Manager
"Non-System Disk or Disk Error" Message
• If you get this message when you boot up your computer, it usually means there is a CD, DVD, USB flash drive, or floppy disk in your computer, which is interfering with your computer's booting process. Remove the disk from the drive and restart the computer.
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Windows Shutting Down Message Will Not Disappear
• Sometimes Windows will freeze during the shutdown process. If this happens, the Windows is Shutting Down message screen will stay active on your screen. To finish shutting down the computer, press and hold the power button for about 10 seconds, or until the computer turns off.
Computer Begins Randomly Rebooting or Crashing
• Check for overheating. Make sure the vents in the case are not blocked. Confirm that there is good air flow around the computer. • Update your antivirus software and scan for viruses.
Problems with the Monitor and Speakers
No Picture on the Monitor
• Confirm the computer is turned on. • Check the brightness control, located on your monitor or your keyboard, and make sure it is not set too low. • Check the connections for the monitor and surge protector, and make sure the surge protector is turned on.
Monitor Goes Blank Periodically
• You may have the screensaver enabled. If the screen saver is enabled, just move your mouse back and forth and your original screen will appear. You can change the screensaver settings by going to your Control Panel (or your System Preferences if you're using a Mac).
No Sound
• Check the volume control on your computer. In Windows, the sound icon will usually be on the taskbar, and you can also access the sound options in the Control Panel. On Macs, the sound options are found at the top of the screen or in System Preferences. • Most media programs (such as iTunes or Windows Media Player) have a volume control, which will need to be turned up. • Make sure the speakers are turned on, if using external speakers. • Make sure external speakers are connected to the correct audio port or a USB port. If your computer has color-coded ports, the audio output will usually be green. • Connect headphones to the correct audio port and determine if sound is audible from the headphones.
1.10 Health and Safety for Computer Users
The Law
The number of computers in the workplace has increased rapidly over the last few years and it is now quite normal for most staff in voluntary organisations to be exposed to computer usage. The Health and Safety at Work Act lays down legal standards for computer equipment and requires employers to take steps to minimise risks for all workers. Workers have received substantial damages for injuries caused
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through use of computers where the employer could have foreseen the risk but did nothing about it. The main regulations covering the use of computer equipment include:
• Health & Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 • Management of Health & Safety at Work Regulations 1992 • Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1992 • Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992
Improving health and safety practice should be taken seriously, although it need not take much time or expense. Measures employers should take include:
• Understanding the law - make sure someone in your organisation has a health and safety brief covering all areas, not just computers. • Being aware of the health risks - the government officially recognises some of the risks although there are some grey areas you'll need to make up your own mind about. • Assessing the risks - using procedures set out in the law - be systematic and get help if you need it. Get a health and safety audit done by a competent organisation if necessary. • Taking steps to minimise the risks - this may only involve taking simple measures. • Training all users to recognise the risks - if people aren't aware of the dangers they can't take adequate precautions to protect their health. • Taking users views seriously - if users feel there is something wrong there often is.
The Risks
With the increase in computer use, a number of health and safety concerns related to vision and body aches and pains have arisen. Many problems with computer use are temporary and can be resolved by adopting simple corrective action. Most problems related to computer use are completely preventable. However it is important to seek prompt medical attention if you do experience symptoms including:
• continual or recurring discomfort • aches and pains • throbbing • tingling • numbness • burning sensation • or stiffness
Seek help even if symptoms occur when you are not working at your computer.
Laptop computers can present particular problems due to small screens, keyboards and inbuilt pointing devices (e.g. a small portable mouse or touchpad). Prolonged use of laptops should be avoided. If using a laptop as a main computer (i.e. use as a normal desktop computer in addition to use as a portable), it is advisable to use the laptop with a docking station. This allows an ordinary mouse, keyboard and monitor to be used with the laptop. The main risks associated with using computers include:
• Musculoskeletal problems • Eye strain and a greater awareness of existing eye problems
Rashes and other skin complaints have also been reported, although it is thought these are caused by the dry atmosphere and static electricity associated with display units rather then by the display units themselves. There are potential risks from radiation though this is a contentious area.
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These can range from general aches and pains to more serious problems and include:
• Upper limb disorders such as repetitive strain injury (RSI) tenosynovitis and carpal tunnel syndrome - by far the most important as it can quickly lead to permanent incapacity • Back and neck pain and discomfort • Tension stress headaches and related ailments
These types of problem can be caused by:
• Maintaining an unnatural or unhealthy posture while using the computer • Inadequate lower back support • Sitting in the same position for an extended period of time • An ergonomically poor workstation set up
Eye strain
Computer users can experience a number of symptoms related to vision including:
• Visual fatigue • Blurred or double vision • Burning and watering eyes • Headaches and frequent changes in prescription glasses
Computer work hasn't been proven to cause permanent eye damage, but the temporary discomfort that may occur can reduce productivity, cause lost work time and reduce job satisfaction. Eye problems are usually the result of visual fatigue or glare from bright windows or strong light sources, light reflecting off the display screen or poor display screen contrast.
Prevention is better than cure
Several relatively straightforward precautions can be taken by computer users to avoid problems.
Avoiding Musculoskeletal problems
General precautions to avoid musculoskeletal problems include:
• Taking regular breaks from working at your computer - a few minutes at least once an hour • Alternating work tasks • Regular stretching to relax your body • Using equipment such as footrests, wrist rests and document holders if you need to • Keeping your mouse and keyboard at the same level • Avoiding gripping your mouse too tightly - hold the mouse lightly and click gently • Familiarise yourself with keyboard shortcuts for applications you regularly use (to avoid overusing the mouse)
It is also important to have your workstation set up correctly. Your workstation includes monitor, keyboard, mouse, seating, desk, and where appropriate, footrest (to enable you to put your feet flat if they would otherwise not reach the floor), wrist rest, and document holder. Monitors should:
• Swivel, tilt and elevate - if not use an adjustable stand, books or blocks adjust the height • Be positioned so the top line of the monitor is no higher than your eyes or no lower than 20° below the horizon of your eyes or field of vision
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• Be at the same level and beside the document holder if you use one • Be between 18 to 24 inches away from your face
Keyboards should:
• Be detachable and adjustable (with legs to adjust angle) • Allow your forearms to be parallel to the floor without raising your elbows • Allow your wrists to be in line with your forearms so your wrists does not need to be flexed up or down • Include enough space to rest your wrists or should include a padded detachable wrist rest (or you can use a separate gel wrist rest which should be at least 50 mm deep) • Be placed directly in front of the monitor and at the same height as the mouse, track ball or touch pad
Chairs should:
• Support the back - and have a vertically adjustable independent back rest that returns to its original position and has tilt adjustment to support the lower back • Allow chair height to be adjusted from a sitting position • Be adjusted so the back crease of the knee is slightly higher than the pan of the chair (use a suitable footrest where necessary) • Be supported by a five prong caster base • Have removable and adjustable armrests • Have a contoured seat with breathable fabric and rounded edges to distribute the weight and should be adjustable to allow the seat pan to tilt forward or back
Tables and desks should:
• Provide sufficient leg room and preferably be height adjustable • Have enough room to support the computer equipment and space for documents • Be at least 900 mm deep • Have rounded corners and edges
Avoiding Eyestrain
Precautions that can be taken to avoid eyestrain include:
• Exercising the eyes by periodically focusing on objects at varying distances • Blinking regularly • Keeping the air around you moist - for example using plants, open pans of water or a humidifier (spider plants are said to be particularly good for this and removing chemical vapours from the air) • Adjusting the screen height / seating so that when sitting comfortably your eyes are in line with the top of the monitor screen • Adjusting the brightness control on your monitor for comfort • Adjusting the contrast on your monitor to make the characters distinct from the background • Adjusting the refresh rate of your monitor to stop it flickering • Positioning monitors to avoid glare (e.g. not directly in front of windows) • Keeping your monitor the screen clean • Keeping the screen and document holder (if you use one) at the same distance from your eyes • Servicing, repairing or replacing monitors that flicker or have inadequate clarity • Regular eye testing - do this at least once every 2 years and more frequently if necessary - especially if you are experiencing eye problems related to using display equipment. Indicate the Engineering Staff College of India Page 68 of 348
distance from your eyes to the monitor to your optician and talk to them regarding special lenses or the use of bifocals.
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Chapter 2 MS Office
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2.1 Introduction to MS Office
Microsoft Office is a proprietary commercial office suite of inter-related desktop applications, servers and services for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X operating systems, introduced by Microsoft in August 1, 1989. The first version of Office contained Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft PowerPoint. Over the years, Office applications have grown substantially closer with shared features such as a common spell checker, OLE data integration and Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications scripting language. Microsoft also positions Office as a development platform for line-of-business software under the Office Business Applications brand.
The current versions are Office 2010 for Windows, released on June 15, 2010; and Office 2011 for Mac OS X, released October 26, 2010
Microsoft Windows versions - History
Microsoft Office 95 was released in August 1995. Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional. The standard version consisted of Word 7.0, Excel 7.0, PowerPoint 7.0, and Schedule+ 7.0. The professional edition contained all of the items in the standard version plus Access 7.0. If the professional version was purchased in CD-ROM form, it also included Bookshelf.
Microsoft Office 97 (Office 8.0), was a major milestone release. It included hundreds of new features and improvements, introduced command bars, a paradigm in which menus and toolbars were made more similar in capability and visual design. Office 97 also featured Natural Language Systems and grammar checking. Office 97 was the first version of Office to include the Office Assistant.
Microsoft Office 2000 (Office 9.0) introduced adaptive menus, where little-used options were hidden from the user. It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures, to diminish the threat of macro viruses. Office 2000 automatically trusts macros (written in VBA 6) that were digitally signed from authors who have been previously designated as trusted. Office 2000 is the last version to support Windows 95.
Microsoft Office XP (Office 10.0 or Office 2002) was released in conjunction with Windows XP, and was a major upgrade with numerous enhancements and changes over Office 2000. Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature, which allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail. Safe Mode enables Office to detect and either repair or bypass the source of the problem, such as a corrupted registry or a faulty add-in. Smart tag is a technology introduced with Office XP. Some smart tags operate based on user activity, such as helping with typing errors. These smart tags are supplied with the products, and are not programmable. For developers, though, there is the ability to create custom smart tags. In Office XP, custom smart tags could work only in Word and Excel. Microsoft Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition. Office XP is the last version to support Windows 98, ME and NT 4.0. It was the first version to require Product Activation as an anti-piracy measure, which attracted widespread controversy.
Microsoft Office 2003 (Office 11.0) was released in 2003. It featured a new logo. Two new applications made their debut in Office 2003: Microsoft InfoPath and OneNote. It is the first version to use Windows XP style icons. Outlook 2003 provides improved functionality in many areas, including Kerberos authentication, RPC over HTTP, Cached Exchange Mode, and an improved junk mail filter. 2003 is the last Office version to support Windows 2000.
Microsoft Office 2007 (Office 12.0) was released in 2007. Office 2007's new features include a new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface, replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar, known as the Ribbon; new XML-
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based file formats called Office Open XML; and the inclusion of Groove, a collaborative software application.
Microsoft Office 2010 (Office 14.0) was finalized on April 15, 2010, and was made available to consumers on June 15, 2010. The main features of Office 2010 include the backstage file menu, new collaboration tools, a customizable ribbon, protected view and a navigation pane. This is the first version to ship in 32- and 64-bits. Microsoft Office 2010 also features a new logo, which is similar to the 2007 logo, except in gold, and with a slightly modified shape. Service Pack 1 for Office 2010 was released on June 28, 2011.
Microsoft Office 2012 is reportedly in Build 15.0.2703.1000 (version 15), and has reached Milestone 2. It sports a revamped application interface; the interface is based on Metro Design Language, the interface of Windows Media Center for Windows Phone. Microsoft Outlook has received the most pronounced changes so far; for example, the Metro interface enables users to have access to a new visualization for scheduled tasks. PowerPoint will include more templates and transition effects, and OneNote a new splash screen. On May 16, 2011, new images of Office 15 were revealed, showing Excel with a tool for filtering data in a storm, the ability to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, and the integration of advanced trigonometric functions. In Word, the capability of inserting video and audio online as well as the broadcasting of documents on the Web were implemented
Desktop applications
Word
Microsoft Word is a word processor and was previously considered the main program in Office. Its proprietary DOC format is considered a de facto standard, although Word 2007 can also use a new XML- based, Microsoft Office-optimized format called .DOCX, which has been standardized by Ecma International as Office Open XML and its SP2 update supports PDF and a limited ODF. Word is also available in some editions of Microsoft Works. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. The first version of Word, released in the autumn of 1983, was for the MS-DOS operating system and had the distinction of introducing the mouse to a broad population. Word 1.0 could be purchased with a bundled mouse, though none was required.
Word for Mac was released in 1985. Word for Mac was the first graphical version of Microsoft Word. Despite its bugginess, it became one of the most popular Mac applications.
Excel
Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program that originally competed with the dominant Lotus 1-2-3, but eventually outsold it. It is available for the Windows and Mac platforms. Microsoft released the first version of Excel for the Mac in 1985, and the first Windows version (numbered 2.05 to line up with the Mac and bundled with a standalone Windows run-time environment) in November 1987.
Outlook
Microsoft Outlook (not to be confused with Outlook Express) is a personal information manager and e- mail communication software. The replacement for Windows Messaging, Microsoft Mail and Schedule+ starting in Office 97, it includes an e-mail client, calendar, task manager and address book.
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PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a popular presentation program for Windows and Mac. It is used to create slideshows, composed of text, graphics, movies and other objects, which can be displayed on-screen and navigated through by the presenter or printed out on transparencies or slides.
Other desktop applications (Windows version only)
• Microsoft Access — database manager • Microsoft InfoPath — an application to design rich XML-based forms • Microsoft OneNote — note-taking software for use with both tablet and conventional PCs • Microsoft Project — project management software to keep track of events and to create network charts and Gantt charts (not bundled in any Office suite) • Microsoft Publisher — desktop publishing software mostly used for designing brochures, labels, calendars, greeting cards, business cards, newsletters, and postcards. • Microsoft SharePoint Workspace (formerly known as Groove) — a proprietary peer-to-peer collaboration software leveled at businesses • Microsoft Visio — diagram and flowcharting software (not bundled in any Office suite) • Microsoft Office InterConnect — business-relationship database available only in Japan • Microsoft Office Picture Manager — basic photo management software (similar to Google's Picasa or Adobe's Photoshop Elements), replaced Microsoft Photo Editor
Versions available for Windows Last Mainstream support end- Extended support end- Microsoft Windows version version date date Windows NT 3.51 with Service Pack
Office 97 August 31, 2001 February 28, 2002 5
Windows 95 Office 2000 June 30, 2004 July 14, 2009
Windows NT 4.0 Office XP July 11, 2006 July 12, 2011
Windows 98 Office XP July 11, 2006 July 12, 2011 Windows 2000 with Service Pack 2 Office XP July 11, 2006 July 12, 2011 Windows 2000 with Service Pack 3
Office 2003 April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 or later
Windows Me Office XP July 11, 2006 July 12, 2011
Windows XP with Service Pack 2 Office 2007 April 10, 2012 April 11, 2017
Windows XP with Service Pack 3 Office 2010 October 13, 2015 October 13, 2020
Windows Server 2003 Office 2003 April 14, 2009 April 8, 2014 Windows Server 2003 with Service Office 2010 October 13, 2015 October 13, 2020 Pack 2 Windows Vista without Service Pack Office 2007 April 10, 2012 April 11, 2017 Windows Vista with Service Pack 1 Office 2010 October 13, 2015 October 13, 2020
Windows Server 2008 Office 2010 October 13, 2015 October 13, 2020
Windows 7 Office 2010 October 13, 2015 October 13, 2020
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2.2.1 Introduction to Word
Word 2010 is a word processor that allows you to create various types of documents such as letters, papers, flyers, faxes and more.
The ribbon
The new, tabbed Ribbon system was introduced in Word 2007 to replace traditional menus. The Ribbon contains all of the commands you'll need in order to do common tasks. It contains multiple tabs, each with several groups of commands, and you can add your own tabs that contain your favorite commands. Some groups have an arrow in the bottom-right corner that you can click to see even more commands.
The Ribbon
Certain programs, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader, may install additional tabs to the Ribbon. These tabs are called Add-ins.
To Minimize and Maximize the Ribbon:
The Ribbon is designed to be responsive to your current task and easy to use; however, you can choose to minimize it if it's taking up too much screen space.
1. Click the arrow in the upper-right corner of the Ribbon to minimize it. 2. To maximize the Ribbon, click the arrow again.
When the Ribbon is minimized, you can make it reappear by clicking on a tab. However, the Ribbon will disappear again when you're not using it.
To Customize the Ribbon:
You can customize the Ribbon by creating your own tabs with whichever commands you want. Commands are always housed within a group, and you can create as many groups as you want in order Engineering Staff College of India Page 74 of 348
to keep your tab organized. If you want, you can even add commands to any of the default tabs, as long as you create a custom group in the tab.
1. Right-click the Ribbon and select Customize the Ribbon. A dialog box will appear. 2. Click New Tab. A new tab will be created with a new group inside it. 3. Make sure the new group is selected. 4. Select a command from the list on the left, then click Add. You can also drag commands directly into a group. 5. When you are done adding commands, click OK.
If you don't see the command you want, click on the Choose commands from: drop-down box and select All Commands.
Backstage View
Backstage view gives you various options for saving, opening a file, printing, or sharing your document. It is similar to the Office Button Menu from Word 2007 or the File Menu from earlier versions of Word. However, instead of just a menu, it is a full-page view which makes it easier to work with.
To Get to Backstage View:
1. Click the File tab. 2. You can choose an option on the left side of the page. 3. To get back to your document, just click any tab on the Ribbon.
The Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access Toolbar is located above the ribbon, and it lets you access common commands no matter which tab you're on. By default, it shows the Save, Undo, and Repeat commands. You can add other commands to make it more convenient for you.
To Add Commands to the Quick Access Toolbar:
1. Click the drop-down arrow to the right of the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. Select the command you wish to add from the drop-down menu. It will appear in the Quick Access toolbar.
The Ruler
The Ruler is located at the top and to the left of your document. It makes it easier to adjust your document with precision. If you want, you can hide the Ruler to free up more screen space.
To Hide or View the Ruler:
1. Click the View Ruler icon over the scrollbar to hide the ruler. 2. To show the ruler, click the View Ruler icon again.
To Create a New, Blank Document:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select New. 3. Select Blank document under Available Templates. It will be highlighted by default. 4. Click Create. A new, blank document appears in the Word window. Engineering Staff College of India Page 75 of 348
To save time, you can create your document from a template, which you can select from the New Document pane.
To Open an Existing Document:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select Open. The Open dialog box appears. 3. Select your document and then click Open.
If you've opened a file recently, you can also access it from the Recent Documents list. Just click on the File tab and select Recent.
2.2.2 Basic Text Operations
To Insert Text:
1. Move your mouse to the location you wish text to appear in the document. 2. Click the mouse. The insertion point appears. 3. Type the text you wish to appear.
To Delete Text:
1. Place the insertion point next to the text you wish to delete. 2. Press the Backspace key on your keyboard to delete text to the left of the insertion point. 3. Press the Delete key on your keyboard to delete text to the right of the insertion point.
To Select Text:
1. Place the insertion point next to the text you wish to select. 2. Click the mouse, and while holding it down, drag your mouse over the text to select it. 3. Release the mouse button. You have selected the text. A highlighted box will appear over the selected text.
When you select text or images in Word, a hover toolbar with formatting options appears. This makes formatting commands easily accessible, which may save you time. If the toolbar does not appear at first, try moving the mouse over the selection.
To Copy and Paste Text:
1. Select the text you wish to copy. 2. Click the Copy command on the Home tab. You can also right-click your document and select Copy. 3. Place your insertion point where you wish the text to appear. 4. Click the Paste command on the Home tab. The text will appear.
To Cut and Paste Text:
1. Select the text you wish to copy. 2. Click the Cut command on the Home tab. You can also right-click your document and select Cut. 3. Place your insertion point where you wish the text to appear. Engineering Staff College of India Page 76 of 348
4. Click the Paste command on the Home tab. The text will appear.
You can also cut, copy, and paste by right-clicking your document and choosing the desired action from the drop-down menu. When you use this method to paste, you can choose from three options that determine how the text will be formatted: Keep Source Formatting, Merge Formatting and Keep Text Only. You can hover the mouse over each icon to see what it will look like before you click on it.
To Drag and Drop Text:
1. Select the text you wish to copy. 2. Click and drag the text to the location you wish it to appear. The cursor will have a rectangle under it to indicate that you are moving text. 3. Release the mouse button and the text will appear.
If text does not appear in the exact location you wish, you can click the Enter key on your keyboard to move the text to a new line.
Find and Replace
When you're working with longer documents, it can be difficult and time consuming to locate a specific word or phrase. Word can automatically search your document using the Find feature, and it even allows you to change words or phrases using Replace.
To Find Text:
1. From the Home tab, click the Find command. The Navigation pane will appear on the left side of the screen. 2. Type the text you wish to find in the field at the top of the Navigation pane. 3. If the text is found in the document, it will be highlighted in yellow, and a preview will appear in the Navigation pane. 4. If the text appears more than once, you can click the arrows on the Navigation pane to step through the results. You can also click the result previews on the Navigation pane to jump to the location of a result in your document. 5. When you close the Navigation pane, the highlighting will disappear.
To Replace Text:
1. From the Home tab, click the Replace command. The Find and Replace dialog box will appear. 2. Type the text you wish to find in the Find what field. 3. Type the text you wish to replace it with in the Replace with field. 4. Click Find Next and then Replace to replace text. You can also click Replace All to replace all instances within the document.
2.2.3 Text Formatting
To create and design effective documents, you need to know how to format text. In addition to making your document more appealing, formatted text can draw the reader's attention to specific parts of the document and help communicate your message.
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To Change the Font Size:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Font Size box on the Home tab. A drop-down menu appears. 3. Move the mouse pointer over the various font sizes. A live preview of the font size will appear in the document. 4. Select the font size you wish to use.
You can also use the Grow Font and Shrink Font commands to change the size.
To Change the Font:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Font box on the Home tab. The Font drop-down menu appears. 3. Move the mouse pointer over the various fonts. A live preview of the font will appear in the document. 4. Select the font you wish to use. The font will change in the document.
To Change the Font Color:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Click the Font Color drop-down arrow on the Home tab. The Font Color menu appears. 3. Move the mouse pointer over the various font colors. A live preview of the color will appear in the document. 4. Select the font color you wish to use. The font color will change in the document.
Your color choices aren't limited to the drop-down menu that appears. Select More Colors at the bottom of the list to access the Colors dialog box. Choose the color that you want and click OK.
To Highlight Text:
1. From the Home tab, click the Text Highlight Color drop-down arrow. The Highlight Color menu appears. 2. Select the desired highlight color. 3. Select the text you wish to modify. It will then be highlighted. 4. To switch back to the normal cursor, click the Text Highlight Color command.
To Use the Bold, Italic, and Underline Commands:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline (U) command in the Font group on the Home tab.
To Change the Text Case:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Click the Change Case command in the Font group on the Home tab. 3. Select the desired case option from the list.
To Change Text Alignment:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. Engineering Staff College of India Page 78 of 348
2. Select one of the four alignment options from the Paragraph group on the Home tab. o Align Text Left: Aligns all the selected text to the left margin. o Center: Aligns text an equal distance from the left and right margins. o Align Text Right: Aligns all the selected text to the right margin. o Justify: Justified text is equal on both sides and lines up equally to the right and left margins. Many newspapers and magazines use full-justification.
2.2.4 Saving a Document
How to Save Documents
It is important to know how to save the documents you are working with. Frequently saving your documents helps to keep you from losing your work, and using Save As allows you to edit a document while leaving the original copy unchanged. There are many ways you share and receive documents, which will affect how you need to save the file.
Are you downloading the document? Saving it for the first time? Saving it as another name? Sharing it with someone that does not have Word 2010? All of these things will affect how you save your Word documents.
To Use the Save As Command:
Save As allows you to choose a name and location for your document. It's useful if you've first created a document or if you want to save a different version of a document while keeping the original.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. The Save As dialog box will appear. Select the location where you wish to save the document. 4. Enter a name for the document and click Save.
If you're using Windows 7, you'll usually want to save things to your Documents library, and in other versions of Windows you'll save them to the My Documents folder.
To Use the Save Command:
1. Click the Save command on the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. The document will be saved in its current location with the same file name.
If you are saving for the first time and select Save, the Save As dialog box will appear.
Auto Recover
Word automatically saves your documents to a temporary folder while you're working on them. If you forget to save your changes, or if Word crashes, you can recover the autosaved file.
1. Open a document that was previously closed without saving. 2. In Backstage view, click Info. 3. If there are autosaved versions of your file, they will appear under Versions. Click on the file to open it. 4. To save changes, click Restore and then click OK.
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By default, Word autosaves every 10 minutes. If you are editing a document for less than 10 minutes, Word may not create an autosaved version.
Other File Formats
You can share your documents with anyone using Word 2010 or 2007, since they use the same file format. However, earlier versions of Word use a different file format, so if you want to share your document with someone using an earlier version of Word, you'll need to save it as a Word 97-2003 Document.
To Save As Word 97 - 2003 Document:
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. In the Save as type drop-down menu, select Word 97-2003 Document. 4. Select the location you wish to save the document. 5. Enter a name for the document and click Save.
To Save As a PDF:
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. In the Save as type drop-down menu, select PDF. 4. Select the location you wish to save the document. 5. Enter a name for the document. 6. Click the Save button. 2.2.5 Setting Page Layout You may find that the default page layout settings in Word are not sufficient for the document you wish to create, in which case you will want to modify those settings. For example, if you are printing on a different paper size, you'll want to change the document page size to match the paper. In addition, you may want to change the page formatting depending on the type of document you are creating.
To Change Page Orientation:
1. Select the Page Layout tab. 2. Click the Orientation command in the Page Setup group. 3. Click either Portrait or Landscape to change the page orientation.
Landscape format means that the page is oriented horizontally, and portrait format is oriented vertically.
To Change the Page Size:
1. Select the Page Layout tab. 2. Click the Size command and a drop-down menu will appear. The current page size is highlighted. 3. Click the size option you desire. The page size of the document changes.
To Format Page Margins:
1. Select the Page Layout tab.
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2. Click the Margins command. A menu of options appears. Normal is selected by default. 3. Click the predefined margin size you desire.
To Use Custom Margins:
1. From the Page Layout tab, click Margins. 2. Select Custom Margins. This will take you to the Page Setup dialog box. 3. Adjust the margin sizes for each side of the page and click OK.
The Page Setup Dialog Box
Previously, we showed how to open the Page Setup dialog box from the Margins drop-down menu. As you become more familiar with Word, you may find that you want to use the Page Setup dialog box more often to fine-tune the page margins and adjust other settings. To get there more quickly, you may want to use a shortcut that's conveniently located on the Page Layout tab.
To Open the Page Setup Dialog Box:
1. Click the Page Layout tab. 2. Click the small arrow in the bottom-right corner of the Page Setup group. The Page Setup dialog box will appear.
2.2.6 Check Spelling and Grammar
Worried about making mistakes when you type? Don't be. Word provides you with several proofing features that will help you produce professional, error-free documents.
To Run a Spelling & Grammar Check:
1. Go to the Review tab. 2. Click on the Spelling & Grammar command. 3. The Spelling and Grammar dialog box will open. For each error in your document, Word will try to offer one or more suggestions. You can select a suggestion and then click Change to correct the error. 4. If no suggestions are given, you can manually type in the correct spelling.
Ignoring "Errors"
The spelling and grammar check is not always correct. Particularly with grammar, there are many errors that Word will not notice. There are also times where the spelling and grammar check will say that something's an error when it's actually not. This often happens with people's names, which may not be in the dictionary.
If Word says that something is an error, you can choose not to change it. Depending on whether it's a spelling or grammar error, you can choose from several options:
For spelling "errors":
• Ignore Once: This will skip the word without changing it.
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• Ignore All: This will skip the word without changing it, and it will also skip all other instances of this word in the document. • Add to Dictionary: This adds the word to the dictionary so that it will never come up as an error. Make sure that the word is spelled correctly before choosing this option.
For grammar "errors":
• Ignore Once: This will skip the "error" without changing it. • Ignore Rule: This will skip this "error" as well as all other instances that relate to this grammar rule. • Next Sentence: This skips the sentence without changing it, and leaves it marked as an error. That means it will still show up if you do another Spelling and Grammar check later on.
If you're not sure about a grammar error, you can click Explain to see why Word thinks it's an error. This can help you determine whether you want to change it or not.
Automatic Spelling and Grammar Checking
By default, Word automatically checks your document for spelling and grammar errors, so you may not even need to run a separate Spelling and Grammar check. These errors are indicated by colored, wavy lines.
• The red line indicates a misspelled word. • The green line indicates a grammar error. • The blue line indicates a contextual spelling error. This feature is turned off by default.
A contextual spelling error is when a wrong word is used, but the word is spelled correctly. For example, if I write "Deer Mr. Theodore," at the beginning of a letter, deer is a contextual spelling error because I should have used dear. Deer is spelled correctly, but it is used incorrectly in this letter.
To Use the Spelling Check Feature:
1. Right-click the underlined word. A menu will appear. 2. Click on the correct spelling of the word from the listed suggestions. 3. The corrected word will appear in the document.
You can choose to Ignore an underlined word, add it to the dictionary, or go to the Spelling dialog box for more options.
To Use the Grammar Check Feature:
1. Right-click the underlined word or phrase. A menu will appear. 2. Click on the correct phrase from the listed suggestions. 3. The corrected phrase will appear in the document.
You can also choose to Ignore an underlined phrase, go to the Grammar dialog box , or click About This Sentence for information about the grammar rule.
To Change the Automatic Spelling and Grammar Check Settings:
1. From Backstage view, click on Options. 2. Select Proofing. The dialog box gives you several options to choose from:
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o If you don't want Word to automatically check spelling, uncheck Check spelling as you type. o If you don't want grammar errors to be marked, uncheck Mark grammar errors as you type. o To check for contextual spelling errors, check Use contextual spelling.
If you've turned off the automatic spelling and/or grammar checks, you can still run a check by going to the Review tab and clicking the Spelling & Grammar button.
To Hide Spelling and Grammar Errors in a Document:
If you're sharing a document such as a resume with someone, you might not want them to see those annoying red, green, and blue lines. Turning off the automatic spelling and grammar checks only applies to your computer, so the lines may still show up when someone else views your document. Luckily, you can hide spelling and grammar errors in a document so that the lines will not show up on any computer.
1. From Backstage view, click on Options. 2. Select Proofing. 3. In the drop-down box next to "Exceptions for:" select the correct document (if you have more than one document open). 4. Put a checkmark next to Hide spelling errors in this document only and Hide grammar errors in this document only. 5. Click OK.
2.2.7 Printing a Document Once you've completed your document, you may want to print it. In previous versions of Word, there was a Print Preview option that allowed you to see exactly what the document looked like before printing it. You may have noticed that this feature seems to be gone in Word 2010. It actually hasn't disappeared; it's just been combined with the Print window to create the Print pane, which is located in Backstage view.
To View the Print Pane:
1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 2. Select Print. The Print pane appears, with the print settings on the left and the Preview on the right.
To Print:
1. Go to the Print pane. 2. If you only want to print certain pages, you can type a range of pages. Otherwise, select Print All Pages. 3. Select the number of copies. 4. Check the Collate box if you are printing multiple copies of a multi-page document. 5. Select a printer from the drop-down list. 6. Click the Print button.
Quick Print
There may be times when you want to print something with a single click, using Quick Print. This feature prints the document using the default settings and the default printer. In Word 2010, you'll need to add it to the Quick Access Toolbar in order to use it. Engineering Staff College of India Page 83 of 348
Quick Print always prints the whole document, so if you only want to print part of your document you'll have to use the Print pane.
To Access the Quick Print Button:
1. Click the drop-down arrow on the right side of the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. Select Quick Print if it is not already checked. 3. To print, just click the Quick Print command.
2.2.8 Indents and Tabs
There are several ways in Word that you can indent text; however, it’s important to use these tools appropriately in order to indent correctly each time. This helps the editing process go smoothly, thus saving you time.
Indenting Text
In many types of documents, you may wish to indent only the first line of each paragraph. This helps to visually separate paragraphs from one another. It's also possible to indent every line except the first line, which is known as a hanging indent.
To Indent Using the Tab Key:
A quick way to indent is to use the Tab key. This will create a first line indent of 1/2 inch.
1. Place the insertion point at the very beginning of the paragraph you wish to indent. 2. Press the Tab key. You should see the First Line Indent marker move to the right by 1/2 inch.
To Create or Adjust a First Line Indent or Hanging Indent:
1. Place the insertion point anywhere in the paragraph you wish to indent, or select one or more paragraphs. 2. To adjust the first line indent, drag the First Line Indent marker on the ruler. 3. To adjust the hanging indent, drag the Hanging Indent marker. 4. To move both markers at the same time, drag the Left Indent marker. This will indent all of the lines in the paragraph.
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The three indent markers
To Use the Indent Commands:
If you want to indent all of the lines in a paragraph, you can use the Indent commands on the Home tab.
1. Select the text you wish to indent. 2. Make sure you are on the Home tab. 3. Click the Increase Indent command to increase the indent by increments of 1/4 inch.
Increasing the indent
4. Click the Decrease Indent command to decrease the indent by increments of 1/2 inch.
If you would prefer to type in your indent amounts, you can use the Indent fields on the Page Layout tab.
Typing an indent amount
Tabs
Using tabs is often the best way to control exactly where text is placed. By default, every time you press the tab key, the insertion point will move 1/2 inch to the right. By adding tab stops to the Ruler, you can change the size of the tabs, and you can even have more than one type of alignment in a single line. For example, you could Left Align the beginning of the line and Right Align the end of the line by simply adding a Right Tab. Engineering Staff College of India Page 85 of 348
Pressing the tab key can either add a tab or create a first line indent depending on where the insertion point is. Generally, if the insertion point is at the beginning of an existing paragraph, it will create a first line indent; otherwise, it will create a tab.
The Tab Selector
The tab selector is above the vertical ruler on the left. Hover over the tab selector to see the name of the type of tab stop that is active.
The tab selector
The types of tab stops include:
• Left Tab : Left-aligns the text at the tab stop. • Center Tab : Centers the text around the tab stop. • Right Tab : Right-aligns the text at the tab stop. • Decimal Tab : Aligns decimal numbers using the decimal point. • Bar Tab : Draws a vertical line on the document. • First Line Indent : Inserts the indent marker on the ruler and indents the first line of text in a paragraph. • Hanging Indent : Inserts the hanging indent marker and indents all lines other than the first line.
Although Bar Tab, First Line Indent, and Hanging Indent appear on the tab selector, they're not technically tabs.
To Add Tab Stops:
1. Select the paragraph or paragraphs that you want to add tab stops to. If you don't select any paragraphs, the tab stops will apply to the current paragraph and any new paragraphs that you type below it. 2. Click the tab selector until the tab stop you wish to use appears. 3. Click the location on the horizontal ruler where you want your text to appear (it helps to click on the bottom edge of the ruler). You can add as many tab stops as you want.
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Adding a Decimal tab stop
4. Place the insertion point where you want to add the tab, and press the Tab key. The text will jump to the next tab stop. 5. To remove a tab stop, just drag it off of the Ruler.
Click the Show/Hide ¶ command on the Home tab (in the Paragraph group). This will allow you to see the nonprinting characters such as the spacebar, paragraph (¶), and Tab key markings.
2.2.9 Line Spacing and Paragraph Spacing
An important part of creating effective documents lies in the document design. When designing your document and making formatting decisions, you will need to know how to modify the spacing.
About Line Spacing
Line spacing can either be measured in lines or points. For example, when text is double-spaced, the line spacing is two lines high. On the other hand, you might set 12-point text with something like 15- point spacing, which gives enough height for the text plus a little extra space. You can reduce the line spacing to fit more lines on the page, or you can increase it to improve readability.
Line spacing is also known as leading (pronounced to rhyme with "wedding").
To Format Line Spacing:
1. Select the text you want to format. 2. Click the Line and Paragraph Spacing command in the Paragraph group on the Home tab. 3. Select the desired spacing option from the drop-down menu.
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Changing the line spacing
4. From the drop-down menu, you can also select Line Spacing Options to open the Paragraph dialog box. From here, you can adjust the line spacing with even more precision.
If you select At least or Exactly in the Paragraph dialog box, the line spacing will be measured in points. Otherwise, it will be measured in lines.
Paragraph Spacing
Just as you can format spacing between lines in your document, you can also choose spacing options between each paragraph. Typically, extra spaces are added between paragraphs, headings, or subheadings. Extra spacing between paragraphs helps to make a document easier to read.
To Format Paragraph Spacing
1. Click the Line and Paragraph Spacing command on the Home tab. 2. Select Add Space Before Paragraph or Remove Space After Paragraph from the drop-down menu. 3. From the drop-down menu, you can also select Line Spacing Options to open the Paragraph dialog box. From here, you can control exactly how much space there is before and after the paragraph. 4.
2.2.10 Creating Lists
Bulleted and numbered lists can be used in your documents to format, arrange and emphasize text.
To Create a List:
1. Select the text that you want to format as a list. 2. Click the Bullets or Numbering drop-down arrow on the Home tab. 3. Select the bullet or numbering style you would like to use, and it will appear in the document. 4. To remove numbers or bullets from a list, select the list and click the Bullets or Numbering commands.
When you're editing a list, you can press Enter to start a new line, and the new line will automatically have a bullet or number. When you've reached the end of your list, press Enter twice to return to "normal" formatting. Engineering Staff College of India Page 88 of 348
Bullet Options
To Use a Symbol as a Bullet:
1. Select an existing list. 2. Click the Bullets drop-down arrow. 3. Select Define New Bullet from the drop-down menu. The Define New Bullet dialog box appears. 4. Click the Symbol button. The Symbol dialog box appears. 5. Click the Font drop-down box and select a font. The Wingdings and Symbol fonts are good choices as they have a large number of useful symbols. 6. Select the desired symbol. 7. Click OK. The symbol will now appear in the Preview section of the Define New Bullet dialog box. 8. Click OK to apply the symbol to the list in the document.
You can use a picture as a bullet. Click the Picture button in the Define New Bullet dialog box, and then locate the image file on your computer.
To Change the Bullet Color:
1. Select an existing list. 2. Click the Bullets drop-down arrow. 3. Select Define New Bullet from the list. The Define New Bullet dialog box appears. 4. Click the Font button. The Font dialog box appears. 5. Click the Font Color drop-down box. 6. Click on the desired color to select it. 7. Click OK. The bullet color will now appear in the Preview section of the Define New Bullet dialog box. 8. Click OK to apply the bullet color to the list in the document.
Multilevel Lists
Multilevel lists allow you to create an outline with multiple levels. In fact, you can turn any bulleted or numbered list into a multilevel list by simply placing the insertion point at the beginning of a line and pressing the Tab key to change the level for that line. You can then use the Multilevel List command to choose the types of bullets or numbering that are used.
To Create a Multilevel List:
1. Select the text that you want to format as a multilevel list. 2. Click the Multilevel List command on the Home tab.
The Multilevel List command
3. Click the bullet or numbering style you would like to use. It will appear in the document.
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4. Position your cursor at the end of a list item and press the Enter key to add an item to the list.
To remove numbers or bullets from a list, select the list and click the Bullets or Numbering commands.
To Change the Level of a Line:
1. Place the insertion point at the beginning of the line. 2. Press the Tab key to increase the level. 3. Hold Shift and press Tab to decrease the level.\
2.2.11 Inserting a Break
Word has several different types of breaks that you can add to your document to change the layout and pagination. Each type of break serves a different purpose and will affect the document in different ways. Page breaks move text to a new page before reaching the end of a page, while section breaks create a barrier between parts of the document for formatting purposes. Column breaks split text in columns at a specific point.
Breaks allow you to have more control over the layout of your document. You might use a page break if you're writing a paper that has a bibliography to ensure that the bibliography starts on a new page. Or, you might use a column break if you are using columns and want them to be arranged in a particular way.
To Insert a Break:
1. Place the insertion point where you want the break to appear. 2. Select the Page Layout tab. 3. Click the Breaks command. A menu appears. 4. Click the desired break option to create a break in the document.
To Delete a Break:
Breaks are hidden by default. If you want to delete a break, then you'll probably want Word to show the breaks so you can find them for editing.
1. From the Home tab, click the Show/Hide ¶ command. 2. Double-click the break to select it. 3. Press the Backspace or Delete key to delete the break.
2.2.12 Add Columns to Documents
Columns are used in many types of documents, but are most commonly used in newspapers, magazines, academic journals, and newsletters.
To Add Columns to a Document:
1. Select the text you want to format. Engineering Staff College of India Page 90 of 348
2. Click the Page Layout tab. 3. Click the Columns command. A drop-down menu will appear. 4. Select the number of columns you would like to insert.
If you want to get rid of the columns, just click the Columns command and select One for the number of columns.
Adding Column Breaks
Once you've created columns, the text will automatically flow from one column to the next. Sometimes, though, you might want to control exactly where each column begins. You can do this by creating column breaks.
To Add Column Breaks:
1. Place the insertion point where you would like to add the break. 2. Click the Page Layout tab. 3. Click the Breaks command in the Page Setup group. A drop-down menu will appear. 4. Select Column from the list of break types. 5. The text will shift to reflect the column break.
Columns after adding a column break
2.2.13 Navigating with Hyperlinks
Whenever you use the Web, you are using hyperlinks to navigate from one web page to another. Sometimes, a hyperlink will link to a different section of the same page. If you want to include a web address or email address in your Word document, you can format it as a hyperlink for a person to click on.
Hyperlinks have two basic parts: the address of the web page, email address, or other location that they are linking to, and the display text (or image). For example, the address could be http://www.escihyd.org, and the display text could be "blog". In some cases, the display text might be Engineering Staff College of India Page 91 of 348
the same as the address. When you're creating a hyperlink in Word, you'll be able to choose both the address and the display text or image.
To follow a hyperlink in Word, hold down the Control key and click on the hyperlink.
To Insert a Hyperlink:
1. Select the text or image you would like to make a hyperlink. 2. Right-click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. Or, if you would prefer, you can right- click in a blank area of the document and click Hyperlink. 3. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. You can also get to this dialog box from the Insert tab by clicking Hyperlink. 4. If you selected text, the words will appear in the Text to display: field at the top. You can change this text if you want. 5. Type the address you would like to link to in the Address: field. 6. Click OK. The text or image you selected will now be a hyperlink.
You can also insert a hyperlink that links to another portion of the same document by selecting Place in This Document from the Insert Hyperlink dialog box.
To Make an Email Address a Hyperlink:
1. Right-click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. 2. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. 3. On the left side of the dialog box, click Email Address. 4. Type the email address you want to connect to in the Email Address box and click OK.
Word often recognizes email and web addresses as you type and will format them as hyperlinks automatically after you press the Enter key or spacebar.
To Remove a Hyperlink:
1. Right-click the hyperlink. 2. Click Remove Hyperlink.
After you create a hyperlink, you should test it. If you have linked to a web site, your web browser should automatically open and display the site. If it doesn't work, check the hyperlink address for misspellings.
2.2.14 Adding Shapes to Document
You can add a variety of shapes to your document including arrows, callouts, squares, stars, flowchart shapes and more. Want to set your name and address apart from the rest of your resume? Use a line. Need to create a diagram showing a timeline or process? Use the flowchart shapes. While you may not need shapes in every document you create, they can add visual appeal and clarity.
To Insert a Shape:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Shapes command. 3. Select a shape from the drop-down menu. 4. Click and drag the mouse until the shape is the desired size. Engineering Staff College of India Page 92 of 348
5. Release the mouse button.
To Resize a Shape:
1. Click on the shape to select it. 2. Click and drag one of the sizing handles on the corners and sides of the text box until it is the desired size. 3. To rotate the shape, drag the green handle. 4. Some shapes also have one or more yellow handles that can be used to modify the shape. For example, with star shapes, you can adjust the length of the points.
If you drag the sizing handles on any of the four corners, you will be able to change the height and width at the same time. The sizing handles on the top or bottom of the shape will only allow you to resize vertically, while the handles on the left and right sides will resize the shape horizontally.
To Change the Order of Shapes:
If one shape overlaps another, you may need to change the ordering so that the correct shape appears in front. You can bring a shape to the front or send it to the back. If you have multiple images, you can use Bring Forward or Send Backward to fine-tune the ordering. You can also move a shape in front of or behind text.
1. Right-click the shape you wish to move. 2. In the menu that appears, hover over Bring to Front or Send to Back. Several ordering options will appear. 3. Select the desired ordering option. The shapes will reorder themselves.
In some cases, the ordering option you select will not affect the ordering of the shapes. If that happens, select the same option again or try a different option.
Changing a Shape's Appearance
To Change to a Different Shape:
1. Select the shape. A new Format tab appears with Drawing Tools. 2. Click on the Format tab. 3. Click the Edit Shape command. 4. Click Change Shape to display a drop-down list. 5. Select the desired shape from the list.
To Change Shape Style:
1. Select the shape. The Format tab appears. 2. Click the More drop-down arrow in the Shape Styles group to display more style options. 3. Move your cursor over the styles to see a live preview of the style in your document. 4. Select the desired style.
To Change the Shape Fill Color:
1. Select the shape. The Format tab appears. 2. Select the Format tab. 3. Click the Shape Fill command to display a drop-down list.
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4. Select the desired color from the list, choose No Fill, or choose More Fill Colors to choose a custom color.
To Change the Shape Outline:
1. Select the shape. The Format tab appears. 2. Click the Format tab. 3. Click the Shape Outline command to display a drop-down menu. 4. From the drop-down menu, you can change the outline color, weight (thickness), and whether or not it is a dashed line.
2.2.15 Inserting Text Boxes and WordArt
You may want to insert a text box into your document to draw attention to specific text or to have the ability to easily move text around within a document. Text boxes are basically treated the same as shapes, so you can add the same types of effects to them, and you can even change their shape. If you want, you can format the text inside the text box as WordArt, allowing you to apply 3-D effects and transformations to the text itself.
To Insert a Text box:
1. Select the Insert tab on the Ribbon. 2. Click the Text Box command in the Text group. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Select Draw Text Box. 4. Click and drag on the document to create the text box. 5. You can now start typing to create text inside the text box.
From the drop-down menu, you can also select one of the built-in text boxes that have pre-defined colors, fonts, positions and sizes. If you choose this option, the text box will appear automatically, so you will not need to click and drag to draw it.
To Change the Text Box Shape:
1. Select the text box. A new Format tab appears with Drawing Tools. 2. Go to the Format tab. 3. Click the Edit Shape command 4. Click Change Shape to display a drop-down list. 5. Select the desired shape from the list.
To Choose a Shape Style:
Choosing a Shape Style allows you to apply a preset fill and outline color, and in some cases, other effects such as beveling and shadow. You don't have to pick a style for your text box, but it can help you save time or experiment with different appearances.
1. Select the text box. The Format tab appears. 2. Select the Format tab. 3. Click the More drop-down arrow in the Shape Styles group to display more style options. 4. Hover the mouse over the styles to see a live preview. 5. Select the desired style.
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3-D Effects
Just like other types of shapes, text boxes can have 3-D Effects. There are two kinds of effects that you can apply to your shapes to give them a 3-D appearance: 3-D Rotation and Bevel. 3-D Rotation gives the appearance that you are viewing the object from a different angle, and it can be applied to any shape. Bevel adds thickness and a rounded edge to shapes, however it doesn't work with every type of shape.
To Use 3-D Rotation:
1. Select the text box. 2. Click on the Format tab. 3. Click Shape Effects from the Shape Styles group. 4. Hover the mouse over 3-D Rotation. A drop-down menu will appear. 5. Select the desired rotation preset from the drop-down menu. You can also click 3-D Rotation Options if you would prefer to type in custom values.
To Use Bevel:
1. Select the text box. 2. Click on the Format tab. 3. Click Shape Effects from the Shape Styles group. 4. Hover the mouse over Bevel. A drop-down menu will appear. 5. Select the desired bevel preset from the drop-down menu. You can also click 3-D Options if you would prefer to type in custom values.
If you click on 3-D Options, you'll also be able to change the shape's Material to give it a metal, plastic, or translucent appearance, and you can choose the Lighting type to change how the shape is illuminated.
Creating WordArt
In addition to adding effects to a text box, you can also add effects to the text inside the text box, which is known as WordArt. For the most part, the types of effects you can add are the same as the ones you can add to shapes or text boxes (shadow, bevel, etc.). However, you can also Transform the text to give it a wavy, slanted, or inflated look.
To Apply a Quick Style to Text:
A Quick Style will automatically apply several effects to your text at once. You can then refine the look of your text by adding or modifying text effects.
1. Select the text box, or select some text inside of the text box. The Format tab will appear. 2. Click the Format tab. 3. Click the Quick Styles command in the WordArt Styles group. A drop-down menu will appear. 4. Select the desired style preset to apply the style to your text.
After you have applied a Quick Style, you can still modify the font or font color from the Home tab if desired.
To Convert Regular Text into WordArt:
For text to be formatted as WordArt, it needs to be inside a text box. However, there is a shortcut that allows you to convert text into WordArt even if it's not in a text box. Engineering Staff College of India Page 95 of 348
1. Select the text you wish to convert. 2. Click the Insert tab. 3. Click the WordArt command. The Quick Styles drop-down menu will appear. 4. Select the desired Quick Style. 5. Word will automatically create a text box for your text and apply the style to the text.
Some effects, such as shadows, can be added from the Text Effects menu in the Home tab. When you add effects in this way, it will not place the text in a text box.
2.2.16 Inserting Pictures and Clip Art
Images are a great way to liven up a document, and Word offers a couple of ways of inserting images. There are built-in Clip Art images for just about every topic, so you may be able to find a perfect Clip Art image for your document. If you have a more specific image in mind, you can insert a picture from a file.
To Locate Clip Art:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Clip Art command in the Illustrations group. 3. The Clip Art options appear in the task pane to the right of the document. 4. Enter keywords in the Search for: field that are related to the image you wish to insert. 5. Click the drop-down arrow in the Results should be: field. 6. Deselect any types of media you do not wish to see. 7. If you would like to also search for Clip Art on Office.com, place a checkmark next to Include Office.com content. Otherwise, it will just search for Clip Art on your computer. 8. Click Go.
To Insert Clip Art:
1. Review the results from a clip art search. 2. Place your insertion point in the document where you wish to insert the clip art. 3. Click an image in the Clip Art pane. It will appear in the document.
You can also click the drop-down arrow next to the image in the Clip Art pane to view more options.
To Insert a Picture From a File:
1. Place your insertion point where you want the image to appear. 2. Select the Insert tab. 3. Click the Picture command in the Illustrations group. The Insert Picture dialog box appears. 4. Select the desired image file and click Insert to add it to your document.
To resize an image, click and drag one of the corner sizing handles. The image will change size while keeping the same proportions. If you want to stretch it horizontally or vertically, you can use the side sizing handles.
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2.2.17 Inserting Headers and Footers
You can make your document look professional and polished by utilizing the header and footer sections. The header is a section of the document that appears in the top margin, while the footer is a section of the document that appears in the bottom margin. Headers and footers generally contain information such as page number, date, document name, etc.
To Insert a Header or Footer:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click either the Header or Footer command. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. From the drop-down menu, select Blank to insert a blank header or footer, or choose one of the built-in options. 4. The Design tab will appear on the Ribbon, and the header or footer will appear in the document. 5. Type the desired information into the header or footer. 6. When you're finished, click Close Header and Footer in the Design tab, or hit the Esc key.
After you close the header or footer, it will still be visible, but it will be locked. To edit it again, just double- click anywhere on the header or footer, and it will become unlocked
To Insert the Date or Time into a Header or Footer:
1. Double-click anywhere on the header or footer to unlock it. The Design tab will appear. 2. From the Design tab, click the Date & Time command. 3. Select a date format in the dialog box that appears. 4. Place a checkmark in the Update Automatically box if you would like it to always reflect the current date. Otherwise, it will not change when the document is opened at a later date. 5. Click OK. The date/time now appears in the document.
To Remove Content Controls:
By default, some of the built-in headers and footers have snippets of text that are called Content Controls. Content Controls can contain information such as the document title or company name, and they allow you to enter that information into a form field.
However, you'll often just want to type a "normal" header, without any Content Controls. To do this, you'll need to remove any Content Control fields from the header or footer.
1. With the header or footer section active, right-click the Content Control field you wish to remove. A drop-down menu will appear. 2. Click Remove Content Control. The Content Control field will disappear.
Other Header and Footer Options
There are many other header and footer options that you can use to design these sections of your document. You can review the Header and Footer Tools Design tab, to view and explore the design options.
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Word can automatically label each page with a page number and place it in a header, a footer or in the side margin. You can add page numbers to an existing header or footer, or you can insert page numbers into a new header or footer.
To Add Page Numbers to an Existing Header or Footer:
1. Select the header or footer. The Design tab will appear. 2. Place the insertion point where you want the page number to be. You can place it anywhere except inside a Content Control field. 3. From the Design tab, select the Page Number command. 4. Click Current Position and select the desired style. The page number will appear in the document.
If you've already typed information into your header or footer, it's important to place the page number at the Current Position to avoid losing anything. If you select a page number from Top of Page or Bottom of Page, it will delete anything that you have already added to the header or footer.
To Insert Page Numbers into a New Header or Footer:
1. From the Insert tab, click Page Number. A drop-down menu will appear. 2. Select the desired page number style, and it will appear in your document.
To Hide the Page Number on the First Page:
In some documents, you may not want the first page to show the page number. You can hide the first page number without affecting the rest of the pages.
1. Select the header or footer that contains the page number. 2. From the Design tab, place a checkmark next to Different First Page. The header and footer will disappear from the first page. If you want, you can type something new in the header or footer, and it will only affect the first page.
If you're unable to select Different First Page, it may be because an object within the header or footer is selected. Click in an empty area within the header or footer to make sure nothing is selected.
To Format the Page Numbers:
1. Select the header or footer that contains the page number. 2. From the Design tab, select the Page Number command. 3. Click Format Page Numbers. 4. From the dialog box, Select the desired Number format. 5. Next to Start at, enter the number that you want the page numbers to start with.
If you've created a page number in the side margin, it's still considered part of the header or footer. You won't be able to select the page number unless the header or footer is selected.
2.2.18 Inserting Tables
A table is a grid of cells arranged in rows and columns. Tables can be customized and are useful for various tasks such as presenting text information and numerical data.
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To Insert a Blank Table:
1. Place your insertion point in the document where you want the table to appear. 2. Select the Insert tab. 3. Click the Table command. 4. Hover your mouse over the diagram squares to select the number of columns and rows in the table. 5. Click your mouse, and the table appears in the document. 6. You can now place the insertion point anywhere in the table to add text.
To Convert Existing Text to a Table:
1. Select the text you wish to convert. 2. Select the Insert tab. 3. Click the Table command. 4. Select Convert Text to Table from the menu. A dialog box will appear. 5. Choose one of the options in the Separate text at: section. This is how Word knows what text to put in each column. 6. Click OK. The text appears in a table.
The converted table
To Add a Row Above an Existing Row:
1. Place the insertion point in a row below the location where you wish to add a row. 2. Right-click the mouse. A menu appears. 3. Select Insert Insert Rows Above. 4. A new row appears above the insertion point.
You can also add rows below the insertion point. Follow the same steps, but select Insert Rows Below from the menu.
To Add a Column:
1. Place the insertion point in a column adjacent to the location you wish the new column to appear. 2. Right-click the mouse. A menu will appear. 3. Select Insert Insert Columns to the Left or Insert Columns to the Right. A new column appears.
To Delete a Row or Column:
1. Select the row or column. 2. Right-click your mouse. A menu will appear. 3. Select Delete Cells. 4. Select Delete entire row or Delete entire column and click OK.
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To Apply a Table Style:
1. Click anywhere on the table. The Design tab will appear on the Ribbon. 2. Select the Design tab and locate the Table Styles. 3. Click the More drop-down arrow to see all of the table styles. 4. Hover the mouse over the various styles to see a live preview. 5. Select the desired style. The table style will appear in the document.
To Change the Table Style Options:
Once you've chosen a table style, you can turn various options on or off to change the appearance of the table. There are six options: Header Row, Total Row, Banded Rows, First Column, Last Column, and Banded Columns.
1. Click anywhere on the table. The Design tab will appear. 2. From the Design tab, check or uncheck the desired options in the Table Style Options group.
Table Style Options
Depending on which Table Style you're using, certain Table Style Options may have a somewhat different effect. You may need to experiment to get the exact look you want.
To Add Borders to a Table:
1. Highlight the cells you wish to add a border to. 2. From the Design tab, select the desired Line Style, Line Weight, and Pen Color. 3. Click the Borders drop-down arrow. 4. From the drop-down menu, select the desired border type. 5. The border will be added to the selected cells.
2.2.19 Inserting Smart Art
SmartArt allows you to visually communicate information rather than simply using text. Illustrations can really enhance your document, and SmartArt makes using graphics especially easy.
To Insert a SmartArt Illustration:
1. Place the insertion point in the document where you want the graphic to appear. 2. Select the Insert tab. 3. Select the SmartArt command in the Illustrations group. A dialog box appears.
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The SmartArt command
4. Select a category on the left of the dialog box and review the SmartArt graphics that appear in the center. 5. Select the desired SmartArt graphic and click OK.
To see more details about a graphic, click on any image, and a larger preview of the graphic with additional text details will appear on the right side of the dialog box.
To Add Text to a SmartArt Graphic:
1. Select the graphic. A border will appear around it with an arrow on the left side. 2. Click the arrow on the left side of the graphic to open the task pane. 3. Enter text next to each bullet in the task pane. The information will appear in the graphic, and will resize to fit inside the shape. 4. To add a new shape, press Enter. A new bullet will appear in the task pane, and a new shape will appear in the graphic.
You can also add text by clicking on the desired shape and then typing your text. This works well if you only need to add text to a few shapes. However, for more complex SmartArt graphics, working in the task pane is often faster.
You can change the layout of a SmartArt graphic even after you've added text. However, if the new layout is very different from the old one, some of your text may not show up. Experiment with different layouts to see how they display your text differently.
To Add a Shape to a Graphic:
1. Select the graphic. The Design and Format tabs appear on the Ribbon. 2. Select the Design tab. 3. Click the Add Shape command in the Graphics group. 4. Decide where you want the new shape to appear and select one of the shapes nearby the desired location. 5. Select Add Shape Before or Add Shape After. If we wanted to add a superior or a subordinate, we could select the Add Shape Above or Add Shape Below options.
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You can change the layout of a SmartArt graphic even after you've added text. However, if the new layout is very different from the old one, some of your text may not show up. Experiment with different layouts to see how they display your text differently.
2.2.20 Creating Templates
A template is a pre-designed document that you can use to create documents quickly without having to think about formatting. With a template, many of the big document design decisions such as margin size, font style and size, and spacing are predetermined.
To Insert a Template:
1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 2. Select New. The New Document pane appears. 3. Click Sample templates to choose a built-in template, or select an Office.com template category to download a template. 4. Select the desired template and click Create. A new document will appear using the template you have selected.
Use caution when downloading Office.com templates. Some of them are uploaded by people not affiliated with Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot guarantee that those templates are free from viruses or defects. For those templates, you'll see a warning message before downloading them.
To Insert Text into a Template:
Templates include placeholder text that is surrounded by brackets. To personalize your document, you'll need to replace the placeholder text with your own text.
Some templates simply use regular text as the placeholder text, rather than the "traditional" placeholder text with brackets. In those cases, just delete the text and type in your own text.
1. Click on the text you want to replace. The text will appear highlighted and a template tag will appear. 2. Enter some text. It will replace the placeholder text.
For some fields, there is a drop-down arrow that you can use to select the information, rather than typing it. For example, a date field will show a calendar so that you can choose the date more easily.
To Change Prefilled Information:
In some templates, your name or initials will be automatically added. This is known as prefilled information. If your name or initials are incorrect, you'll need to change them in Word Options.
1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 2. Click the Options button. The Word Options dialog box appears. 3. Enter the user name and/or initials in the General section, then click OK.
If you are using a public computer, such as one at a library, you may not want to change these settings.
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2.2.21 Mail Merge
Mail merge is a useful tool that will allow you to easily produce multiple letters, labels, envelopes, name tags and more using information stored in a list, database, or spreadsheet.
When you are performing a Mail Merge, you will need a Word document (you can start with an existing one or create a new one), and a recipient list, which is typically an Excel workbook.
To Use Mail Merge:
1. Open an existing Word document, or create a new one. 2. Click the Mailings tab. 3. Click the Start Mail Merge command. 4. Select Step by Step Mail Merge Wizard.
The Mail Merge task pane appears and will guide you through the six main steps to complete a mail merge. The following is an example of how to create a form letter and merge the letter with a recipient list.
Step 1:
1. Choose the type of document you wish to create. In this example, select Letters.
Selecting a document type
2. Click Next: Starting document to move to Step 2.
Step 2:
1. Select Use the current document.
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Selecting a starting document
2. Click Next: Select recipients to move to Step 3.
Step 3:
Now you'll need an address list so that Word can automatically place each address into the document. The list can be in an existing file, such as an Excel workbook, or you can type a new address list from within the Mail Merge Wizard.
1. From the Mail Merge task pane, select Use an existing list and then click Browse.
Browsing for a data source
2. Locate your file in the dialog box (you may have to navigate to a different folder) and click Open. 3. If the address list is in an Excel workbook, select the worksheet that contains the list and click OK. 4. In the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, you can check or uncheck each recipient to control which ones are used in the mail merge. When you're done, click OK to close the dialog box. 5. From the Mail Merge task pane, click Next: Select recipients to move to Step 4.
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If you don't have an existing address list, you can click the Type a new list button and click Create. You can then type your address list.
Step 4:
Now you're ready to write your letter. When it's printed, each copy of the letter will basically be the same, except the recipient data (such as the name and address) will be different on each one. You'll need to add placeholders for the recipient data, so that mail merge knows exactly where to add the data. If you're using mail merge with an existing letter, make sure that the file is open now.
To Insert Recipient Data:
1. Place the insertion point in the document where you wish the information to appear. 2. Select Address block, Greeting line, Electronic postage, or More items from the task pane.
Inserting an address block
3. Depending on your selection, a dialog box may appear with various options. Select the desired options and click OK.
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Adjusting the address block formatting
4. A placeholder appears in your document. For example: «AddressBlock». 5. Repeat these steps each time you need to enter information from your data record. 6. From the Mail Merge task pane, click Next: Preview your letters to move to Step 5.
For some letters, you'll only need to add an Address block and Greeting line. Sometimes, however, you may wish to place recipient data within the body of the letter to personalize it even further.
Step 5:
1. Preview the letters to make sure the information from the recipient list appears correctly in the letter. You can use the left and right scroll arrows to view each document. 2. Click Next: Complete the merge to move to Step 6.
Step 6:
1. Click Print to print the letters.
Printing the letters
2. The Merge to Printer dialog box opens. Click All, and then click OK. 3. The Print dialog box will appear. Adjust the print settings if needed, and then click OK.
2.2.22 Compatibility issues with MS – Office 2003
Microsoft Office 2010: New File Formats
In addition to a brand new interface, Microsoft Office 2007, and now Office 2010, introduced significantly different file formats. The file formats are based on the new Office Open XML Formats (XML is short for Extensible Markup Language). This change in file naming and format can create some huge obstacles as Office 2010 users share files with everyone else.
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The change to these XML-based formats supports new features and helps make your documents:
• Safer by separating files that contain scripts or macros, making it easier to identify and block unwanted code or macros. • Smaller in file size. • Less susceptible to damage or file corruption.
For most people using Microsoft Office 2010, the change in file format will likely be seen in the file extensions used for naming files. Conversion options are available on both sides but require patience and knowledge to build a successful strategy for exchanging Office files.
How Has File
Naming Changed?
In earlier versions of Microsoft Word, files were saved with the .doc extension, Microsoft Office Word 2010 files now use the .docx and .docm file extensions. Excel workbooks have exchanged their .xls file ending for new .xlsx or .xlsm extensions in Excel 2010. Presentations in PowerPoint have long been saved with a .ppt ending whereas, now, in Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2010, the file extensions are either .pptx or .pptm. EASY TIP: How can you tell the difference between Office 2010 and Office 2003 files? View your files from Windows Explorer. The file is an Office 2007/2010 file format if it has a 4- character extension; it is an Office 2003/2002 (or earlier) file format if it has a 3-character extension.
Previous file Office 2010extension New file extension application (2003, 2002/XP) (2007 & 2010) What it’s used for Word 2010 .doc .docx Standard Word document with no macros or code. .docm Word document that could contain macros or code. Excel 2010 .xls .xlsx Standard Excel workbook that cannot store macros or code. .xlsm Excel workbook that could contain macros or code. PowerPoint 2010 .ppt .pptx PowerPoint presentation with no code. .pptm PowerPoint presentation with code. Access 2010 .mdb .accdb Converted Access database; can only be used with Access 2010 or 2007
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File drop down menu in Word 2010 File drop down menu in Word 2003
(1)New
By the New in Word 2003, we can build blank document, XML document, web page, E-mail messages or From existing document.... In addition, you can also apply templates from Office online, your computer and web site.
By the New in Word 2010, we can build numerous kinds of documents. Meanwhile, there are many templates, such as Invoice and Blog post.
(2)Save/ Save AS
There is great difference between Save/Save As in Word 2010 and those in Word 2003. In Word 2003, you can save documents in several formats.
Nevertheless, by the Save or Save As items in Word 2010, you are able to save word documents as Template, Word 97 – 2003 Document, Open Document Text, PDF or XPS, Single Web Page, and Save as Another File Type as well. Especially the PDF or XPS is quite useful, but Word 2003 does not support it. With this feature, we are able to create new PDF in familiar Microsoft Word directly.
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Documents made by Word 2010 are with the format of ".docx", which is not compatible with Microsoft Word 2003. As a result, we add a new item Save as… Word 97-2003 Document in File drop down menu.
(3)File Search… and Versions
File drop down menu, brought with Classic Menu for Office 2010, gets rid of "File search..." and "Versions" items of Word 2003.
(4)Restrict Permission and Permission
In the File drop down menu of Word 2010, the "Restrict Permission" item takes place of "Permission" of Word 2003. Actually the two items have the same functions.
The Classic Menu in Word 2010 not only changes this function's name, but also moves it down to the 11th of File menu list in Word 2010, which stands in 8th in Word 2003.
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(5) Prepare
This item is a new one in the File drop down menu of Word 2010, standing at 7th of File menu list. To be honest, "Prepare" in Word 2010 is quite similar with "Properties" which stays at the second to last in the File of Word 2003.
Apart from "Properties" staying in "Prepare", there are another three sub-items in "Prepare":
• Inspect Documents • Check Accessibility • Check Compatibility
(6)Publisher
"Publisher" item is a new one in the File drop down menu of Word 2010, standing at 8th of File list. There are no similar functions in Word 2003.
"Publisher" item will help us distribute our word documents to other people as Blog post or via Document Management Server. So it has two sub-items: Blog and Document Management Server.
(7) Send
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Both classic menus in Word 2010 and 2003 include "Send". However, there is great difference between both. Because Word 2010 can convert documents into PDF and XPS files directly, we are able to send current documents via emails as PDF/XPS attachments.
The same items in Send of Word 2010 and 2003 are: Mail Recipient, Exchange Folder…, Send to Microsoft PowerPoint, (Recipient using) Internet Fax.
Those only in the Send of Word 2010 are: Send for Review, E-mail, E-mail as PDF Attachment, and E- mail as XPS Attachment.
Those only in Send to of Word 2003 are: Mail Recipient (For Review), Mail Recipient (as Attachment), and Recipient using a Fax Modem…
(8)Web Page Preview
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Web Page Preview in Word 2010 remains same as that in Word 2003.
(9)Page Setup…
Classic menu in Word 2010 greatly extends the functions of Page Setup… . By Page Setup… in Word 2010 you can preview all sub-items. It will be more visual and easy-to-use. It does not need to open Page setup… windows and then select desired options again.
Page Setup… contains numerous sub-items:
• Text Direction • Margins • Orientation • Size • columns • Breaks • Line Numbers • Hyphenations • Watermark • Page Color • Page Borders… • Header • Footer • Page Number
Directly preview these options and save amount of time.
(10) Print Preview, Print, and View Document Properties
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There are no changes between Print Preview in Word 2003 and Print in Word 2010. The View Document Properties in Word 2010 is same as Properties in Word 2003. No functional changes!
(11)Open Recent File
By Open Recent File item, we are able to open files that we viewed or opened recently. This function is supported by My Recent Documents with Start >>> All Programs >>> My Recent Documents in Windows XP with Microsoft Office 2003. The classic menu in Word 2010 absorbs this feature and adds it to File drop down menu, which makes our work much easier and faster.
Opening Office 2003 files in Office 2010/2007
By default, Office 2003 files open directly in Office 2010/2007 in Compatibility mode. You will see [Compatibility Mode] after the file name in the top bar.
If you want to retain full compatibility with Office 2003 and don't need to use the new features, leave the file in compatibility mode and save the file as an Office 2003 file (.doc). Office 2010 should automatically alert you of any compatibility issues when you save it.
To check compatibility between Microsoft Office 2010 files and earlier versions of Office:
Select the File tab, then Info > Check for Issues > Check Compatibility.
If any issues are found, you'll see a warning similar to the one below:
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Want to convert an Office 2010 file to 2003?
Select the File tab then Save & Send > Change File Type and select 97-2003. Select Save As. If there are any compatibility issues, you'll get a warning as above.
#1: Understanding and using new file formats
All the Office 2007 programs use new default file formats based on the Extensible Markup Language (XML). The new formats are indicated by an “x” in the file extension. For example:
• Word documents: .docx • Excel workbooks: .xlsx • PowerPoint presentations: .pptx
XML is an open standard, and the change makes it easier to move files between different applications. It also makes file sizes smaller than those saved in the old binary formats. However, some users with previous versions of Office may not be able to open files in the new formats.
You can still save files in Office 2007 programs in Office 2003 file formats. Just select Word 97-2003 Document (*.doc) from the Save As Type drop-down list in the Save As dialog box, as shown in Figure A.
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Figure A: You can easily save individual files in the old Office 2003 formats.
#2: Changing the default format
If you want to always save files in the old format by default, click the Office button, then the
Figure B: You can set the default to always save files in the old Office 2003 format.
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When you save a file in the old format that was originally created in the new format, you may get a message advising that some of the formatting and features that are only supported by Office 2007 programs will be lost.
#3: Using Office 2007 compatibility mode
Office 2007 programs introduce a new feature called compatibility mode. If you frequently share files with others who haven’t upgraded or you need to work on your files on another computer (for example, a laptop) that doesn’t have Office 2007 installed, you can ensure that the files you create in Office 2007 don’t contain any features that aren’t supported by the previous version of the Office program.
If you place your Office 2007 applications in compatibility mode, incompatible features, such as the SmartArt diagramming tool, won’t be available to you. Instead, you’ll use the diagramming tool from Office 2003 so that the diagrams you create can be edited in the older version of the program.
Compatibility mode is automatically on when you open a file that was saved in the old file formats, when you convert a file from the XML-based format to the older format, or when you configure the program to save to the old format by default. In Word, compatibility mode also kicks in if you create a new document from an old-format template (.dot).
When the Office 2007 program is in compatibility mode, it will be indicated in the document title bar, as shown in Figure C.
Figure C: Office Compatibility Mode is indicated in the title bar of the document.
Some features can be returned to the document if you reopen it in an Office 2007 program; others can’t.
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#4: Installing the Office 2007 Compatibility Pack
If someone with whom you exchange files is still running an older version of Office and you want to be able to send them files in the new XML formats (for instance, so they can see the formatting features that are unique to Office 2007), they can install the Office 2007 Compatibility Pack.
The Compatibility Pack allows users of Office XP or Office 2003 to open, edit, save and even create files in the new XML-based formats.
#5: Using the OMPM File Converter
If you have a large number of Office files saved in the old format that you want to change to the new XML-based format, you don’t have to open and save them one at a time in the Office 2007 program. Instead, you can perform a bulk conversion using the Office File Converter that’s included in the Office Migration Planning Manager (OMPM).
The OMPM is a free 2.7 MB download available from the Microsoft Web site. It can also be used by administrators in organizations to scan and generate reports about the Office files on the network. You can install it on computers running XP SP2, Vista, or Server 2003.
Once the OMPM is installed, to perform bulk file conversions you use the OFC.EXE tool at the command line. You’ll need to create an ofc.ini file with settings defining what you want to convert. Microsoft provides a template for the ofc.ini file that you can edit to indicate the path for the folders you want to convert. For more information on the contents of the ofc.ini file and how to invoke it programmatically
#6: Viewing PowerPoint presentations with PP Viewer 2007
PowerPoint 2007 provides many cool new graphical features that aren’t supported by older versions of PowerPoint. These presentations can be viewed by Office XP/2003 users with the Compatibility Pack installed, but what if you want to see a presentation on a computer that doesn’t have any version of Office installed?
You can use the PowerPoint Viewer 2007 to view these presentations will all the new features intact. It also supports opening presentations that have been password-protected in PowerPoint 2007 — however, it does not support viewing presentations that have been protected using Microsoft Information Rights Management technology.
The Viewer is a free 25.8 MB download available from the Microsoft Web site. It can be installed on computers running Windows 2000 SP4, XP SP1, Vista, and Server 2003.
#7: Using the Compatibility Checker
Before you send a document that was created with an Office 2007 program to someone who’s using a previous version of Office, you can run the Compatibility Checker, which is built into Word, Excel, and PowerPoint 2007. It will identify any features or formatting you’ve used that won’t be recognized by older versions of Office.
A list of the incompatible content will be displayed, and you’ll be advised that such content may not be fully editable in the previous version. The Compatibility Checker runs automatically when you save a file in the old format. You can also run it manually from the Office | Prepare menu, as shown in Figure D.
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Figure D: You can run the Compatibility Checker from the Office Logo | Prepare menu.
File Compatibility between Versions of Microsoft Office
If you are one of the first in your group to get the Microsoft Office 2010 system, you can still share documents between Office 2010 and earlier versions (2003, 2002) of Office.
Important considerations when working in Microsoft Office 2010:
• With Office 2010, you can open a file created in Office 95 through Office 2003. • When you save a file created in a previous version, the default in the Save As dialog box is to save the file as the same previous version. You can also choose to save the file as a 2010 version. • Each Microsoft Office 2010 program can be customized to change the default file format to save as an Office 2003 format. • When you save a file as a previous version, a Compatibility Checker will let you know of any Office 2010 features that may be disabled, or matched as closely as possible. • Colleagues who have Office 2000 through 2003 can work in your 2010 files using a converter that will let them open your document.
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2.2.23 MS Word 2010 Keyboard Shortcuts
Microsoft Word 2010 is the latest office suite from Microsoft office stable. I have compiled commonly used shortcut keys for Microsoft office 2010, to help MS Word fans. Please go through the below list of keyboard shortcuts. Also, do update in comments if you know some more.
ALT+CTRL+1 - Apply Heading 1 to the selected text ALT+CTRL+2 - Apply Heading 2 to the selected text ALT+CTRL+S - Splits the Document ALT+F7 - Moves to the Next Misspelling ALT+F8 - Inserts Macros ALT+R - Displays the Review tab ALT+SHIFT+BACKSPACE - Redo ALT+SHIFT+F7 - Dictionary ALT+SHIFT+K - Mail Merge Check ALT+SHIFT+R - Header Footer Link ALT+SHIFT+T - Time Field ALT+T+A - Autocurrect CTRL + V - Paste copied text CTRL + B - Bold Text CTRL + C - Copy text selection CTRL + I - Italic Text CTRL + L - Align selected text to the left CTRL + U - Underline Text CTRL + X - Cut the selected text CTRL + Z - Undo CTRL+] - Grow Font one point CTRL+E - Align selected text to the centre CTRL+END - Navigate to end of the Document CTRL+H - Find and Replace word or sentence CTRL+J - Justifies Paragraph CTRL+K - Add hyperlink to the selected text CTRL+M - Indentation of the selected text CTRL+P - Print the document CTRL+PAGE DOWN - Browse Next CTRL+SHIFT+, - Reduce Font size for selected text CTRL+SHIFT+. - Increase Fontsise for selected text CTRL+SHIFT+A - converts the selected text to capital letters or vice versa CTRL+SHIFT+C - Copy Format CTRL+SHIFT+D - Double Underline CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER- Column Break CTRL+SHIFT+F - Displays the Font dialog box. CTRL+SHIFT+F12 - Also launches Print CTRL+SHIFT+F5 - Bookmark CTRL+SHIFT+G - Displays the Word Count dialog box. CTRL+SHIFT+K - Small Caps CTRL+SHIFT+L - Applies Bullets CTRL+SHIFT+M - Unindent the selection CTRL+SHIFT+P - Font size select CTRL+SHIFT+S - Displays the Apply Styles task pane. CTRL+SHIFT+S - Style END - End of line F1 - Help window F10 - Menu Mode Engineering Staff College of India Page 119 of 348
F12 - Save As F5 - Goto page number F7 - Spelling and grammar check SHIFT+F5 - Go Back to previous state ALT+CTRL+Z - Go Back to previous state SHIFT+F7 - Thesaurus
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2.3.1 Introduction to Excel
Excel is a spreadsheet program that allows you to store, organize, and analyze information. The Excel 2010 interface is very similar to Excel 2007. There have been some changes that we will review later in this lesson, but if you are new to Excel, first take some time to learn how to navigate an Excel workbook.
Creating and Opening Workbooks
Excel files are called workbooks. Each workbook holds one or more worksheets (also known as "spreadsheets").
To Create a New, Blank Workbook:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select New. 3. Select Blank workbook under Available Templates. It will be highlighted by default. 4. Click Create. A new, blank workbook appears in the Excel window.
To save time, you can create your document from a template, which you can select under Available Templates.
To Open an Existing Workbook:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select Open. The Open dialog box appears. 3. Select your desired workbook and then click Open.
If you have opened the existing workbook recently, it may be easier to choose Recent from the File tab instead of Open to search for your workbook.
2.3.2 Basic Cell Operations You will need to know the basic ways you can work with cells and cell content in Excel to be able to use it to calculate, analyze, and organize data. Cells are the basic building blocks of a worksheet. Cells can contain a variety of content such as text, formatting attributes, formulas, and functions.
The Cell
Each rectangle in a worksheet is called a cell. A cell is the intersection of a row and a column.
Each cell has a name, or a cell address based on which column and row it intersects. The cell address of a selected cell appears in the Name box. Here you can see that C5 is selected.
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Cell address
To Select a Cell:
1. Click on a cell to select it. When a cell is selected you will notice that the borders of the cell
appear bold and the column heading and row heading of the cell are highlighted. 2. Release your mouse. The cell will stay selected until you click on another cell in the worksheet.
You can also navigate through your worksheet and select a cell by using the arrow keys on your keyboard.
To Select Multiple Cells:
1. Click and drag your mouse until all of the adjoining cells you want are highlighted. 2. Release your mouse. The cells will stay selected until you click on another cell in the worksheet.
Cell Content
Each cell can contain its own text, formatting, comments, formulas, and functions.
• Text Cells can contain letters, numbers, and dates. • Formatting attributes Cells can contain formatting attributes that change the way letters, numbers, and dates are displayed. For example, dates can be formatted as MM/DD/YYYY or Month/D/YYYY. • Comments Cells can contain comments from multiple reviewers. • Formulas and Functions Cells can contain formulas and functions that calculate cell values. For example, SUM(cell 1, cell 2...) is a formula that can add the values in multiple cells.
To Insert Content:
1. Click on a cell to select it. 2. Enter content into the selected cell using your keyboard. The content appears in the cell and in the formula bar. You also can enter or edit cell content from the formula bar.
To Delete Content Within Cells:
1. Select the cells which contain content you want to delete. 2. Click the Clear command on the ribbon. A dialog box will appear. Engineering Staff College of India Page 122 of 348
3. Select Clear Contents.
You can also use your keyboard's Backspace key to delete content from a single cell or Delete key to delete content from multiple cells.
To Delete Cells:
1. Select the cells that you want to delete. 2. Choose the Delete command from the ribbon.
There is an important difference between deleting the content of a cell and deleting the cell itself. If you delete the cell, by default the cells underneath it will shift up and replace the deleted cell.
To Copy and Paste Cell Content:
1. Select the cells you wish to copy. 2. Click the Copy command. The border of the selected cells will change appearance. 3. Select the cell or cells where you want to paste the content. 4. Click the Paste command. The copied content will be entered into the highlighted cells.
To Cut and Paste Cell Content:
1. Select the cells you wish to cut. 2. Click the Cut command. The border of the selected cells will change appearance. 3. Select the cells where you want to paste the content. 4. Click the Paste command. The cut content will be removed from the original cells and entered into the highlighted cells.
To Access More Paste Options:
There are more Paste options that you can access from the drop-down menu on the Paste command. These options may be convenient to advanced users who are working with cells that contain formulas or formatting.
To Access Formatting Commands by Right-Clicking:
1. Select the cells you want to format. 2. Right-click on the selected cells. A dialog box will appear where you can easily access many commands that are on the ribbon.
To Drag and Drop Cells:
1. Select the cells that you wish to move. 2. Position your mouse on one of the outside edges of the selected cells. The mouse changes from
a white cross to a black cross with 4 arrows .
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Positioning the mouse to drag and drop cells
3. Click and drag the cells to the new location. 4. Release your mouse and the cells will be dropped there.
To Use the Fill Handle to Fill Cells:
1. Select the cell or cells containing the content you want to use. You can fill cell content either vertically or horizontally. 2. Position your mouse over the fill handle so that the white cross becomes a black cross . 3. Click and drag the fill handle until all the cells you want to fill are highlighted. 4. Release the mouse and your cells will be filled.
Filled cells
2.3.3 Columns, Rows, and Cells When you open a new, blank workbook, the cells are set to a default size. You do have the ability to modify cells, and to insert and delete columns, rows, and cells, as needed.
To Modify Column Width:
1. Position your mouse over the column line in the column heading so that the white cross becomes a double arrow .
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2. Click and drag the column to the right to increase the column width or to the left to decrease the column width. 3. Release the mouse. The column width will be changed in your spreadsheet.
To Set Column Width with a Specific Measurement:
1. Select the columns you want to modify. 2. Click the Format command on the Home tab. The format drop-down menu appears. 3. Select Column Width. 4. The Column Width dialog box appears. Enter a specific measurement. 5. Click OK. The width of each selected column will be changed in your worksheet.
Select AutoFit Column Width from the format drop-down menu and Excel will automatically adjust each selected column so that all the text will fit.
To Modify the Row Height:
1. Position the cursor over the row line so that the white cross becomes a double arrow . 2. Click and drag the row downward to increase the row height or upward decrease the row height. 3. Release the mouse. The height of each selected row will be changed in your worksheet.
To Set Row Height with a Specific Measurement:
1. Select the rows you want to modify. 2. Click the Format command on the Home tab. The format drop-down menu appears. 3. Select Row Height. 4. The Row Height dialog box appears. Enter a specific measurement. 5. Click OK. The selected rows heights will be changed in your spreadsheet.
Select AutoFit Row Height from the format drop-down menu and Excel will automatically adjust each selected row so that all the text will fit.
To Insert Rows:
1. Select the row below where you want the new row to appear.
Selecting the row
2. Click the Insert command on the Home tab.
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3. The new row appears in your worksheet.
The inserted row
When inserting new rows, columns, or cells, you will see the Insert Options button by the inserted cells. This button allows you to choose how Excel formats them. By default, Excel formats inserted rows with the same formatting as the cells in the row above them. To access more options, hover your mouse over the Insert Options button and click on the drop-down arrow that appears.
To Insert Columns:
1. Select the column to the right of where you want the new column to appear. For example, if you want to insert a column between A and B, select column B. 2. Click the Insert command on the Home tab. 3. The new column appears in your worksheet.
By default, Excel formats inserted columns with the same formatting as the column to the left of them. To access more options, hover your mouse over the Insert Options button and click on the drop-down arrow that appears.
When inserting rows and columns, make sure you select the row or column by clicking on its heading so that all the cells in that row or column are selected. If you select just a cell in the row or column then only a new cell will be inserted.
To Delete Rows:
1. Select the rows you want to delete. 2. Click the Delete command on the Home tab. 3. The rows are deleted from your worksheet.
To Delete Columns:
1. Select the columns you want to delete. 2. Click the Delete command on the Home tab. 3. The columns are deleted from your worksheet.
Wrapping Text and Merging Cells
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If a cell contains more text than can be displayed, you can choose to wrap the text within the cell or merge the cell with empty, adjoining cells. Wrap text to make it display on multiple lines of the cell. Merge cells to combine adjoining cells into one larger cell.
To Wrap Text:
1. Select the cells with text you want to wrap. 2. Select the Wrap Text command on the Home tab.
Selecting the Wrap Text command
3. The text in the selected cells will be wrapped in your worksheet.
If you change your mind, re-click the Wrap Text command to unwrap the text.
To Merge Cells Using the Merge & Center Command:
1. Select the cells you want to merge together. 2. Select the Merge & Center command on the Home tab. 3. The selected cells will be merged and the text will be centered.
If you change your mind, re-click the Merge & Center command to unmerge the cells.
To Access More Merge Options:
Click the drop-down arrow next to the Merge & Center command on the Home tab. The merge drop- down menu appears.
• Merge & Center: Merges selected cells into one cell and centers the text. • Merge Across: Merges each row of selected cells into larger cells. This command is useful if you are merging content across multiple rows of cells and do not want to create one large cell. • Merge Cells: Merges selected cells into one cell. • Unmerge Cells: Unmerges the selected cells.
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2.3.4 Cell Formatting
Spreadsheets that have not been formatted can be difficult to read. Formatted text and cells can draw attention to specific parts of the spreadsheet and make the spreadsheet more visually appealing and easier to understand. In Excel, there are many tools you can use to format text and cells.
Formatting Text
Many of the commands you will use to format text can be found in the Font, Alignment, and Number groups on the ribbon. Font commands let you change the style, size, and color of text. You can also use them to add borders and fill colors to cells. Alignment commands let you format how text is displayed across cells both horizontally and vertically. Number commands let you change how selected cells display numbers and dates.
To Change the Font:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the font command on the Home tab. The font drop-down menu appears. 3. Move your mouse over the various fonts. A live preview of the font will appear in the worksheet. 4. Select the font you want to use.
To Change the Font Size:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the font size command on the Home tab. The font size drop- down menu appears. 3. Move your mouse over the various font sizes. A live preview of the font size will appear in the worksheet. 4. Select the font size you want to use.
You can also use the Grow Font and Shrink Font commands to change the size.
The Grow Font and Shrink Font commands
To Use the Bold, Italic, and Underline Commands:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline (U) command on the Home tab.
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The Bold, Italic, and Underline commands
To Add a Border:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Borders command on the Home tab. The border drop- down menu appears. 3. Select the border style you want to use.
You can draw borders and change the line style and color of borders with the Draw Borders tools at the bottom of the Borders drop-down menu.
To Change the Font Color:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the font color command on the Home tab. The color menu appears. 3. Move your mouse over the various font colors. A live preview of the color will appear in the worksheet. 4. Select the font color you want to use.
Your color choices are not limited to the drop-down menu that appears. Select More Colors at the bottom of the menu to access additional color options.
To Add a Fill Color:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the fill color command on the Home tab. The color menu appears. 3. Move your cursor over the various fill colors. A live preview of the color will appear in the worksheet. 4. Select the fill color you want to use.
To Change Horizontal Text Alignment:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Select one of the three horizontal Alignment commands on the Home tab. o Align Text Left: Aligns text to the left of the cell. o Center: Aligns text to the center of the cell. o Align Text Right: Aligns text to the right of the cell.
To Change Vertical Text Alignment:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Select one of the three vertical Alignment commands on the Home tab. o Top Align: Aligns text to the top of the cell. Engineering Staff College of India Page 129 of 348
o Middle Align: Aligns text to the middle of the cell. o Bottom Align: Aligns text to the bottom of the cell.
By default, numbers align to the bottom-right of cells and words or letters align to the bottom-left of cells.
Formatting Numbers and Dates
One of the most useful features of Excel is its ability to format numbers and dates in a variety of ways. For example, you might need to format numbers with decimal places, currency symbols ($), percent symbols (%), etc.
To Format Numbers and Dates:
1. Select the cells you want to modify. 2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Number Format command on the Home tab. 3. Select the number format you want.
2.3.5 Saving a Workbook
There are many ways you share and receive workbooks, which will affect how you need to save the file.
Save As allows you to choose a name and location for your workbook. Use it if you are saving a workbook for the first time or if you want to save a different version of a workbook while keeping the original.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. The Save As dialog box will appear. Select the location where you wish to save the workbook. 4. Enter a name for the workbook and click Save.
If you are using Windows 7, you will most likely want to save files to your Documents library. For other versions of Windows, you will most likely want to save files to the My Documents folder.
To Use the Save Command:
1. Click the Save command on the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. The workbook will be saved in its current location with the same file name.
If you are saving for the first time and select Save, the Save As dialog box will appear.
To Use AutoRecover:
Excel automatically saves your workbooks to a temporary folder while you are working on them. If you forget to save your changes, or if Excel crashes, you can recover the autosaved file.
1. Open a workbook that was previously closed without saving. 2. In Backstage view, click Info. 3. If there are autosaved versions of your workbook, they will appear under Versions. Click on the file to open it.
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4. A yellow caution note will appear on the ribbon of the workbook. To restore this version of the workbook click Restore and then click OK.
By default, Excel autosaves every 10 minutes. If you are editing a workbook for less than 10 minutes, Excel may not create an autosaved version.
If you do not see the file you are looking for, or if you are looking for an autosaved version of a file that has no previously saved versions, you can browse all autosaved files by clicking on the Manage Versions button and selecting Recover Unsaved Workbooks from the drop-down menu.
To Save As an Excel 97-2003 Workbook:
You can share your workbooks with anyone using Excel 2010 or 2007, since they use the same file format. However, earlier versions of Excel use a different file format, so if you want to share your workbook with someone using an earlier version of Excel, you will need to save it as an Excel 97-2003 Workbook.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. In the Save as type drop-down menu, select Excel 97-2003 Workbook. 4. Select the location you wish to save the file. 5. Enter a name for the file and click Save.
To Save As a PDF:
Saving your workbook as an Adobe Acrobat Document, which is called a PDF file, can be especially useful when your recipients do not have Excel. A PDF file will make it possible for recipients to view the content from your workbook, but they will not be able to edit anything. Click the File tab.
1. Select Save As. 2. In the Save as type drop-down menu, select PDF. 3. Select the location you wish to save the file. 4. Enter a name for the file and click Save.
Excel defaults to saving the active worksheet only. If you have multiple worksheets and want to save all of them in the same PDF file, click on Options. The Options dialog box will appear. Select Entire workbook from the Options dialog box and click OK.
2.3.6 Using Simple Formulas
A formula is an equation that performs a calculation. Like a calculator, Excel can execute formulas that add, subtract, multiply, and divide.
One of the most useful features of Excel is its ability to calculate using a cell address to represent the value in a cell. This is called using a cell reference.
In order to maximize the capabilities of Excel, it is important to understand how to create simple formulas and use cell references.
Creating Simple Formulas
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Excel uses standard operators for equations, such as a plus sign for addition (+), a minus sign for subtraction (-), an asterisk for multiplication (*), a forward slash for division (/), and a carat (^) for exponents.
The key thing to remember when writing formulas for Excel is that all formulas must begin with an equal sign (=). This is because the cell contains, or is equal to, the formula and its value.
To Create a Simple Formula in Excel:
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (B4, for example). 2. Type the equal sign (=). 3. Type in the formula you want Excel to calculate. For example, "75/250".
Entering formula in B4
4. Press Enter. The formula will be calculated and the value will be displayed in the cell.
Creating Formulas with Cell References
When a formula contains a cell address, it is called a cell reference. Creating a formula with cell references is useful because you can update data in your worksheet without having to rewrite the values in the formula.
To Create a Formula Using Cell References:
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (B3, for example). 2. Type the equal sign (=). 3. Type the cell address that contains the first number in the equation (B1, for example).
Entering a formula in B3
4. Type the operator you need for your formula. For example, type the addition sign (+). 5. Type the cell address that contains the second number in the equation (B2, for example).
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Entering a formula in B3
6. Press Enter. The formula will be calculated and the value will be displayed in the cell.
If you change a value in either B1 or B2, the total will automatically recalculate.
To Edit a Formula:
1. Click on the cell you want to edit. 2. Insert the cursor in the formula bar and edit the formula as desired. You can also double-click the cell to view and edit the formula directly from the cell. 3. When finished, press Enter or select the Enter command .
Edit a formula
4. The new value will be displayed in the cell.
If you change your mind, use the Cancel command in the formula bar to avoid accidentally making changes to your formula.
2.3.7 Basics of Worksheet
Every Excel workbook contains at least one or more worksheets. If you are working with a large amount of related data, you can use worksheets to help organize your data and make it easier to work with.
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Introduction to Worksheets
When you open an Excel workbook, there are three worksheets by default. The default names on the worksheet tabs are Sheet1, Sheet2 and Sheet3. To organize your workbook and make it easier to navigate, you can rename and even color-code the worksheet tabs. Additionally, you can insert, delete, move, and copy worksheets.
To Rename Worksheets:
1. Right-click the worksheet tab you want to rename. The worksheet menu appears. 2. Select Rename. 3. The text is now highlighted by a black box. Type the name of your worksheet.
Renaming the worksheet
4. Click anywhere outside of the tab. The worksheet is renamed.
To Insert New Worksheets:
Click on the Insert Worksheet icon. A new worksheet will appear.
Inserting a new worksheet
You can change the setting for the default number of worksheets that appear in Excel workbooks. To access this setting, go into Backstage view and click on Options.
To Delete Worksheets:
Worksheets can be deleted from a workbook, including those that contain data.
1. Select the worksheets you want to delete. 2. Right-click one of the selected worksheets. The worksheet menu appears. 3. Select Delete. The selected worksheets will be deleted from your workbook.
To Copy a Worksheet:
1. Right-click the worksheet you want to copy. The worksheet menu appears.
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2. Select Move or Copy. 3. The Move or Copy dialog box appears. Check the Create a copy box. 4. Click OK. Your worksheet is copied. It will have the same title as your original worksheet, but the title will include a version number, such as "January (2)".
Copied worksheet
To Move a Worksheet:
1. Click on the worksheet you want to move. The mouse will change to show a small worksheet icon
. 2. Drag the worksheet icon until a small black arrow appears where you want the worksheet to be moved.
Moving a worksheet
3. Release your mouse and the worksheet will be moved.
Moved worksheet
Grouping and Ungrouping Worksheets
You can work with each worksheet in a workbook individually, or you can work with multiple worksheets at the same time. Worksheets can be combined together into a group. Any changes made to one worksheet in a group will be made to every worksheet in the group.
To Group Worksheets:
1. Select the first worksheet you want in the group.
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Selecting the first worksheet to group
2. Press and hold the Ctrl key on your keyboard. 3. Select the next worksheet you want in the group. Continue to select worksheets until all of the worksheets you want to group are selected.
Selecting additional worksheets to group
4. Release the Ctrl key. The worksheets are now grouped. The worksheet tabs appear white for the grouped worksheets.
While worksheets are grouped, you can navigate to any worksheet in the group and make changes that will appear on every worksheet in the group. If you click on a worksheet tab that is not in the group, however, all of your worksheets will become ungrouped. You will have to regroup them.
To Ungroup All Worksheets:
1. Right-click one of the worksheets. The worksheet menu appears. 2. Select Ungroup. The worksheets will be ungrouped.
Freezing Worksheet Panes
The ability to freeze specific rows or columns in your worksheet can be a very useful feature in Excel. It is called freezing panes. When you freeze panes, you select rows or columns that will remain visible all the time, even as you are scrolling. This is particularly helpful when working with large spreadsheets.
To Freeze Rows:
1. Select the row below the rows that you want frozen. For example, if you want rows 1 & 2 to always appear at the top of the worksheet even as you scroll, then select row 3. 2. Click the View tab. 3. Click the Freeze Panes command. A drop-down menu appears. 4. Select Freeze Panes.
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5. A black line appears below the rows that are frozen in place. Scroll down in the worksheet to see the rows below the frozen rows.
Rows 1 and 2 are frozen
To Freeze Columns:
1. Select the column to the right of the columns you want frozen. For example, if you want columns A & B to always appear to the left of the worksheet even as you scroll, then select column C. 2. Click the View tab. 3. Click the Freeze Panes command. A drop-down menu appears. 4. Select Freeze Panes. 5. A black line appears to the right of the frozen area. Scroll across the worksheet to see the columns to the right of the frozen columns.
To Unfreeze Panes:
1. Click the View tab. 2. Click the Freeze Panes command. A drop-down menu appears. 3. Select Unfreeze Panes. The panes will be unfrozen and the black line will disappear.
2.3.8 Printing a Workbook
There are many choices you can make when printing an Excel workbook. You can choose what parts of a workbook to print and how the data fits on the page.
In previous versions of Excel, there was a Print Preview option that allowed you to preview and modify the workbook before printing. You may have noticed that this feature seems to be gone in Excel 2010. It actually has not disappeared; it has just been combined with the Print window to create the Print pane, which is located in Backstage view.
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To View the Print Pane:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select Print. The Print pane appears, with the print settings on the left and the Print Preview on the right.
To Print Active Sheets:
If you have multiple worksheets in your workbook, you will need to decide if you want to print the whole workbook or specific worksheets. Excel gives you the option to Print Active Sheets. A worksheet is considered active if it is selected.
1. Select the worksheets you want to print. To print multiple worksheets, click on the first worksheet, hold down the Ctrl key, then click on the other worksheets you want to select. 2. Click the File tab. 3. Select Print to access the Print pane. 4. Select Print Active Sheets from the print range drop-down menu. 5. Click the Print button.
To Print the Entire Workbook:
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Print to access the Print pane. 3. Select Print Entire Workbook from the print range drop-down menu. 4. Click the Print button.
To Print a Selection, or Set the Print Area:
Printing a selection (sometimes called setting the print area) lets you choose which cells to print, as opposed to the entire worksheet.
1. Select the cells that you want to print. 2. Click the File tab. 3. Select Print to access the Print pane. 4. Select Print Selection from the print range drop-down menu. 5. You can see what your selection will look like on the page in Print Preview. 6. Click the Print button.
You don't have to wait until you're ready to print to set the print area. You can also set it from the Page Layout tab in advance. This will place a dotted line around your selection, so you can see which cells are going to print while you work. To do this, just select the cells you want to print, go to the Page Layout tab, and choose Print Area.
To Change Page Orientation:
Change the page orientation to Portrait to orient the page vertically or Landscape to orient the page horizontally. Portrait is useful for worksheets needing to fit more rows on one page, and Landscape is useful for worksheets needing to fit more columns on one page.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Print to access the Print pane. 3. Select either Portrait Orientation or Landscape Orientation from the orientation drop-down menu. Engineering Staff College of India Page 138 of 348
4. Your page orientation is changed.
To Fit a Worksheet on One Page:
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Print to access the Print pane. 3. Select Fit Sheet on One Page from the scaling drop-down menu. 4. Your worksheet is reduced in size until it fits on one page. Remember that if it is scaled too small it might be difficult to read.
To Modify Margins While in Print Preview:
The margins of your worksheet may need to be adjusted to make data fit more comfortably on the printed page. You can adjust the margins in Print Preview.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Print to access the Print pane. 3. Click on the Show Margins button. Your margins will appear. 4. Hover your mouse over one of the margin markers until the double arrow appears. 5. Click and drag the margin to your desired location. 6. Release the mouse. The margin is modified.
Modifying margins while in Print Preview
To Use Print Titles:
Imagine how difficult it would be to read a worksheet if the column and row headings only appeared on the first page. The Print Titles command allows you to select specific rows and columns to appear on each page.
1. Click the Page Layout tab. 2. Select the Print Titles command. 3. The Page Setup dialog box appears. Click the icon at the end of the Rows to repeat at top field. 4. Your mouse becomes the small selection arrow . Click on the rows you want to appear on each printed page. The Rows to repeat at top dialog box will record your selection. 5. Click the icon at the end of the Rows to repeat at top field. 6. Repeat for Columns to repeat at left, if necessary. 7. Click OK. You can go to Print Preview to see how each page will look when printed. Engineering Staff College of India Page 139 of 348
To Insert a Break:
1. Click the Page Layout tab. 2. Determine the placement of the break by clicking on the row below, cell below, or column to the right of where you want the break to appear. For example, select column C and a break will appear after column B. 3. Select the Insert Page Break command from the Breaks drop-down menu. 4. The break is inserted. You can go to Print Preview to confirm it appears in the correct place on the page. 2.3.9 Using Complex Formulas
Excel is a spreadsheet application that can help you calculate and analyze numerical information for household budgets, company finances, inventory, and more. To do this, you need to understand complex formulas.
Simple formulas have one mathematical operation, such as 5+5. Complex formulas have more than one mathematical operation, such as 5+5-2. When there is more than one operation in a formula, the order of operations tells us which operation to calculate first. In order to use Excel to calculate complex formulas, you will need to understand the order of operations.
Order of Operations
Excel calculates formulas based on the following order of operations:
1. Operations enclosed in parentheses 2. Exponential calculations (to the power of) 3. Multiplication and division, whichever comes first 4. Addition and subtraction, whichever comes first
A mnemonic that can help you remember the order is Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally.
To Create a Complex Formula Using the Order of Operations:
In this example, we will use cell references in addition to actual values, to create a complex formula that will add tax to the nursery order.
1. Click the cell where you want the formula result to appear (for example, F11). 2. Type the equal sign (=). 3. Type an open parenthesis, then click on the cell that contains the first value you want in the formula (for example, F4). 4. Type the first mathematical operator (for example, the addition sign). 5. Click on the cell that contains the second value you want in the formula (for example, F5), and then type a closed parenthesis. 6. Type the next mathematical operator (for example, the multiplication sign). 7. Type the next value in the formula (for example, 0.055 for 5.5% tax). 8. Click Enter to calculate your formula. The results show that $2.12 is the tax for the nursery order.
Working with Cell References
In order to maintain accurate formulas, it is necessary to understand how cell references respond when you copy or fill them to new cells in the worksheet. Engineering Staff College of India Page 140 of 348
Excel will interpret cell references as either relative or absolute. By default, cell references are relative references. When copied or filled, they change based on the relative position of rows and columns. If you copy formula (=A1+B1) into row 2, the formula will change to become (=A2+B2).
Absolute references, on the other hand, do not change when they are copied or filled and are used when you want the values to stay the same.
Relative References
Relative references can save you time when you are repeating the same kind of calculation across multiple rows or columns.
In the following example, we are creating a formula with cell references in row 4 to calculate the total cost of the electric bill and water bill for each month (B4=B2+B3). For the upcoming months we want to use the same formula with relative references (C2+C3, D2+D3, E2+E3, etc.) For convenience, we can copy the formula in B4 into the rest of row 4 and Excel will calculate the value of the bills for those months using relative references.
To Create and Copy a Formula Using Relative References:
1. Select the first cell where you want to enter the formula (for example, B4). 2. Enter the formula to calculate the value you want (for example, add B2+B3). 3. Press Enter. The formula will be calculated. 4. Select the cell you want to copy (for example, B4) and click on the Copy command from the Home tab. 5. Select the cells where you want to paste the formula and click on the Paste command from the Home tab. (You may also drag the fill handle to fill cells.) 6. Your formula is copied to the selected cells as a relative reference (C4=C2+C3, D4=D2+D3, E4=E2+E3, etc.) and the values are calculated.
Absolute References
There may be times when you do not want a cell reference to change when copying or filling cells. You can use an absolute reference to keep a row and/or column constant in the formula.
An absolute reference is designated in the formula by the addition of a dollar sign ($). It can precede the column reference, the row reference, or both.
In the below example, we want to calculate the sales tax for a list of products with varying prices. We will use an absolute reference for the sales tax ($B$1) because we do not want it to change as we are copying the formula down the column of varying prices.
To Create and Copy a Formula Using an Absolute Reference:
1. Select the first cell where you want to enter the formula (for example, C4) 2. Click on the cell that contains the first value you want in the formula (for example, B4). 3. Type the first mathematical operator (for example, the multiplication sign). 4. Type the dollar sign ($) and enter the column letter of the cell you are making an absolute reference to (for example, B). 5. Type the dollar sign ($) and enter the row number of the same cell you are making an absolute reference to (for example, 1). 6. Press Enter to calculate the formula. 7. Select the cell you want to copy (for example, C4) and click on the Copy command from the Home tab. Engineering Staff College of India Page 141 of 348
8. Select the cells where you want to paste the formula and click on the Paste command from the Home tab. (You may also drag the fill handle to fill cells.) 9. Your formula is copied to the selected cells using the absolute reference (C5=B5*$B$1, C6=B6*$B$1, etc.) and your values are calculated. 2.3.10 Using Basic Functions
Figuring out formulas for calculations you want to make in Excel can be tedious and complicated. Fortunately, Excel has an entire library of functions or predefined formulas that you can take advantage of. You may be familiar with common functions like sum, average, product or count, but there are hundreds of functions in Excel, even for things like formatting text, referencing cells, calculating financial rates, analyzing statistics, and more.
A function is a predefined formula that performs calculations using specific values in a particular order. One of the key benefits of functions is that they can save you time since you do not have to write the formula yourself. Excel has hundreds of different functions to assist with your calculations.
In order to use these functions correctly, you need to understand the different parts of a function and how to create arguments in functions to calculate values and cell references.
The Parts of a Function
The order in which you insert a function is important. Each function has a specific order, called syntax, which must be followed for the function to work correctly. The basic syntax to create a formula with a function is to insert an equal sign (=), a function name (SUM, for example, is the function name for addition), and an argument. Arguments contain the information you want the formula to calculate, such as a range of cell references.
Syntax of a basic function
Working with Basic Arguments
Arguments must be enclosed in parentheses. Individual values or cell references inside the parentheses are separated by either colons or commas.
• Colons create a reference to a range of cells.
For example, =AVG(E19:E23) would calculate the average of the cell range E19 through E23.
• Commas separate individual values, cell references, and cell ranges in the parentheses. If there is more than one argument, you must separate each argument by a comma.
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For example, =COUNT(C6:C14,C19:C23,C28) will count all the cells in the three arguments that are included in parentheses.
To Create a Basic Function in Excel:
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (F15, for example) 2. Type the equal sign (=) and enter the function name (SUM, for example). 3. Enter the cells for the argument inside the parenthesis.
Adding cells to the function argument
4. Press Enter and the result will appear.
Using AutoSum to select Common Functions:
The AutoSum command allows you to automatically return the results for a range of cells for common functions like SUM and AVG.
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (E24, for example). 2. Click on the Home tab. 3. In the Editing group, click on the AutoSum drop-down arrow and select the function you desire (Average, for example). 4. A formula will appear in the selected cell E24. If logically placed, AutoSum will select your cells for you. Otherwise, you will need to click on the cells to choose the argument you desire.
AutoSum selects and dsiplays cell range
5. Press Enter and the result will appear.
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The AutoSum command can also be accessed from the Formulas tab.
Function Library
There are hundreds of functions in Excel, but only some will be useful for the kind of data you are working with. There is no need to learn every single function, but you may want to explore some of the different kinds to get ideas about which ones might be helpful to you as you create new spreadsheets.
A great place to explore functions is in the Function Library on the Formulas tab. Here you may search and select Excel functions based on categories such as Financial, Logical, Text, Date & Time, and more. Review the following interactive to learn more.
To Insert a Function from the Function Library:
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (I6, for example) 2. Click on the Formulas tab. 3. From the Function Library group, select the function category you desire. In this example, we will choose Date & Time. 4. Select the desired function from the Date & Time drop-down menu. We will choose the NETWORKDAYS function to count the days between the order date and receive date in our worksheet. 5. The Function Arguments dialog box will appear. Insert the cursor in the first field and then enter or select the cell(s) you desire (G6, for example). 6. Insert the cursor in the next field and then enter or select the cell(s) you desire (H6, for example). 7. Click OK and the result will appear. Our results show that it took 5 days to receive the order.
Insert Function Command
The Insert Function command is convenient because it allows you to search for a function by typing a description of what you are looking for or by selecting a category to peruse. The Insert Function command can also be used to easily enter or select more than one argument for a function.
Using the Insert Function command:
In this example, we want to find a function that will count the total number of supplies listed in the Office Supply Order Log. The basic COUNT function only counts cells with numbers; we want to count the cells in the Office Supply column, which uses text. Therefore, we will need to find a formula that counts cells with text.
1. Select the cell where the answer will appear (A27, for example) 2. Click on the Formulas tab and select the Insert Function command. 3. The Insert Function dialog box will appear. 4. Type a description of the function you are searching for and click Go. For our example, we will type: Count cells with text. (You may also search by selecting a category.) 5. Review the results to find the function you desire. We will use COUNTA. Then click OK. 6. The Function Arguments dialog box will appear. Insert the cursor in the first field and then enter or select the cell(s) you desire (A6:A14, for example).
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Selecting cell range for Value1 field
7. Insert the cursor in the next field and then enter or select the cell(s) you desire (A19:A23, for example). (You may continue to add additional arguments if needed.)
Click OK and the result will appear. Our results show that 14 Total Supplies were ordered from our log.
2.3.11 Sorting Cell Data With over 17 billion cells in a single worksheet, Excel 2010 gives you the ability to work with an enormous amount of data. Arranging your data alphabetically, from smallest to largest, or other criteria, can help you find the information you're looking for more quickly.
Sorting is a common task that allows you to change or customize the order of your spreadsheet data. For example, you could organize an office birthday list by employee, birthdate, or department, making it easier to find what you're looking for. Custom sorting takes it a step further, giving you the ability to sort multiple levels (such as department first, then birthdate, to group birthdates by department), and more. To Sort in Alphabetical Order:
1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. In this example, we will sort by Last Name. 2. Select the Data tab, and locate the Sort and Filter group. 3. Click the ascending command to Sort A to Z, or the descending command to Sort Z to A. 4. The data in the spreadsheet will be organized alphabetically.
Sorting options can also be found on the Home tab, condensed into the Sort & Filter command.
To Sort in Numerical Order:
1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. Engineering Staff College of India Page 145 of 348
2. From the Data tab, click the ascending command to Sort Smallest to Largest, or the descending command to Sort Largest to Smallest. 3. The data in the spreadsheet will be organized numerically.
To Sort by Date or Time:
1. Select a cell in the column you want to sort by. 2. From the Data tab, click the ascending command to Sort Oldest to Newest, or the descending command to Sort Newest to Oldest. 3. The data in the spreadsheet will be organized by date or time.
Custom Sorting
To Sort in the Order of Your Choosing:
You can use a Custom List to identify your own sorting order, such as days of the week, or, in this example, t-shirt sizes from smallest to largest (Small, Medium, Large, and X-Large).
1. From the Data tab, click the Sort command to open the Sort dialog box. 2. Identify the column you want to Sort by by clicking the drop-down arrow in the Column field. In this example, we will choose T-Shirt Size. 3. Make sure Values is selected in the Sort On field. 4. Click the drop-down arrow in the Order field, and choose Custom List... 5. Select NEW LIST, and enter how you want your data sorted in the List entries box. We will sort t-shirt sizes from smallest to largest. 6. Click Add to save the list, then click OK. 7. Click OK to close the Sort dialog box and sort your data. 8. The spreadsheet will be sorted in order of Small, Medium, Large, and X-Large.
Sorting Multiple Levels
Another feature of custom sorting, sorting multiple levels allows you to identify which columns to sort by and when, giving you more control over the organization of your data. For example, you could sort by more than one cell color (such as red, then yellow, then green, to indicate different levels of priority); or, as seen here, sort students by homeroom number, then by last name.
To Add a Level:
1. From the Data tab, click the Sort command to open the Sort dialog box. 2. Identify the first item you want to Sort by. In this example, we will sort Homeroom # from Smallest to Largest. 3. Click Add Level to add another item. 4. Identify the item you want to sort by next. We will sort Last Name from A to Z. 5. Click OK. 6. The spreadsheet will be sorted so that homeroom numbers are in order, and within each homeroom, students are listed alphabetically by last name.
Copy Level will add a level by duplicating the one you have selected, and allowing you to modify the sorting criteria. This is useful if you need to sort multiple levels that share some criteria, such as the same Column, Sort On, or Order.
To Change the Sorting Priority:
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1. From the Data tab, click the Sort command to open the Custom Sort dialog box. 2. Select the level you want to re-order. 3. Use the Move Up or Move Down arrows. The higher the level is on the list, the higher its priority. 4. Click OK.
2.3.12 Data Outlining
If the amount of data in your worksheet becomes overwhelming, creating an outline can help. Not only does this allow you to organize your data into groups, and then show or hide them from view; you can also summarize data for quick analysis using the Subtotal command (for example, subtotaling the cost of office supplies depending on the type of product).
Outlines give you the ability to group data that you may want to show or hide from view, and create a quick summary using the Subtotal command. Because outlines rely on grouping data that is related, you must sort before you can outline.
To Outline Data Using Subtotal:
The Subtotal command can be used to outline your worksheet in many different ways. It uses common functions like SUM, COUNT, AVG, and more, to summarize your data, and place it in a group.
In this example, we will use the Subtotal command to count the number of t-shirt sizes that were ordered at a local high school. This will also place each t-shirt size in a group, making it possible to show the count, but hide the details that are not crucial to the placing of the order (such as the student's homeroom number and payment date).
1. Sort according to the data you want to outline. Outlines rely on grouping data that is related. In this example, we will outline the worksheet by T-Shirt Size, which has been sorted from smallest to largest. 2. Select the Data tab, and locate the Outline group. 3. Click the Subtotal command to open the Subtotal dialog box. 4. In the At each change in field, select the column you want to use to outline your worksheet. In this example, we will choose T-Shirt Size. 5. In the Use function field, choose from the list of functions that are available for subtotaling. We will use the COUNT function to tally the number of each size. 6. Select the column you want the subtotal to appear in. We will choose the T-Shirt Size column. 7. Click OK. 8. The contents of your worksheet will be outlined. Each t-shirt size will be placed in its own group, and the subtotal (in this case, count) will be listed below each group.
Showing or Hiding Data
To Show or Hide a Group:
1. Click the minus sign, also known as the Hide Detail symbol, to collapse the group.
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Hiding an expanded group
2. Click the plus sign, also known as the Show Detail symbol, to expand the group again.
You can also use the or commands on the Data tab in the Outline group. First select a cell in the group you want to show or hide, then click the appropriate command.
To View Groups by Level:
The groups in your outline, based on their hierarchy, are placed on different levels. You can quickly display as little or as much information as you want by clicking the level symbols to the left of your worksheet. In this example, we will view levels in descending order, starting with the entire worksheet on display, then finishing with the grand total. While this example contains only 3 levels, Excel can accommodate up to 8.
1. Click the highest level (in this example, level 3) to view and expand all of your groups. Viewing groups at the highest level will display the entirety of your worksheet. 2. Click the next level (in this example, level 2) to hide the detail of the previous level. In this example, level 2 contains each subtotal.
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Viewing data on level 2
3. Click the lowest level (level 1) to display the lowest level of detail. In this example, level 1 contains only the grand total.
Removing Groups and Subtotaling
To Ungroup Data:
1. Select the rows or columns that you want to ungroup. In this example, we will ungroup size Small. 2. From the Data tab, click the Ungroup command. The range of cells will be ungrouped.
To ungroup all the groups in your outline, open the drop-down menu under the Ungroup command, and choose Clear Outline.
Ungroup and Clear Outline will not remove subtotaling from your worksheet. Summary or subtotal data will stay in place and continue to function until you remove it.
To Ungroup Data and Remove Subtotaling:
1. From the Data tab, click the Subtotal command to open the Subtotal dialog box. 2. Click Remove All. 3. All data will be ungrouped, and subtotals will be removed.
Creating Your Own Groups
The Group command allows you to group any range of cells - either columns or rows. It does not calculate a subtotal, or rely on your data being sorted. This gives you the ability to show or hide any part of your worksheet, and display only the information you need.
To Create and Control Your Own Group:
In this example, we will prepare a list of t-shirt colors and sizes that need to be distributed to each homeroom. Some of the data in the worksheet is not relevant to the distribution of the t-shirts; however, instead of deleting it, we will group it, then temporarily hide it from view.
1. Select the range of cells that you want to group. In this example, we will group the First Name, Last Name, and Payment columns. 2. From the Data tab, click the Group command. 3. Excel will group the selected columns or rows. 4. Click the minus sign, also known as the Hide Detail symbol, to hide the group. Engineering Staff College of India Page 149 of 348
5. The group will be hidden from view.
Click the plus sign, also known as the Show Detail symbol, to show the group again.
2.3.13 Data Filtering
Filters can be used to narrow down the data in your worksheet and hide parts of it from view. While it may sound a little like grouping, filtering is different in the way that it allows you to qualify and display only the data that interests you. For example, you could filter a list of survey participants to view only those who are between the ages of 25-34. You could also filter an inventory of paint colors to view anything that contains the word "blue," such as "bluebell" or "robin's egg blue."
Filters can be applied in many different ways to improve the performance of your worksheet. You can filter text, dates, and numbers. You can even use more than one filter to further narrow down your results.
To Filter Data:
In this example, we will filter the contents of an equipment log at a technology company. We will display only the laptops and projectors that are available for check-out.
1. Begin with a worksheet that identifies each column using a header row. 2. Select the Data tab, and locate the Sort & Filter group. 3. Click the Filter command. 4. Drop-down arrows will appear in the header of each column. 5. Click the drop-down arrow for the column you would like to filter. In this example, we will filter the Type column to view only certain types equipment. 6. The Filter menu appears. 7. Uncheck the boxes next to the data you don't want to view. (You can uncheck the box next to Select All to quickly uncheck all.) 8. Check the boxes next to the data you do want to view. In this example, we will check Laptop and Projector to view only those types of equipment. 9. Click OK. All other data will be filtered, or temporarily hidden. Only laptops and projectors will be visible.
Filtering options can also be found on the Home tab, condensed into the Sort & Filter command.
To Add Another Filter:
Filters are additive, meaning you can use as many as you need to narrow down your results. In this example, we will work with a spreadsheet that has already been filtered to display only laptops and projectors. Now we will display only laptops and projectors that were checked out during the month of August.
1. Click the drop-down arrow where you would like to add a filter. In this example, we will add a filter to the Checked Out column to view information by date. 2. Uncheck the boxes next to the data you don't want to view. Check the boxes next to the data you do want to view. In this example, we will check the box next to August. 3. Click OK. In addition to the original filter, the new filter will be applied. The worksheet will be narrowed down even further.
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To Clear a Filter:
1. Click the drop-down arrow in the column from which you want to clear the filter. 2. Choose Clear Filter From... 3. The filter will be cleared from the column. The data that was previously hidden will be on display once again.
To instantly clear all filters from your worksheet, click the Filter command on the Data tab.
Advanced Filtering
To Filter Using Search:
Searching for data is a convenient alternative to checking or unchecking data from the list. You can search for data that contains an exact phrase, number, or date, or a simple fragment. For example, searching for the exact phrase "Saris X-10 Laptop" will display only Saris X-10 Laptops. Searching for the word "Saris," however, will display Saris X-10 Laptops, and any other Saris equipment, including projectors, digital cameras, and more.
1. From the Data tab, click the Filter command. 2. Click the drop-down arrow in the column you would like to filter. In this example, we will filter the Equipment Detail column to view only a specific brand. 3. Enter the data you would like to view in the Search box. We will enter the word "Saris" to find all Saris brand equipment. The search results will appear automatically. 4. Check the boxes next to the data you want to display. We will display all the data that includes the brand name Saris. 5. Click OK. The worksheet will be filtered according to your search term.
To Use Advanced Text Filters:
Advanced text filters can be used to display more specific information, such as cells that contain a certain number of characters, or data that does not contain a word you specify. In this example, we will use advanced text filters to hide any equipment that is related to cameras, including digital cameras, camcorders, and more.
1. From the Data tab, click the Filter command. 2. Click the drop-down arrow in the column of text that you would like to filter. In this example, we will filter the Equipment Detail column to view only certain kinds of equipment. 3. Choose Text Filters to open the advanced filtering menu. 4. Choose a filter. In this example, we will choose Does Not Contain to view data that does not contain the text we specify. 5. The Custom AutoFilter dialog appears. 6. Enter your text to the right of your filter. In this example, we will enter "cam" to view data that does not contain those letters. That will exclude any equipment related to cameras, such as digital cameras, camcorders, camera bags, and the digicam printer. 7. Click OK. The data will be filtered according to the filter you chose and the text you specified.
To Use Advanced Date Filters:
Advanced date filters can be used to view information from a certain time period, such as last year, next quarter, between two dates, and more. Excel automatically knows your current date and time, making this tool very easy to use. In this example, we will use advanced date filters to view only the equipment that has been checked out this week.
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1. From the Data tab, click the Filter command. 2. Click the drop-down arrow in the column of dates that you would like to filter. In this example, we will filter the Checked Out column to view only a certain range of dates. 3. Choose Date Filters to open the advanced filtering menu. 4. Click a filter. We will choose This Week to view equipment that has been checked out this week. 5. The worksheet will be filtered according to the date filter you chose.
To Use Advanced Number Filters:
Advanced number filters allow you to manipulate numbered data in many different ways. For example, in a worksheet of exam grades, you could display the top and bottom numbers to view the highest and lowest scores. In this example, we will display only certain kinds of equipment based on the range of ID #s that have been assigned to them.
1. From the Data tab, click the Filter command. 2. Click the drop-down arrow in the column of numbers that you would like to filter. In this example, we will filter the ID # column to view only a certain range of ID #s. 3. Choose Number Filters to open the advanced filtering menu. 4. Choose a filter. In this example, we will choose Between to view ID #s between the numbers we specify. 5. Enter a number to the right of each filter. In this example, we will view ID #s greater than or equal to 3000, but less than or equal to 4000. That will display ID #s in the 3000-4000 range. 6. Click OK. The data will be filtered according to the filter you chose and the numbers you specified.
2.3.14 Formatting Spreadsheet Once you have entered information into a spreadsheet, you may want to format it. Formatting your spreadsheet can not only improve the look and feel, but also make it easier to use.
To Format Information as a Table:
1. Select the cells you want to format as a table. In this example, an invoice, we will format the cells that contain the column headers and the order details. 2. Click the Format as Table command in the Styles group on the Home tab. 3. A list of predefined table styles will appear. Click a table style to select it.
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Selecting a table style
4. A dialog box will appear, confirming the range of cells you have selected for your table. The cells will appear selected in the spreadsheet, and the range will appear in the dialog box. 5. If necessary, change the range by selecting a new range of cells directly on your spreadsheet. 6. If your table has headers, check the box next to My table has headers. 7. Click OK. The data will be formatted as a table in the style that you chose.
Tables include filtering by default. You can filter your data at any time using the drop-down arrows in the header. To convert a table back into "normal" cells, click the Convert to Range command in the Tools group. The filters and the Design tab will then disappear, but the cells will retain their data and formatting.
To Add Rows or Columns:
1. Select any cell in your table. The Design tab will appear on the Ribbon. 2. From the Design tab, click the Resize Table command. 3. Directly on your spreadsheet, select the new range of cells that you want your table to cover. You must select your original table cells as well. 4. Click OK. The new rows and/or columns will be added to your table.
To Change the Table Style:
1. Select any cell in your table. The Design tab will appear. 2. Locate the Table Styles group. Click the More drop-down arrow to see all of the table styles. 3. Hover the mouse over the various styles to see a live preview. 4. Select the desired style. The table style will appear in your worksheet.
To Change the Table Style Options:
When using an Excel table, you can turn various options on or off to change its appearance. There are six options: Header Row, Total Row, Banded Rows, First Column, Last Column, and Banded Columns.
1. Select any cell in your table. The Design tab will appear. 2. From the Design tab, check or uncheck the desired options in the Table Style Options group.
Depending on the Table Style you're using, certain Table Style Options may have a different effect. You may need to experiment to get the exact look you want.
2.3.15 Reviewing Workbooks and Sharing
Suppose someone asked you to proofread or collaborate on a worksheet they put together. If you had a hard copy, you might use a red pen to cross out cell data, mark misspellings, or add comments in the margins. However, you could also do all of these things in Excel using the Track Changes and Comments features.
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When you've finished reviewing the worksheet, the other person can choose to automatically Accept all of your changes, or decide whether to Accept or Reject each change one-by-one.
Tracking Changes
When you turn on the Track Changes option, every change you make to the worksheet will be highlighted with a unique border and indicator. Hovering your mouse over a highlighted cell will display the details of the change. This allows the other person to see what changes have been made before making the changes permanent.
The color of the highlights will vary depending on who is reviewing the document, so if there are multiple reviewers, you'll be able to tell at a glance who made each change.There are some changes that Excel cannot track.
To Turn on Track Changes:
1. Go to the Review tab. 2. Click Track Changes, then select Highlight Changes from the drop-down menu. 3. The Highlight Changes dialog box will appear. 4. Check the box next to Track changes while editing. 5. Verify the box is checked for Highlight changes on screen. This will highlight your changes while you work. 6. Click OK. 7. If prompted, click OK to allow Excel to save your workbook 8. Change tracking is now active. Any changes you make to the worksheet will be highlighted with a unique border and indicator.
Your workbook will be "shared" automatically when you turn Track Changes on. Shared workbooks are designed to be stored where other users (such as users on the same network) can access and edit the workbook at the same time. However, you can also track changes in a local or personal copy.
To Turn off Track Changes:
1. From the Review tab, click Track Changes. Then select Highlight Changes from the drop-down menu. 2. Uncheck the box next to Track changes while editing. 3. Click Yes to confirm that you want to turn off Track Changes and stop sharing your workbook.
Turning off Track Changes will delete any tracking that has taken place in your workbook. You will not be able to view, accept, or reject changes; instead, they will all be applied to your workbook automatically. Always review the changes in your worksheet before turning Track Changes off.
Adding and Deleting Comments
Sometimes, you may want to add a comment to a worksheet, to provide feedback for the author instead of changing the contents. Comments are highlighted by a unique indicator and can be read by the original author or by any other reviewers.
To Add a Comment:
1. Select the cell where you want the comment to appear. 2. From the Review tab, click the New Comment command. 3. Type your comment. 4. The red indicator in the upper right corner shows that there is a comment in that cell. Engineering Staff College of India Page 154 of 348
5. Hover your mouse over the cell to view the comment.
Viewing a comment
Accepting or Rejecting Changes
Tracked changes are really just "suggested" changes. To become permanent, they have to be Accepted. On the other hand, the original author may disagree with some of the tracked changes and choose to Reject them.
To Accept or Reject Changes:
1. From the Review tab, click Track Changes. Then select Accept/Reject Changes from the drop- down menu. 2. If prompted, allow Excel to save your workbook. 3. Identify which changes you want to accept or reject. In this example, we will address all the changes that we have not yet reviewed. 4. Click OK. 5. The Accept or Reject Changes dialog box will appear. 6. Click Accept or Reject for each change in the document. Excel will cycle through each change automatically until you have addressed them all. 7. When you're done, the cell highlights will disappear, and the worksheet will appear "normal."
To accept or reject all the changes at once, click Accept All or Reject All in the Accept or Reject Changes dialog box.
Adjusting How Changes are Viewed
Sometimes it's hard to see exactly what has been changed in a shared workbook. Taking in the meaning of a large amount of feedback can also be problematic if your worksheet contains many comments. There are a couple of settings you can use to adjust the way changes and comments are viewed.
To List Changes on a Separate Worksheet:
An alternative to viewing them as highlights on your worksheet, you can view changes on a new worksheet of their own, sometimes called the change history. The change history lists everything in your worksheet that has been changed, including the "old value" (what the cell used to contain) and the "new value" (what the cell contains now).
1. Save your workbook. 2. From the Review tab, click Track Changes. Then select Highlight Changes from the drop-down menu. 3. Check the box next to List changes on a new sheet.
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4. Click OK. 5. The changes will be listed in a new sheet of their own, titled History.
To remove the History worksheet from your workbook, you can either save your workbook again, or uncheck the box next to List changes on a new sheet.
Finalizing and Protecting Your Workbook
Before you send your workbook out, take a minute to prepare a final copy. Excel has tools that might save you from sharing a workbook that contains spelling errors, or information about the workbook itself that you do not want the recipient to see. Use the Spelling command to find and edit any misspelled words; use the Document Inspector to find and delete any hidden data or personal information that is stored in the workbook, such as hidden comments, invisible objects, and file paths; and consider your Protect Workbook options, designed to keep other users from making unwanted changes to your workbook.
To Check Spelling:
1. Select the cells you want to spell check. 2. Click on the Spelling command from the Review tab. 3. The Spelling dialog box will open. From the Spelling dialog box, you can review and edit any misspelled words.
You can also check the spelling of every cell in an active worksheet by selecting any empty cell in the worksheet and then clicking on the Spelling command.
Ignoring Spelling "Errors"
There are times when Excel will say something is an error when it is not. This often happens with people's names, which may not be in the dictionary. Even if Excel says that something is an error, you can choose not to change it. There are three options you can choose from:
• Ignore Once: This will skip the word without changing it. • Ignore All: This will skip the word without changing it, and it will also skip all other instances of this word in the worksheet. • Add to Dictionary: This adds the word to the dictionary so that it will never come up as an error again. Make sure that the word is spelled correctly before choosing this option.
To Use the Document Inspector:
1. In Backstage view, click Info. 2. Click on the Check for Issues button. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Select Inspect Document. A dialog box will appear. 4. Check the boxes beside the content you want to inspect. To unselect a box, simply click it again and the check mark will disappear. 5. Click Inspect. 6. After the Document Inspector finishes, a new dialog box will appear where you can review the inspection results. Click the Remove All command beside any information you want to remove.
It is a good idea to save an additional copy of your workbook before you use the Document Inspector to remove information, because some changes cannot be undone.
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By default, anyone with access to your workbook will be able to open, copy, and change any part of it unless you protect it. There are many ways you can protect your workbook depending on your needs. For example, you can mark your workbook as final, set it up with a password, put restrictions on who can make changes, or make it so that only certain cells or features of the workbook are changeable.
To Protect Your Workbook:
1. Click the File tab to access the Backstage view . 2. From the Info pane, click the Protect Workbook command. 3. Choose the option that best suits your needs. In this example, we will select Mark as Final. Marking your workbook as final is a way to discourage others from making any changes to the workbook. It will alert whoever opens it that typing, editing, and proofreading commands are unavailable. 4. Click OK. 5. Another dialog box will appear. Click OK to confirm.
2.3.16 Creating Templates
In Excel 2010, you have many templates that can save you a lot of time. A template is a pre-designed spreadsheet that you can use to create new spreadsheets with the same formatting and predefined formulas. With templates, you don't need to know how to do the math, or even how to write formulas - these are already integrated into the spreadsheet. Excel allows you to create new workbooks using templates, or a predefined pattern. Several templates are preloaded in Excel and others are located on Microsoft Office Online.
To Create a New Workbook Using a Template:
1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 2. Select New. The Available Templates pane appears. 3. Click Sample templates to choose a built-in template, or select an Office.com template category to download a template. In this example, we will download a template from Office.com. 4. Thumbnail images of the templates you have to choose from appear in the center. A larger preview appears on the right. 5. Select the desired template, then click Download to open it. (If using a Sample template, Download will be replaced by Create.) 6. A new workbook will appear using the template you chose.
Use caution when downloading Office.com templates. Some of them are uploaded by people not affiliated with Microsoft, and Microsoft cannot guarantee that those templates are free from viruses or defects. For those templates, you'll see a warning message before downloading them.
2.3.17 Using Charts A chart is a tool you can use in Excel to communicate your data graphically. Charts allow your audience to see the meaning behind the numbers, and they make showing comparisons and trends a lot easier. Engineering Staff College of India Page 157 of 348
Excel workbooks can contain a lot of data, and that data can often be difficult to interpret. For example, where are the highest and lowest values? Are the numbers increasing or decreasing?
The answers to questions like these can become much clearer when the data is represented as a chart. Excel has many different types of charts, so you can choose one that most effectively represents the data.
To Create a Chart:
1. Select the cells that you want to chart, including the column titles and the row labels. These cells will be the source data for the chart. 2. Click the Insert tab. 3. In the Charts group, select the desired chart category (Column, for example). 4. Select the desired chart type from the drop-down menu (Clustered Column, for example). 5. The chart will appear in the worksheet.
The new chart
Chart Tools
Once you insert a chart, a set of Chart Tools, arranged into three tabs, will appear on the Ribbon. These are only visible when the chart is selected. You can use these three tabs to modify your chart.
To Change the Chart Type:
1. From the Design tab, click the Change Chart Type command. A dialog box appears. 2. Select the desired chart type and click OK.
To Switch Row and Column Data:
Sometimes when you create a chart, the data may not be grouped the way you want it to be. In the clustered column chart below, the Book Sales statistics are grouped by Fiction/Non-Fiction, with a column for each year. However, you can also switch the row and column data so that the chart will
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group the statistics by year, with columns for Fiction and Non-Fiction. In both cases, the chart contains the same data; it's just organized differently.
1. Select the chart. 2. From the Design tab, select the Switch Row/Column command. 3. The chart will then readjust.
To Change the Chart Layout:
1. Select the Design tab. 2. Click the More drop-down arrow in the Chart Layouts group to see all of the available layouts. 3. Select the desired layout. 4. The chart will update to reflect the new layout.
Some layouts include chart titles, axes, or legend labels. To change them, just place the insertion point in the text and begin typing.
To Change the Chart Style:
1. Select the Design tab. 2. Click the More drop-down arrow in the Chart Styles group to see all of the available styles. 3. Select the desired style. 4. The chart will update to reflect the new style.
To Move the Chart to a Different Worksheet:
1. Select the Design tab. 2. Click the Move Chart command. A dialog box appears. The current location of the chart is selected. 3. Select the desired location for the chart (i.e., choose an existing worksheet, or select New Sheet and name it). 4. Click OK. The chart will appear in the new location.
2.3.18 Using Spark lines Spark lines are miniature charts that fit into a single cell. Since they're so compact, you can place a large number of them in your worksheets. For example, you could place one spark line on each row to show trends within that row.
Creating Spark lines
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Spark lines were introduced in Excel 2010 to be a convenient alternative to charts. Unlike a traditional chart, a sparkline is placed inside a cell, allowing you to easily create a large number of sparklines (for example, one on each row).
Types of Spark lines
There are three different types of spark lines: Line, Column, and Win/Loss. Line and Column work the same as line and column charts. Win/Loss is similar to Column, except it only shows whether each value is positive or negative, instead of how high or low the values are. All three types can display markers at important points, such as the highest and lowest points, to make them easier to read.
Why Use Spark lines?
Spark lines are basically charts, so why would you want to use sparklines instead of charts? Sparklines have certain advantages that make them more convenient in many cases. Imagine you have 1000 rows of data. If you place a sparkline on each row, it will be right next to its source data, making it easy to see the relationships between the numbers and the sparkline. If you used a traditional chart, it would need to have 1000 data series in order to represent all of the rows, and you would probably need to do a lot of scrolling to find the relevant data in the worksheet.
Sparklines are ideal for situations where you just want to make the data clearer and more eye-catching, and where you don't need all of the features of a full chart. On the other hand, charts are ideal for situations where you want to represent the data in greater detail, and they are often better for comparing different data series.
To Create Sparklines:
Generally, you will have one sparkline for each row, but you can create as many as you want in any location you want. Just like with formulas it's usually easiest to create a single sparkline and then use the fill handle to automatically create the sparklines for the remaining rows.
1. Select the cells that you will need for the first sparkline. In this example, we are creating a sparkline for Kathy Albertson, so we will select her sales data. 2. Click the Insert tab. 3. In the Sparklines group, select Line. A dialog box will appear. 4. Make sure the insertion point is next to Location Range. 5. Click the cell where you want the sparkline to be. In this example, we'll select the cell to the right of the selected cells. 6. Click OK. The sparkline will appear in the document. 7. Click and drag the fill handle downward. 8. Sparklines will be created for the remaining rows.
To Show Points on the Sparkline:
Certain points on the sparkline can be emphasized with markers, or dots, making the sparkline more readable. For example, in a line with a lot of ups and downs, it may be difficult to tell which ones are the highest and lowest points, but if you show the High Point and Low Point, it will be easy to identify them.
1. Select the sparklines that you want to change. If they are grouped, you only need to select one of them. 2. Locate the Show group in the Design tab. 3. Hover over the different checkboxes to see a description of each one. 4. Check each option that you want to show. The sparklines will update to show the selected options. Engineering Staff College of India Page 160 of 348
To Change the Style:
1. Select the sparklines that you want to change. 2. Locate the Style group in the Design tab. 3. Click the More drop-down arrow to show all of the available styles. 4. Select the desired style. 5. The sparklines will update to show the selected style.
To Change the Sparkline Type:
1. Select the sparklines that you want to change. 2. Locate the Type group in the Design tab. 3. Select the desired type (Column, for example). 4. The sparkline will update to reflect the new type.
Some sparkline types will be better or worse for certain types of data. For example, Win/Loss is best suited for data where there may be positive and negative values (such as net earnings).
Changing the Display Range
By default, each sparkline is scaled to fit the maximum and minimum values of its own data. This allows it to fill the entire cell no matter how high or low the values are. However, it has a downside: if you are trying to compare several sparklines, you won't be able to tell at a glance which ones have higher or lower values. The solution is to make the display range the same for all of the sparklines.
To Change the Display Range:
1. Select the sparklines that you want to change. 2. In the Design tab, click the Axis command. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Under Vertical Axis Minimum Value Options and Vertical Axis Maximum Value Options, select Same for All Sparklines. 4. The sparklines will update to reflect the new range.
2.3.19 Using Conditional Formatting Imagine you have a spreadsheet with thousands of rows of data. It would be extremely difficult to see patterns and trends just from examining the raw data. Excel gives us several tools that will make this task easier. One of these tools is called conditional formatting. With conditional formatting, you can apply formatting to one or more cells based on the value of the cell. You can highlight interesting or unusual cell values, and visualize the data using formatting such as colors, icons, and data bars.
Conditional Formatting
Conditional formatting applies one or more rules to any cells that you want. An example of a rule might be "If the value is greater than 5,000, color the cell yellow." By applying this rule to the cells in a worksheet, you'll be able to see at a glance which cells are over 5,000. There are also rules that can mark the top 10 items, all cells that are below the average, cells that are within a certain date range, and many more.
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To Create a Conditional Formatting Rule:
1. Select the cells that you want to add the formatting to. 2. In the Home tab, click the Conditional Formatting command. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Select Highlight Cells Rules or Top/Bottom Rules. We will choose Highlight Cells Rules for this example. A menu will appear with several rules. 4. Select the desired rule (Greater Than, for example). 5. From the dialog box, enter a value in the space provided, if applicable. In this example, we want to format cells that are greater than $5,000, so we'll enter 5000 as our value. If you want, you can enter a cell reference instead of a number. 6. Select a formatting style from the drop-down menu. 7. The formatting will be applied to the selected cells.
If you want, you can apply more than one rule to your cells.
Conditional Formatting Presets
Excel has a number of presets that you can use to quickly apply conditional formatting to your cells. They are grouped into three categories:
• Data Bars are horizontal bars added to each cell, much like a bar graph. • Color Scales change the color of each cell based on its value. Each color scale uses a two or three color gradient. For example, in the Green - Yellow - Red color scale, the highest values are green, average values are yellow, and the lowest values are red. • Icon Sets add a specific icon to each cell based on its value.
To Use Preset Conditional Formatting:
1. Select the cells you want to add the formatting to. 2. In the Home tab, click the Conditional Formatting command. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Select Data Bars, Color Scales or Icon Sets (Data Bars, for example). Then, select the desired preset. 4. The conditional formatting will be applied to the selected cells.
To Remove Conditional Formatting Rules:
1. Select the cells that have conditional formatting. 2. In the Home tab, click the Conditional Formatting command. A drop-down menu will appear. 3. Select Clear Rules. 4. A menu will appear. You can choose to clear rules from the Selected Cells, Entire Sheet, This Table, or This PivotTable. In this example, we will clear rules from the entire sheet.
You can edit or delete individual rules by clicking on the Conditional Formatting command and selecting Manage Rules. This is especially useful if you have applied multiple rules to the cells.
2.3.20 PivotTable Reports
PivotTable reports (or, simply PivotTables) make the data in your worksheets much more manageable by summarizing the data and allowing you to manipulate it in different ways. PivotTables can be an
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indispensable tool when used with large, complex spreadsheets, but they can be used with smaller spreadsheets as well. When you have a lot of data, it can sometimes be difficult to analyze all of it. A PivotTable summarizes the data, making it easier to manage. Best of all, you can quickly and easily change the PivotTable to see the data in a different way, making this an extremely powerful tool.
Using PivotTables to Answer Questions
The example below contains sales statistics for a fictional company. There is a row for each order, and it includes the order amount, the name of the salesperson who made the sale, the month, the sales region, and the customer's account number.
Suppose we wanted to answer the question, "What is the amount sold by each salesperson?" This could be time-consuming, as each salesperson appears on multiple rows, and we would need to add up all of the order amounts for each salesperson. Of course, we could use the Subtotal feature to add them, but we would still have a lot of data to sift through.
Luckily, a PivotTable can instantly do all of the math for us and summarize the data in a way that's not only easy to read, but easy to manipulate. When we're done, the PivotTable will look something like this:
As you can see, the PivotTable is much easier to read. It only takes a couple of steps to create one, and once you create it you'll be able to take advantage of the PivotTable's powerful features.
To Create a PivotTable:
1. Select the table or cells (including column headers) containing the data you want to use. 2. From the Insert tab, click the PivotTable command. 3. The Create PivotTable dialog box will appear. Make sure the settings are correct, and then click OK. 4. A blank PivotTable will appear on the left, and the Field List will appear on the right
To Add Fields to the PivotTable:
Now, you'll need to decide which fields to add to the PivotTable. Each field is simply a column header from the source data. It may be helpful to recall the question that you are trying to answer. In this example, we want to know the total amount sold by each salesperson, so we'll just need the Order Amount and Salesperson fields.
1. In the Field List, place a checkmark next to each field you want to add. 2. The selected fields will be added to one of the four Areas below the Field List. In this example, the Salesperson field is added to the Row Labels area, and the Order Amount is added to the Values area. If a field is not in the desired area, you can drag it to a different one. 3. The PivotTable now shows the amount sold by each salesperson.
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Adding fields to the PivotTable
Just like with normal spreadsheet data, you can sort the data in a PivotTable using the Sort & Filter command in the Home tab. You can also apply any type of formatting that you want. For example, you may want to change the Number Format to Currency. However, be aware that some types of formatting may disappear when you modify the PivotTable.
Pivoting Data
One of the best things about PivotTables is that they let you "pivot" the data in order to look at it in a different way. This allows you to answer multiple questions and even experiment with the data to learn new things about it.
In our example, we used the PivotTable to answer the question "What is the total amount sold by each salesperson?" But now we'd like to answer a new question, such as "What is the total amount sold in each month?" We can do this by simply changing the Row Labels.
To Change the Row Labels:
1. Drag any existing fields out of the Row Labels area, and they will disappear. 2. Drag a new field from the Field List into the Row Labels area. In this example, we're using the Month field. 3. The PivotTable will adjust to show the new data. In this example, it now shows us the total Order Amount for each month.
To Add Column Labels:
So far, our PivotTable has only shown one column of data at a time. In order to show multiple columns, you'll need to add Column Labels.
1. Drag a field from the Field List into the Column Labels area. In this example, we're using the Region field. Engineering Staff College of India Page 164 of 348
2. The PivotTable will now have multiple columns. In this example, there is a column for each region.
Report Filters
Sometimes you may want focus on just a portion of the data and filter out everything else. In our example, we're going to focus on certain salespeople, to see how they affect the total sales.
To Add a Report Filter:
1. Drag a field from the Field List into the Report Filter area. In this example, we're using the Salesperson field. 2. The report filter appears above the PivotTable. Click the drop-down arrow on the right side of the filter to view the list of items. 3. Select the item that you wish to view. If you want to select more than one item, place a checkmark next to Select Multiple Items. Then click OK. In the example below, we are selecting five salespeople.
Using a Report Filter
4. Click OK. The PivotTable will adjust to reflect the changes.
Slicers
Slicers were introduced in Excel 2010 to make filtering data easier and more interactive. They're basically just report filters, but they're more interactive and faster to use, as they let you quickly select items and instantly see the result. If you filter your PivotTables a lot, you might want to use slicers instead of report filters.
To Add a Slicer:
1. Select any cell in your PivotTable. The Options tab will appear on the Ribbon. 2. From the Options tab, click the Insert Slicer command. A dialog box will appear. 3. Select the desired field. In this example, we will select Salesperson. Then click OK. 4. The slicer will appear next to the PivotTable. Each item that is selected will be highlighted in blue. In the example below, the slicer contains a list of all of the different salespeople, and four of them are currently selected.
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Using the Slicer:
Just like with report filters, only the selected items are used in the PivotTable. When you select or deselect items, the PivotTable will instantly reflect the changes. Try selecting different items to see how they affect the PivotTable.
• To select a single item, just click on it. • To select multiple items, hold down the Control (Ctrl) key on your keyboard, and then click on each item that you want. • You can also select multiple items by clicking and dragging the mouse. This is useful if the desired items are adjacent to one another, or if you want to select all of the items. • To deselect an item, hold down the Control (Ctrl) key on your keyboard, and then click on the item.
PivotCharts
PivotCharts are like regular charts, except they display data from a PivotTable. As with a regular chart, you'll be able to select a chart type, layout and style to best represent the data. In this example, we'll use a PivotChart so we can visualize the trends in each sales region.
To Create a PivotChart:
1. Select any cell in your PivotTable. The Options tab will appear in the Ribbon. 2. From the Options tab, click the PivotChart command. 3. From the dialog box, select the desired chart type (3-D Clustered Column, for example) and click OK. 4. The PivotChart will appear in the worksheet. If you want, you can move it by clicking and dragging.
If you make any changes to the PivotTable, the PivotChart will adjust automatically.
2.3.21 What-If Analysis The real power in Excel comes in its ability to perform multiple mathematical calculations for you. One of the tools in Excel that you can use to perform these calculations is a Data tool called What-If Analysis. What-If analysis allows you to see the effect that different values have in formulas. Have you ever thought, "What interest rate do I need to qualify for to have a car payment of $400 on the car I want?" This question can be answered using What-If Analysis.
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In many worksheets, there may be some cells whose values are unknown, or you may just want to change certain cells to see what the outcome is. What-if analysis is perfect for these situations. It allows you to experiment and answer questions with your data, even when the data is incomplete.
Goal Seek
Goal Seek is a type of what-if analysis that is useful if you know the desired result, but need to find the input value that will give you that result. For example, suppose you need a loan to buy a new car. You already know that you want a loan amount of $20,000, a 60-month term (the length of time it takes to pay off the loan), and a payment of no more than $400 a month. However, you're not sure yet what the interest rate is going to be.
In the image below, you can see that Interest Rate is left blank, and Payment is $333.33. That's because the payment is being calculated by a specialized function called the PMT (Payment) function, and $333.33 is what the monthly payment would be if there were no interest ($20,000 divided by 60 monthly payments).
If we typed different values into the empty Interest Rate cell, we could eventually find the value that causes Payment to be $400, and that would be the highest interest rate that we could afford. However, Goal Seek can do this automatically by starting with the result and working backward.
To Use Goal Seek to Find the Interest Rate:
1. From the Data tab, click the What-If Analysis command. 2. Select Goal Seek. 3. A dialog box will appear containing three fields: o Set cell: This is the cell that will contain the desired result (in this case, the monthly payment). In this example, we will set it to B5 (it doesn't matter whether it's an absolute or relative reference). o To value: This is the desired result. We'll set it to -400. Since we're making a payment that will be subtracted from our loan amount, we have to enter the payment as a negative number. o By changing cell: This is the cell where Goal Seek will place its answer (in this case, the interest rate). We'll set it to B4. 4. When you're done, click OK. The dialog box will tell you whether or not Goal Seek was able to find a solution. In this example, the solution is 7.42%, and it has been placed in cell B4. This tells us that a 7.42% interest rate will give us a $400-a-month payment on a $20,000 loan that is paid off over 5 years, or 60 months.
Other Types of What-If Analysis
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For more advanced projects, you may want to look at the other two types of what-if analysis: scenarios and data tables. Rather than starting from the desired result and working backward, like Goal Seek, these options allow you to test multiple values and see how the result changes.
Below is an introduction to some of the things you can do with scenarios and data tables.
• Scenarios let you substitute values for multiple cells (up to 32) at the same time. It is especially well-suited to showing best-case and worst-case scenarios. You can create as many scenarios as you want, and then compare them without having to manually change all of the values. In the example below, each scenario contains a term and an interest rate. When each scenario is selected, it will replace the values in the spreadsheet with its own values, and the result will be recalculated.
• Data Tables allow you to take one or two variables in a formula and replace them with as many different values as you want, and then view the results in a table. This option is especially powerful because it shows multiple results at the same time, unlike Scenarios or Goal Seek. In the example below, 24 possible results are shown in the table; doing the same task with Scenarios would take much longer.
2.3.22 Macros in Excel
If you perform a task repeatedly in Microsoft Excel, you can automate the task with a macro. A macro is a series of commands and functions that are stored in a Microsoft Visual Basic module and can be run whenever you need to perform the task. For example, if you often enter long text strings in cells, you can create a macro to format those cells so that the text wraps.
Excel VBA, which stands for Excel Visual Basic for Applications, is the name of the programming language of Microsoft Excel. With Excel VBA you can automate a task in Excel by writing a so called Macro. This can save you a lot of time! More importantly there are certain things you cannot do with Excel alone. Excel VBA allows you to do these things in Excel.
Visual Basic Editor in Excel 2010 / 2007 To launch the Visual Basic Editor in Excel 2010 or Excel 2007, click on Visual Basic (or press Alt+F11).
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The Visual Basic Editor appears:
The left window with the sheet names in it is called the Project Explorer. If you can't see the Project Explorer, click on View and then Project Explorer. Most probably the Project Explorer will already appear as a column on the left side of the screen. If not, execute the following three steps to achieve this.
1. Right click on the Project Explorer.
2. Check Dockable (if necessary).
3. Click on Project - VBAProject and drag the Project Explorer to the left side of the screen.
The Code window can be added by clicking on one of the sheet names. To cover the whole screen, you can maximize the Code Window. We think this is the best configuration of the Visual Basic Editor.
Create a Macro in Excel 2007
To create a macro in Excel 2007, you have to turn on the Developer tab. Next, you can create a macro which will be executed after clicking on a command button.
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Turn on the Developer Tab
1. Click on the Office button in the upper left corner of your screen. 2. Click on Excel Options. The Excel Options dialog box appears (see picture below).
3. Check Show Developer tab in the Ribbon.
4. Click OK.
Create a command button
You can now click on the Developer tab which has been placed next to the View tab.
1. Click on Insert. 2. Click on Command Button in the ActiveX Controls section.
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3. Now you can drag a command button on your worksheet.
Create and Assign the Macro
Now it is time to create a macro (a piece of code) and assign it to the command button.
1. Right click on CommandButton1. 2. Click on View Code.
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3. The Visual Basic Editor appears. Place you cursor between 'Private Sub CommandButton1_Click()' and 'End Sub'.
4. For example, add the following code line:
Range("A1").Value = "Hello"
This macro places the word Hello into cell A1.
5. Close the Visual Basic Editor.
6. Before you click on CommandButton1, make sure Design Mode is deselected. You can do this by clicking on Design Mode again.
7. Click on CommandButton1.
Cell A1 should contain the word Hello now. Congratulations. You've just created a macro in Excel VBA!
Recording macros
When you record a macro, Excel stores information about each step you take as you perform a series of commands. You then run the macro to repeat, or "play back," the commands. If you make a mistake when you record the macro, corrections you make are also recorded. Visual Basic stores each macro in a new module attached to a workbook.
Excel Macro Recorder in Excel 2010 / 2007
The Macro Recorder, a very useful tool included in Excel VBA, records every task you perform with Excel. This is good news if you want to automate repetitive tasks. All you have to do is record a specific task once. Next, you can execute the task over and over with the click of a button. This can save you a lot of time! The Macro Recorder is also a great help when you don't know how to program a specific task in Engineering Staff College of India Page 172 of 348
Excel VBA. Simply open the Visual Basic Editor after recording the task to see how it can be programmed.
Why not use the Excel Macro Recorder for everything?
Unfortunately there are a lot of things you cannot do with the Excel Macro Recorder. For example, we cannot loop through a range of data with the Macro Recorder. Moreover the Macro Recorder uses a lot more code than is required, which can slow your process down.
To record, run and edit a recorded macro, execute the following steps.
Record a Macro
1. Click on the Developer tab. Don't know where to find the Developer tab? Go to the Create a Macro chapter.
2. Click on Record Macro. See the picture below. Each of the commands you perform will be saved into the macro!
3. Here you can give your macro a name and you can enter a shortcut for your macro (both optional). You can store your macro in three workbooks. If you choose to store your macro in Personal Macro Workbook, the macro will be available to all your workbooks (Excel Files). This is because Excel stores your macro in a hidden workbook that opens automatically when Excel starts. If you choose to store your macro in New Workbook, the macro will only be available in an automatically new opened workbook. If you choose to store your macro in This Workbook, the macro will only be available in the current workbook.
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We will now record a macro that changes the format of Cells to Percentage.
4. Click on OK.
5. Right mouse click on the active cell (selected cell). Be sure not to select any other cell! Then click on Format Cells...
6. Choose Percentage and click on OK.
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7. Finally, Click on Stop Recording.
Congratulations! You've just-recorded a macro with the Excel Macro Recorder!
Run a Recorded Macro
Now you can test the macro to see if it can change the format of cells to Percentage Format.
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1. Enter some numbers between 0 and 1 in Excel. Select the numbers.
2. Click on the Developer tab.
3. Click on Macros.
3. Click on Run.
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The format of the cells should change to Percentage Format. Result:
Edit the Macro
There are two ways to take a look at the just-recorded macro. You can click on Macros from the Developer tab and then click on Edit. The Visual Basic Editor will appear. You can also directly open the Visual Basic Editor by clicking on Visual Basic from the Developer tab (or press Alt+F11).
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Our macro has been placed into a module called Module1. Earlier we placed our code created without the Excel Macro Recorder directly on Sheet1. Code placed into a module is available to the whole workbook, while code placed on a sheet is only available for that particular sheet.
Making a macro easy to run
You can run a macro by choosing it from a list in the Macro dialog box. To make a macro run whenever you click a particular button or press a particular key combination, you can assign the macro to a toolbar button, a keyboard shortcut, or a graphic object on a worksheet.
Managing your macros
After you record a macro, you can view the macro code with the Visual Basic Editor to correct errors or change what the macro does. For example, if you wanted the text-wrapping macro to also make the text bold, you could record another macro to make a cell bold and then copy the instructions from that macro to the text-wrapping macro.
The Visual Basic Editor is a program designed to make writing and editing macro code easy for beginners, and provides plenty of online Help. You don't have to learn how to program or use the Visual Basic language to make simple changes to your macros. With the Visual Basic Editor, you can edit macros, copy macros from one module to another, copy macros between different workbooks, rename the modules that store the macros, or rename the macros.
Macro security
Excel provides safeguards that help protect against viruses that can be transmitted by macros. If you share macros with others, you can certify them with a digital signature so that other users can verify that they are from a trustworthy source. Whenever you open a workbook that contains macros, you can verify their source before you enable them.
Macro Security in Excel 2010 / 2007
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To set up the macro security settings in Excel 2010 or Excel 2007, execute the following steps.
1. Click on Macro Security.
2. Here you have four options. The first option will disable all macros. The second option will always ask you to enable a macro. The third option will only allow macros with a digital signature to run, and ask you to enable others. The fourth option will enable all macros.
Our advice is to use the second security level if you are downloading a lot of Excel files from the internet. With this security level you can always disable the macro if you don't trust the owner of the Excel file. Use the fourth security level if you are a beginner and only typing your own macros at the moment. With this security level you don't have to enable macros all the time.
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2.4.1 Introduction to PowerPoint 2.4.1 Introduction to PowerPoint Excel VBA Programming is not difficult, but you do need to know the keywords used in Excel VBA.
1 Variables: Excel VBA uses variables just like any other programming language. Learn how to declare and initialize an excel vba variable of type Integer, String, Double, Boolean and Date.
2 String Manipulation: There are many functions in Excel VBA we can use to manipulate strings. In this chapter you can find a review of the most important functions.
3 Calculate: Calculate with Excel VBA and add, subtract, multiply and divide values just like you are used to doing in Excel.
4 If Then Statement: In many situations you only want Excel VBA to execute certain code lines when a specific condition is met. The If Then statement allows you to do this. Instead of multiple If Then statements, you can use Select Case.
5 Cells: Instead of the more common Range object we could also use Cells. Using Cells is particularly useful when we want to loop through ranges.
6 Loop: Looping is one of the most powerful programming techniques. A loop (or For Next loop) in Excel VBA enables you to loop through a range of data with just a few lines of code.
7 Logical Operators: Do you want to execute code in Excel Visual Basic when more conditions are met? Or just one? Or none? Logical operators are what you need! Logical operators such as And, Or and Not are often used in Excel VBA.
8 Range: The Range object which is the representation of a cell (or cells) on your worksheet is the most important object of Excel VBA. It has many properties and methods and they are essential to manipulate the content of your Excel worksheet. In this chapter you will discover the most useful properties and methods of the Excel VBA Range object. They enable you to obtain control over your Excel worksheet.
9 Events: This chapter teaches you how to program workbook and worksheet events. Events are actions performed by users which trigger Excel VBA to execute a macro. For example, when you open a workbook or when you change something on an Excel worksheet, Excel VBA can automatically execute a macro.
10 Array: An Excel VBA array is a group of variables. You can refer to a specific variable (element) of an array by using the array name and the index number.
11 Date and Time: Dates and Times in Excel VBA can be manipulated in many ways.
12 Function and Sub: The difference between a function and a sub in Excel VBA is that a function can return a value and a sub cannot. In this chapter we will look at an easy example of a function and a sub. Functions and subs become very useful as program size increases.
PowerPoint 2010 is a presentation software that allows you to create dynamic slide presentations that may include animation, narration, images, videos and more.
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How to Navigate PowerPoint to Create a Slide Presentation
PowerPoint uses slides to build a presentation. In order to create an engaging presentation, PowerPoint allows you to add text, bulleted lists, images, charts, video and more to your slides. You can add as many slides as you like to a presentation and at any time you can view or playback your presentation by selecting one of the Slide Show play options.
Working with Your PowerPoint Environment
The Ribbon and the Quick Access Toolbar are where you will find the commands you need to do common tasks in PowerPoint. If you are familiar with PowerPoint 2007, you will find that the main difference in the PowerPoint 2010 Ribbon is that commands such as Open and Print are now housed in Backstage view.
The Ribbon
The Ribbon contains multiple tabs, each with several groups of commands. Some tabs, like "Drawing Tools" or "Table Tools," may appear only when you are working with certain items like images or tables. In addition, you can add your own customized tabs that contain your favorite commands.
PowerPoint Ribbon
Certain programs, such as Adobe Acrobat Reader, may install additional tabs to the Ribbon. These tabs are called Add-ins.
To Customize the Ribbon:
You can customize the Ribbon by creating your own tabs that house your desired commands. Commands are always housed within a group, and you can create as many groups as you need to keep your tabs organized. In addition, you can even add commands to any of the default tabs, as long as you create a custom group within the tab.
1. Right-click the Ribbon and select Customize the Ribbon. A dialog box will appear. 2. Click New Tab. A new tab will be created with a new group inside it. 3. Make sure the new group is selected.
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4. Select a command from the list on the left, then click Add. You can also drag commands directly into a group. 5. When you are done adding commands, click OK.
If you do not see the command you want, click on the Choose commands drop-down box and select All Commands.
The Quick Access Toolbar
The Quick Access Toolbar is located above the Ribbon, and it lets you access common commands no matter which tab you are on. By default, it shows the Save, Undo, and Repeat commands. You can add other commands to make it more convenient for you.
To Add Commands to the Quick Access Toolbar:
1. Click the drop-down arrow to the right of the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. Select the command you wish to add from the drop-down menu. To choose from more commands, select More Commands.
To Create a New, Blank Presentation:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select New. 3. Select Blank presentation under Available Templates and Themes. It will be highlighted by default. 4. Click Create. A new, blank presentation appears in the PowerPoint window.
To save time, you can create your presentation from an Office.com template, which you can also select under Available Templates and Themes.
To Open an Existing Presentation:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to Backstage view. 2. Select Open. The Open dialog box appears. 3. Select your desired presentation and then click Open.
If you have opened the existing presentation recently, it may be easier to choose Recent from the File tab instead of Open to search for your presentation.
2.4.2 Basic Slide Operations
PowerPoint includes all the features you need to produce professional-looking presentations. When you create a PowerPoint presentation, it is made up of a series of slides. The slides contain the information you want to communicate with your audience. This information can include text, pictures, charts, video, sound, and more.
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About Slides
Slides contain placeholders, which are areas on the slide that are enclosed by dotted borders. Placeholders can contain many different items, including text, pictures, charts, and more. Some placeholders have placeholder text, or text that you can replace. They also have thumbnail-sized icons that represent specific commands such as Insert Picture, Insert Chart, and Insert Clip Art. In PowerPoint, hover over each icon to see the type of content you can insert in a placeholder.
PowerPoint slide with placeholders
About Slide Layouts
The placeholders are arranged in different layouts that can be applied to existing slides, or chosen when you insert a new slide. A slide layout arranges your content using different types of placeholders, depending on what kind of information you might want to include in your presentation.
In the example above, the layout is called Title and Content and includes title and content placeholders. While each layout has a descriptive name, you can also tell from the image of the layout how the placeholders will be arranged.
To Change the Layout of an Existing Slide:
1. Select the slide you wish to change. 2. Click the Layout command in the Slides group on the Home tab. A menu will appear with your options. 3. Choose a layout from the menu. The slide will change in the presentation.
To Delete a Placeholder:
You can easily customize your layout by deleting unwanted or "extra" placeholders from any slide.
1. Position your mouse on the dotted border of the placeholder so it changes to a cross with
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3. Press Backspace or Delete on your keyboard. The placeholder will be removed from the slide.
To Add a Text Box:
Text boxes allow you to add to your current layout, so you can place text wherever you want on your slide.
1. From the Insert tab, click the Text Box command. 2. Your cursor will turn into an upside-down cross . 3. Click, hold, and drag your mouse to draw a text box. A text box will appear.
To Use a Blank Slide:
For more control over your content, you may prefer a blank slide (a slide without placeholders) over one of the existing layouts. Blank slides can be customized by adding your own text boxes, pictures, charts, and more.
• Select Blank from the menu of layout options.
To Insert a New Slide:
1. From the Home tab, click the bottom half of the New Slide command to open the menu of slide layout options. 2. Select the slide you want to insert. 3. A new slide will be added your presentation.
To instantly add a slide that uses the same layout as the one you have selected, simply click the top half of the New Slide command.
New Slide
To Copy and Paste a Slide:
1. On the Slides tab in the left pane, select the slide you wish to copy. 2. Click the Copy command on the Home tab. You can also right-click your selection and choose Copy. 3. In the left pane, click just below a slide (or between two slides) to choose the location where you want the copy to appear. A horizontal insertion point will mark the location.
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Slide insertion point
4. Click the Paste command on the Home tab. You can also right-click and choose Paste. The copied slide will appear.
To select multiple slides, press and hold Ctrl on your keyboard, and click the slides you wish to select.
To Duplicate a Slide:
An alternative to Copy and Paste, Duplicate copies the selected slide and, in one step, pastes it directly underneath. This feature does not allow you to choose the location of the copied slide (nor does it offer Paste Options for advanced users), so it is more convenient for quickly inserting similar slides.
1. Select the slide you wish to duplicate. 2. Click the New Slide command. 3. Choose Duplicate Selected Slides from drop-down menu. 4. A copy of the selected slide appears underneath the original.
To Delete a Slide:
1. Select the slide you wish to delete. 2. Press the Delete or Backspace key on your keyboard.
To Move a Slide:
1. Select the slide you wish to move. 2. Click, hold, and drag your mouse to a new location. A horizontal insertion point will mark the location. 3. Release the mouse button. The slide will appear in the new location.
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About Slide Views
It is important that you be able to access the different slide views and use them for various tasks. The slide view commands are located on the bottom right of the PowerPoint window in Normal View.
Slide view options
Normal View: This is the default view where you create and edit your slides. You can also move slides in the Slides tab in the pane on the left.
Slide Sorter View: In this view, miniature slides are arranged on the screen. You can drag and drop slides to easily reorder them, and see more slides at one time. This is a good view to use to confirm that you have all the needed slides and that none have been deleted.
Reading View: This view fills most of the computer screen with a preview of your presentation. Unlike Slide Show View, it includes easily accessible buttons for navigation, located at the bottom right.
Slide Show View: This view completely fills the computer screen, and is what the audience will see when they view the presentation. Slide Show View has an additional menu that appears when you hover over it, allowing you to navigate through the slides, and access other features you can use during a presentation.
Use the keys on your keyboard (including the arrow keys, Page Up and Page Down, space bar, and Enter) to move through the slides in Slide Show view. Press the Esc key to end the slide show.
To View an Outline of Your Presentation:
The Outline tab shows your slide text in outline form. This allows you to quickly edit your slide text, and view the contents of multiple slides at once.
1. Click the Outline tab in the left pane. 2. An outline of your slide text appears. 3. Type directly in the pane to make changes to your text.
To Organize Slides into Sections:
You can organize your slides into sections to make your presentation easier to navigate. Sections can be collapsed or expanded in the left pane, and named for easy reference. In this example, we will add two sections: one for dogs that are available for adoption, and another for cats and other pets.
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2. From the Home tab, click the Section command. 3. Choose Add Section from the drop-down menu. 4. An Untitled Section appears in the left pane. 5. To rename the section while it is still selected, click the Section command, and choose Rename Section from the drop-down menu. 6. Enter your new section name in the dialog box. Then click Rename. 7. Repeat to add as many sections as you need. 8. In the left pane, click the arrow next to a section name to collapse or expand it.
Adding Notes to Slides
PowerPoint gives you the ability to add notes to your slides, often called speaker notes, to help you deliver or prepare for your presentation. You can enter and view your speaker notes using the Notes pane or the Notes Page View.
To Use the Notes Pane:
1. Locate the Notes pane at the bottom of the screen, directly below the Slide pane. 2. Click and drag the edge of the pane to make it bigger or smaller, if desired. 3. Type your notes in the Notes pane.
To Use the Notes Page View:
1. Go to the View tab. 2. Click the Notes Page command in the Presentation Views group. 3. Type your notes in the text box, or use the scroll bar to review your slides.
2.4.3 Basic Text Operations
To Insert Text:
1. Click the placeholder or text box where you want to insert text. 2. The insertion point appears. 3. Type directly into the placeholder or text box.
Some placeholders automatically format your text in a bulleted list. This is because bulleted lists are so frequently used in PowerPoint. To remove the bullets, deselect the Bullets command in the Paragraph group on the Home tab.
To Delete Text:
1. Place the insertion point next to the text you wish to delete. 2. Press the Backspace key on your keyboard to delete text to the left of the insertion point. 3. Press the Delete key on your keyboard to delete text to the right of the insertion point.
To Select Text:
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When you select text in PowerPoint, a hover toolbar with formatting options appears. This makes formatting commands easily accessible, which may save you time. If the toolbar does not appear at first, try moving the mouse over the selection.
Find and Replace
Find and Replace is another technique that can be used to edit text. Find and Replace allows you to search all of your slides for a specific word or phrase (for example, "English"), then replace it with another word or phrase (for example, "British").
To Add a Text Box:
Text can be inserted into both placeholders and text boxes. A placeholder is a kind of text box, but is unique because it is part of the slide layout, and often contains formatting specific to the slide (for example, a larger font size for the title of your presentation). Inserting an extra text box allows you to add to the slide layout, so you can include as much text as you want.
1. From the Insert tab, click the Text Box command. 2. Your cursor will turn into an upside-down cross . 3. Click the area on your slide where you want to add a text box. A text box will appear with an insertion point inside.
To Move a Placeholder or Text Box:
1. Click the box you would like to move.
2. Position your mouse on the border of the box so it changes to a cross with arrows .
Mousing over the border of the box
3. Click and hold the mouse button as you drag the box to the desired location. 4. Release the mouse button.The box will be moved.
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To Resize a Placeholder or Text Box:
1. Click the box you wish to resize. 2. Position your mouse over any one of the sizing handles that appear on the corners and sides of the box. The cursor will become a pair of arrows . 3. Click, hold, and drag your mouse until the text box is the desired size.
Resizing the box
4. Release the mouse button. The box will be resized.
Formatting Text
You can help your text stand out on the slide by changing its formatting, including font size, color, style, and more.
Modifying Text
To Insert a Bulleted List:
1. Select the text box (or specific text) that you want to format as a bulleted list. 2. Click the Bullets command in the Paragraph group on the Home tab. 3. A bulleted list will appear.
To Change Horizontal Text Alignment:
1. Select the text you wish to modify. 2. Select one of the four alignment options in the Paragraph group.
• Align Text Left: Aligns all the selected text to the left margin. • Center: Aligns text an equal distance from the left and right margins. • Align Text Right: Aligns all the selected text to the right margin. • Justify: Justified text is equal on both sides and lines up equally to the right and left margins. Many newspapers and magazines use full-justification.
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Alignment commands
The alignment commands align the text within the placeholder or text box it is in, not across the slide.
To Change Vertical Text Alignment:
1. Select the text your wish to modify. 2. Click the Align Text command in the Paragraph group. A menu will appear. 3. Choose to align the text at the Top, Middle, or Bottom of the text box.
To Change Text Direction:
1. Select the text your wish to modify. 2. Click the Text Direction command in the Paragraph group. A menu will appear.
Text Direction command
3. Choose for the direction of the text to be Horizontal, Rotated, or Stacked.
2.4.4 About Themes
A theme is a predefined combination of colors, fonts, and effects that can be applied to your presentation. PowerPoint includes built-in themes that allow you to easily create professional-looking presentations without spending a lot of time formatting.
About Themes
A theme is a set of colors, fonts, effects, and more that can be applied to your entire presentation to give it a consistent, professional look. You've already been using a theme, even if you didn't know it: the default Office theme, which consists of a white background, the Calibri font, and primarily black text. Themes can be applied or changed at any time.
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Theme Elements
Every PowerPoint theme, including the default Office theme, has its own theme elements. Those elements are:
• Theme Colors (available from every Color menu) • Theme Fonts (available from the Font menu) • Shape Styles (available in the Format tab when you click on a shape)
Why Use Theme Elements?
If you're using theme elements, you'll probably find that your presentation looks pretty good. All of the colors will work well together, which means you won't have to spend as much time formatting your presentation. But there's another great reason to use theme elements: when you switch to a different theme, all of those elements will update to reflect the new theme. You can drastically change the look of your presentation in just a couple clicks.
Remember, the colors and fonts will only update if you're using Theme Fonts or Theme Colors. If you choose one of the Standard Colors or any of the Fonts that are not Theme Fonts, then your text will not change when you change the theme. That can be useful if you're creating a logo or title that always needs to look the same, like in the sample below.
Themes and Slide Layouts
As you can see from the two different Title Slides above, themes also affect the various slide layouts.
If you apply a theme before you start building your presentation, you will be able to arrange your content to fit the layouts you have to choose from. If you apply the theme after, the text boxes and placeholders may move depending on the theme you choose.
Applying Themes
You will need to know how to apply a theme and how to switch to a different theme if you want to use this feature to create presentations. All of the themes that are included in PowerPoint are located in the Themes group on the Design tab. Themes can be applied or changed at any time.
To Apply a Theme:
1. Go to the Design tab. 2. Locate the Themes group. Each image represents a theme.
Themes group
3. Click the drop-down arrow to access more themes.
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4. Hover over a theme to see a live preview of it in the presentation. The name of the theme will appear as you hover over it. 5. Click a theme to apply it to the slides.
2.4.5 Inserting Images
Adding images to your presentations makes them more interesting and engaging. Pictures, clip art and screenshots can be inserted into PowerPoint to help you effectively communicate your ideas to your audience.
To Insert an Image From a File:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Picture command in the Images group. The Insert Picture dialog box appears. 3. Select the desired image file and click Insert. 4. The picture will appear in your slide.
You can also select the Insert Picture from File command in a placeholder to insert images.
To Locate Clip Art:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Clip Art command in the Images group. 3. The clip art options appear in the task pane to the right of the document. 4. Enter keywords in the Search for: field that are related to the image you wish to insert. 5. Click the drop-down arrow in the Results should be: field. 6. Deselect any types of media you do not wish to see. 7. If you would like to also search for clip art on Office.com, place a checkmark next to Include Office.com content. Otherwise, it will just search for clip art on your computer. 8. Click Go.
To Insert Clip Art:
1. Review the results from a clip art search in the Clip Art pane. 2. Select the desired image. 3. The clip art will appear in your slide.
You can also select the Insert Clip Art from File command in a placeholder to insert clip art.
Inserting Screenshots
Screenshots are pictures that capture the visible windows and items displayed on your computer screen. They may include an open window of a website, items on your desktop or an open program, like the PowerPoint images displayed in this tutorial. These images can be useful for explaining or displaying computer programs, functions and websites. PowerPoint allows you to capture an image of an entire window or a screen clipping of part of a window.
To Insert Screenshots of a Window:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Screenshot command in the Images group. Engineering Staff College of India Page 192 of 348
3. The Available Windows from your desktop will appear. Select the window you would like to capture as a screenshot. 4. The screenshot will appear in your slide.
Inserting a screenshot of an available Window
Inserting a Screen Clipping from a Window:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Screenshot command and select Screen Clipping.
3. A faded view of your current desktop will appear and your cursor will turn into a cross shape . 4. Click, hold and drag on the area of the window that you want to capture. 5. The screen clipping will appear in your slide.
2.4.6 Transitions: Motion Effects Transitions are motion effects that, when in Slide Show View, add movement to your slides as you advance from one slide to another. There are many transitions to choose from; each one allows you to control the speed, and even add sound.
About Transitions
You can apply different transitions to some or all of your slides to give your presentation a polished, professional look. There are three categories of unique transitions to choose from, all of which can be found on the Transitions tab:
• Subtle (slight transitions) • Exciting (strong transitions) • Dynamic Content (strong transitions that affect only the content, such as text or images)
To Apply a Transition:
1. Select the slide you wish to modify. 2. Click the Transitions tab. 3. Locate the Transition to This Slide group. By default, None is applied to each slide. Engineering Staff College of India Page 193 of 348
Transition to This Slide group
4. Click the More drop-down arrow to display all the transitions. 5. Click a transition to apply it to the selected slide. This will automatically preview the transition as well.
When working with transitions, the Apply To All command in the Timing group can be used at any time to make your presentation uniform. Use this command with caution. Not only does it apply the same transition to every slide; it also applies the settings in the Timing group, which you may not want to be the same throughout your presentation.
To Preview a Transition:
You can preview the transition for a selected slide at any time, using either of these two methods:
• Click the Preview command on the Transitions tab. • Click the star Play Animations icon. The icon appears on the Slides tab in the left pane beside any slide that includes a transition.
To Modify the Duration:
1. Select the slide that includes the transition you wish to modify. 2. In the Duration field in the Timing group, enter the amount of time you want the transition to take. In this example, we will specify the length as 2 seconds, or 02.00.
Modifying the duration of a transition
To Add Sound:
1. Select the slide that includes the transition you wish to modify. 2. Click the Sound drop-down menu in the Timing group. 3. You will hear the sound and see a live preview of the transition as you hover over each sound. 4. Click a sound to apply it to the selected slide.
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To Remove a Transition:
1. Select the slide you wish to modify. 2. Choose None from the gallery in the Transition to This Slide group. 3. Repeat this process for each slide you want to modify.
To remove transitions from all slides, select a slide that uses None, and click the Apply to All command.
To Advance Slides Automatically:
Normally, in Slide Show View, you would advance to the next slide by clicking your mouse (or pressing Enter on your keyboard). Using the Advance Slides settings in the Timing group, you can set your presentation to advance on its own instead, and display each slide for a specific amount of time. This is useful for unattended presentations, such as at a trade show booth.
1. Select the slide you wish to modify. 2. Locate the Timing group on the Transitions tab. 3. Under Advance Slide, uncheck the box next to On Mouse Click. 4. In the After field, enter the amount of time you want to display the slide. In this example, we will advance the slide automatically after 1 minute 30 seconds, or 01:30:00.
Select another slide and repeat the process until all the desired slides have the appropriate timing. 2.4.7 Slide Show Presentation Once your slide show is completed, you will need to learn how to present it to an audience. PowerPoint offers several tools and features that can assist you in making your presentation smooth, engaging and professional.
To Start Slide Show:
1. Select the Slide Show tab. 2. Click the From Beginning command in the Start Slide Show group to start the slide show with the first slide.
Starting Slide Show You can also start the slide show from the slide you prefer by selecting the slide and clicking on From Current Slide from the Start Slide Show group. This option is convenient if you only want to view or present certain slides. Another option for starting the slide show is to select Slide Show view at the bottom of the window. Engineering Staff College of India Page 195 of 348
Starting Slide Show view option
To Advance and Reverse Slides:
1. Hover your mouse over the bottom right of the screen. A menu will appear. 2. Click on the right arrow to advance slides or click on the left arrow to reverse slides.
You may also use the arrow keys on your keyboard to advance and reverse slides.
To Stop or End Slide Show:
To end slide show, hover and select the menu box options command and click End Show. You can also press the "Esc" key at the top left of your keyboard to end show.
Ending slide show
Presentation Tools and Features
PowerPoint provides convenient tools and features that you can use while you are presenting your slide show. Features include changing your mouse pointer to a pen or highlighter to draw attention to items in your slides. In addition, you can jump around to slides in your presentation or access items from your computer desktop if needed.
To Access the Pen or Highlighter:
1. Hover and click on the pen menu option in the bottom left of your screen. 2. Select Pen or Highlighter based on your preference. 3. Use the pointer to draw on or mark your slides.
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Using the pen and highlighter on a slide
From the same menu, you can also change the color of the pen or highlighter. Keep in mind that light color choices are best for the highlighter.
Choosing a new ink color
To Erase Ink Markings:
1. Hover and click on the pen menu option in the bottom left of your screen. 2. Select Eraser to erase individual ink markings or select Erase All Ink on Slide to erase all markings.
Accessing Eraser options
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When you end your slide show, you also have the option to Keep or Discard (erase) any ink markings you made during your presentation.
To Jump to a Non-Adjacent Slide:
1. Hover and click on the menu box option in the bottom left of your screen. 2. Select Go to Slide and choose the slide you would like to jump to in your presentation.
To Access the Desktop:
Sometimes you may need to access the Internet or other files and programs on your computer during your presentation. PowerPoint allows you to access your desktop task bar without ending your presentation.
1. Hover and click on the menu box option in the bottom left of your screen. 2. Select Screen and then click on Switch Programs. 3. Your computer's task bar will appear. Choose a program you would like to switch to.
Menu Access Options:
You can also access any of the above menu items by right-clicking anywhere on the screen during your slide show.
Keyboard Shortcuts
• Switch between the pen pointer and mouse pointer by pressing "Ctrl + P" (pen) or "Ctrl + M" (mouse) on the keyboard. • Press "E" on the keyboard to erase any ink markings while using the pen or highlighter.
Slide Show Set Up Options
PowerPoint has various options for setting up and playing a slide show. For example, you can set up an unattended presentation that can be displayed at a kiosk and make your slide show repeat with continuous looping.
To Access Slide Show Set Up Options:
1. Select the Slide Show tab. 2. Click the Set Up Show command. 3. The Set Up Show dialog box will appear. Review the interactive to learn about the various options that are available for setting up and playing a slide show. 4. Click OK to apply the settings to the slide show.
2.4.8 Saving and Printing a Presentation
To Use the Save As Command:
Save As allows you to choose a name and location for your presentation. It's useful if you've first created a presentation or if you want to save a different version of a presentation while keeping the original.
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1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. The Save As dialog box will appear. Select the location where you wish to save the presentation. 4. Enter a name for the presentation and click Save.
If you're using Windows 7, you'll usually want to save things to your Documents library, and in other versions of Windows you'll save them to the My Documents folder.
To Use the Save Command:
1. Click the Save command on the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. The presentation will be saved in its current location with the same file name.
If you are saving for the first time and select Save, the Save As dialog box will appear.
AutoRecover
PowerPoint automatically saves your presentation to a temporary folder while you're working on them. If you forget to save your changes, or if PowerPoint crashes, you can recover the autosaved file.
1. Open a presentation that was previously closed without saving. 2. In Backstage view, click Info. 3. If there are autosaved versions of your file, they will appear under Versions. Click on the file to open it. 4. To save changes, click Restore and then click OK.
By default, PowerPoint autosaves every 10 minutes. If you are editing a presentation for less than 10 minutes, PowerPoint may not create an autosaved version.
Other File Formats
To Save As PowerPoint 97 - 2003 Presentation:
You can share your presentation with anyone using PowerPoint 2010 or 2007, since they use the same file format. However, earlier versions of PowerPoint use a different file format, so if you want to share your presentation with someone using an earlier version of PowerPoint, you'll need to save it as a PowerPoint 97-2003 presentation.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save As. 3. In the Save as type drop-down menu, select PowerPoint 97-2003 Presentation. 4. Select the location you wish to save the presentation. 5. Enter a name for the presentation and click Save.
To Save as a Different File Type:
If you would like to share your presentation with someone who does not have PowerPoint, you have several different file types to choose from.
1. Click the File tab. 2. Select Save & Send. 3. Choose from three special File Types.
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• Create PDF/XPS Document: Saves the contents of your slide show as a document instead of a PowerPoint file. • Create a Video: Saves your presentation as a video that can be shared online, in an email, or on a disc. • Package Presentation for CD: Saves your presentation in a folder along with the Microsoft PowerPoint Viewer, a special slide show player that anyone can download and use.
Printing
In previous versions of PowerPoint, there was a Print Preview option that allowed you to see exactly what the presentation looked like before printing it. You may have noticed that this feature seems to be gone in PowerPoint 2010. It actually hasn't disappeared; it's just been combined with the Print window to create the Print pane, which is located in Backstage view.
To View the Print Pane:
1. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 2. Select Print. The Print pane appears, with the print settings on the left and the Preview on the right.
To Print:
1. Go to the Print pane. 2. Determine and choose how you want the slides to appear on the page. 3. If you only want to print certain pages, you can type a range of pages. Otherwise, select Print All Pages. 4. Select the number of copies. 5. Check the Collate box if you are printing multiple copies of a multi-page document. 6. Select a printer from the drop-down list. 7. Click the Print button.
Quick Print
There may be times when you want to print something with a single click, using Quick Print. This feature prints the document using the default settings and the default printer. In PowerPoint 2010, you'll need to add it to the Quick Access Toolbar in order to use it.
Quick Print always prints the entire presentation, so if you only want to print part of your presentation you'll have to use the Print pane.
To Access the Quick Print Button:
1. Click the drop-down arrow on the right side of the Quick Access Toolbar. 2. Select Quick Print if it is not already checked. 3. To print, just click the Quick Print command.
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The Quick Print command
2.4.9 Aligning Objects
In PowerPoint, each slide may have multiple items, such as pictures, shapes and text boxes. PowerPoint lets you arrange the objects the way you want by aligning, grouping, rotating, and ordering them in various ways.
Aligning Objects
You can click and drag objects to align them manually, but guesswork will never give you the best result. Additionally, aligning objects in this way can take a great deal of time. Luckily, PowerPoint provides you with several commands that allow you to easily arrange and position objects
To Align Two or More Objects:
1. Click and drag your mouse to form a selection box around the objects you want to align. All of the objects will now have sizing handles to show that they are selected. 2. From the Format tab, click the Align command and select Align Selected Objects. 3. Click the Align command again and select one of the six alignment options. 4. The objects will align to each other based on the option that you have selected.
The aligned objects
To Align Objects to the Slide:
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Sometimes, you may wish to align one or more objects to a specific location within the slide, such as the top or bottom. You can do this by simply selecting the Align to Slide option before you align the objects.
1. Click and drag your mouse to form a selection box around the objects you want to align. All of the objects will now have sizing handles to show that they are selected. 2. From the Format tab, click the Align command and select Align to Slide. 3. Click the Align command again and select one of the six alignment options. 4. The objects will align to the slide based on the option that you have selected.
To Distribute Objects Evenly:
If you have arranged objects in a row or column, you may want them to be an equal distance from one another for a neater appearance. You can do this by distributing the objects horizontally or vertically.
1. Click and drag your mouse to form a selection box around the objects you want to align. All of the objects will now have sizing handles to show that they are selected. 2. From the Format tab, click the Align command. 3. From the menu, select Distribute Horizontally or Distribute Vertically. 4. The objects will be distributed evenly.
Ordering and Rotating Objects
In addition to aligning and grouping objects, PowerPoint gives you the ability to arrange objects in a specific order. The ordering is very important when two or more objects overlap, as it will determine which objects are in the front or the back.
To Change the Ordering by One Level:
1. Select an object. The Format tab will appear. 2. From the Format tab, click the Bring Forward or Send Backward command to change the object's ordering by one level. If the object overlaps with more than one other object, you may need to click the command several times to achieve the desired ordering. 3. The objects will reorder themselves.
To Bring an Object to the Front or Back:
If you want to move an object behind or in front of several objects, it's usually faster to bring it to front or send it to back rather than clicking the ordering commands multiple times.
1. Select an object. The Format tab will appear. 2. From the Format tab, click the Bring Forward or Send Backward drop-down box. 3. From the drop-down menu, select Bring to Front or Send to Back. 4. The objects will reorder themselves.
To Rotate an Object:
1. Select an object. The Format tab will appear. 2. From the Format tab, click the Rotate command. A drop-down menu will appear. Engineering Staff College of India Page 202 of 348
3. Select the desired rotation option. 4. The object in the slide will rotate.
Grouping Objects
At times you may want to group multiple objects into one object so that they will stay together if they are moved. Often this is easier than selecting all of the objects every time you want to move them.
Pictures, shapes, clip art and text boxes can all be grouped together, but placeholders cannot be grouped. Therefore, you should make sure that you don't insert your pictures into placeholders if you're going to be grouping the pictures.
To Group Objects:
1. Click and drag your mouse to form a selection box around the objects you want to align. All of the objects will now have sizing handles to show that they are selected. 2. From the Format tab, click the Group command and select Group. 3. The selected objects will now be grouped. There will be a single box with sizing handles around the entire group to show that they are one object.
If you select the objects and the Group command is disabled, it may be because one of the objects is inside a placeholder. If this happens, try reinserting the images or cutting and pasting them into the same slide outside of any placeholders.
To Ungroup Objects:
1. Select the grouped object that you wish to ungroup. 2. From the Format tab, click the Group command and select Ungroup. 3. The objects will be ungrouped.
2.4.10 Adding Animation Effects
In PowerPoint you can animate text and objects such as clip art, shapes, and pictures. Animation, or movement, on the slide can be used to draw the audience's attention to specific content or to make the slide easier to read.
The Four Types of Animations
There are many different animation effects that you can choose from, and they are organized into four types:
• Entrance: These control how the object enters the slide. For example, with the Bounce animation, the object will "fall" onto the slide and then bounce several times.
Entrance effects
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• Emphasis: These animations occur while the object is on the slide, often triggered by a mouse click. For example, you can set an object to Spin when you click the mouse.
Emphasis effects
• Exit: These control how the object exits the slide. For example, with the Fade animation, the object will simply fade away.
Exit effects
• Motion Paths: These are similar to Emphasis effects, except the object moves within the slide along a pre-determined path, for example a circle.
Motion Paths
To Apply an Animation to an Object:
1. Select an object. 2. Click the Animations tab. 3. In the Animation group, click the More drop-down arrow to view the available animations. 4. Select the desired animation effect. 5. The object will now have a small number next to it to show that it has an animation. Also, in the Slide pane, the slide will now have a star symbol next to it.
At the bottom of the menu, you can access even more effects.
Effect Options
Some effects will have options that you can change. For example, with the Fly In effect, you can control which direction the object comes from. These options can be accessed from the Effect Options command in the Animation group.
Working with Animations
To Add Multiple Animations to an Object:
If you select a new animation from the the menu in the Animation group, it will replace the object's current animation. However, you'll sometimes want to place more than one animation on an object, for example an Entrance and an Exit effect. To do this, you'll need to use the Add Animation command, which will allow you to keep your current animations while adding new ones.
1. Select the object. 2. Click the Animations tab. Engineering Staff College of India Page 204 of 348
3. In the Advanced Animation group, click the Add Animation command to view the available animations. 4. Select the desired animation effect. 5. If the object has more than one effect, it will have a different number for each effect. The numbers indicate the order in which the effects will occur.
To Copy Animations with the Animation Painter:
In some cases, you may want to apply the same effects to more than one object. You can do that by copying the effects from one object to another using the Animation Painter.
1. Click on the object that has the effects that you want to copy. 2. From the Animations tab, click the Animation Painter command. 3. Click on the object that you want to copy the effects to. The effects will be applied to the object.
To Reorder the Animations:
1. Select the number of the effect that you want to change. 2. From the Animations tab, click the Move Earlier or Move Later commands to change the ordering.
To Preview Animations:
Any animation effects that you have applied will show up when you play the slide show. However, you can also quickly preview the animations for the current slide without viewing the slide show.
1. Navigate to the slide that you want to preview. 2. From the Animations tab, click the Preview command. The animations for the current slide will play.
The Animation Pane
The Animation Pane allows you to view and manage all of the effects that are on the current slide. You can modify and reorder effects directly from the Animation Pane, which is especially useful when you have a large number of effects.
To Open the Animation Pane:
1. From the Animations tab, click the Animation Pane command. 2. The Animation Pane will open on the right side of the window. It will show all of the effects for the current slide in the order that they will appear.
To Reorder Effects from the Animation Pane:
1. On the Animation Pane, click and drag an effect up or down. 2. The effects will reorder themselves.
To Preview Effects from the Animation Pane:
1. From the Animation Pane, click the Play button. 2. The effects for the current slide will play. On the right side of the Animation Pane, you will be able to see a timeline that shows the progress through each effect.
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If the timeline is not visible, click the drop-down arrow for an effect and select Show Advanced Timeline.
To Change an Effect's Start Option:
By default, an effect starts playing when you click the mouse during a slide show. If you have multiple effects, you will need to click multiple times to start each effect individually. However, by changing the start option for each effect, you can have effects that automatically play at the same time or one after the other.
1. From the Animation Pane, select an effect. A drop-down arrow will appear next to the effect. 2. Click the drop-down arrow. You will see three start options: o Start on Click: This will start the effect when the mouse is clicked. o Start With Previous: This will start the effect at the same time as the previous effect. o Start After Previous: This will start the effect when the previous effect ends.
The three start options
3. Select the desired start option.
When you preview the animations, all of the effects will play through automatically. To test effects that are set to Start on Click, you will need to play the slide show.
The Effect Options Dialog Box
From the Animation Pane, you can access the Effect Options dialog box, which contains more advanced options that you can use to fine-tune your animations.
To Open the Effect Options Dialog Box:
1. From the Animation Pane, select an effect. A drop-down arrow will appear next to the effect. 2. Click the drop-down arrow and select Effect Options. The Effect Options dialog box will appear. 3. From here, you can add various enhancements to the effect: o Sound: Adds a sound effect to the animation. o After animation: Changes the color or hides the object after the animation is over. o Animate text: If you are animating text, you can choose to animate it all at once, one word at a time, or one letter at a time.
Some effects have additional options that you can change. These will vary depending on which effect you have selected.
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To Change the Effect Timing:
1. From the Effect Options dialog box, select the Timing tab. 2. From here, you can add a delay before the effect starts, change the duration of the effect, and control whether or not the effect repeats.
2.4.11 Inserting Videos
Videos are a great way to make your presentations more engaging for your audience. PowerPoint allows you to insert a video from a file on your computer or from a web site such as YouTube. You can even edit the video within PowerPoint and customize its appearance with a Video Style.
To Insert a Video from a File on Your Computer:
1. From the Insert tab, click the Video drop-down arrow and select Video from File.
Inserting a video from a file
2. Locate and select the desired video file and then click Insert. 3. The video will be added to the slide.
To Insert a Video from a Web Site:
Some web sites, like YouTube or Hulu, allow you to embed videos in a blog, Facebook profile, or other web page. In PowerPoint, you can embed videos in your slides in the same way. This feature only works with web sites that provide embed code, and the embed code from some sites may not work with PowerPoint.
1. On the web site that contains the video (YouTube, for example), locate and copy the embed code. 2. In PowerPoint, click the Insert tab. 3. Click the Video drop-down arrow, and select Video from Web Site. 4. In the space provided, right-click and select Paste. The embed code will appear. 5. Click Insert. The video will be added to the slide.
Working with the Video
To Preview the Video:
1. Make sure the video is selected. 2. Click the Play/Pause button below the video. The video will start playing, and the timeline next to the Play/Pause button will begin to advance. 3. To jump to a different part of the video, click anywhere on the timeline. Engineering Staff College of India Page 207 of 348
If you are using an embedded video from a web site, you may need to click the Play button in the Playback tab in order to view the video's playback controls (the Play button is also located on the Format tab).
To Resize the Video:
1. Select the video. A box with resizing handles will appear around the video. 2. Click and drag any of the handles to resize the movie.
Edit and Format Video
The Playback tab has several options that you can use to edit your video. For example, you can trim your video so that it will only play an excerpt, add a fade in and fade out, and add bookmarks that allow you to jump to specific points in the video.
Most of the features on the Playback tab can only be used with videos that are inserted from a file. They will not work with embedded videos.
To Trim the Video:
1. From the Playback tab, click the Trim Video command. The Trim Video dialog box will appear.
The Trim Video command
2. Use the green and red handles to set the start time and end time. 3. To preview the video file, click the Play button. 4. Adjust the green and red handles again if necessary, and then click OK.
To Add a Fade In and Fade Out:
1. On the Playback tab, locate the Fade In and Fade Out fields. 2. Type in the desired values, or use the up and down arrows to adjust the times.
Adjusting the Fade In
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To Add a Bookmark:
1. Click the Play/Pause button to play the video, and when you have located the part that you want to bookmark, pause it. You can also click the timeline to locate the desired part of the video. 2. From the Playback tab, click Add Bookmark. 3. A small circle will appear on the timeline to indicate the bookmark. 4. You can now click the bookmark to jump to that location.
To Remove a Bookmark:
1. Select the bookmark. 2. From the Playback tab, click Remove Bookmark. The bookmark will disappear.
Video Options
There are other options that you can set to control how your video plays, and these are found in the Video Options group on the Playback tab.
• Volume: Changes the audio volume in the video. • Start: Controls whether the video file starts automatically or when the mouse is clicked. • Play Full Screen: Lets the video fill the entire screen while it is playing. • Hide While Not Playing: Hides the video when it is not playing. • Loop until Stopped: Causes the video to repeat until it is stopped. • Rewind after Playing: Causes the video to return to the beginning when it is finished playing.
Formatting the Appearance of the Video
Much like pictures, PowerPoint allows you to format the appearance of the video by applying a video style, adding a border, changing the shape, applying effects such as 3-D rotation, making image corrections, and adjusting the color. You can also add a poster frame, which is the placeholder image that your audience will see before the video starts playing. The poster frame is often just a frame taken from the video itself, but you can also use a different image if you prefer.
To Create a Poster Frame:
1. Select the video. 2. Start playing the video. When you see the frame that you want to use, click the Play/Pause button to pause it. 3. From the Format tab, click the Poster Frame command. A drop-down menu will appear. 4. Select Current Frame.
Adding a poster frame
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5. The current frame will become the poster frame.
If you would prefer to use a picture from your computer, you can select Image from file from the menu. 2.4.12 Inserting Audio
PowerPoint allows you to add sound to your presentation, which opens up a lot of possibilities. Perhaps you want to add background music to one slide, a sound effect to another, and maybe even add some narration or commentary to a few slides. You can either add an audio file from your computer, or you can browse PowerPoint's collection of Clip Art Audio. You can then edit the sounds within PowerPoint so that they are tailored to your presentation.
To Insert Audio from a File on Your Computer:
1. From the Insert tab, click the Audio drop-down arrow and select Audio from File.
Inserting an audio file
2. Locate and select the desired audio file and then click Insert. 3. The audio file will be added to the slide.
The inserted audio
Recording Your Own Audio
Sometimes, you may want to record audio directly into a presentation, for example if you want the presentation to include narration. Before you begin, make sure that you have a microphone that is compatible with your computer; many computers have built-in microphones or ones that can be plugged into the computer.
To Record Audio:
1. From the Insert tab, click the Audio drop-down arrow and select Record Audio.
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Recording Audio
2. Type a name for the audio recording, if desired. 3. Click the red Record button to start recording. 4. When you're finished recording, click the Stop button. 5. To preview your recording, click the Play button. 6. When you're done, click OK. The audio file will be inserted into the slide.
The recording is added to the slide
Working with Audio
Just like with videos, you can modify your audio files using the various features of the Playback tab. For example, if you add a song to a slide, you can trim it so that it will only play one section of the song, and you can add a fade in and fade out to smooth out the beginning and end. You can also add bookmarks that allow you to jump to specific points in the audio file.
To Trim the Audio:
1. From the Playback tab, click the Trim Audio command. The Trim Audio dialog box will appear.
The Trim Audio command
2. Use the green and red handles to set the start time and end time. 3. To preview the audio file, click the Play button. 4. Adjust the green and red handles again if necessary, and then click OK.
To Add a Fade In and Fade Out:
1. On the Playback tab, locate the Fade In and Fade Out fields. 2. Type in the desired values, or use the up and down arrows to adjust the times.
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Audio Options
There are other options that you can set to control how your audio file plays, and these are found in the Audio Options group on the Playback tab.
The Audio Options group
• Volume: Changes the audio volume. • Start: Controls whether the audio file starts automatically or when the mouse is clicked. • Hide During Show: Hides the audio icon while the slide show is playing. • Loop until Stopped: Causes the audio file to repeat until it is stopped. • Rewind after Playing: Causes the audio file to return to the beginning when it is finished playing.
Formatting the Audio Icon
By default, an audio file will show up as a speaker icon in the slide. If you want, you can change the icon to a different picture, and you can apply all of the different types of image formatting that you would apply to a picture such as Artistic Effects and Picture Styles which are access in the Format tab.
To Change the Icon to a Different Picture:
1. Select the audio icon in the slide. 2. From the Format tab, select the Change Picture command. The Insert Picture dialog box will appear.
The Change Picture command
3. Locate and select the desired picture, and then click OK. 4. The icon will change to the new picture. 2.4.13 Using Hyperlinks and Action Buttons
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format them as hyperlinks that a person can click on. It's also possible to link to files and other slides within a presentation. It's easy to do all this using two tools: hyperlinks and action buttons.
About Hyperlinks
Hyperlinks have two basic parts: the address of the web page, email address, or other location that they are linking to, and the display text (or image). For example, the address could be http://blog.myblog.org, and the display text could be "blog". In some cases, the display text might be the same as the address. When you're creating a hyperlink in PowerPoint, you'll be able to choose both the address and the display text or image.
To Insert a Hyperlink:
1. Select the image or text you would like to make a hyperlink. 2. Right-click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. 3. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. You can also get to this dialog box from the Insert tab by clicking Hyperlink. 4. If you selected text, the words will appear in the Text to display field at the top. You can change this text if you want. 5. Type the address you would like to link to in the Address field. 6. Click OK. The text or image you selected will now be a hyperlink to the web address.
To Insert a Hyperlink to an Email Address:
1. Right-click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. 2. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. 3. On the left side of the dialog box, click Email Address. 4. Type the email address you want to connect to in the Email Address box and click OK.
PowerPoint often recognizes email and web addresses as you type and will format them as hyperlinks automatically after you press the Enter key or spacebar.
To Open and Test a Hyperlink
1. After you create a hyperlink, you should test it. Right-click the hyperlink and click Open Hyperlink. 2. Your web browser should open and navigate to the linked page. If it does not work, check the hyperlink address for any misspellings.
To Remove a Hyperlink:
1. Right-click the hyperlink. 2. Click Remove Hyperlink.
More Hyperlinks
In PowerPoint, you can also use hyperlinks to link to resources that are not online. To create a quick way to refer to another slide in your presentation, you can create a hyperlink to that slide. You can even create hyperlinks to files stored on your computer.
To Insert a Hyperlink to Another Slide
1. Right click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. Engineering Staff College of India Page 213 of 348
2. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. 3. On the left side of the dialog box, click Place in this Document. 4. A list of the other slides in your presentation will appear. Click the name of the slide you would like to link to. 5. Click OK. The text or image will now be a hyperlink to the slide you selected.
To Insert a Hyperlink to Another File
1. Right click the selected text or image and click Hyperlink. 2. The Insert Hyperlink dialog box will open. 3. On the left side of the dialog box, click Existing File or Webpage. 4. Click the drop-down arrow to browse for your file. 5. Select the desired file. 6. Click OK. The text or image will now be a hyperlink to the file you selected.
If you plan on displaying your presentation on a different computer than you used to create it, your hyperlink to another file may not work. Make sure you have a copy of the linked file on the computer you are using to present and always test hyperlinks before giving a presentation.
In addition to hyperlinks, another tool you can use to connect to a web page, file, email address, or slide is called an action button. Action buttons are built-in button shapes that you can add to a presentation and set to link to another slide, play a sound, or perform some other action. When someone clicks or moves over the button, the selected action will occur. Action buttons can do many of the same things as hyperlinks. Their easy-to-understand style makes them especially useful for self-running presentations at booths and kiosks.
You can insert action buttons on one slide at a time, or you can insert an action button that will show up on every slide. The second option can be useful if you want every slide to link back to a specific slide, like the title page or table of contents.
To Insert an Action Button on One Slide:
1. Click the Insert tab. 2. Click the Shapes command in the Illustrations group. A drop-down menu will appear with the action buttons located at the very bottom. 3. Select the desired action button. 4. Insert the button onto the slide by clicking the desired location. The Action Settings dialog box will appear. 5. Select the Mouse Click or Mouse Over tab. Selecting the Mouse Click tab means you action button will perform its action only when clicked. Selecting the Mouse Over tab will make the action button perform its action when you move the mouse over it. 6. In the Action on click section, select Hyperlink to: then click the drop-down arrow and choose an option from the menu. 7. Check the Play Sound box if you want a sound to play when the action button is clicked. Select a sound from the drop-down menu, or select Other sound to use a sound file on your computer. 8. Click OK.
To Insert an Action Button on All Slides:
1. Click the View tab. 2. In the Master Views group, click on the Slide Master command. A blank slide in the style of your presentation will appear. Don't worry about changing anything else. 3. Go to the Insert tab and follow the instructions above to insert an action button.
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4. Return to the Slide Master tab and click Close Master View. The new action button will now be on every slide.
To edit, move, or delete an action button inserted this way, click the View tab, then Slide Master. Click Close Master View after making the desired changes.
2.4.14 Adding Charts
A chart is a tool you can use to communicate your data graphically. Displaying charts in PowerPoint allows your audience to see the meaning behind the numbers, and they make showing comparisons and trends a lot easier.
Charts
In many ways, charts are an ideal way to present information in PowerPoint 2010. They give you an illustration of your data. A chart can help you show your audience what your data means and why it's important. Plus, they can add visual interest to slide shows that are otherwise filled with text.
Inserting Charts
PowerPoint uses an Excel worksheet as a placeholder for entering chart data. Therefore, when you insert or edit a chart in PowerPoint, an Excel window will automatically open.
To Insert a Chart:
1. Select the Insert tab. 2. Click the Insert Chart command in the Illustrations Group. The Insert Chart dialog box will appear. 3. Select a category from the left pane of the dialog box and review the charts that appear in the center. If you are unsure about which chart best fits your needs, review the Types of Charts interactive on page 2. 4. Select the desired chart. 5. Click OK. An Excel window will open with a placeholder for your data.
If a slide layout has a content placeholder, you can also click the Insert Chart command to insert a new chart.
To Enter Chart Data:
The data that appears in the Excel spreadsheet is placeholder source data that you will replace with your own information. The Excel source data is used to create the PowerPoint chart.
1. Enter your data into the Excel spreadsheet. If you are not sure how to enter data into an Excel spreadsheet 2. If necessary, click and drag the lower-right corner of the blue line to increase or decrease the data range for rows and columns. Only the data enclosed by the blue lines will appear in the chart. 3. Close Excel. You do not need to save the spreadsheet. The PowerPoint chart will update to reflect the new source data.
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Copying and Pasting Existing Excel Data
If you already have an Excel worksheet with data you would like to use for a PowerPoint chart, you can transfer the data by copying and pasting it. When the Excel window opens, simply open your existing worksheet, select and copy the data, and paste it into the worksheet in place of the placeholder data. Be sure to drag the blue line to surround all the data you would like to include in the chart.
Importing a Chart from Excel
If you have already created a chart in Excel, you can import and link it to your PowerPoint presentation. When you insert an Excel chart in PowerPoint, any updates you make to the original Excel chart will automatically update in your PowerPoint presentation, as long as the files remain in the same location. This can be a convenient and time-saving feature for presentations that require frequent updating.
1. Click the Insert tab and locate the Text group. 2. Click the Insert Object command. A dialog box will appear.
The Insert Object command
3. In the dialog box, select Create from file. 4. Click Browse. 5. Find and select the desired Excel chart, then click OK. 6. Click the Link checkbox if you would like to link the data to the Excel chart. This will enable your PowerPoint chart to update itself when changes are made to the Excel chart.
Linking the chart to the original Excel file
7. Click OK. The chart will now appear in your PowerPoint presentation.
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To edit an imported chart, double-click it to open the Excel placeholder. After you have finished editing, be sure to save the chart in Excel.
Once you have imported a chart, be careful not to delete or move the original Excel file. If the location of either the PowerPoint presentation or the Excel file changes, you may have to insert the chart again in order for it to display correctly.
Once you insert a chart, a set of Chart Tools will appear on the Ribbon. These are only visible when the chart is selected. You can use the three tabs grouped under Chart Tools to modify your chart. 2.4.15 Reviewing Presentations
Before presenting your PowerPoint presentation, you might decide to ask someone else to look over it. The two of you might even collaborate on a presentation. If you were revising a hard copy of a report, you might add comments in the margins or compare your rough and final drafts side by side. You can also do these things in PowerPoint using the Comments and Compare features.
Commenting on Presentations
When you are revising or collaborating on a presentation, you might want to make notes or suggestions without actually changing anything on the slide. Using comments allows you to take note of anything on a slide without altering the slide itself. Comments can be added and read by the original author or any other reviewers.
To Add a Comment:
1. Select the text or click on the area of the slide where you would like the comment to appear. 2. Select the Review tab and locate the Comments group. 3. Click the New Comment command. 4. Type your comment. 5. Click anywhere on the slide and your comment will appear.
Added comments show up as small thumbnails rather than full-size notes. To read a comment, just hover your mouse over the thumbnail.
To Delete a Comment:
1. Select the comment you wish to delete. 2. From the Review tab, click the Delete command.
To delete multiple comments, simply click the Delete drop-down arrow and select Delete All Markup in the Current Slide or Delete All Markup in the Current Presentation.
Comparing Presentations
If you are collaborating on a presentation, or even just asking someone else to review your presentation, you might want to use the Compare feature. The Compare feature combines two versions of the same presentation. This allows you to see all the differences between the two and decide which changes to include in the final version of your presentation.
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To Compare Two Presentations:
1. Select the Review tab and locate the Compare group. 2. Click Compare. A dialog box will open. 3. Browse for and select the desired file. 4. Click Merge. 5. Review the interactive below to learn how to review comments and changes using the Compare feature.
Using the Reviewing Features Safely
If there are any comments in your presentation, you should remove them before sharing the final version with anyone you are not collaborating with. Comments can reveal confidential information that could lead to embarrassment or make you or your company appear unprofessional.
It's a good idea to double-check your presentation using the Document Inspector. The Document Inspector can tell you if there are any comments or other hidden data in your presentation that you may need to remove.
To Use the Document Inspector:
1. Save your presentation. 2. Click the File tab to go to Backstage view. 3. Select Info on the left side of the page. 4. Click the Check for Issues command. A drop-down menu will appear. 5. Select Inspect Document. 6. Click Inspect. 7. The inspection results will show an exclamation mark for any categories where it found possibly sensitive data, and it will also have a Remove All button for each of those categories. Click Remove All to remove the data. 8. Close the dialog box when you're done. 9. From Backstage view, click Save to make the changes permanent.
2.4.16 Presentation Options - Advanced
There are many things to keep in mind when giving a presentation. How long will your presentation last? What will you say? If you're not in the same location as your audience, how will they view it? Fortunately, PowerPoint 2010 offers a number of tools to help you ensure that your presentation goes smoothly.
Rehearse and Record Slide Shows
PowerPoint 2010 offers you two useful options for rehearsing and preparing the timing and delivery of your presentation in advance: Rehearse Timings and Record Slide Show.
Rehearsing Slide Show Timings
Rehearsing timings can be useful if you want to set up a presentation to play at a certain speed without having to click through the slides to present it. Think of it as a tool to help you practice presenting your slide show. Using this feature, you can save timings for each slide and animation. PowerPoint will then play back the presentation with the same timings when you present it. Engineering Staff College of India Page 218 of 348
To Rehearse Timings:
1. Select the Slide Show tab and locate the Set Up group. 2. Click the Rehearse Timings command. You will be taken to a full screen view of your presentation.
The Rehearse Timings command
3. Practice presenting your slide show. When you are ready to move to the next slide, click the Next button on the Recording Toolbar in the top left corner. If you prefer, you can also use the right arrow key.
Navigating to the next slide using the Recording toolbar
4. When you have reached the end of the show, press the Esc key to end your slide show. A dialog box will appear with the total time of your presentation. 5. If you are satisfied with your timings, click Yes.
If you need more than one try to get the timings just right, the Recording Toolbar has options to let you take a break or start over on a slide. To pause the timer, click the pause button on the toolbar. No actions taken while the timer is paused will be included in the timings. To re-record the timings on the current slide, simply click the repeat button.
Recording Your Slide Show
The Record Slide Show feature is similar to the Rehearse Timings feature, but more comprehensive. If you have a microphone for your computer, you can even record voice-over narration for the entire presentation. This is useful if you plan on using your slide show for a self-running presentation or a video. Your mouse won't show up on screen in recorded slide shows, so if you would like to point out details on screen, you can use PowerPoint's laser pointer option. Engineering Staff College of India Page 219 of 348
To Record a Slide Show:
1. Click the Slide Show tab and locate the Set Up group. 2. Click the Record Slide Show drop-down arrow. 3. Select either Start Recording from Beginning or Start Recording from Current Slide. The Record Slide Show dialog box will appear. 4. Select the desired options. Remember, you can only record narration if you have a microphone attached to your computer. 5. Click Start Recording. Your presentation will open full screen. 6. Perform your slide show. Make sure to speak clearly into the microphone if you are recording narration. When you are ready to move to the next slide, click the Next button on the Recording Toolbar in the top left corner or use the right arrow key. 7. When you reach the end of the show, press the Esc key to exit. 8. Your slide show timings and narration are now included in your presentation. The slides with narration will be marked with a speaker icon in the bottom right corner.
To point out details during your recording, press and hold the Ctrl key on your keyboard. Your cursor will show up as a laser pointer. Simply move your mouse to indicate the desired details. Release the Ctrl key when you are finished pointing out things on screen.
Using the laser pointer
To Remove Narration or Timings from a Recorded Slide Show:
1. Click the Slide Show tab and locate the Set Up group. 2. Click the Record Slide Show drop-down arrow. 3. Hover your mouse over Clear. 4. Select the desired option.
Sharing Presentation Options
PowerPoint 2010 offers several options to enhance or even totally change the way you deliver presentations. Instead of presenting your slide show normally, you can choose to present it as a video, or even broadcast it live on the Web so that others can view it remotely. No matter how you choose to give your presentation, you can enhance it by customizing your slide show to remove or reorder slides, or printing handouts to help your audience take notes. All of these options can help you give a polished and professional presentation.
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Presenting Your Slide Show as a Video
The Create a Video feature allows you to save your presentation as a video. This can be useful, as it lets your viewers watch the presentation whenever they like. To make sure your viewers have enough time to view each slide, you might want to rehearse the timings or record your slide show before using this feature.
To Create a Video:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to the Backstage view. 2. Select Save and Send. 3. Select Create a Video under File Types. The Create a Video menu will appear on the right. 4. Click the drop-down arrow next to Computer and HD Displays to select the size and quality of your video. 5. Select the drop-down arrow next to Recorded Timings and Narrations. o Choose Don't Use Recorded Timings and Narrations if you don't have or don't wish to use recorded timings. You can adjust the default Seconds to spend on each slide: in the box below the drop-down menu. o Choose Use Recorded Timings and Narrations if you have already recorded timings and narrations and would like to use them in your video. 6. Click the Create Video command. The Save As dialog box will appear. 7. Select the location where you wish to save the presentation, then enter a name for the presentation. 8. Click Save. A status bar will appear in the bottom right corner of the PowerPoint window as PowerPoint creates your video. When the bar is completely green, your video is ready to view, send, or upload.
In addition to emailing your video, you can also upload your video to free video sharing sites like YouTube.com. YouTube offers guides to creating an account and uploading videos. Once your video is uploaded, you can simply give the link to anyone you want to see it.
Broadcasting Your Slide Show to Remote Audiences
Broadcasting a presentation remotely is surprisingly easy. All you and your viewers need is an internet connection-- they don't even need PowerPoint. Once your viewers are connected, you can start the presentation as you normally would.
Please note that you cannot edit your presentation or mark it with a highlighter or pen while you are broadcasting a slide show. You also cannot use PowerPoint to speak to your audience. Plan to communicate with your viewers through teleconferencing, or pre-record your narration.
To Broadcast a Slide Show:
1. Select the Slide Show tab and locate the Start Slide Show group. 2. Click the Broadcast Slide Show command. The Broadcast Slide Show dialog box will open. 3. Click Start Broadcast. A status bar will appear as PowerPoint prepares your broadcast. 4. A link will appear. Select the link, and click Copy Link to make a copy of the link, or Send in Email to send an email with the link to your viewers. 5. Click Start Slide Show. 6. Present your slide show. 7. When you are finished, click End Broadcast in the yellow bar at the top of the screen.
Customizing Your Slide Show
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Sometimes you might want to hide a slide while still keeping it in your presentation. For instance, if you are presenting a slide show to more than one group of people, hiding or even rearranging certain slides could help you tailor your slide show to each group you present it to. You could also choose to create a shortened version of your slide show to present when you're short on time. The Custom Slide Show feature allows you to create and name different versions of your slide show with hidden or rearranged slides.
To Create a Custom Show:
1. Select the Slide Show tab and locate the Start Slide Show group. 2. Click the Custom Slide Show command. 3. Select Custom Shows.... The Custom Shows dialog box will appear. 4. Click New. The Define Custom Show dialog box will appear. 5. Locate the Slide show name box and type in a name for your custom show. 6. Select the slides in the Slides in presentation: box that you would like to include in your custom show, then click Add>> to add them to the Slides in custom show: box. If necessary, use the up and down arrows to reorder the added slides. 7. Click OK. 8. Select Close to exit or Show to view your custom show.
You can also hide slides by selecting the Hide Slide command, which can be found on the Slide Show tab. To unhide a slide, simply click the Hide Slide command again.
Creating Handouts of a Presentation
Printing handouts with images of your slides can be helpful to your audience, as it gives them a hard copy of the information you're presenting. Plus, they can take notes on the handouts as you present your slide show.
To Create Handouts of a Presentation:
1. Click the File tab. This takes you to the Backstage view. 2. Click Print. 3. Click the drop-down arrow in the box that says Full Page Slides, and locate the Handouts group. 4. Select a page layout for your handouts. Up to nine slides can be displayed per page. Note that the 3 slides layout offers lined space for your viewers to take notes. 5. Click the Print command.
If you would like to add a header or footer to your handouts, click the View tab on the Ribbon, then select Handout Master. Just type your header or footer information into the boxes provided. To return to the normal view, click Exit Master View.
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Chapter 3 IT in Finance and Accounting
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3.1 Computerized Accounting System
The revolution in information technology has significantly changed the nature of business and created competitive advantages for those who appreciate its effects. With the expansion of business the number of transactions increased. The manual method of keeping and maintaining records was found to be unmanageable. With the introduction of computers in business, the manual method of accounting is being gradually replaced. And finally, the database technology has revolutionised the accounts department of the business organisations.
A computerized accounting system is an accounting information system that processes the financial transactions and events as per Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) to produce reports as per user requirements. Every accounting system,manual or computerised, has two aspects. First, it has to work under a set of well-defined concepts called accounting principles. Another, that there is a user-defined framework for maintenance of records and generation of reports. In a computerised accounting system, the framework of storage and processing of data is called operating environment that consists of hardware as well as software in which the accounting system, works. The type of the accounting system used determines the operating environment. Both hardware and software are interdependent. The type of software determines the structure of the hardware. Further, the selection of hardware is dependent upon various factors such as the number of users, level of secrecy and the nature of various activities of functional departments in an organisation.
3.2 Need for Computerized Accounting
The need for computerised accounting arises from advantages of speed, accuracy and lower cost of handling the business transactions.
Numerous Transactions The computerised accounting system is capable of handling large number of transactions with speed and accuracy.
Instant Reporting The computerised accounting system is capable of offering quick and quality reporting because of its speed and accuracy.
Reduction in paper work A manual accounting system requires large physical storage space to keep accounting records/books and vouchers/ documents. The requirement of stationery and books of accounts along with vouchers and documents is directly dependent on the volume of transactions beyond a certain point. There is a dire need to reduce the paper work and dispense with large volumes of books of accounts. This can be achieved by introducing computerised accounting system.
Computer and Computerised Accounting System Flexible reporting The reporting is flexible in computerised accounting system as compared to manual accounting system. The reports of a manual accounting system reveal balances of accounts on periodic basis while computerized accounting system is capable of generating reports of any balance as when required and for any duration which is within the accounting period.
Accounting Queries There are accounting queries which are based on some external parameters. For example, a query to identify customers who have not made the payments within the permissible credit period can be easily
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answered by using the structured query language (SQL) support of database technology in the computerised accounting system. But such an exercise in a manual accounting system is quite difficult and expensive in terms of manpower used. It will still be worse in case the credit period is changed.
On-line facility Computerised accounting system offers online facility to store and process transaction data so as to retrieve information to generate and view financial reports. Scalability Computerised accounting system are fully equipped with handling the growing transactions of a fast growing business enterprise. The requirement of additional manpower in Accounts department is restricted to only the data operators for storing additional vouchers. There is absolutely no additional cost of processing additional transaction data.
Accuracy The information content of reports generated by the computerized accounting system is accurate and therefore quite reliable for decision making. In a manual accounting system the reports and information are likely to be distorted, inaccurate and therefore cannot be relied upon. It is so because it is being processed by many people, especially when the number of transactions to be processed to produce such information and report is quite large.
Security Under manual accounting system it is very difficult to secure such information because it is open to inspection by any eyes dealing with the books of accounts. However, in computerised accounting system only the authorised users are permitted to have access to accounting data. Security provided by the computerised accounting system is far superior compared to any security offered by the manual accounting system.
Role of computers in accounting The most popular system of recording of accounting transactions is manual which requires maintaining books of accounts such as Journal, Cash Book, Special purpose books, ledger and so on. The accountant is required to prepare summary of transactions and financial statements manually. The advanced technology involves various machines capable of performing different accounting functions, for example, a billing machine. This machine is capable of computing discount, adding net total and posting the requisite data to the relevant accounts.
With substantial increase in the number of transactions, a machine was developed which could store and process accounting data in no time. Such advancement leads to number of growing successful organisations. A newer version of machine is evolved with increased speed, storage, and processing capacity. A computer to which they were connected operated these machines. As a result, the maintenance of accounting data on a real-time basis became almost essential. Now maintaining accounting records become more convenient with the computerised accounting.
The computerised accounting uses the concept of databases. For this purpose an accounting software is used to implement a computerized accounting system. It does away the necessity to create and maintain journals, ledgers, etc., which are essential part of manual accounting. Some of the commonly used accounting softwares are Tally, Cash Manager, Best Books, etc.
Accounting software is used to implement a computerised accounting. The computerised accounting is based on the concept of database. It is basic software which allows access to the data contained in the data base. It is a system to manage collection of data insuring at the same time that it remains reliable and confidential.
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Following are the components of Computerised accounting software:
1. Preparation of accounting documents Computer helps in preparing accounting documents like Cash Memo, Bills and invoices etc., and preparing accounting vouchers.
2. Recording of transactions Every day business transactions are recorded with the help of computer software. Logical scheme is implied for codification of account and transaction. Every account and transaction is assigned a unique code. The grouping of accounts is done from the first stage. This process simplifies the work of recording the transactions.
3. Preparation of Trial Balance and Financial Statements After recording of transaction, the data is transferred into Ledger account automatically by the computer. Trial Balance is prepared by the computer to check accuracy of the records. With the help of trial balance the computer can be programmed to prepare Trading, Profit and Loss account and Balance Sheet. These components can be shown as :
Computerised Accounting Transaction processing system (TPS) is the first stage of computerized accounting system. The purpose of any TPS is to record, process, validate and store transactions that occur in various functional areas of a business for subsequent retrieval and usage. TPS involves following steps in processing a transaction: Data Entry, Data Validation, Processing and Revalidation, Storage, Information and Reporting. It is one of the transaction processing systems which is concerned with financial transactions only. When a system contains only human resources it is called manual system; when it uses only computer resources, it is called computerised system and when it uses both human and computer resources, it is called computer- based system.
These steps can be explained with an example making use of Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) facility by a Bank-Customer.
1. Data Entry : Processing presumes data entry. A bank customer operates an ATM facility to make a withdrawal. The actions taken by the customer constitute data which is processed after validation by the computerised personal banking system.
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2. Data Validation : It ensures the accuracy and reliability of input data by comparing the same with some predefined standards or known data. This validation is made by the ‘Error Detection’ and ‘Error Correction’ procedures. The control mechanism, wherein actual input data is compared with predetermined norm is meant to detect errors while error correction procedures make suggestions for entering correct data input. The Personal Identification Number (PIN) of the customer is validated with the known data. If it is incorrect, a suggestion is made to indicate the PIN is invalid. Once the PIN is validated, the amount of withdrawal being made is also checked to ensure that it does not exceed a prespecified limit of withdrawal.
3. Processing and Revalidation : The processing of data occurs almost instantaneously in case of Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) provided a valid data has been fed to the system. This is called check input validity. Revalidation occurs to ensure that the transaction in terms of delivery of money by ATM has been duly completed. This is called check output validity.
4. Storage : Processed actions, as described above, result into financial transaction data i.e. withdrawal of money by a particular customer, are stored in transaction database of computerized personal banking system. This makes it absolutely clear that only valid transactions are stored in the database.
5. Information : The stored data is processed making use of the Query facility to produce desired information.
6. Reporting : Reports can be prepared on the basis of the required information content according to the decision usefulness of the report.
The need for computerised accounting arises from advantages of speed, accuracy and lower cost of handling the business transactions.
• Numerous Transactions The computerised accounting system is capable of handling large number of transactions with speed and accuracy.
• Instant Reporting The computerised accounting system is capable of offering quick and quality reporting because of its speed and accuracy.
• Reduction in paper work A manual accounting system requires large physical storage space to keep accounting records/books and vouchers/ documents. The requirement of stationery and books of accounts along with vouchers and documents is directly dependent on the volume of transactions beyond a certain point. There is a dire need to reduce the paper work and dispense with large volumes of books of accounts. This can be achieved by introducing computerised accounting system.
• Flexible reporting The reporting is flexible in computerised accounting system as compared to manual accounting system. The reports of a manual accounting system reveal balances of accounts on periodic basis while computerized accounting system is capable of generating reports of any balance as when required and for any duration which is within the accounting period.
• Accounting Queries There are accounting queries which are based on some external parameters. For example, a query to identify customers who have not made the payments within the permissible credit period can be easily answered by using the structured query language (SQL) support of database technology in the computerised accounting system. But such an exercise in a manual accounting system is quite difficult and expensive in terms of manpower used. It will still be worse in case the credit period is changed.
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• On-line facility Computerised accounting system offers online facility to store and process transaction data so as to retrieve information to generate and view financial reports.
Scalability Computerised accounting system are fully equipped with handling the growing transactions of a fast growing business enterprise. The requirement of additional manpower in Accounts department is restricted to only the data operators for storing additional vouchers. There is absolutely no additional cost of processing additional transaction data.
Accuracy The information content of reports generated by the computerized accounting system is accurate and therefore quite reliable for decisionmaking. In a manual accounting system the reports and information are likely to be distorted, inaccurate and therefore cannot be relied upon. It is so because it is being processed by many people, especially when the number of transactions to be processed to produce such information and report is quite large.
Security Under manual accounting system it is very difficult to secure such information because it is open to inspection by any eyes dealing with the books of accounts. However, in computerised accounting system only the authorised users are permitted to have access to accounting data. Security provided by the computerised accounting system is far superior compared to any security offered by the manual accounting system.
Data validation
The efficiency of an automated payments process is reliant on the input of accurate data. Data validation is the only way to ensure that the information captured is accurate. Without account validation, most organisations experience a data entry error rate of between 2% and 8%.
The weakest link in any automated payment process is at the point where the payment details are manually entered into the organisation’s accounting, billing or payment system. If data validation does not take place at this time, the subsequent administration cost of resolving the error at a later stage can be significant.
Such errors occur either as a result of being provided with incorrect information in the first place or due to errors introduced at the point of data entry. It only takes one digit to be incorrect for the payment to fail which is why data validation is so important.
Data validation isn’t easy
In addition to the well-known problems associated with data entry, processing bank details can compound this further:
• Identification of account numbers is not always straightforward Although the correct information from can be found on a cheque book or bank statement, customers usually use the information printed on their payment card. • The data required to undertake bank account validation is constantly changing New bank branches, co-operatives, credit unions and savings society branches are regularly opened, whilst others are closed or merged. • Many account numbers and bank codes require reformatting A significant number of account numbers and sort codes must be converted from the format in which they are issued to the Payer into a required recognised format for processing.
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• Customers are increasingly entering their own details The adoption of electronic commerce has led to a rapid increase in Internet and automated telephone systems to capture customer payment details, which significantly increases the chance of errors.
Data validation at the point of entry highlights erroneous data prior to processing, virtually eliminating the chance of submitting invalid payment data which can have a direct impact on the time and administration costs. Although many organisations have implemented data validation systems for checking the accuracy of payment data - usually developed in-house - these tend to rely on limited supplies of data and must be regularly updated.
Data validation solutions
Data validation using Modulus checking
Modulus Checking is a data validation procedure that applies a mathematical algorithm to an account number (or an account number and sort code combination) to check that it is valid for a particular range of sort codes. In the absence of an entire database of every bank account, it is the next best form of data validation to check the validity of an account number. However, Modulus checking is only one aspect of data validation.
Data validation using Bank code directories
Bank code directories are available from banks, publishers and financial institutions, but provide data only. In order for bank code directories to have real value as data validation tools and undertake the other important aspects of validation - modulus checking and Transposing - the data must be coded into the relevant software application.
Data validation through transposition
A significant number of account numbers and sort codes must be transposed from the form in which they are issued to the payer into the form required by an Automated Clearing House for processing. This form of data validation must take place prior to modulus checking.
3.3 Requirements of Computerized Accounting system
The basic requirements of any computerised accounting system are the followings:
Accounting framework It is the application environment of the computerised accounting system. A healthy accounting framework in terms of accounting principles, coding and grouping structure is a pre-condition for any computerised accounting system.
Operating procedure A well-conceived and designed operating procedure blended with suitable operating environment of the enterprise is necessary to work with the computerised accounting system. The computerised accounting is one of the database-oriented applications wherein the transaction data is stored in well- organized database. The user operates on such database using the required interface and also takes the required reports by suitable transformations of stored data into information. Therefore, the fundamentals of computerised accounting include all the basic requirements of any database-oriented application in computers.
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Modern computerised accounting systems are based on the concept of database. A database is implemented using a database management system, which is define by a set of computer programmes (or software) that manage and organise data effectively and provide access to the stored data by the application programmes. The accounting database is well-organised with active interface that uses accounting application programs and reporting system. Every computerised accounting system has two basic requirements;
• Accounting Framework : It consists a set of principles, coding and grouping structure of accounting.
• Operating Procedure : It is a well-defined operating procedure blended suitably with the operating environment of the organisation. The use of computers in any database oriented application has four basic requirements as mentioned below ;
• Front-end Interface : It is an interactive link or a dialog between the user and database-oriented software through which the user communicates to the back-end database. For example, a transaction relating to purchase of goods may be dealt with the accounting system through a purchase voucher, which appears on the computer’s monitor of data entry operator and when entered into the system is stored in the database. The same data may be queried through reporting system say purchase analysis software programme.
• Back-end Database : It is the data storage system that is hidden from the user and responds to the requirement of the user to the extent the user is authorised to access.
• Data Processing : It is a sequence of actions that are taken to transform the data into decision useful information.
• Reporting System: It is an integrated set of objects that constitute the report.
The computerised accounting is also one of the database-oriented applications wherein the transaction data is stored in well-organised database. The user operates on such database using the required and desired interface and also takes the desired reports by suitable transformations of stored data into information. Therefore, the fundamentals of computerised accounting embrace all the basic requirements of any database-oriented application in computers. Accordingly, the computerised accounting system has the above four additional requirements.
3.4 Manual and Computerized Accounting: A comparison
Accounting, by definition, is the process of identifying, recording, classifying and summarising financial transactions to produce the financial reports for their ultimate analysis. Let us understand these activities in the context of manual and computerised accounting system.
• Identifying : The identification of transactions, based on application of accounting principles is, common to both manual and computerized accounting system.
• Recording : The recording of financial transactions, in manual accounting system is through books of original entries while the data content of such transactions is stored in a well-designed accounting database in computerised accounting system.
• Classification : Engineering Staff College of India Page 230 of 348
In a manual accounting system, transactions recorded in the books of original entry are further classified by posting into ledger accounts. This results in transaction data duplicity. In computerized accounting, no such data duplication is made to cause classification of transactions. In order to produce ledger accounts, the stored transaction data is processed to appear as classified so that the same is presented in the form of a report. Different forms of the same transaction data are made available for being presented in various reports.
• Summarising : The transactions are summarised to produce trial balance in manual accounting system by ascertaining the balances of various accounts. As a result, preparation of ledger accounts becomes a prerequisite for preparing the trial balance. However, in computerized accounting, the originally stored transactions data are processed to churn out the list of balances of various accounts to be finally shown in the trial balance report. The generation of ledger accounts is not a necessary condition for producing trial balance in a computerised accounting system.
• Adjusting Entries : In a manual accounting system, these entries are made to adhere to the principle of cost matching revenue. These entries are recorded to match the expenses of the accounting period with the revenues generated by them. Some other adjusting entries may be made as part of errors and rectification. However, in computerised accounting, Journal vouchers are prepared and stored to follow the principle of cost matching revenue, but there is nothing like passing adjusting entries for errors and rectification, except for rectifying an error of principle by having recorded a wrong voucher such as using payment voucher for a receipt transaction.
Financial Statements : In a manual system of accounting, the preparation of financial statements pre-supposes the availability of trial balance. However, in computerised accounting, there is no such requirement. The generation of financial statements is independent of producing the trial balance because such statements can be prepared by direct processing of originally stored transaction data.
• Closing the Books : After the preparation of financial reports, the accountants make preparations for the next accounting period. This is achieved by posting of closing and reversing journal entries. In computerised accounting, there is year-end processing to create and store opening balances of accounts in database. It may be observed that conceptually, the accounting process is identical regardless of the technology used.
3.5 Computerized Accounting System Advantages
Computerized accounting offers several advantages vis-a-vis manual accounting, these are summarized as follows :
• Speed : Accounting data is processed faster by using a computerized accounting system than it is achieved through manual efforts. This is because computers require far less time than human beings in performing a task.
• Accuracy : The possibility of error is eliminated in a computerized accounting system because the primary accounting data is entered once for all the subsequent usage and processes in preparing the accounting reports. Normally, accounting errors in a manual accounting system occur because of repeated posting of same set of original data by several times while preparing different types of accounting reports.
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• Reliability : The computer system is well-adapted to performing repetitive operations. They are immune to tiredness, boredom or fatigue. As a result, computers are highly reliable compared to human beings. Since computerized accounting system relies heavily on computers, they are relatively more reliable than manual accounting systems.
• Up-to-Date Information : The accounting records, in a computerized accounting system are updated automatically as and when accounting data is entered and stored. Therefore, latest information pertaining to accounts get reflected when accounting reports are produced and printed. For example, when accounting data pertaining to a transaction regarding cash purchase of goods is entered and stored, the cash account, purchase account and also the final accounts (trading and profit and loss account) reflect the impact immediately.
Real Time User Interface : Most of the automated accounting systems are inter-linked through a network of computers. This facilitates the availability of information to various users at the same time on a real time basis (that is spontaneously).
• Automated Document Production : Most of the computerized accounting systems have standardized, user defined format of accounting reports that are generated automatically. The accounting reports such as Cash book, Trial balance, Statement of accounts are obtained just by click of a mouse in a computerized accounting environment.
• Scalability : In a computerized accounting system, the requirement of additional manpower is confined to data entry operators for storing additional vouchers. The additional cost of processing additional transactions is almost negligible. As a result the computerized accounting systems are highly scalable.
• Legibility : The data displayed on computer monitor is legible. This is because the characters (alphabets, numerals, etc.) are type written using standard fonts. This helps in avoiding errors caused by untidy written figures in a manual accounting system.
• Efficiency : The computer based accounting systems ensure better use of resources and time. This brings about efficiency in generating decisions, useful information and reports.
• Quality Reports : The inbuilt checks and untouchable features of data handling facilitate hygienic and true accounting reports that are highly objective and can be relied upon.
• MIS Reports : The computerized accounting system facilitates the real time production of management information reports, which will help management to monitor and control the business effectively. Debtors’ analysis would indicate the possibilities of defaults (or bad debts) and also concentration of debt and its impact on the balance sheet. For example, if the company has a policy of restricting the credit sales by a fixed amount to a given party, the information is available on the computer system immediately when every voucher is entered through the data entry form. However, it takes time when it comes to a manual accounting system. Besides, the results may not be accurate.
• Storage and Retrieval : The computerised accounting system allows the users to store data in a manner that does not require a large amount of physical space. This is because the accounting data is stored in hard-disks, CD-ROMs, floppies that occupy a fraction of physical space compared to books of accounts in the form of ledger, journal and other accounting registers. Besides, the system permits fast and accurate retrieval of data and information.
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Motivation and Employees Interest : The computer system requires a specialised training of staff, which makes them feel more valued. This motivates them to develop interest in the job. However, it may also cause resistance when we switch over from a manual system to a computer system.
3.6 Limitations of Computerized Accounting System
The main limitations emerge out of the environment in which the computerized accounting system is made to operate. These limitations are as given below:
• Cost of Training : The sophisticated computerised accounting packages generally require specialised staff personnel. As a result, a huge training costs are incurred to understand the use of hardware and software on a continuous basis because newer types of hardware and software are acquired to ensure efficient and effective use of computerised accounting systems.
• Staff Opposition : Whenever the accounting system is computerised, there is a significant degree of resistance from the existing accounting staff, partly because of the fear that they shall be made redundant and largely because of the perception that they shall be less important to the organisation.
• Disruption : The accounting processes suffer a significant loss of work time when an organisation switches over to the computerised accounting system. This is due to changes in the working environment that requires accounting staff to adapt to new systems and procedures.
• System Failure : The danger of the system crashing due to hardware failures and the subsequent loss of work is a serious limitation of computerized accounting system. However, providing for back-up arrangements can obviate this limitation. Software damage and failure may occur due to attacks by viruses. This is of particular relevance to accounting systems that extensively use Internet facility for their online operations. No full proof solutions are available as of now to tackle the menace of attacks on software by viruses.
Inability to Check Unanticipated Errors : Since the computers lack capability to judge, they cannot detect unanticipated errors as human beings commit. This is because the software to detect and check errors is a set of programmes for known and anticipated errors.
• Breaches of Security : Computer related crimes are difficult to detect as any alteration of data may go unnoticed. The alteration of records in a manual accounting system is easily detected by first sight. Fraud and embezzlement are usually committed on a computerised accounting system by alteration of data or programmes. Hacking of passwords or user rights may change the accounting records. This is achieved by tapping telecommunications lines, wire-tapping or decoding of programmes. Also, the people responsible for tampering of data cannot be located which in a manual system is relatively easier to detect.
• Ill-effects on Health : The extensive use of computers systems may lead to development of various health problems: bad backs, eyestrain, muscular pains, etc. This affects adversely the working efficiency of accounting staff on one hand and increased medical expenditure on such staff on the other.
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3.7 Accounting Packages
Every Computerised Accounting System is implemented to perform the accounting activity (recording and storing of accounting data) and generate reports as per the requirements of the user. From this perspective. The accounting packages are classified into the following categories :
(a) Ready to use (b) Customised (c) Tailored
Each of these categories offers distinctive features. However, the choice of the accounting software would depend upon the suitability to the organization especially in terms of accounting needs.
Ready-to-Use Ready-to-Use accounting software is suited to organisations running small/ conventional business where the frequency or volume of accounting transactions is very low. This is because the cost of installation is generally low and number of users is limited. Ready-to-use software is relatively easier to learn and people (accountant) adaptability is very high. This also implies that level of secrecy is relatively low and the software is prone to data frauds. The training needs are simple and sometimes the vendor (supplier of software) offers the training on the software free. However, these software offer little scope of linking to other information systems.
Customised Accounting software may be customised to meet the special requirement of the user. Standardised accounting software available in the market may not suit or fulfil the user requirements. For example, standardised accounting software may contain the sales voucher and inventory status as separate options. However, when the user requires that inventory status to be updated immediately upon entry of sales voucher and report be printed, the software needs to be customised. Customised software is suited for large and medium businesses and can be linked to the other information systems. The cost of installation and maintenance is relatively high because the high cost is to be paid to the vendor for customisation. The customisation includes modification and addition to the software contents, provision for the specified number of users and their authentication, etc. Secrecy of data and software can be better maintained in customised software. Since the need to train the software users is important, the training costs are therefore high.
Tailored The accounting software is generally tailored in large business organizations with multi users and geographically scattered locations. These software requires specialised training to the users. The tailored software is designed to meet the specific requirements of the users and form an important part of the organizational MIS. The secrecy and authenticity checks are robust in such softwares and they offer high flexibility in terms of number of users.
3.8 Types of Accounting Software
Personal Accounting Programs
• Personal accounting programs, enable consumers to keep track of personal finances. Software features allow users to consolidate credit card and bank account information within a single Engineering Staff College of India Page 234 of 348
program, including a page that lists all accounts and balances. Consumers can also create categories, such as monthly household expenses and tax-deductible expenses, to help organize data for reporting and tax preparation. Users can add bill due date information and set reminders to ensure timely payment. Investment features enable users to download current trading information about stocks, mutual funds and bonds.
Some Applications also allows users to maintain records in multiple currencies and offers online updates of currency exchange rates.
Business Management
• Software companies manufacture a variety of low- to mid-market programs, to handle the accounting needs of small to mid-size businesses. Program functions enable financial management, payroll issuance and inventory control. Some applications enable companies to organize finances and group tasks according to categories, such as banking, vendor and customer tasks. Users can keep track of employee information and create invoices for customer billing.
Businesses can use Internet functionality to download bank transaction information and pay bills online. Additional functions include expense and sales forecasting, mileage and time tracking, and business plan creation.
Enterprise Resource Planning
• Enterprise Resource Planning applications, such as SAP ERP software, include accounting applications for high-end, large business users. ERP software typically includes a suite of programs to meet specific business needs.
Modules of ERP software function within an overall framework, integrating accounting programs, databases and customer management software into a single interface. An ERP suite can include programs for basic accounting, such as cash journals, tax accounting, asset control, accounts receivable, financial statements and accounts payable.
The suite can also include modules for credit management, enabling users to analyze a customer's creditworthiness and manage overdue customer accounts. ERP software can also integrate with supplier and customer systems to enable efficient management of inventory.
3.9 Choosing an Accounting Software suitable for your Organization
The following factors are usually taken in considerations before sourcing an accounting software.
Flexibility An important consideration before sourcing an accounting software is flexibility, viz. data entry and the availability and design of various reports expected from it. Also, it should offer some flexibility between the users of the software, the switch over between the accountants (users), operating systems and the hardware. The user should be able to run the software on variety of platforms and machines, e.g. Windows 98/2000, Linux, etc.
Cost of Installation and Maintenance The choice of the software obviously requires consideration of organisation ability to afford the hardware and software. A simple guideline to take such a decision is the cost benefit analysis of the available options and the financing opportunities available to the firm. Some times, certain software which appears Engineering Staff College of India Page 235 of 348
cheap to buy, involve heavy maintenance and alteration costs, e.g. cost of addition of modules, training of staff, updating of versions, data failure/restoring costs. Conversely, the accounting software which appear initially expensive to buyers, may require least maintenance and free upgrading and negligible alteration costs.
Size of Organisation The size of organisation and the volume of business transactions do affect the software choices. Small organisations, e.g. in non-profit organisations, where the number of accounting transactions is not so large, may opt for a simple, single user operated software. While, a large organisation may require sophisticated software to meet the multi-user requirements, geographically scattered and connected through complex networks.
Ease of Adaptation and Training needs Some accounting software is user friendly requiring a simple training to the users. However, some other complex software packages linked to other information systems require intensive training on a continuous basis. The software must be capable of attracting users and, if its requires simple training, should be able to motivate its potential users.
Utilities/MIS Reports The MIS reports and the degree to which they are used in the organization also determine the acquisition of software. For example, software that requires simply producing the final accounts or cash flow/ratio analysis may be readyto- use software. However, the software, which is expected to produce cost records needs to be customised as per user requirements.
Expected Level of Secrecy (Software and Data) Another consideration before buying accounting software is the security features, which prevent unauthorised personnel from accessing and/or manipulating data in the accounting system. In tailored software for large businesses, the user rights may be restricted to purchase vouchers for the purchase department, sales vouchers to the billing accountants and petty cash module access with the cashier. The operating system also matters. Unix environment allows multi-users compared to Windows. In Unix, the user cannot make the computer system functional unless the user clicks with a password, which is not a restriction in Windows.
Exporting/Importing Data Facility The transfer of database to other systems or software is sometimes expected from the accounting software. Organisations may need to transfer information directly from the ledger into spreadsheet software such as Lotus or Excel for more flexible reporting. The software should allow the hygienic, untouched data transfer. Accounting software may be required to be linked to MIS software in the organisation. In some ready to use accounting softwares, the exporting, importing facility is available but is limited to MS Office modules only, e.g. MS Word, MS Excel, etc. However, tailored softwares are designed in manner that they can interact and share information with the various sub components of the organisational MIS.
Vendors Reputation and Capability Another important consideration is the reputation and capability of about the vendor. This depends upon how long has he been the vendor is in business of software development, whether there are other users of the software and extent of the availability of support mechanisms outside the premises of the vendor.
• Accounting software comes in numerous levels of sophistication. Consumers can find a number of products, ranging in price from free to $100 or more, for managing individual and household bank accounts, expenses and investments. Manufacturers create accounting software specifically for small and mid-size businesses to manage cash flow, payroll and inventory. High-end software caters to the needs of large businesses, with applications for basic accounting functions, credit management and integrated supply chain administration. Engineering Staff College of India Page 236 of 348
3.10 List of Accounting Software
The list of accounting software sold in the market are diverse and can be divided into home accounting software and accounting software for small business. Home accounting software is used by individuals for personal finance, budgeting, keeping track of expenses, accounting and preparing tax returns. While there are many business accounting software sold in the market, the popular ones would be Quicken from Intuit and Sage Peachtree.
Most accounting software have common modules which can be used as a stand alone or integrated with other modules in the same accounting packages.
• General Ledger • Accounts Receivable • Accounts Payable • Inventory Control • Fixed Assets • Billing or Invoicing • Cash Book with bank reconciliation • Payroll
Here’s a list of accounting software which is popular with small businesses.
• Quickbooks PRO • Sage Peachtree Complete Accounting • MYOB • AccountEdge • BookKeeper • DacEasy • Simply Accounting • CYMA Accounting for Windows • Netsuite Small Business • Cougar Mountain • Small Business Manager (Microssoft)
List of Accounting Software for Mid-End and High-End Businesses
• Accpac from Sage • Syspro 6.1 • Epicor Enterprise from Epicor • Great Plains • JD Edwards EnterpriseOne & JD Edwards World from Oracle • Navision • Exact • SAP Business One • SAP R/3 from SAP • Microsoft Dynamics from Microsoft • Movex from Intentia • NetERP from NetSuite Inc. • Oracle e-Business Suite from Oracle • PeopleSoft from Oracle Engineering Staff College of India Page 237 of 348
The above list of accounting software for each category is just part of a whole range of other accounting softwares used by small and large businesses. The type of accounting software selected depends mainly on the business requirements and size of the business. Multi-sites organizations usually go for ERP solutions which are able to link all its accounting information from various locations into a common database.
ERP accounting software listed in the list of accounting software above can cost as much as one million dollars and more depending on number of licence and also on the complexity of its integration.
3.11 Accounting Software Packages Comparison
1. Assess your needs. Put together a committee consisting of members of various departments. You should have no more than seven members on your committee. Have each member analyze the needs of his department. Analyze how tasks are performed and create plans to show how efficiency can be increased with an improved accounting system. If you don't have the time or manpower to devote to this, you may want to hire an independent consultant to assess your business and provide an accounting software package recommendation.
2. Understand the types of accounting software packages. Entry-level accounting software is for smaller companies with $5 million in sales or less. Companies with sales of no more than $100 million and not more than 100 employees typically use small- to medium-business software. Small- to medium-enterprise accounting software packages are used by companies employing up to 500 people with sales as high as $500 million. Enterprise resource planning, or ERP, software is used by large companies with more than $500 million in sales and more than 500 employees.
3. Compare pricing. This is a somewhat difficult task because rarely will you be comparing apples to apples. Entry-level software may cost anywhere from $100 to $2,500. Large organizations may pay $250,000 and up for an accounting software package. Pricing shouldn't be your most important concern. Your primary concern is to make sure that the accounting software package meets the demands of your business.
4. Schedule on-site demonstrations. Vendors should be more than happy to allow you and other decision makers to test-drive the accounting software package. Discuss how the software can be implemented and integrated into your business. Ask the vendors about installation times and any system requirements for compatibility.
5. Review the legal ramifications. When making a large investment in an accounting software package, have your attorney go over the contracts to protect your best interest. Language should be stated in the contract regarding your recourse if the accounting software fails to work. Note the cost of maintenance and upgrades to your accounting software.
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While there are good number of Accounting software, certain softwares are easy to use which take care of even tax deduction for various heads such as service tax. The operation of few such widely used software like Wings, Tally are introduced below.
3.12 Introduction to Wings Accounting Software
Wings is an accounting software designed for the modern business. When merely tallying books is not enough. Wings Accounting, completely web-based, will help setup online systems across branches.
Wings is the finest software available today for businesses of all kinds. It offers the best in technology, design, architecture, features and functionality.
Wings sets new standards in financial accounting as it helps you go beyond vanilla and do much more.
With web-based Wings, you can:
• Easily consolidate data of all branches, factories, godowns, warehouses, stores, outlets, project sites etc over the internet • Get company-wide reports of all functions • Standardize and maintain single inventory, customer, supplier and price lists across all stores • Configure and manage the software centrally • Find out cash balances and stock of each product of each location, instantly • Control prices charged and discounts offered by remote locations • Item order in a store and deliver from another, without communication • View customer balance in all branches. Adjust debit balance in one branch against credit balance in another • And more...
Just install the software on your company's server or a web server to setup an online system over the internet. And, you can connect to your accounting system from your home, hotel room or while travelling.
Wings is secure as location-based data segregation ensures that the users of a branch access only their own data.
Alternatively, Wings can also be set up as an offline system to work locally at remote locations and synchronize data with a central server periodically. Wings works perfectly well on a local network.
Wings offers a set of rich features to help you get the most out of your systems. This includes:
• Dashboard • Reports Designer • Graphs Designer • Forms Designer • Labels Designer • Linked Transactions (Workflow) • User Rights Manager • World Languages • MS Office Integration Engineering Staff College of India Page 239 of 348
• Multi-Currency • Segments • Features Manager • Complete Security • Peripherals Integration
The various functions covered by Wings Accounting are described below, broadly.
Financial
Complete financial including General Ledger, Profit & Loss, Balance Sheet, Cash & Funds Flow, Bank Reconciliation, PDCs etc.
Sales & Purchases
Complete sales and purchases, including procurement, orders, deliveries, cancellations, returns, invoicing, Discounts etc. Extensive analysis, credit management and documents management (C Forms etc).
Taxes
VAT, Sales Tax, TDS, Excise, Cenvat, Excise Invoice, Inclusive & Exclusive Taxes, Automatic & Manual tax entries, Tax Registers etc. are all supported in Wings . Reports can be generated for each tax for statutory returns and VAT returns for all states. Wings will accommodate taxes worldwide.
Receivables & Payables
Wings facilitates comprehensive debtors and creditors management, bill-wise , overdue bills, interest calculations on overdue bills, user-defined ageing, reminder letters etc.
Inventory Management
The most complete inventory management in its class. It covers infinite number of products with detailed master information, product codes and attributes. The software also enables you to:
• Assign pictures and barcodes to products • Manage multiple stocks and conversion factors • Define product batches - assign manufacturing and expiry dates, and batch-wise prices • Use multiple units of measure and conversion factors • Manage multiple price lists etc • Maintain inventory across multiple locations • Manage product and branch transfers, inter-branch transfers, internal consumption etc. • Record excesses & shortages • Manage location wise reorders, costing, valuations etc.
Budgeting
Create and manage any number of budgets, for any account or group of accounts, segment-wise, for any period. You can also get a variance analysis.
Analysis and Reports
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A large number of ready-to-use reports that provide deep insight about your business. Reports are fast, and can be exported to MS Excel, as PDF files and can be emailed. Reports have extensive drill down capabilities and can be manipulated to suit your requirements. Reports can also be viewed as Graphs.
3.13 Introduction to Tally Accounting Software
Tally 9 the accounting software include also different data base of TDS items, and service tax rate etc. Tally 9 can easily operate by non commerce background persons also .In the bill wise voucher entries there no need of journal entry .That is good point of tally 9 and it goes to the favors who do not know double entry system. Education of tally 9 is very simple. All work in this software is under good discipline , suppose if you want to pass voucher entry but , if you have not create ledger account of that voucher entry , then tally will not pass the voucher entry at that time tally 9 gives you facility to make ledger account in accounting vouchers. For this just press Alt +C for creating ledger account in accounting voucher.
Tally 9 provides good accounting environment. Import, export, print, email, web publishing direct from tally 9 software is the one of major reason of its popularity.
If we compare tally 9 with other accounting software in India, the tally 9 gets No. 1 position in market. We can do comparison of its extra large facility regarding its VAT calculation, automatic interest calculation and fringe benefit tax calculation.
In tally 9 we can easily record of sale trade, partnership firm, MNC, business of commission agents, share market and money market business records and other service and professional sector records. Now, some Govt. Sector's large institution is also adapting tally 9 accounting software.
Association of Indian Chartered Accountant India also happy by use this software because they can audit the accounts on tally 9 very easily. In company creation audit feature can easily include. Bank reconciliation in tally 9 is very good for auditing point of view. Tally 9 is single Software which provides the facility of bank reconciliation. The double security system of tally 9 is very good from security of data point of view and preventing Anonymous access point of view. Tally 9 is becoming torch - bearer for all businessmen who were facing difficulty to record all their branches transactions tally 9's simple cost center feature solve all problems regarding record of transaction more than one job , machine , process , department , branches and sub branches . Speed can be increase in tally 9 up to 30 to 40% from simple voucher entry passing through following way
1. Multiple ledger creation 2. Effective use of short cut commands of tally 9 3. Effective utilization of configuration button.
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Multilingual Business Accounting and Inventory Management Features
• Multilingual Support: Tally can now be used concurrently in the language of your choice. Tally's interface is now available in Bahasa Melayu besides English and the Indic languages Hindi, Kannada, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Tamil, Punjabi, Telugu, Malayalam and Hinglish (colloquial)
• Payroll: Payroll in Tally enables users to set up and implement simple to complex salary structures. You can align and automate payroll processes and directly integrate them with main stream accounting applications. Tally Payroll also supports configurable formats for payslip printing; flexible salary/wage, attendance, leave and overtime registers; gratuity and expat reports
• FBT (Fringe benefit tax): FBT in Tally is a one time, easy to enable configuration. It supports Challan management and printing for prompt and accurate filing of tax. On entering the transactions, Tally automatically calculates the FBT and generates the reports
• VAT Composition Returns: VAT Composition Returns in Tally provides fast and error-free voucher entry with complete tracking of each transaction. It supports the printing of VAT Composition Returns of any state in which VAT has been implemented. The Composition Rate of VAT is automatically recognised based upon turnover and the tax payable is calculated automatically and shown in the Return Form
• Excise for Dealers: Excise for Dealers in Tally generates Excise Invoices for Traders, Tracks Purchase Invoices during sales and duty credit availed and passed on. It also maintains the Excise Stock Register and generates Quarterly Returns
• TDS (Tax Deducted at Source): Tally allows you to configure TDS ledgers by specifying the Nature of Payment and Assessee Types, along with the Rate of TDS. It determines user-defined expense/payment types with user-defined rates. TDS can be deducted automatically based on pre-defined rates, once the transactions exceed the threshold limit. You can generate Challans, the Form-16A Certificate as well as the quarterly and annual returns. Tally also generates e-TDS files in NSDL compatible formats
• Synchronization: Synchronization in Tally helps you transfer data between two or more locations (Example: When a Branch Office and the Head Office of a company reside in two different locations). Synchronization can be done, both ways (For Example: You can transfer the data from Branch Office to Head Office or vice-versa).
• E-mail reports and documents directly from Tally
• Publish reports in HTML on Web or Intranet and share them with suppliers, customers or your own staff
• Direct web browsing capability from within Tally that avoids switching between programs
• Exchange data with other systems using XML. Tally gives you the means to collaborate with others and share information like never before
• ODBC connectivity opens up Tally. This makes Tally fields in ODBC to be compliant with programs like MS Word and MS Excel. This enables you to integrate Tally data dynamically into other ODBC systems. It even designs a form like remittance advice and imbed fields like Customer name and address, account balances and so on, in Excel/Word.
Performance and Implementation Features
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• Rapid Implementation: This means low start-up costs, with the lowest training requirements of any accounting system in the world! A consistent data entry interface has your accounting up and running in minutes
• Real Time Processing: Tally updates all your books, ledgers and reports as soon as a transaction is accepted. There is no need to specifically ask for an update. Your statements are always ready with the last saved transaction
• Speed: The only reason you should automate your accounts is to get information FAST. Tally outdistances all systems with its ‘faster-than-thought’ performance
• Unlimited Companies and Periods of Accounting: Handle the accounts of more than one company (simultaneously, if desired). Compare data across companies and financial periods. View information for any period (for example, 19 months). Consolidate companies with a single keystroke!
• Unbelievable Period End Handling: The unique date-driven approach of Tally, with dynamic and automatic periods, makes the financial year end simple and hassle free
• Dynamic Interactive Reports and Unique Drill-Down Facility: All reports are dynamic and allow further interrogation from summary to the actual transaction voucher
• Comprehensive Print Capabilities: Print quotations, orders, invoices, vouchers and cheques through Tally. Choose from several default formats, use ODBC compliant systems to print other special formats, or contact us to meet your requirements
• Print Preview: View reports and their layouts, prior to actual printing
Accounting and Inventory Control Features
Tally provides a total solution for managing your accounts and stocks. Its vast array of management reports put you on top of your operations, be it a small business, a large one or even a non-profit organisation.
Accounting Features
• Accounting without CODES! The only sensible way to keep your records is to use regular names for your accounts. With unlimited levels of classification available in Tally, you can manage the most complex ledger systems with ease
• Unified Ledgers: Tally pioneered the concept of Unified Ledgers where the General, Sales and Purchase Ledgers are integrated into a Single Ledger and organised under groups for easy management. This concept combines the power of reporting along with ease of data entry
• Complete Book-Keeping: Record transactions using a unique voucher entry system that is easy and flexible to configure for diverse transactions
• Comprehensive Accounting: Instantly obtain your Balance Sheets, Profit & Loss Statements, Cash and Funds Flows, Trial Balances and so on
• Multi-Currency Accounting: Tally handles unlimited currencies and manages the complexities of Forex Gain/Loss intelligently. A single transaction may contain more than two currencies
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• Bill-wise Tracking of Trading and Non-Trading Accounts: Tally tracks Party accounts or Loan Accounts on a Bill-by-Bill basis (for example, new bills raised, payments, receipts, adjustments against bills)
• Interest Calculation: Tally has completely definable Interest Calculation methods. You can tackle problems with methods definable for each transaction
• Receivables and Payables: Dynamically allocate payments against invoices with reference to due dates. Reports are classified, grouped and aged to your definitions. You can have customisable reminders for overdue, as well as measure payment performance, segragating your good and bad customers!
• Ratio Analysis: A range of key performance ratios, on a single sheet, puts you in total control of your business
• Budgeting, Auditing and Security Control: Use Original and Revised Budgets over varying periods. Define security levels to control access and use the powerful Audit capabilities to track malafide changes, while making genuine corrections with unparalleled ease
• Scenario Management: Use Optional, Reversing journals and Memorandum vouchers to record provisional entries. For example, use Optional Vouchers to record provisional sales and compare with actuals. Prepare reports, including provisional figures, without affecting actual accounts, using automatic reversing journals
• Unlimited Cost/Profit Centres: With Power Project Oriented Reporting: Projects, Departments, Marketing Zones are just a handful of analysis criteria you can use with Tally. With unlimited sub- classification, Tally gives you multi-dimensional analysis and comparatives.
Inventory Features
• Multi-location Stock Control: Use Tally to keep track of your stock at single or multiple locations. Create unlimited classification systems for your Items and your own Units of Measure
• Comprehensive Recording of Stock Movement: Record inventory transactions easily and comprehensively using Goods Receipt Notes, Delivery Notes, Stock Transfer Journals, Manufacturing Journals as well as Physical Stock Journals. All stock movements are fully recorded and maintained in Stock Registers
• Management Reports: Movement Analysis gives party-wise details of goods bought and sold and helps to identify good and bad business partners. Stock Query is a unique single sheet report that gives information on stocks at different locations as well as total stock-in-hand
• Aged stocks Analysis: Identifies old stocks to aid in decisions relating to their quick disposal
• Batch-wise or lot-wise Inventory with Expiry: Use the concept of Batches or Lots to track stock at the batch level
• Re-Order Levels and minimum order quantities: Know your stock order position with the comprehensive Order Status reports in Tally. Specify re-order levels in absolute quantities, or based on previous consumption
Sales & Purchase Order Processing
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• Sales and Purchase Orders: A comprehensive facility to record orders with a complete cycle of recording and allocating them through inventory deliveries, invoicing and accounting. Single sheet reports give current stocks, orders due for delivery, orders due for receipt, shortfalls (if any). Get party-wise or item-wise details of outstanding and/or fulfilled orders
Invoicing
• Sales invoices are produced directly from Tally. Print, Export, E-mail or publish them. Tally has a very comprehensive invoicing system that allows flexible handling of charges and taxes. The invoice format is available in different formats and you could adopt them as your own or have a completely different layout designed!
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Chapter 4 Management Information system
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4.1 Management Information System
A management information system (MIS) provides information which is needed to manage organizations efficiently and effectively. Management information systems involve three primary resources: people, technology, and information. Management information systems are distinct from other information systems in that they are used to analyze operational activities in the organization.
The MIS has more than one definition, some of which are give below.
1. The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision making in the organization.
2. The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the information to support the operations, the management and the decision making function in the organization.
3. The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for the purpose of providing information to the people in the organization.
4. The MIS is defined as a Computer based Information System. Thought there are a number of definitions, all of them converge on one single point, i.e., the MIS is a system to support the decision making function in the organization. The difference lies in defining the elements of the MIS. However, in today’s world MIS a computerized .business processing system generating information for the people in the organization to meet the information needs decision making to achieve the corporate objective of the organization. In any organization, small or big, a major portion of the time goes in data collection, processing, documenting it to the people. Hence, a major portion of the overheads goes into this kind of unproductive work in the organization. Every individual in an organization is continuously looking for some information which is needed to perform his/her task. Hence, the information is people-oriented and it varies with the nature of the people in the organization.
In order to get a better grip on the activity of information processing, it is necessary to have a formal system which should take care of the following points: ¾ Handling of a voluminous data. ¾ Confirmation of the validity of data and transaction ¾ Complex processing of data and multidimensional analysis. ¾ Quick search and retrieval. ¾ Mass storage. ¾ Communication of the information system to the user on time. ¾ Fulfilling the changing needs of the information.
The management information system uses computers and communication technology to deal with these points of supreme importance.
4.2 Role of the Management Information System
The Management Information system ensures that an appropriate data is collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management functionaries: the managers and the top management.
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The MIS satisfies the diverse needs through a variety of systems such as Query Systems, analysis Systems, Modeling Systems and Decision Support Systems the MIS helps in Strategic Planning, Management Control, Operational Control and Transaction Processing.
The MIS helps the clerical personnel in the transaction processing and answers their queries on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and references on a variety of documents. The MIS helps the junior management personnel by providing the operational data for planning, scheduling and control, and helps them further in decision making at the operations level to correct an out of control situation. The MIS helps the middle management in short them planning, target setting and controlling the business functions. It is supported by the use of the management tools of planning and control. The MIS helps the top management in goal setting, strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their implementation.
The MIS plays the role of information generation, communication, problem identification and helps in the process of decision making. The MIS, therefore, plays a vita role in the management, administration and operations of an organization.
4.3 MIS : A support to the Management
The management process is executed through a variety of decisions taken at each step of planning organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and control. MIS aids decision making. The objective of the MIS is to provide information for a decision support in the process of management. It should help in such a way that the business goals are achieved in the most efficient manner. Since the decision making is not restricted to a particular level, the MIS is expected to support all the levels of the management in conducting the business operations. Unless the MIS becomes a management aid, it is not useful to the organization.
Decisions in Management:
Steps in management Decision Planning A selection from various alternatives- strategies, resources, methods, etc. Organization A selection of a combination out of several combinations of the goals, people, resources, method, and authority. Staffing Providing a proper manpower complement. Directing Choosing a method from the various methods of directing the efforts in the organization. Coordinating Choice of the tools and the techniques for coordinating the efforts for optimum results. Controlling A selection of the exceptional conditions and the decision guidelines.
4.4 Types of MIS
Most management information systems specialize in particular commercial and industrial sectors, aspects of the enterprise, or management substructure.
¾ Transaction processing systems (TPS) ¾ Decision support systems (DSS) ¾ Executive Information Systems (EIS) Engineering Staff College of India Page 248 of 348
¾ Office Automation System (OAS)
4.5 Advantages of MIS
The following are some of the benefits that can be attained for different types of management information systems.
• Companies are able to highlight their strengths and weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports, employees' performance record etc. The identification of these aspects can help the company improve their business processes and operations. • Giving an overall picture of the company and acting as a communication and planning tool. • The availability of the customer data and feedback can help the company to align their business processes according to the needs of the customers. The effective management of customer data can help the company to perform direct marketing and promotion activities. • Information is considered to be an important asset for any company in the modern competitive world. The consumer buying trends and behaviours can be predicted by the analysis of sales and revenue reports from each operating region of the company.
4.6 Transaction processing systems (TPS)
The transaction processing system is the most basic and elementary form of MIS. Using this, the organization is able to record and document all of its recurring and routine business transactions. These are transactions such as orders of raw materials, inventories, customer transactions and sales.
A transaction processing system (TPS) supports the processing of a firm's business transactions. Transaction processing system keep on organization running smoothly by automating the processing of the large amount of paper work that must be handled daily. These systems include the accurate recording of transactions as well as the control procedures used in issuing such documents as pay checks, invoices, customer statements, payment reminders, tuition bills, and student schedules unlike other components of management information system, the transaction processing system of an organization extending out of the organization linking together the entire financial system, factory, customers, and suppliers. The movements toward Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and the establishment of electronic links with suppliers & customers is an example of an extension of an organization's transaction processing system.
Companies record all of their transactions using this mechanism. With this recording, they are able to observe trends in the transactions. For example, if an organization finds that there are more customer orders in some months, it can infer that there is more demand during those months. The company is then able to take steps to handle that demand by employing and deploying more manpower and resources during those months.
The transaction processing system of a departmental store can record customer purchases, prepare billing and booking of order from suppliers and inter-relate these tasks into an overall accounting system. The transaction processing system of a college helps performing such tasks as enrolling students in courses, billing students for tuition, and issuing pay cheque.
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Organizational Information System Type of System Information Processing Information on Users Inputs Outputs Transaction Transactions, Detailed reports, Detailed reports, Operations processing events lists lists personnel, systems (TPS) supervisors, lower level management Management Summary Routine reports, Summary & Middle level Information transaction simple models, exception reports management Systems (MIS) data, high low level analysis volume data, simple models Decision support Low volume Interactive, Special reports, Professionals, systems (DSS) data, or simulations, decision analysis, middle and top level massive analysis responses of management database queries optimized for data analysis, analytic models and data analysis tools Executive Aggregate Graphics, Projections Top level Information data, external, simulations, responses to management Systems (EIS) internal data interactive queries
Office Automation Documents, Document Document s, All level of System (OAS) schedules management, schedules, mail management scheduling, communication
As discussed earlier, a transaction processing system supports the processing, of an organization's transactions this include recording of transactions as well as providing support activities such as sending payment reminders (which, although not transactions themselves, are related to transactions). Recently, going competitive advantage has become a transaction processing concern in some firms, especially these who are working to tie customers and supplier together more closely with the organization's traditional transaction processing system via electronic linkages.
Functions of Transaction Processing System (TPS) a. Book keeping:
Book keeping involves keeping accurate records of firm's business transactions. Every organization is involved with day-to-day business transactions between groups such as customers and suppliers, because these transactions establish linkage among them and are so important as bread & butter for human. For example, banks typically both human tellers and automatic teller machines to record deposits Engineering Staff College of India Page 250 of 348
& withdrawals of account holders. Colleges and universities record student registrations and fees paid by students. All of these tasks involve keeping accurate records of the firm's business transactions. b. Issuance:
Issuance refers to the production of such documents as pay cheque, invoices, monthly telephone and credit card bills, and payment reminders. The creation of these documents is absolutely necessary to the effective operation of the company i.e. these documents are not discretionary.
Transaction For many businesses, a transaction refers to an exchange of goods or services for money. For example, suppose a retailer buys 100 books from a wholesale. From the retailer's end, inventory is increased and a counterbalancing promise to pay the wholesaler is established. When payment is eventually made, the retailer loses cash, but this is counterbalanced by eliminating the payable charge on its records. Organizations such as academic institutions and hospitals have other ways of defining & dealing with transaction. In general a transaction is a recorded business event, often reflecting a routine exchange that affects the financial well being of an organization
4.7 Decision Support Systems
DSS (decision support systems) are used by top management for managerial decision-making. This tool extensively makes use of computers, computing tools, mathematical and scientific models for its analysis.
With the DSS, the company can analyze, scrutinize and evaluate all the methods it could deploy for use in departments such as production, sales, marketing and finance. The company is then able to choose the option that saves the most on costs, time, and both human and material efforts while reaping the maximum benefits. The management then utilizes that method.
The objective of Decision Support System (DSS) is to support managers in their work, especially decision making. Decision support system (DSS) tends to overlap both transaction processing systems and office support systems. It acquire much of its data from routine transaction processing and the results of analysis performed on such data may be included in reports prepared by the office support system, for example, word processor or spreadsheet.
Decision support system (DSS) tends to be used in planning, modeling, analyzing alternatives, and decision making. Decision support system (DSS) are especially useful for semi-structured problems where problem solving is improved by interaction between manager and the computer system. The emphasis is on small, simple models which can easily be understood and used by the manager rather than complex integrated systems which need information specialist to operate them.
What distinguished MIS from a decision support system (DSS) is flexibility. The format and types of information on MIS are predefined, but the format and types of information in decision support system (DSS) are not, In decision support system (DSS), users are provided with the capabilities to generate their own information usually in their own way.
Structured Decisions Semi-structured Unstructured Decisions Decisions
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Structured decisions are Semi-structured Unstructured decisions are1 novel, those which are made decisions are those for and insignificant. There is no cut according to specified which information and dried method for handling the procedures of rules or obtained from a problem because it hasn't arisen structured decisions are computer system or before or because it's precise those that are easily made information system is nature and structure are mysterious from a given set of inputs. only a portion of the total or complex, or because it so Deciding to send a reminder knowledge needed to important' that it deserves a custom notice to a customer for an make decision. Advertise tailored treatment. These, types of overdue balance is a new product or how decisions often , involve a high considered to be structured much to spend on MIS. degree of freedom. They may decision. require a i lot of creativity and intuitions from the decision maker to tell what factors will come into play in an unstructured play.
A computer base system which is easy to use, that helps decision makers to confront ill-structured problems through direct interaction with data and analysis models. A decision support system (DSS) might allow a manager to sit at an interactive terminal and browse through data, analyze them and create specially tailored reports rather than consisting of semi-frozen set of data or information's outputs as TPS and MIS do. The decision support system (DSS) does not make a decision for manager, but provide tools for enhancing user decision making. The objective is to allow the manager to consider a number of alternatives and evaluate them under a variety of potential conditions.
How to Make A Decision
When you make a decision, whether you realize it or not, you go through four distinct phases: a. Intelligence: (find what to fix)
Find or recognize a problem, need, or opportunity (also called the diagnostic phase of decision making). The intelligence phase involves detecting and interpreting signs that indicate a situation which needs your attention. These "signs" can come in many forms:
• Consistent customer requests for new-product features • The threat of new competition • Declining sales • Skyrocketing costs • An offer from a company to handle your distribution needs, and so on b. Design: (find fixes)
Consider possible ways of solving the problem, filling the need, or taking advantage of the opportunity. In this phase, you develop all the possible solutions you can. c. Choice: (pick a fix)
Examine and weigh the merits of each solution, estimate the consequences of each, and choose the best one. The "best" solution may depend on such factors as:
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• Ease of implementation . • Staffing requirements • Timeliness of the solution
This is the prescriptive phase of decision making; it's the stage at which a course of action is prescribed. d. Implementation: (apply the fix)
Carry out the chosen solution, monitor the results, and make adjustments as necessary. Simply implementing a solution is seldom enough. Your chosen solution will always need fine-tuning, especially for complex problems or changing environments.
These four phases are not necessarily linear; you'll often find it useful or necessary to cycle back to an earlier phase. When choosing an alternative in the choice phase, for example, you might become aware of another possible solution. Then you would go back to the design phase, include the newly found solution, return to the choice phase, and compare the new solution to the others you generated.
Decision Support Systems To Build or Not to Build:
The power of a DSS lies in its:
• Ability to analyze information. • Ease of use
A decision support system (DSS) creates new information on demand to help you make decisions of different types. A DSS can help with decisions that are unstructured or somewhere between structured and unstructured. You can develop a decision support system (DSS) for your own use or be part of a team of experts that develop a decision support system (DSS) for numerous people.
Steps for Developing a Decision
In either case, the procedure for developing a decision support system (DSS) involves four steps that parallel the decision-making process. a. Intelligence: Step 1
In this step, you need to answer the following questions:
• Do you need a decision support system (DSS)?
If the answer to the first questions is yes,
• What do you want the decision support system (DSS) to do? • What information and models do you need?
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report or an EIS. If you choose decision support system (DSS) support, then carefully consider what it will take to support your decision making process. If the problem is complex and has several parts, the best strategy is to "divide and conquer." In other words, decide on a portion of the problem and construct your decision support system (DSS) to help with that portion first. Give careful thought to the information you'll use, where it will come from, and what models you'll need to process the information.
If many knowledge workers will use the DSS, or if the DSS is very complex, then you'll have to invest a lot of time and effort in a formalized approach to planning, organizing, and coordinating the development process. If, however, you're the only one who will use the decision support system (DSS), you could simply build one yourself or seek the advice of a decision support system (DSS) builder.
The development process can be much less precise; however, you still must be specific about what you want to do with your decision support system (DSS) and how you want to do it. b. Design: Step 2
This step requires you to answer the following questions:
• What's available to you commercially? • What can you build?
You can buy specialized DSSs for particular types of problems. There are, among others, financial modeling packages, statistical packages, inventory control packages, and project management packages. Commercial packages have the models already built and provide an interactive user interface that allows you to enter the information you need to analyze and access the right models.
If you don't find a fully developed decision support system (DSS) to fit your needs, you can develop your own. You can build your own models, use models already available, or choose a combination. A DSS generator like Excel or Quattro Pro simplifies the building of a DSS. A decision support system (DSS) generator is software that enables you to develop a DSS for a specific task. The menu system serves as the user interface. So the decision support system (DSS) generator provides a user interface management system that you can enhance with macros. The spreadsheet page holds the information. You can build your own models using formulas and functions, or you can use the predefined analysis models (templates).
You can integrate many commercially available models into spreadsheets or combine them to fit your needs. c. Choice: Step 3
This step involves answering the following questions:
• What will you buy? • What will you build?
Now it's time to decide what you're going to buy and what you're going to build. When considering commercially available packages, regard the flexibility of the user interface. If you're combining models,
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consider compatibility. If you don't make these decisions first, you might find yourself entering the same information multiple times. d. Implementation: Step 4
This step involves the following:
• Build or install the decision support system (DSS). • Learn, test, and evaluate your DSS thoroughly.
This step involves making your decision support system (DSS) operational and testing it. If you buy a DSS, you'll have to install it and learn to use it properly. If you build your own, you'll have to put together the information, models, and possibly, the user interface. Then you test the decision support system (DSS). The testing will ensure accuracy and indicate the benefit of the system to you. It's very important to verify the results of the analysis you run on your decision support system (DSS). You should test the decision support system (DSS) thoroughly with as much and as varied information as possible.
If you follow these four steps, you'll have a working decision support system (DSS). But you'll have to fine-tune and improve it continually, especially if you use it often. The purpose of a DSS is to provide you with decision-making support, and because your decision-making approach changes with time, your decision support system (DSS) must change too.
Characteristics of Decision Support System (DSS)
• They support semi-structured and unstructured decision making. • DSS provide support for decisions and problems whose solutions can't be specified in advance. • Support decision making at middle & top levels of management. • Provide fast response. • Provide high degree of user control and interaction. • Flexibility in specifying output requirements. • DSS offer users flexibility, adaptability, and quick response. • They are flexible enough to respond to the changing needs of decision makers. • DSS operate with little or no assistance from professional programmers. • Ease of use and ease of development for non professionals.
Applications of Decision Support System (DSS):
DSS are men/machine systems and are suitable for semi-structured problems. The problems must be important to the manager and the decision required must be a key one. In addition, if an interactive computer based system is to be used then some of the following criteria should be met. a. There Should Be A Large Database:
A database is an organized collection of structured data with a minimum duplication of data items. The database is common to all users of the system but is independent of the programs which use the data. If the database is too large for manual searching then a computer supported approach may be worthwhile. b. Large Amount Of Computation Or Data Manipulation Required:
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c. Complex Inter-Relationships:
Where there is a large database or where there are numerous factors involved. It is difficult to frequently asses all the possible inter-relationships without computer assistance. d. Analysis By Stages:
Where the problem is an interactive one with stages for re examination and re-assessment, it becomes more difficult to deal with manually. The computer based model can answer the questions, quickly and effectively. e. Communication:
Where several people are involved in the problem solving process each contributing some special expertise, then the coordinating power of the computer can be helpful.
It follows from the above criteria that decision support system (DSS) are inappropriate for unstructured problems and unnecessary for completely structure problems, because, these can be dealt with wholly by the men/machine interaction.
Components of Decision Support System (DSS)
AS per the above discussion, DSS is basically the interaction of man and machine.
It means that there are three components of decision support system (DSS). a. Decision maker (user/manager) b. Hardware c. Software
Functions of Decision Support System (DSS) Tools
In this section we will look at some of the tasks commonly performed by decision support systems.
1. Information Retrieval:
Information retrieval in DSS environment refers to the act of extracting information from a database for the purpose of making decisions. Usually, the sequence of retrievals made by the user is unanticipated. For example, the manager may see a few startling pieces of information on the display and, as a result of these, suddenly produce a report that provides more detail about the situation.
2. Data Reconfiguration:
Often managers using a DSS want information in a form other that that in which the data are logically represented within the computer system. The ability to reconfigure data makes it possible for managers and other decision makers to look at existing data from alternative perspectives are, sorting, exchanging fields, joining, and presentation graphics.
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a. Sorting:
Sorting data Involves rearranging records in a file or a subset of a file so that they appear in a specific order. b. Exchanging Fields:
Exchanging fields or columns is another method available for reconfiguring data. You can hide or replace the position of the column so that they can appear in the order which you think is useful. c. Joining:
Joining enables users to cut and paste data from different existing logical files to form a new logical file. d. Presentation Graphics:
Presentation graphic tools allow users to put data into a graphical form that can be easily understood. When working with graphics, users will typically have a choice of several types of graphs or charts, as well as coloring and pattern designs for each graphic element.
3. Calculator Activities:
Calculator activities refer to the set of tasks that normally can be done with a calculator. These activities are generally implemented either by heaving the user write out a complete formula, specifying all the variables involved and how arithmetic operations should be performed on them, or by having the set of functions resident in the DSS or DSS tools the DSS or DSS tools.
Arithmetic & Statistical Functions:
Arithmetic & Statistical Functions SUM Calculate the sum of several numbers MAX Finds the highest value among several numbers MIN Finds the lowest value among several numbers COUNT Counts the number of cells AVERAGE Calculate the average of several numbers STD Calculate the standard deviation of several numbers SQRT Calculate the square root ABS Calculate the absolute value of a cell LOG Calculate base 10 log of constant or variable Financial Functions PV Calculate the present value Calculates the net present value of an Investment by using a discount rate and a NPV series of future payments Returns the future value of an investment based on periodic, constant payments FV and a constant interest rate.
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Calculates the payment for a loan based on constant payments and a constant PMT Interest rate. Conditional Functions IF Selects an alternative based on whether the condition is true or false COUNTIF Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given criteria. Searches for a value In the top row of a table or an array of values, and then HLOOKUP returns a value In the same column from a row you specify In the table or array Date Functions Returns the serial number of the current date. The serial number is the date-time TODAY code used by Microsoft Excel for date and time calculations. NOW Returns the serial number of the current date and time. DATE Returns the sequential serial number that represents a particular date
a. Functions:
Functions are pre-stored formulas that enable a user to perform a calculator type task as soon as the function is invoked, using a function, for instance, the user can add numbers in a column, calculate average, standard deviation, net present value, minimum & maximum values, square root, log, etc. b. Analysis:
Analysis refer to using a decision support system (DSS) to review a set of facts and to assist in drawing conclusions based on there facts. Because the decision support environment is semi-structured, both the user and machine interact in this process. Four widely used types of decision support system (DSS) analysis tools, or techniques brought by users to the decision support system (DSS) environment are statistical tools, optimizing tools, what if analysis, and artificial intelligence routines. c. Statistical Tools:
Statistical tools enable users to perform a variety of statistical operations on data as well as to do a number of other data handling tasks, such as, distributing data information categories of the user's own choice. Statistical analysis normally include regression analysis (make predictions from a set of data), correlation analysis (tools used to find the strength of association among data), and a variety of statistical inference methodologies (procedures such as analysis of variance, tests, and confidence limits; they can be used to determine whether a conclusion drawn from data is statistically significant).
Statistical methods are usually descriptive or predictive in nature; i.e. they describe patterns among data or forecast events based on present or past happenings. Some of the most widely used statistical tools in business are the variety of regression routines used for forecasting purpose. These are particularly valuable when strategic plans are being formulated. d. Optimizing Tools: Engineering Staff College of India Page 258 of 348
Optimizing tools are useful for deriving the best solution in certain structured decisions usually at tactical and operational levels. At the operational level, many decisions are structured and are frequently incorporated into computer based systems. Because the circumstances are well defined, optimizing techniques (Linear programming) are frequently used. Optimizing tools are used where it is required to optimize the value of a single objective (e.g. maximize contribution) where the factors .invoked (e.g. labor hours, machine capacity etc.) are subject to some constraints or limitation. It can be used to solve problems which:
• Can be stated in numerical terms. • All factors have linear relationships. • Permit a choice between alternatives. • Have one or more restrictions on the factors involved.
A lot of manufacturing activities involves finding the "best" or "optimum" way to allocate resources. Some example include finding the cheapest way to mix sun flowers to achieve a finished oil that meets certain restrictions and determining the best way to allocate or schedule workers on assembly line to minimize production costs. These types of problems are solved by optimizing tools. e. What-if analysis: (Sensitivity Analysis)
Asses risk with the help of DSS tools is known as sensitivity analysis. At its simplest this means, holding all the variables, bar one, constant and altering that one variable step and noting the effect on the result. One object of sensitivity analysis is to identify the "Critical" or "Sensitive" variables, which are those variables which have a more than proportionate effect on the result.
For example, a simulation of an investment program might include factors such as; cost per unit, price per unit, volume sold, amount of investment and as on.
It might be useful for a bank manager to know how much change should be expected in the profitability of a project if mortgage rates are changed by 1/2% in the next month or a chemical producer might want to know that $60,000/- per month could be saved in production costs if only the availability of a raw material could be increased by 10 percent.
In short, sensitivity analysis or what if analysis is to find out how sensitive a solution suggested by a model, is to changes in the model parameters.
What - if analysis Automatic recalculation has several advantages. For example, If a mistake is made in entering a number In a spreadsheet, and that number is used to calculate other numbers, then the result of all the calculations will be incorrect. In an electronic spreadsheet, when the one erroneous number is corrected, all resulting calculations will be automatically corrected of the same time. Similarly, if a number is changed, not because it is incorrect but because a user wants to see different results, related calculations will also be charged at the same time. This ability to change a number and have the change automatically reflected throughout
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the spreadsheet is the foundation of what if analysis, the process of changing one or more spreadsheet values and observing the resulting calculated effect.
A great number of such "what if" questions can be asked and answered by DSS models quickly as:
• What if sales growth per month is nil, 1/2%, 1 & 1/2%, 2% or minus 1% etc. • What if the debt-to-capital ratio is 10% or high? • What happens if sales projections are 10% or low? • What if bank borrowing rates increase by 2%? • What if product development is delayed by a year?
Refiguring calculations on the basis of all these what ifs can take weeks to do by hand, but they are standard in the decision support system (DSS) world. For each what-if query, all the manger need is to change an underlying assumption or the value of a parameter and re-run the model. At the end of the interactive session several of these runs can be used to make decisions and, perhaps, convince other management members of the appropriateness of the chosen action.
Decision Support System Development Tools:
We discussed earlier that there are three components of decision support system (DSS). Now we are discussing the different types of software tools that can be used to build decision support systems. The variety of such software tools is large and increasing, by far, the most common are database management systems, spread sheets, and modeling packages. a. Spreadsheets:
One of the most important packages for the micro computer is the "electronic spreadsheet". The electronic spreadsheet is a computerized version of a two dimensional worksheet of rows and columns. The term "spreadsheet" is loosely derived from the likeness to a "spreadsheet of paper" divided into rows & columns. The spreadsheets are designed for business environment and are used in wide variety of decision support system (DSS) functions. While originally used as an aid to accountants or financial specialists.
Popular spreadsheet packages Package Vendor MS Excel Microsoft corporation Lotus 123 Lucid 3D development corporation Quattro pro Dac-easy inc. Smart spread Borland International sheet Super Calc Computer Association International inc.
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• A series of rows and columns of data is always on the screen. This series is really a matrix, or array of cells. • Each cell can be individually addressed with data entered or erased. • The cells can contains only three kinds of data items. Numeric data, Labels - alphanumeric, strings, Formula including reference to other cells. • The numeric data in the cell can be algebraically manipulated and the output of these calculations placed in another cells. • User friendly interaction with screen by toolbar and menus. • A wide variety of functions can be performed by menus and toolbars including retrieving or saving data on disk, moving around the spread sheet, formatting the data, or printing out piece of the spread sheet b. Database Management System (DBMS):
Database:
In the early days of computerization it was normal to maintain specific files for individual applications. Data was processed centrally in batches and there was little or no on-line interaction of files. This approach meant that, there was duplication of data, inflexibility, and concentration on the need of the computer system rather then the user and difficulties of accessing files by on-line users. To overcome these problems databases were developed.
Databases are not merely a collection of files. Instead, a database is a central source of data shared by many users for a variety of applications. The heart of a database is the DBMS (database management system), which allows the creation, modification, and updating of the database, the retrieval of data, and the generation of reports. The person who ensures that the database meets its objectives is called the database administrator.
Objectives of the Database:
• Ensuring that data can be shared among users for a variety of applications. • Maintaining data that are both accurate and consistent. • Ensuring that all data required for current and future applications will be readily available. • Allowing the database to grow as the needs of the users grow. • Allowing users to construct their personal view of the data without concern for the way the data are physically stored.
The first disadvantage of the database approach is that all of the data are stored in one place. Therefore, data are more exposed to disaster and require complete backup.
Other disadvantages come about when attempting to achieve two efficiency objectives for the management of the data resource:
• Keeping the time required to Insert, update, delete, and retrieve data to a bearable amount. • Keeping the cost of storing the data to a reasonable amount.
Databases.
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You come home after a long day at college or work, tired and hungry. You don't feel like cooking: In some cities you can use your modern equipped computer for a quick solution, A software package called delivery system lets customers use their home computers to dialup local restaurants and fast food outlets and make menu choices. The meals are delivered to their homes.
Typically, a customer's call goes to a control phone number that links the customer to order taking center, where operators route the order to the closest outlet, The only Interaction with a human being is when the delivery person comes to the door.
Pizza firms have been leading the charge into computerized home delivery. .In 1994 in the world of e-commerce the first online pizza ordered from Pizza Hut. Pizza Hut has developed large scale computer systems. Pizza Hut has found that customers repeat the same orders for pizza 70% of the time. So the company keeps a database of customers' pervious purchases; this information cuts the normal order taking time half. Information in the database is also used to market their products. This database can be interrogated to provide a listing of all customers that have not ordered in the past 60 days. The company than sends them a flyer with an incentive to order
Why You Need Database:
Suppose you had a collection of names and addresses, each on a separate index card stored in an index card file. If you had only 25 cards, sorting the cards into alphabetical order or even finding all the people who have the same zip code would be fairly easy. But what of you had 100, 1000, or 10,000 cards? What if you had several different boxes, one organized by names, one by cities, and one by zip code? What if different file clerks added more cards each day, not knowing if they were duplicating cards already in the file? And what if another set of clerk were trying to update the data on the card? As you can see, things might get out of hand. Enter to the world of computer and use databases.
Paperless Office The dream of paperless office environment is now becoming true. Some companies have made a steady progress towards paperless operations. Many businesses found that they could cut printing costs by providing managers with on-line access to reports that were traditionally printed and distributed by Software centers.
Nestle, a multinational company started on-line access to management reports several years ago. The company estimates that it saves at least 2 million a year from this change. Before this move, the paper produced by the data center grew at annual rate of 21 percent. Since providing online access, the number of printed pages is reduced by more than 50%.
Managers who were initially resistant to the change, find that they now have faster access to fresher information. They also like the ability to customize the information contained in the reports (often by eliminating irrelevant information) to best suit their needs.
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progress toward paperless operations, including, updates on how many trees are being saved and new employee ideas.
4.8 Executive Information System
Executive information System (EIS) or Executive Support System (ESS) provides selected and summarized information for senior executives. They assist top management by providing information on critical areas of the organization's activities drawn from both internal and external databases.
Senior managers use a category of information systems called executive support systems (ESS) to make decisions. ESS serves the strategic level of the organization. They address unstructured decisions and create a generalized computing and communications environment rather than providing any fixed application or specific capability. ESS is designed to incorporate data about external events such as new tax laws or competitors, but they also draw summarized information from internal MIS and DSS. They filter, compress, and track critical data, emphasizing the reduction of time and effort required to obtain information useful to executives. ESS employs the most advanced graphics software and can deliver graphs and data from many sources immediately to a senior executive's.
Unlike the other types of information systems, ESS is not designed primarily to solve specific problems. Instead, ESS provides a generalized computing and telecommunications capacity that can be applied to a changing array of problems. While many DSS are designed to be highly analytical, ESS tends to make less use of analytical models.
Questions Executive Information System (EIS) assists in answering include the following:
• What business should we be in? • What are the competitors doing? • What new acquisitions' would protect us from cyclical business swings? • Which units should we sell to raise cash for acquisitions?
It consists of workstations with menus, interactive graphics, and communications capabilities that can access historical and competitive data from internal corporate systems and external databases. Because ESS is designed to be used by senior managers who often have little, if any, direct contact or experience with computer-based information systems, they incorporate easy-to-use graphic interfaces.
Features/Properties of an Executive Information System (EIS): a. Easy To Use:
The system must be fast and extremely simple to use as it will be used by busy executives. The use of touch screens, mouse and icons, popup menus, etc. is normal. b. Access To Data:
There must be unhindered rapid access to data permitting vertical and horizontal exploration. This is known as drill downing the data. c. Data Analysis:
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EIS should provide facilities for such things as ratios, trend calculations, and data integration forecasts. d. Quality Presentation:
The system should provide interesting and understandable formats using colors, graphics, and diagrams. For example, a sales and distribution manager monitoring sales in six different regions would first of all wish to view the sales total for each region with a comparison of budget against actual. If total for five regions are in line with budget, he will not immediately wish to review the underlying detail; he will be more concerned with the performance of the sixth region. On selecting the sixth region which is not in line with budget for further investigation, will still not wish to see an individual sales transaction listing, but will prefer to look at, for example, a report of budget against actual by product group, or customer type. Only when he has identified the individual product group or customer type, which is responsible for the difference between actual and budget, will he wish to look at individual products, or customers, to see where the difference lies.
From the above example we see that EIS works is by exception reporting and drill-downing to investigate the causes. The advantages of EIS are therefore:
Advantages of Executive Information System (EIS):
• Access information faster. • Access a broader range of information. • Retrieve selected information in a more focused way. • Reduces the amount of data to be reviewed. • Incorporates the amount of data to be reviewed. • It is screen based, with printouts only being required for specific matters. • It can display output in graphical form, • A committed and informed executive sponsor. • An operating sponsor. • A clear link to business objectives. • The best use of technology. • Recognize the existence of data problems and managing the solution of those problems. • Managing organizational resistance crisis management. • Managing the spread and evolution of the system. • Strategic long term planning and objectives. • An EIS should be able to integrate with all other systems both internal & external system.
Executive decision making also requires access to outside information, like, competitors, federal authorities, trade groups, consultants, and news gathering services. A high degree of uncertainty and a future orientation are involved in most executive decisions. Once again successful Executive Information System (EIS) software must be easy to use, flexible, and customizable. The Executive Information System (EIS) is therefore, the ultimate in information systems, but the cost of developing and running such a system is extremely high. This factor alone means that only the very large, probably multinational organizations, could afford to develop such a system. One other point is that executives have different views regarding their business. Software which meets the requirements of an organization may not be well suited for another organization. So the general purpose Executive Information System (EIS) is difficult to build.
Once the organization has built the EIS to fulfill their requirements, the organization will never be willing to sell it in market because this software has a competitive edge to the organization from others.
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4.9 Office Automation System (OAS)
Office Automation (OA) is the use of technology to help people do their jobs better and faster.
"The use of computers, micro electronics, and telecommunications to help us produce, store, obtain and send information in the form of pictures, words or numbers, more reliably, quickly and economically."
During the past 25 years, computer technology has helped to dramatically increase productivity in the office. The movements towards automation in the new hardware and software technologies like word processors, spreadsheets, electronic mail, and so on, which make office workers more productive, These combinations of technologies that have a dramatic impact on day-to-day office operations are called office information systems (OIS). In this chapter, we explore office information system, and how they evolved.
The Nature of Office Generally, an office is a place where staff and line professionals, secretaries, and clerks perform management and administrative tasks. The big difference between today's office and that of the previous decade is that the modern offices use electronic communication, office oriented technologies and therefore called electronic office or paperless office. '
Office Work:
The management and administrative tasks performed in the office can 'be divided into five general categories:
• Decision making • Data manipulation • Document handling • Communications • Storage
Types of Office Automation Systems:
Three major types/categories of office applications are:
1. Document management systems
2. Message handling systems
3. Teleconferencing systems
1. Document Management Systems: a. Word Processing:
Word processing software lets you create, edit, store, retrieve, and print a text document. Let us examine each part of the definition.
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Text document is any text that can be keyed in, such as a memo, letter, fax, and thesis.
Creation is the original composing and keying in of the document,
Editing is making changes to the document to fix errors or improve its content, like deleting a sentence, correcting a misspelled name, or moving a paragraph.
Formatting refers to adjusting the appearance of the document to make it look appropriate and attractive. For example, centralize the heading, make wider margins, or use of double spacing.
Storing the document means saving it on disk so it can be accessed on demand.
Retrieving the document means bringing the stored document from disk back into computer memory so it can be used again or changed some way.
Printing is producing the document on paper, using a printer connected with the computer.
Difference between Typewriter and Word Processing (WP):
Some people think that WP is a glorified typing, but there are many advantages of WP over typewriter. The main difference between the typewriter and WP is the separation of typing from printing; when you use WP, typing the document and printing the document do not occur at the same time; you print the document on the paper whenever you like. Perhaps you want to print an intermediate draft, just to see how it looks, and then continue making changes.
Second difference between WP and typewriter is that you can save/store your keyed data when you use a word processing package. You can make changes as you go along, or even at some later time, and print out a revised or perfect copy. The key difference here is that only the changes themselves are retyped, not the entire document.
The ability to print at will and to store work distinguishes WP from typewriter. But these are not the only two hallmarks. A word processing package is a sophisticated tool with many options, which are as follows:
Standard Entering & Standard Print Formatting Advanced Operations Editing Operations Operations • Moving the cursor to • Adjusting line spacing • Mailing list various places on- • Indenting blocks of text preparation screen. • Reformatting blocks of • Form letter • Scrolling the document text • Math feature up and down. • Centering text • Sorting • Returning lines Proportionally spaced • Redlining and edit automatically. characters tracing • Inserting and deleting • Automatic page • Cross-referencing characters and blocks of numbering, headings, • Preparing indexes text. and footings and tables of • Moving and copying • Multiple columns per contents blocks of text. page • Integrating with • Searching for text • Selection of fonts spreadsheet strings. programs
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• Replacing text strings. • Desktop publishing • Spelling checker feature. features • Thesaurus feature • Embedded typesetting codes
b. Desktop Publishing:
Desktop publishing (DTP) enables you to produce well-designed pages that combine charts and graphics with text and headlines in a variety off typefaces, it lets you to do all this at your desk, without a ruler, pen or paste.
Desktop publishing is software involve, using a microcomputer, mouse, scanner, laser or Ink Jet printer, for mixing text,, and graphics to produce high quality output for commercial printing.
The features of DTP include:
• Text • Graph • Colors • Sound • Animation
Principle of Good Design:
Desktop publishing programmers put many different fonts and images at your disposal, but you can overwhelm a document if you crowd too much on to a page. The guidelines that follow will help get favorable reviews for you and your document:
• Use only two or three typefaces in a document. • Be conservative: Limit the use of decorative or unusual typefaces. • Use different sizes and styles of one typeface to distinguish between different heading levels, rather than several typefaces. • Avoid cluttering a document with fancy border and symbols. • Do not use type that is too small to read easily just to fit everything on one page. c. Image Processing System:
Some firms have large volume of documents that must be maintained in files so that the information can be retrieved when needed. Insurance companies and banks fit in to this category. Initially these firms maintained files in paper form, but the space requirement became intolerable. The solution was to store an image of the document rather than the document itself. This office automation application (AO) has recently being given the name imaging processing system and is currently stimulating the most interest.
Image processing system is also called electronic image management system, allow users to electronically capture, store, process, and retrieve images of documents. These documents may include text, numeric data, handwriting, graphics and photographs. In some cases these may be part of the same document.
Image processing technology promises to reduce the problem of paper overload by providing information management with more efficient use of physical storage space and increased productivity.
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Optical Character Recognition (OCR), scanners are used to convert paper or microfilm records to a digital format for storage in secondary storage devices. Once stored, the images can be retrieved for displaying or printing.
Image processing system is used in problem solving when it is necessary to review historical documents for the purpose of understanding a problem. An operator accesses the document management system from a workstation and produces a hardcopy output for the manager. d. Reprographics:
Reprographics is the process of reproducing multiple copies of a document. Office personnel are usually responsible for making more than one copy of a report, letter, or other documents. When documents are widely distributed, either internally or externally, reprographics often includes collating, folding, binding, or related tasks.
Multiple copies may be made in various ways. When only a few copies are required, it may be cost effective to print out multiple copies using the printer attached to the computer. Most of the time, however, photocopier is used.
2. Message Handling Systems: a. Telex:
Telex is the service, which enables user to transmit and receive printed messages over a telephone line. Users have to be telex subscribers, with their own telex equipment and code number, in order to send or receive messages. The telex service started in 1930 and from the mid 1970s it developed significantly as an international message transmission system. Data transmission speed as compare to other methods of telecommunication is very slow and only a restricted set of characters can be used in messages. b. Fax:
Fax machine connected to a telephone, uses computer technology and communications links to send quality graphics, charts, text and handwritings almost everywhere in the world. The sending material (paper) is placed in the fax machine at one end, where it is digitized. Those digits are transmitted across the miles and then reassembled at the other end to form identical version of the original. All this activity takes only minute or less. Personal computer users can send and receive faxes directly by means of a fax/modem. The only missing ingredient in the scheme is paper. Fax is not only faster than overnight delivery services, but it is also less expensive. Fax contributes to problem solving by sending documents to member of the problem solving team quickly and easily, regardless of their geographic location. c. Teletext:
Teletext is a system for supplying commercial and other information through existing television networks. The data such as news, weather, sports reports, stock market data, airline and train schedules, TV guides etc. is transmitted via a television channel at the same time that the channel is being used to broadcast conventional television. d. Videotext (Viewdata):
Videotext or Viewdata gives a home user access to information in databases via a personal computer or converted television set. The method of Access is via telephone lines, coaxial cable, or optical fiber.
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Videotext is similar to Teletext in that it provides electronic reference to material but there are two main differences.
• Firstly it is available to subscribers only. • Secondly it provides two-way communication. This means that users can interrogate the data held in the system and also supply information to it. The system uses a combination of telephones, computers, television, and communication networks. e. Electronic Mail:
E-mail is the process of sending messages directly from one computer to another. In this system the sender transmits the message over the telephone network to a central computer, which allocates disk storage to act as an electronic mail box for each user. Using a password for secret purposes the user then can collect the message when required.
Several optional features of E-mail are
• If you want everyone in the firm with a terminal to read the message, it is placed on an electronic bulletin board, which everyone can access. • If you want to receive confirmation when the recipient retrieves your message, it can be sent as registered mail. • If you do not want the recipient to route the messages to others in the network, you can send it as private mail.
Advantages:
• Speed: (electronic transmission is almost instantaneous) • Economy: (no speed for stamp, labor, paper) • Efficiency: (a message is prepared once but can be sent to thousands at the touch of a button) • Security: (access can be restricted by the use of password) • Document can be retrieved and stored to word processing and graphic packages. • Electronic delivery and receipt can be requested.
DO's For E-Mailers Never forget you are dealing with real people, even if you cannot see them, so do as you would be done by. Do not forward inappropriate comments on the relationships of strangers. Would you want the world to read about your own?
Like a letter, an e-mail benefits from an opening greeting and a sincerely-type sign off. You will be judged on"'-how you express yourself. When first making contact, formally is the safe option.
It is wrong to break the law just because you can get away with it online. Copying music, programs and images without permission is theft.
Fill in an e-mail's subject box, anyone dealing with a large volume of e-mail will be grateful to be able to assess it at a glance and find it again in a hurry.
Ask before sending large attachments such as picture files or video clips, They take a long time to download and, if they exceed the inbox limit, can stop the recipient receiving
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mail.
Avoid clever formatting. Bold, centered text might look impressive on your screen, but 9 times out of 10 it will be vague by the recipient's program.
Beware of sending e-mail to big groups listed on incoming messages: do you really want to Reply To All? Does everyone you know (and some people you do not) really want to read every joke you receive? Forwarding chain e-mails and fake virus warnings will not win you friends.
Stay cool. Everyone benefits from good manners. If someone forwards a virus, point out the error of their ways but do not Reply To All.
If some aspect of computing confuses you, the chances are you can find the answer in one of the web's lists of Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs). It Is rude to waste a helpdesk's time simply because you cannot be bothered to deploy a search engineer read. the manual.
Disadvantages:
• The necessity for users to have a terminal close at hand, otherwise messages can't be received or sent. • Electronic mail handles only one-way communication. However, if you desire two-way conversation, you must either send multiple e-mail messages back and forth or use another medium. • The limitation of only being able to communicate with registered users, but not with other parties. f. Voice Mail:
A voice mail system enables a regular voice message, sent over the phone, to be digitally stored at the receiving location. When accessed, the message is converted back into voice form. These are used by an increasing number of organizations and often employ software that runs on the organization's private box exchange (PBX) equipment, rather than on the organization's host computers.
Voice mail systems require a computer, disk storage, and voice mailboxes that are similar to E-mailboxes. However, the sending and receiving instrument is the telephone. Like E-mail messages, digitized voice messages can be played back, sent along to one or more other members of the organization, saved, or deleted. As it is sent along from person to person, a message can usually be; voice-annotated by anyone handling it.
With voice mail, one person calls a voice mailbox rather than a personal phone number. In stand-alone voice systems, the message is simply stored, awaiting pick-up by the person receiving the message; in integrated voice mail/PBX, the message receiver has the option of picking up the phone. People can usually access their voice mailboxes from any telephone (both inside and outside the organization). The telephone keypad is used to listen to messages in the mailbox, save them, delete them, or send them to others. This permits field representatives or traveling executives to maintain contact with the home office and to keep up with their messages. Salespeople can use these systems to enter orders over the telephone from the customer's office. Some universities are using voice mail systems to enable students to register for classes. All of these applications can provide organizations with a competitive edge. Is voice mail just a fancy answering machine? They serve similar purposes, but do not use the same storage techniques. A voice mail system translates the word of message into digital impulses, which it then stores on disk, just as any other data.
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g. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI):
Paper handling is the bane of organizations. Paper must be transmitted, filed, and stored. It takes up much of people's time and requires the felling of considerable number of trees. Is there a way to accomplish the same business tasks without using the paper?
One answer lies in business-to-business transactions conducted via computer network. Electronic data interchange (EDI) is direct electronic exchange between organization's computer systems of standard business documents such as invoices, purchase orders. Businesses use a great deal of paper in transmitting orders. One method devised to cut down on paperwork is electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI is a series of standard formats that allow businesses to transmit invoices, purchase orders, etc. electronically. In addition to eliminating paper-based ordering forms, EDI can help to eliminate errors in transmitting orders that result from transcription mistakes made by people. Since EDI orders go directly from one computer to another, the tedious process of filling out a form at one end and then keying it into the computer at the other end is eliminated.
Many firms use EDI to reduce paperwork and personnel costs. Some large firms, especially discounters, require their suppliers to adopt EDI and, in fact, have direct computer hookups with their suppliers. h. Electronic Fund Transfers: Instant Banking:
Using electronic fund transfers (EFT), people can pay for goods and services by having funds transferred from various accounts electronically, using computer technology. One of the most visible demonstrations of EFT is the ATM, the automated teller machine that people use to obtain cash quickly. For example, make payments to a supplier, or pay salaries into employees' bank accounts, or transfer funds from one bank account to another account by sending electronic data to his bank.
Electronic funds transfers are not limited to transfers between institutions and individuals. Banks and other financial institutions transfer funds among themselves electronically, on both the national and international level. i. Bulletin Boards:
Person-to-person data communication is one of the more exciting ways of using your personal computer. A bulletin board system (BBS) uses data communications systems to link personal computers to provide public-access-message systems. Most bulletin boards are formed to benefit people in a club or with a common hobby; others are linked to a particular business. Electronic bulletin boards are similar to the bulletin boards you see in student lounges. Somebody leaves a message, but the person who picks it up does not have to know the person who left it. To get access to someone else's computer, all you really have to know is that computer's bulletin board phone number. You can use any kind of computer, but you need a modem so you can communicate over the phone lines.
Anyone who has a personal computer can set up a bulletin board. It takes a computer, a phone line, a modem, and particular software. You just tell a few people about your board, start up your computer using the BBS software, and sit back and watch the messages start scrolling down your screen. But note that your computer must be left on to receive the calls.
3. Teleconferencing Systems:
The term teleconferencing refers to electronic meetings that involve people who are at physically different sites. Telecommunication technology systems allow meeting participants to interact with one another without traveling to the same location. The major types of teleconferencing exist: a. Audio conferencing Engineering Staff College of India Page 271 of 348
b. Video conferencing c. Computer conferencing d. Telecommuting a. Audio Teleconferencing:
Audio teleconferencing (conference phone calls) enables participants to hear each other only. A speakerphone may be used at one or more locations to allow groups to participate in the meeting. Audio teleconferencing is by far the least expensive. b. Video Conferencing:
Want to have a meeting with someone across the country .and go over some documents, without having to go there? Videoconferencing is a method whereby people in different geographical locations can have a meeting, and see and hear one another, using computers and communications.
Videoconferencing systems range from small videophones to group conference rooms with cameras and multimedia equipment. The system combines voice and television images that allow two or more groups to interact with one another. Video teleconferencing was first widely demonstrated in 1964 at New York's World Fair when AT&T introduced its picture-phone.
Generally, video teleconferencing participants gather in relatively expensive, specially equipped rooms that can handle the complexities of simultaneous video and audio transmission. In business applications, video teleconferencing can be particularly effective because interaction between people is usually different when they can see each other. c. Computer Conferencing:
Computer conferencing involves computer terminals and E-mail or electronic Bulletin boards. Conference participants broadcast messages to each other (or post them on a common electronic bulletin board); participants do not have to be present to receive messages. The messages are keyed in and then displayed on computer screens; hence, the "conversations" that take place are electronic. Computer conferencing is a method of sending, receiving, and storing typed messages within a network of users.
Computer conferencing can be particularly useful in project management. As critical pieces of a project are finished, possibly at numerous geographically dispersed sites, this information is recorded in the public electronic mailboxes of each project manager so that he has a real-time update on both costs and progress. The project managers can also communicate with each other through the mailboxes regarding any unusual events or any other important matters. d. Telecommuting:
Improvements in data communications, increased power of PCs and changes in working practices are leading to the spread of telecommuting. This allows employees to work at home using computer equipment, which is linked via the public communications network to computers in head office.
Telecommuting is beneficial to both employers and to their employees. Office accommodation costs are reduced, physical commuting is reduced to a minimum, and employees are not forced to live near their offices.
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Advantages Disadvantages To Employer: • Difficulty in controlling employees and ensuring they • Less office space and furniture are working needed • Data and confidential • Gives access to employees who Information will be less secure may find conventional or full time • Higher communication costs employment difficult. • Lack of company culture- and values
To Employees: • Space taken up at home with office equipment • Less time and expense traveling • Lack of social rewards from to and from work being, part of an office • More flexibility • No definite distinction between • Fewer interruptions than at the office and home can lead to office (depends on home longer working hours environment) • More Interruptions than at the office (depends on home environment)
4.10 How to Design a Management Information System
MIS can take many different forms, depending on the organization and the type of information that must be maintained. However, there are a few general steps to designing a Management Information System that should be followed no matter what your individual needs.
1. Analyze your current systems. Assess the needs of your organization to determine exactly what types of information are required to aid in the decision making process.
2. Determine who uses each component of your information system. Survey your employees to find out who uses the MIS and what types of information they need to have access to.
3. Determine what information is readily available and what information is not. In surveying your employees, ask about their experiences with the current system, as well as how they think the system could be improved.
4. Find out how reliable your information is. Study your current MIS to determine how often information is updated and where it comes from. Analyze the information to determine whether there is a better way to collect and update information.
5. Design a prototype Management Information System. Use the information you have compiled about your current system and needs, and use this information to design a prototype of the ideal system to fit Engineering Staff College of India Page 273 of 348
the needs of your organization. Use this information to compile a list of specific criteria for choosing a system.
6. Research actual Management Information Systems to determine which will best fit your needs. Compare the available alternatives and prepare a cost-benefit analysis to determine the MIS that will meet as many of your specification criteria at the lowest cost available.
4.11 Characteristics of a Good MIS
Management information systems (MIS) is an organized approach to gathering information from company operations and making a strategic management decision. Developing quality characteristics for gathering information is essential to making solid management decisions.
Relevance
o Information should be relevant to the strategic decision that company management is currently reviewing. Because companies may review several business opportunities at one time, avoiding information not relating to the decision is essential.
Accurate
o MIS information should be accurate and avoid any inclusions of estimates or probable costs. Making decisions based on estimates can lead to cost overruns or lower profits from future operations.
Timely
o Many management decisions are based on information from a certain time period, such as quarterly or annual periods. Information outside of the requested time frame may skew information and lead to an improperly informed decision.
Exhaustive
o MIS information gathering should resemble an upside-down triangle. The early stages of information gathering should be exhaustive, including all types of company information. As management narrows its decision-making process, the information is refined to include only the most relevant pieces.
Cost-Effective
o The MIS needs to be a cost-effective and efficient system for gathering information. Most of these systems are developed internally, creating costs that cannot be passed to clients.
4.12 Documents & Reports by Management Information System
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An MIS can produce either hardcopy report output or soft outputs. As mentioned earlier, hardcopy reports are the most common form of output produced by an MIS.
Reports produced by management Information system (MIS) usually fall into one of four categories: scheduled reports, exception reports, demand reports, summary reports. a. Scheduled Reports:
Scheduled reports also called periodic reports are those that are issued periodically i.e. hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or annually. Examples of such reports are daily production report and monthly performance report. These types of reports can be used either for planning or control purposes. b. Exception Reports:
Exception reports are issued when something unusual takes place that require the attention of management. For instance, an expense overrun would likely trigger the generation of an exception report or an inventory report that lists only those items that number fewer than 10 in stock. Exception reports are used primarily for control purposes. c. Demand Reports:
Demand reports are generated when someone with authority request information in response to an unscheduled demand. An executive asking for a financial report or director finance order a credit background report of an unknown customer who want to place a large order. d. Summary Reports:
Summary reports show totals and trends. An example would be a report showing total sales by office, by product, by salesperson, of overall total sales.
4.13 MIS at the Tactical Level
Middle management are largely concerned with specific functions in the organization i.e. personnel, marketing, Accounting and so on. The following examples chosen are drawn from a typical manufacturing firm.
1. Marketing And Sales: a. Scope:
MIS in the area helps to provide information to enable Marketing and Sales Management to control and monitor current operations (orders, enquiries, sales campaigns, representatives, distribution etc.) and to provide a basis for policy development on pricing and discounts, patterns of promotions and distribution, changes in product mix, changes in product design etc. b. Typical Reports Produced:
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• Customer analyses and profiles • Product Profitability • Market Surveys • Finished Stock positions and forecasts • Selling Costs by product/area/representative • Distribution costs by product/area/representative • Discount Forecasts by area/product c. Typical Inputs Handled:
I. Internal:
• Sales orders • Dispatch notes • Goods inwards • Returns • Representative returns • Cost data
II. External:
• Market Research data • Economic statistics • Trade and Industry data
III. Major relationships:
The marketing and sales MIS has major relationships with other systems as follows:
• Financial Accounting (for Credit control) • Cost Accounting • Production control (for order progress) d. Boundaries of system:
The exact extent of any MIS depends largely on the structure and organization of a particular firm but some decisions must be taken on the boundaries between systems. For example:
• Is credit control a sales or accounting responsibility? • Is invoicing a sale or accounting responsibility? • Is order handling and documentation a sales or production control responsibility?
2. Personnel: a. Scope:
MIS in this area provide information to help Personnel and other Management in the selection, recruitment and training of personnel, wages and salaries, administration, and promotion and grading. In addition, information must be provided for the development and operation of policies on Welfare, Health and Safety, Conditions of Employment, and Industrial Relations. b. Typical Reports Produced: Engineering Staff College of India Page 276 of 348
• Wages and Salary analysis • Labor Turnover Statistics • Accident and Absentee reports • Training Returns • Job Descriptions • Joint consultation reports and minutes • Pension analysis and projections • Job Evaluation reports • Manpower planning reports and projections c. Typical Inputs Handled:
I. Internal:
• Time cards and production data • Application forms • Interview summaries • Staff reviews data • Factory review data • Factory level trade union data • Training summaries
II. External:
• College/University reports • National Trade Union Agreements and proposals • Government legislation (Factories Acts, Labor Law) • Wage and salary comparative data • Relevant economics statistics, e.g. employment trends • Pension fund performance
III. Major relationships:
Personnel must have close relationships with all functional areas to provide them with services and data on all aspects of staffing but it also has specific operational links with a number of functions including:
• Accounting (for Wages and Salary payment) • Production (for absentee and attendance data) d. Boundaries:
The boundaries of a Personnel system vary considerably from one organization to another. For example:
• Does the Personnel Department actually engage an employee or does it provide the services necessary to produce a short list of suitable candidates for the appropriate functional manager to make the final decision? • Does the personnel department arrange for the putting up and payment of wages or is this considered to be part of the Accounting Function? • Does Production Management carry out negotiations with Trades Unions or is this a function of the Personnel Department. These and numerous other boundaries have to be resolved in designing any system.
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3. Management Accounting: a. Scope:
MIS in this area provide management in all functional areas with cost and budget data, control data, contribution and profitability analyses to guide and control current operations. In addition, investment appraisals, special investigations, comparative profitability and contribution data etc. provide background material for strategic and tactical planning and decision making. b. Typical Reports Produced:
• Operating Statement • Budget Statements • Standard Costs and Variance returns • Cost investigations • Project Investment appraisals • Expenditure analyses • Profit forecasts • Cash flow statements and forecasts c. Typical Inputs Handled:
I. Internal:
• Labor bookings • Material usage • Stores issues . Standards • Product data • Output details • Asset data
II. External:
• Market projections • Comparative Cost Data on national/industrial basis • Government legislation
III. Major relationships:
Management Accounts department supply control and planning data to all areas, functions, and levels of management. Specific operational links include:
• Financial Accounting (for taxation purposes) • Production (for output and performance data) • Material Control (for material usage and issue) d. Boundaries:
The dividing line between Management Accounting and Financial Accounting varies considerably from firm to firm but typically Financial Accounting would deal with such matters as Taxation, Financing, preparation of Annual statements etc. i.e. more exclusively with the external financial affairs whereas management accounting would be concerned with the internal financial control and planning. Another
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boundary decision relates to the extent to which detailed day-to-day costing matters (e.g. production cost data, material usage etc.) would be dealt with centrally or under the control of Production management. 4.14 MIS in Power Distribution Systems
Management Information System (MIS) for the power sector should provide relevant information at various decision-making levels. The MIS should be able to cater to the needs of both internal and external information requirements. It should generate information for grid management and control, for monitoring agencies like regulatory commission and other central agencies like CEA and PFC, and for internal management of SEBs.
For SEB management, MIS should provide relevant information at each level of the organisation in a timely and accurate manner. The timeliness and accuracy of information improves decision-making. For MIS, information flow is required from lower level to higher levels partly in real-time and in batch mode. The real-time information flow requires networking within the organisation.
Benefits of MIS • Availability of accurate and timely information • Effective mechanism for decision support • Enables proactive decision-making (such as load planning and demand management) • Identifies possible areas of energy loss (through analysis of consumption and billing patterns) • Target based monitoring mechanism for increased accountability • Transparency in administration • Aids strategic planning in areas such as tariff structuring and management • Develops ‘what if’ scenarios such as analysing the impact of changes in tariff plans on the revenue and financial health of the organization
MIS for the Power Sector MIS should take care of the varying information requirements for monitoring and decision-making at different levels in the hierarchy. Otherwise, huge data generated from MIS will not be of any significant use. MIS should not only cover the financial information but also other major aspects of the business. MIS for power sector will include information on finance, operations, customer satisfaction and development/ investment including that of human resources.
The structure of MIS should be SEB-specific to address the differences in organisational structures and responsibilities at various levels, but at the same time should be generic enough to provide standard information at the national level. A generalised framework of an MIS is presented here, which can be tailored to suit the needs of a specific SEB.
Figure below shows a high level view of the MIS requirements and the flow towards these requirements from the business imperatives. It also shows the requirements for effective use of the MIS.
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Note: The suggested MIS structure is for information related to electricity distribution only and hence does not contain MIS requirements for generation and grid management. However, the substation level information can be same and should be used for grid MIS also.
Information Requirements for SEBs / Utilities For providing information, we need to distinguish between the different levels, their requirements and the periodicity with which they need to see the information. Figure below gives the information requirements for some key areas for different levels of management in SEBs. A typical periodicity diagram for this information is also shown below.
MIS is meant for both the internal and external users. Some examples of external users of MIS are Regulatory Commission and central agencies like CEA and PFC. The internal customers are the different levels of people in SEBs.The following figure shows typical information
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requirements:
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Flow of Information in the Power Sector For achieving various MIS requirements of SEBs, the figure below illustrates how the information should flow between the different stakeholder organisations in the power sector for MIS.
For grid management, information from 33 kV or 11/.4 kV substations regarding current, voltage and load on 11 kV feeders, outages and transformer status are required. From substation, this information will be sent to grid control for grid management and grid MIS. The grid management is taken care at the load dispatch by transmission companies, and distribution companies are charged with the responsibility of managing the voltage profile as well as the load management.
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MIS implementation requires data management and entails the following: • Periodically collect, collate and convert data into a standard format • Store and analyse the collated data • Identify deficiencies in the existing system by analysing the data • Strategic planning for bringing improvements in the system
Recommendations for MIS: • There should be a common framework for the MIS for ease of consolidation, review and for transparency at the national level. MIS should also generate information required by other agencies like regulatory commission and other central agencies like CEA and PFC. However, the system should also cater to the specific reporting requirements of each SEB. Data sources for all the reports should be the same to avoid duplication of efforts and inconsistency.
• The performance measurement parameters mentioned are indicative and not exhaustive. Each utility should design right of measures based on its specific requirements. The selection of the set of performance measures also depends upon the maturity of the organisation. For example, measuring billing errors may be a key area in the initial stages. As the IT systems improve, measuring billing errors, while still required, may not be as important as managing bad debts.
• Data acquisition should preferably be without human intervention as far as possible. The data should be collected only at the lowest level and from the same source and in the standard formats.
• The information at substation should be acquired directly from RTUs to avoid manual intervention and for processing of huge amount of data. The relevant data in the prescribed format should be sent to grid management for grid MIS.
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Chapter 5 Customer care Services
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5.1 Customer Care Services
Customer service is an important business process that firms carry out to ensure satisfaction and retention of their customers. Though it is a non-core activity of an organization, it helps in creating goodwill of the company since the company caters to the wants and needs of its customers.
Customer service is a key parameter that differentiates a company from its competitors. Earlier, companies used to carry out customer service in-house, but due to benefits such as focus on core competency, cost savings, quality and flexibility, which are applicable for business process outsourcing as a whole, many companies are outsourcing customer services now. Today, a call made to a British credit card company is answered by an Indian on one day and by a Malaysian on another day.
Customer service outsourcing, also known as call center outsourcing or contact center outsourcing, is a part of Business Process Outsourcing (BPO). It is an established industry with a market size of USD 8.4 billion in 2004, according to research firm Gartner.
Gartner expects the market size for customer service outsourcing to grow at a Cumulative Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 13.2 percent and reach USD 12.2 billion in 2007.
Customers need different types of information or support services from a company. Customer interaction is also required for sales and marketing. Hence, a contact center can be used for a variety of business process. These functions include:
1. Support: Support services include resolution of billing queries, order taking, activation of accounts, registration of new customers and recording complaints. 2. Marketing: Marketing tasks carried out through a contact center include sending outbound emails, telemarketing, surveys and poling, responding to inbound emails and management of marketing campaigns. 3. Sales: Sales tasks include inbound sales, outbound sales, web chat, web call-back and co- browsing. 4. Technical Support: Customers require different technical support services such as data verification, application support, address updates and problem resolution through the technical help desk. 5. Customer Analytics: Customer analytics includes profitability analytics, quality auditing, reporting and complaint analysis. 5.2 Call Center Types
Call centers deals with receiving customer calls, answering them and making outgoing calls for telemarketing. There are various types of call centers are:
• Inbound call centers • Outbound call centers • Web Enabled call centers • Telemarketing call center • Phone call center
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Inbound call centers: The inbound call centers are those that only receive the calls usually on toll free numbers from the customers. These call centers provide 24 hours service to all customers. The primary goal of these call centers is to receive product orders, help customers, to find dealer location.
Outbound call centers:
Outbound call centers deals with telemarketing and product promotion. It requires technical experience and expertise to ensure the clients that you are the best company.
Web Enabled Call Centers:
Web enabled call centers are prevailing throughout the world rapidly. Web enabled call centers deal with online transaction and live chat.
Telemarketing Call centers:
These call centers deal with telemarketing and promotion of services. Their primary goal is to promote sales and customer satisfaction.
Phone call centers:
They are usually automated call centers that route the calls and uses IVR technology. These call centers can be used for asking bank account balance, pin numbers, telephone numbers and other information. Computers replies pre recorded answers.
5.3 Technology in Call Centers
Technology has played a vital role in customer service outsourcing. Rapid advancements in information and communication technology have led to a boom in call centers across the world. Call centers use a variety of technologies to support contact with a customer.
Prosci research, a firm that researches call centers, conducted a survey of 120 contact centers and found that email is the most commonly used medium for customer contact. The survey findings have been tabulated in Table
Technology Percent of respondents
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Email 62
Voice response systems 61
Quality monitoring systems 53
Computer telephone integration 51
Call logging systems 49
Contact Management tools 46
Workforce management tools 43
Wallboards / reader boards 42
Advanced network services 38
Knowledge-base tools 35
Predictive dialers 18
Web-enabled call center 18
Multimedia queues 13
VoIP 9
Speech recognition 7
Table 1: Technology Usage Level in Call Centers
5.4 Interactive Voice Response System
Interactive voice response (IVR) is a technology that allows a computer to interact with humans through the use of voice and DTMF keypad inputs.
In telecommunications, IVR allows customers to interact with a company’s database via a telephone keypad or by speech recognition, after which they can service their own inquiries by following the IVR dialogue. IVR systems can respond with prerecorded or dynamically generated audio to further direct users on how to proceed. IVR applications can be used to control almost any function where the interface can be broken down into a series of simple interactions. IVR systems deployed in the network are sized to handle large call volumes.
IVR technology is also being introduced into automobile systems for hands-free operation. Current deployment in automobiles revolves around satellite navigation, audio and mobile phone systems.
It has become common in industries that have recently entered the telecommunications industry to refer to an automated attendant as an IVR. The terms, however, are distinct and mean different things to traditional telecommunications professionals, whereas emerging telephony and VoIP professionals often
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use the term IVR as a catch-all to signify any kind of telephony menu, even a basic automated attendant. The term voice response unit (VRU), is sometimes used as well
IVR solutions enable users to retrieve information including bank balances, flight schedules, product details, order status, movie show times, and more from any telephone. Additionally, IVR solutions are increasingly used to place outbound calls to deliver or gather information for appointments, past due bills, and other time critical events and activities.
Where is IVRS System used? IVR systems are typically used to service high call volumes, reduce cost and improve the customer experience. Examples of typical IVR applications are telephone banking, televoting, and credit card services. Companies also use IVR services to extend their business hours to 24/7 operation.
The use of IVR and voice automation enables a company to improve its customer service and lower its costs, due to the fact that callers' queries can be resolved without the need for queueing and incurring the cost of a live agent who, in turn, can be directed to deal with more demanding areas of the service. If the caller does not find the information they need, or requires further assistance, the call can then be transferred to an agent. This makes for a more efficient system in which agents have more time to deal with complex interactions: for example, customer retention, up selling, cross selling and issue resolution. This way, the customer is more likely to be satisfied with a personalized service and the interaction is likely to be more fulfilling and rewarding for the agent, as opposed to dealing with basic inquiries that require yes/no responses, such as obtaining customer details.
Call centers use IVR systems to identify and segment callers. The ability to identify customers allows services to be tailored according to the customer profile. The caller can be given the option to wait in the queue, choose an automated service, or request a callback (at a suitable time and telephone number). The system may obtain caller line identification (CLI) data from the network to help identify or authenticate the caller. This is currently available for about 80% of inbound calls. Additional caller authentication data could include account number, personal information, password and biometrics (such as voice print).
When an IVR system answers multiple phone numbers the use of DNIS ensures that the correct application and language is executed. A single large IVR system can handle calls for thousands of applications, each with its own phone numbers and script.
IVR also enables customer prioritization. In a system wherein individual customers may have a different status the service will automatically prioritize the individual's call and move customers to the front of a specific queue. Prioritization could also be based on the DNIS and call reason.
Smaller companies and start-ups can also use an IVR system to make their business appear larger than it is. For example, a caller never needs to know that their Sales and Support calls are routed to the same person.
In addition to interacting with customer information systems and databases, IVRs will also log call detail information into its own database for auditing, performance report, and future IVR system enhancements.
CTI allows a contact center or organization to gather information about the caller as a means of directing their inquiry to the appropriate agent. CTI can transfer relevant information about the individual customer and the IVR dialog from the IVR to the agent desktop using a screen-pop, making for a more effective and efficient service.
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IVR may be used by survey organizations for asking more sensitive questions where the investigators are concerned that a respondent might feel less comfortable providing these answers to a human interlocutor (such as questions about drug use or sexual behavior). In some cases an IVR system can be used in the same survey in conjunction with a human interviewer. For example, during the survey the interviewer might inform the respondent that for the next series of questions they will be sent to an IVR system to continue or complete the interview.
Voice-Activated Dialling Voice-Activated Dialling (VAD) IVR systems are used to automate routine enquiries to switchboard or PABX (Private Automatic Branch eXchange) operators, and are used in many hospitals and large businesses to reduce the caller waiting time. An additional function is the ability to allow external callers to page staff and transfer the inbound call to the paged person.
Entertainment and information Some of the largest installed IVR platforms are used for televoting on television game shows, such as Pop Idol and Big Brother, which can generate enormous call spikes. Often, the network provider will have to deploy call gapping in the PSTN to prevent network overload.
Anonymous access IVR systems allow callers to obtain data relatively anonymously. Hospitals and clinics have used IVR systems to allow callers to receive anonymous access to test results. This is information that could easily be handled by a person but the IVR system is used to preserve privacy and avoid potential embarrassment of sensitive information or test results. Users are given a passcode to access their results.
Clinical trials IVR systems are used by pharmaceutical companies and contract research organizations to conduct clinical trials and manage the large volumes of data generated. The caller will respond to questions in their preferred language and their responses will be logged into a database and possibly recorded at the same time to confirm authenticity. Applications include patient randomization and drug supply management. They are also used in recording patient diaries and questionnaires.[2]
Outbound calling IVR systems can be used for outbound calls, as IVR systems are more intelligent than many predictive dialer systems, and can use Call Progress Detection to recognize different line conditions as follows:
Answer (the IVR can tell the customer who is calling and ask them to wait for an agent) Answered by voice mail or answering machine (in these circumstances the IVR system can leave a message) Fax tone (the IVR can leave a TIFF image fax message) Divert messages (the IVR will abandon the call) No answer
Other uses Other common IVR services include:
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Mobile — Pay-As-You-Go account funding; registration; mobile purchases, such as ring tones and logos Banking — balance, payments, transfers, transaction history Retail & Entertainment — orders, bookings, credit & debit card payments Utilities — meter readings Travel — ticket booking, flight information, check-in Weather forecasts, water, road and ice conditions DTMF decoding and speech recognition are used to interpret the caller's response to voice prompts. DTMF tones are entered via the telephone keypad.
Two main varieties of speech recognition are used in IVR: that based upon predefined grammars (used in "directed" dialogues), and that based on statistically trained language models (used in "natural language" dialogues). Directed dialogues prompt the caller with specific questions or options. Natural language dialogues employ open questions (e.g. "How can I help you?"), are more conversational, and can interpret free-form responses.
Other technologies include using Text-To-Speech (TTS) to speak complex and dynamic information, such as e-mails, news reports or weather information. TTS is computer generated synthesized speech that is no longer the robotic voice traditionally associated with computers. Real voices create the speech in fragments that are spliced together (concatenated) and smoothed before being played to the caller.
An IVR can be deployed in several different ways:
1. Equipment installed on the customer premises 2. Equipment installed in the PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) 3. Application service provider (ASP) / Hosted IVR IVR can be used to provide a more sophisticated voice mail experience to the caller. For example, the IVR could ask if the caller wishes to hear, edit, forward or remove a message.
An automatic call distributor (ACD) is often the first point of contact when calling many larger businesses. An ACD uses digital storage devices to play greetings or announcements, but typically routes a caller without prompting for input. An IVR can play announcements and request an input from the caller. This information can be used to profile the caller and route the call to an agent with a particular skill set. (A skill set is a function applied to a group of call-center agents with a particular skill.)
Interactive voice response can be used to front-end a call center operation by identifying the needs of the caller. Information can be obtained from the caller such as an account number. Answers to simple questions such as account balances or pre-recorded information can be provided without operator intervention. Account numbers from the IVR are often compared to caller ID data for security reasons and additional IVR responses are required if the caller ID does not match the account record.
IVR call flows are created in a variety of ways. A traditional IVR depended upon proprietary programming or scripting languages, whereas modern IVR applications are generated in a similar way to Web pages, using standards such as Voice XML (Xtensible Markup Language) , CCXML (Call Center Xtensible Markup Language), SRGS and SSML. The ability to use XML-driven applications allows a Web server to act as the application server, freeing the IVR developer to focus on the call flow. It was widely believed that developers would no longer require specialized programming skills; however, this has been
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proven to be misguided as IVR applications need to understand the human reaction to the application dialog.
Higher level IVR development tools are available to further simplify the application development process. A call flow diagram can be drawn with a GUI tool and the presentation layer (typically VoiceXML) can be automatically generated. In addition, these tools normally provide extension mechanisms for software integration, such as an HTTP interface to a Web site and a Java interface for connecting to a database.
In telecommunications, an audio response unit (ARU) is a device that provides synthesized voice responses to DTMF key presses by processing calls based on (a) the call-originator input, (b) information received from a database, and (c) information in the incoming call, such as the time of day.
ARUs increase the number of information calls handled and provide consistent quality in information retrieval.
IVR Systems
IVR systems are an example of computer-telephone integration (CTI). The most common way for a phone to communicate with a computer is through the tones generated by each key on the telephone keypad. These are known as dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signals.
Each number key on a telephone emits two simultaneous tones: one low-frequency and one high- frequency. The number one, for example, produces both a 697-Hz and a 1209-Hz tone that's universally interpreted by the public switched telephone network as a "1."
A computer needs special hardware called a telephony board or telephony card to understand the DTMF signals produced by a phone. A simple IVR system only requires a computer hooked up to a phone line through a telephony board and some inexpensive IVR software. The IVR software allows you to pre-record greetings and menu options that a caller can select using his telephone keypad.
More advanced IVR systems include speech-recognition software that allows a caller to communicate with a computer using simple voice commands. Speech recognition software has become sophisticated enough to understand names and long strings of numbers -- perhaps a credit card or flight number.
On the other end of the phone call, an organization can employ text-to-speech (TTS) software to fully automate its outgoing messages. Instead of recording all of the possible responses to a customer query, the computer can generate customized text-like account balances or flight times and read it back to the customer using an automated voice.
Many of today's most advanced IVR systems are based on a special programming language called voice extensible markup language (vxml). Here are the basic components of a VXML-based IVR system: • Telephone network -- Incoming and outgoing phone calls are routed through the regular Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or over a VoIP network. • TCP/IP network -- A standard Internet network, like the ones that provide Internet and intranet connectivity in an office. • VXML telephony server -- This special server sits between the phone network and the Internet network. It serves as an interpreter, or gateway, so that callers can interface with the IVR software Engineering Staff College of India Page 291 of 348
and access information on databases. The server also contains the software that controls functions like text-to-speech, voice recognition and DTMF recognition. • Web/application server -- This is where the IVR software applications live. There might be several different applications on the same server: one for customer service, one for outgoing sales calls, one for voice-to-text transcription. All of these application are written in VXML. The Web/application server is connected to the VXML telephony server over the TCP/IP network. • Databases -- Databases contain real-time information that can be accessed by the IVR applications. If you call your credit card company and want to know your current balance, the IVR application retrieves the current balance total from a database. Same for flight arrival times, movie times, et cetera. One or more databases can be linked to the Web/application server over the TCP/IP network.
A company or organization can choose to purchase all of this hardware and software and run it in-house, or it can subscribe to an IVR-hosting service. A hosting service charges a monthly fee to use its servers and IVR software. The hosting service helps the organization customize an IVR system that best fits its needs and provides technical support should anything go wrong.
5.5 IVRS Applications
One of the most common uses for an IVR system is to route calls within an organization. In the past, you'd hire a receptionist or a switchboard operator to answer all incoming calls and route the callers to the right extension. An IVR system is especially useful when fielding customer-service calls. The system can present a caller with a list of menu options and questions about the nature of the call. If possible, the system itself can answer more frequently asked questions and route the rest of the calls to trained specialists.
IVR systems are ideal for retrieving simple, real-time information from a database. Movie times are a good example. Each week the movie listings are updated on a central database. This database can also be used to populate the movie theater's Web site. When a call is made to the theater, the caller can look up movie times in the database through voice or keypad commands. The same system can be used for checking account balances, reviewing recent credit card purchases, checking flight schedules, refilling prescriptions at a pharmacy, scheduling car maintenance, university class registration. The list goes on and on.
IVR systems are also useful for sales. A sales department can set up an IVR order form that callers can fill out using their telephone keypad. When the form is complete, the computer can then fax or e-mail a copy of the form to a member of the sales staff. A sales department could also use the IVR as a virtual brochure highlighting the features of a product or service with an option for speaking to a live representative at any time.
Marketing departments and political pollsters can use the outgoing call features of IVR systems. A political campaign could set up an outgoing message that includes a poll that voters can fill out over the Engineering Staff College of India Page 292 of 348
phone. A marketer could gauge a customer's interest in his products or services. For those interested in the marketer's automated pitch, they could press a key to talk to a sales associate.
IVR systems can also be used as electronic notification systems. Let's say your organization has employees who work from home and are based around the world. The IVR system can be programmed with employee contact information: home phone number, cell phone, fax number, pager, e-mail address, et cetera. If a call needs to be routed to that employee, the IVR system will try each and every contact method in succession until a connection is made.
An interesting use of IVR technology is for transcribing medical records. Doctors currently record their patient records and send the audio to a medical transcription service. But with powerful voice recognition software, a doctor could call up the IVR system, record his notes and have a transcribed copy of the record e-mailed or faxed to his office.
5.6 Advantages of IVR Systems
The biggest advantage of IVR for small and large organizations is to save time and money. Answering phone calls takes a lot of time, and not every phone call deserves the attention of a trained employee. IVR systems can take care of most of the frequently asked questions that an organization receives (office hours, directions, phone directory, common tech support questions, et cetera) and allow customer service representatives, salesmen and tech support specialists to concentrate on the harder stuff.
If a large company is able to shave even a second off the average length of each phone call with a live operator, it can save them hundreds of thousands or even millions of dollars a year
IVR systems have the advantage of making callers and customers feel like they're being attended to, even if it's just by a machine. If you have a simple question, it's better to get a quick answer from a computerized operator than to wait ten minutes on hold before talking to a human being.
Another advantage is that IVR systems don't sleep. They don't take lunch breaks. They don't go on vacations. An IVR system can be available 24 hours a day to field questions and help customers with simple tasks.
An IVR system can make a small company look bigger. Let's say you work from home as a consultant. By using a hosted IVR service to answer your phones, you already appear like a larger organization. You can get tricky by adding several menu options for different departments, all leading to separate voice mail boxes.
Subscription IVR hosting plans make it easier for businesses and organizations to use these automated phone services. This is a big advantage of days past, when only large companies with big telecommunications and computing budgets could afford the hardware, software and staff to run in-house IVR systems.
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Disadvantages of Using IVR Systems
The greatest disadvantage of IVR systems is that many people simply dislike talking to machines. Older adults may have a hard time following telephone menus and lengthy instructions. And younger callers get frustrated with the slowness of multiple phone menus.
The problem with IVR systems is that it's hard to design a good one and easy to design a bad one. Here are some of the most common user complaints with IVR systems: • Menus are too long. Experts recommend that no menu should exceed four choices. This makes it easy to remember the options and doesn't waste the caller's time listening to tons of choices. • There's too much information. When writing a script for IVR systems, start with the least amount of extraneous information possible; for example, info on how to use the phone menu system, hours of operation, extension numbers, et cetera. Wait for a caller to ask for help or request more information instead of offering it all up front. • Voice prompts are hard to understand. This could be caused by two different factors. To save money, the organization didn't hire professional voice talent and may have recorded the audio over the phone instead of in a studio. Or, if the organization opted to use an automated voice, they may have chosen cheap text-to-speech software that's hard to understand. Most unsuitable for power utilities. When the consumer is already in darkness due to power supply failure, he will not be able to give the other details asked by the IVR system.
Sales departments need to be careful when using IVR systems to receive customer calls. If a customer or potential customer has shown enough interest to actually pick up the phone and call to find out more about a product, he doesn't want to feel like he's being ignored. So if a sales staff is going to use IVR as a virtual brochure or an automated order form, it must make it clear that the caller can talk to a live representative at any time.
People are particularly adverse to receiving automated calls as part of telemarketing campaigns or polling. It's bad enough to get a call during dinner from a guy trying to sell you health insurance, but it's even worse when that guy is a computer.
5.7 Architecture of IVRS Systems
To deliver or leverage IVR, an enterprise requires: 1. IVR Platforms
IVR platforms are the "server and operating system" hardware and software platforms on which IVR solutions run.
IVR platforms at a minimum provide the ability to play and record prompts and gather touch-tone input. IVR platforms may also offer the ability to recognize spoken input from callers (voice recognition), translate text into spoken output for callers (text-to-speech), and transfer IVR calls to any telephone or call center agent.
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2. IVR Applications
IVR applications are programs that control and respond to calls on the IVR platform. IVR applications can either be developed by an enterprise, by an IVR development shop, or by companies that offer canned IVR applications.
IVR applications direct the IVR platform to prompt callers, gather input, and transfer callers to other phones. IVR applications also call on existing back-end database and application servers to retrieve records and information required during the course of a call.
3. Back-end servers
Back-end servers are existing enterprise servers on which the required customer or corporate data can be found.
Back-end servers can include databases, mainframes, Java or other application servers, and third party information services and solutions.
4. Telephony Infrastructure
Telephony infrastructure includes telephone lines, call switching equipment, and call center Automatic Call Distributors (ACDs).
Telephone lines for IVR can be standard analog lines, digital T1, or digital ISDN lines. These lines are connected on one side to the IVR platform and, on the other, to call switching equipment including Telco switches, Voice over IP gateways, and corporate PBX's; or in some cases, directly to call centers via an ACD.
5. IVR Experts
IVR Experts include employees and consultants who know IVR technology and challenges well.
Ideally, IVR teams should include one or more members who have experience with IVR integration, configuration, reliability and redundancy, application development, and IVR solution deployment management.
There are many reasons why companies should look at reviewing their IVR system:
• To improve customer use of the application • To address caller complaints • As a "sanity check" before implementing new applications
5.8 IVRS Best Practices
Best Practice #1: Make the system as easy to use and familiar as possible. Engineering Staff College of India Page 295 of 348
• Emulate familiar methods and procedures. • Keep prompts short and to the point. • Permit prompts to be overridden, wherever possible. • Limit the number of choices to a maximum of four options per menu. Giving callers more than four or five choices makes it difficult for them to remember all available options and can be tedious. Carefully examine your calling audience about this issue: feedback may tell you that you will only want to offer up to three choices at a given level. • Provide callers with feedback and verification of their actions. • Position the most commonly requested choices first on your menu. • Callers should go down no more than 5-7 steps to complete their transaction. • Use a voice that reflects your corporate image and that is pleasing to callers (consider holding focus groups to evaluate voice talent).
Best practice #2: Let callers feel in control.
• Blame mistakes on the system, not on your callers. • Give callers an easy way to go back to the main menu and all submenus. • Allow callers to repeat, pause and move forward and backwards as appropriate. • Automatically repeat each prompt at least once if no action is taken. • Always provide a way for callers to reach a live answer point by pressing 0 during business hours. • Give additional guidance for complex or high-value transactions. • Offer a demonstration option or tutorial showing how the system works. • Don't confuse callers by changing the application frequently. In general, changes to call flow and logic should not be made more than once every six months, and unless there are compelling reasons, the Main Menu should almost never be changed.
Best Practice #3: Keep the user interface consistent.
• Phrase each activity in the same manner. • State the action before the action key. • Use keypad functions in a consistent fashion. • Handle invalid entries and timeouts the same way at each menu level. • Voice quality, including pitch and volume, should be consistent throughout the application. • Use a single voice throughout the application: multiple voices tend to be jarring to callers. • Don't look at your voice response system in a vacuum. IVR applications should complement Internet applications, customer materials, screens used by customer service reps, etc as part of the whole customer contact experience. This means using consistent phrasing, terminology, and content availability.
Best Practice #4: Provide a number of ways into and out of the system.
• Always provide a way for callers to get to a live answer point, while at the same time encouraging them to use the application. • Train customer support staff on the system - and keep them informed of changes and updates.
Best practice #5: Talk to callers - don't write to them.
• We speak very differently than we write. Scripts that sound like writing are stilted and frequently discourage callers. • Always read your script aloud before it is recorded and test it with a mix of people. • Use a natural, high quality, intelligible voice. • Time prompts and options to reflect normal conversation. Engineering Staff College of India Page 296 of 348
• Test concatenated prompts to make sure they sound natural. • Avoid using acronyms or technical jargon that your average caller may not understand. • Limit concatenation wherever possible by recording phrases, rather than stringing together single words.
Best Practice #6: Use technology to personalize your callers' experience.
• Identify callers through account numbers or other methods in order to offer options that are tailored to the caller, and/or the caller's value to your organization. • Provide dynamic menus, wherever possible, that are tailored to the services available to the caller. • Don't offer callers options that are not available to them under their specific service level. • If callers transfer out, provide the answering point with information about the caller and where the caller was in the system.
Why do callers choose voice response?
Customers will use IVR if:
1. They are educated about the system. Use bill stuffers, point-of-sale materials or special promotions to advertise and instruct callers on how to use the system. 2. Their expectations are set in advance. They are prepared to be answered by an automated service rather than a "live" operator. 3. There is real or perceived value in using IVR. It's quicker - no hold time. 24-hour access. Customers get reduced rates or rebates. 4. Customers do not get better service if they choose not to use the system. 5.9 Online Billing System
How Does Online Bill Pay Work?
Step 1 : A Client Signs Up for Online Bill Pay When a client signs up for online bill payment and identifies payees, the bank or online bill payment service requests certain information. For large payees such as national banks or finance companies, the online bill payment system may have payment addresses and electronic payment information already available. For smaller or individual payees, the online bill payment service may request such items as the payee account number, mailing address and when a bill is expected to arrive. This information allows the bill payment service provider to ensure payments are properly sent. The service provider also requests information about the user's bank account, such as the routing and account numbers, in order to make withdrawals or print checks when a bill is paid.
Step 2: The Online Payment Center Sends Electronic Payments When a payment is made to a large payee such as a national bank or finance company, these payments may be transferred electronically. To make an electronic transfer, the payment service initiates a withdrawal from the user's bank account using Automated Clearing House (ACH) technology. This withdrawal instantly and electronically debits the customer's account for the appropriate amount and Engineering Staff College of India Page 297 of 348
transfers the funds to the payee. Electronic payments are generally considered preferable since they are nearly instantaneous and do not rely on mailing or processing of checks. These payments also do not require additional payee staff to process the incoming checks, so some payees offer discounts for electronic payments.
Step 3 : The Online Payment Center May Need to Generate a Check For smaller payees who do not have access to electronic ACH money transfers, especially local utilities and private individuals, the bill payment center may need to generate and mail a physical check. To generate the check, the bill payment service prints the user's name and address at the top of the check, the bank information in the traditional spot and the routing and account numbers across the bottom. Other relevant information, such as the payee's name and amount, are also printed on the check face before the check is mailed to the payee. Once the check is received, the payee deposits the check just like any other payment instrument and the bank initiates payment credits through standard ACH processing.
5.10 Benefits of Online Bill Payments
Using your bank's online bill payment service saves you time and money. Just type in the amount you want to pay on your credit card, utility bill or auto loan and confirm the amount. Your bank automatically deducts the payment amount from your bank account and sends it to the vendor.
Easy Set-Up
Simply take the time to type in the vendor's billing information along with your account number, and your bank saves the information for future online bill payments. Cost Effective Using an online bill payment service eliminates the need to mail in your payment, saving you the cost of postage on every bill you pay online. Time Saving Paying a bill online takes just seconds; you won't waste time writing out a check or sealing and stamping an envelope and driving to the post office. Convenience Log on to your bank's website from any computer or wireless device anytime, day or night, to pay your bills. Bill Reminders Set up the online or mobile bill reminder service so you never miss a payment due date or incur late payment fees.
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5.11 Disadvantages of Online Bill Payments
Paying bills online can save consumers time and fees. There is no need to stand at the end of long lines to pay a utility bill, and you can log into your accounts at any time to get an up-to-date view of your transactions. However, from irregular website access to late payments, online bill payment also has its downsides. No Physical Location Many consumers are happy to avoid standing in line to pay a bill, but a physical location may be preferable for some transactions. With a traditional offline location, you can have face-to-face interactions with workers to discuss important issues. Some online banking companies do not offer live customer service. Contact with the company may come in the form of a prewritten email response. Website Issues Paying a bill online can be impossible if the company website is down or if you have no Internet access to log in. With only an online location, you risk missing a payment, which may cost you extra fees. No Paper Bill When you pay bills online, you may not receive a paper bill in the mail. While this is good for the environment, you may need a physical bill in certain situations, including renting an apartment. You may also want a paper bill if you are not able to access your online accounts. Late Payments In a physical location, you are able to pay bills in a matter of hours. This is a great relief if you are paying your bill late. With online bill pay, it may take days for the transaction to go through. In some cases, this delay could mean your accounts may be closed or your utilities turned off. Website Security If the website is not secure, you risk giving your personal information to Internet hackers, and they may be able to steal your identity or clean out your bank accounts. Some bills are more risky to pay online than others. Credit card bills, for instance, contain almost all your personal information in one place. Consumers should contact the online bill pay company or check the website to see what type of security the website offers. Password Security Secure passwords are often mandatory. This could mean a password that is at least 10 characters long, with a specified combination of numbers and letters. While secure, you may have trouble logging in if you cannot remember your password.
5.12 Customer Analysis
The call center plays a vital role in assuring that customers are satisfied with the organization that the center represents. In fact, the center must ensure that customers are satisfied enough to remain loyal, spread the positive word about the company and produce a return on the investment that the company made when establishing the call center in the first place.
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The term customer analysis refers to identification of a customer’s mood, his or her nature, why he or she is communicating with you, what information he or she is asking for.
After making the analysis, the second step goes to satisfaction. But to complete the first step, you may need to ask some question so that you grasp proper sense. Remember, a good analyzed customer should be communicated politely even the customer is angry and upset. Make sure your customer that you are serious and will immediately respond to his problem that will turn into his solution.
Customer analysis is an intricate job that even a little misconception and misunderstanding between customers and clients may lead to loss of a customer. Care must be taken especially with prospective customers. It does not mean that you do not care for your previous customers.
Both of your customers may convert into sales or a long term relationship.
Customer analysis is a very intricate job requiring experienced customer service representatives.
According to a new study released by the CFI Group, these things are the direct result of the performance of the contact center. The inaugural Call Center Satisfaction Index revealed that the two issues with the most impact on customer satisfaction with the contact center are first call resolution and offshoring.
The key element that is driving customer satisfaction and therefore customer loyalty and the likelihood to recommend is issue resolution. The study found that across all industries that were measured, nearly one fifth of all callers hung up with their issue unresolved. Of those customers who did have their issue unresolved, 68 percent were at risk of defection.
The methodology of the University of Michigan’s American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) was used by the CFI Group Call Center Satisfaction Index. The group surveyed customers of call centers in six industries and satisfaction with each industry was rated on the ACSI’s 100-point scale. The following displays the results by industry:
Catalog Call Centers: 80 Banking Call Centers: 77 Cell Phone Service Call Centers: 69 Cable and Satellite Television Call Centers: 68 Insurance Call Centers: 68 Personal Computer Call Centers: 64
Standouts from this index include catalog and banking centers primarily due to the superior customer service that their representatives provide, in addition to good first call resolution. PC call centers lag far behind as nearly 25 percent of callers hang up with their issue unresolved, causing PC customer service reps to be rated much lower when it comes to solving problems.
Too many companies treat call centers as cost centers rather than seeing them as an opportunity to solidify the customer relationship, resulting in increased loyalty and retention. Based on this research, any company that isn’t putting resources into making sure that the call center is delivering customer satisfaction rather than frustration is taking a huge risk with its customer asset.
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It shouldn’t be a real surprise to organizations that operate a call center that customer satisfaction is vital to their survival, much less their growth. Yet some still fall short in capturing and measuring customer satisfaction and as a result, continue to experience customer churn. Until these organizations completely understand what drives satisfaction and become focused on driving those elements, they will continue to struggle in their industry.
5.13 Customer Satisfaction as a Call Center Metric
Metrics are one of the most important aspects of call center management, yet designing a metrics strategy can be difficult. There are many metrics to consider for a call center, and the "right" ones depend on many factors about your business, strategic goals, customers, center operations, budget, resources, and other factors. Learn the definition for these call center metrics, tips on how to measure each one and ways to manage a call center metrics strategy. • Understanding average handle time (AHT) for the call center
• Understanding blocking rate for the call center
• Understanding cost per contact for the call center
• Measuring forecasted calls against handled calls in the call center
• Using number of calls offered as a call center metric
• Understanding occupancy for the call center
• Understanding quality monitoring for the call center
• Understanding call center schedule adherence
• Understanding service level for the call center
• Designing a call center metrics strategy
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Chapter 6 Data Center and Disaster Recovery Center
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6.1 Introduction to Data Centers
A data center, as defined in TIA/EIA-942, Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers, is a building or portion of a building whose primary function is to house a computer room and its support areas. The main functions of a data center are to centralize and consolidate information technology (IT) resources, house network operations, facilitate e-business and to provide uninterrupted service to mission-critical data processing operations.
Data centers can be classified as either enterprise (private) data centers or co-location (co- lo)/hosting (public) data centers. Enterprise data centers are privately owned and operated by private corporate, institutional or government entities. Enterprise data centers support internal data transactions and processing, as well as Web Services and are supported and managed by internal IT support.
Co-lo data centers are owned and operated by telcos or unregulated competitive service providers and offer outsourced IT services. Services that data centers typically provide include Internet access, application orWeb hosting, content distribution, file storage and backup, database management, fail-safe power, HVAC controls, security and high-performance cabling infrastructure. As shown in Figure 1.1, the functional areas of the data center can be broken down into:
1. Switching o Point of Presence (PoP) Zone o Server Area Zone 2. Storage o Storage Area Network
PoP Zone This area of the data center is sometimes referred to as the “meet me” room. It is typically the area where the service provider enables access to their networks. This area contains many routers and core switches.
Server Zone This area of the data center provides the front-end connection to the database servers. This area contains many switches and servers. The protocols used to communicate in this area are 1 Gigabit and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
Functional Areas of Data center
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This area of the data center provides the back-end connection to data. This area contains many types of storage devices. The protocols used to communicate in this area are Fibre Channel Ethernet and small computer system interface (SCSI).
Regardless of the type of data center to be implemented, there are three fundamental issues, or concerns, that should be addressed when evaluating each area of the data center infrastructure: o Manageability o Flexibility and Scalability o Network Efficiency
Manageability End users are looking for a higher performance, low profile solution for a more effective overall operation of the network. Manageability is essential; without it, the cabling infrastructure takes over the data center in a short amount of time. To increase control over the data center infrastructure, structured cabling should be implemented. The key benefit of structured cabling is that the user regains control of the infrastructure rather than living with an unmanageable buildup of patch cords and an abundance of unidentifiable cables.
Flexibility and Scalability
Flexibility and scalability of the cabling infrastructure allow quick and easy changes with little to no impact on the day-to-day operation of the data center, as well as reduced risk that tomorrow’s technology will render an obsolete infrastructure. Scalability of the data center is essential for migration to higher data rates and for adding capacity without major disruption of operations. The initial data center must be designed so it can be scaled quickly and efficiently as the requirements change. To meet the requirements and demands of the data center, the topology in the data center, as well as the actual components used to implement the topology, must be explored. Both topology and components, if chosen correctly, create an effective network, save time and money, and create efficiency, manageability, flexibility and scalability in the data center.
Network Efficiency
Data centers have seen significant growth in size and numbers in the past few years and should continue to see significant growth in the future as networks continue to evolve and move toward 100 Gigabit Ethernet. Due to the considerable growth in data centers, there is a need to have simple, efficient cabling solutions that maximize space and facilitate reduced installation time and costs. Preterminated solutions are often the preferred solution as they provide higher fiber density, reduced installation time and the ability to easily facilitate moves, adds and changes (MACs).
A well-planned infrastructure can last 15 to 20 years and will have to be operational through multiple generations of system equipment and data-rate increases. The following chapters address all of the factors to be considered for a well-designed data center cabling infrastructure.
6.2 Data Center Space and Infrastructure
The main elements of a data center, defined by TIA-942, are the entrance room (ER), main distribution area (MDA), horizontal distribution area (HDA), zone distribution area (ZDA), equipment distribution area (EDA) and telecommunications room (TR).
• Entrance room (ER): The space used for the interface between data center structured cabling and interbuilding cabling, both access provider and customer-owned. The ER interfaces with the computer room through the MDA. Engineering Staff College of India Page 304 of 348
• Main distribution area (MDA): Includes the main cross-connect, which is the central point of distribution for the data center structured cabling system and may include a horizontal cross- connect when equipment areas are directly served from the MDA. Every data center shall include at least one MDA.
• Horizontal distribution area (HDA): Serves equipment areas. • Equipment distribution area (EDA): Allocated for end equipment and shall not serve the purposes of an ER, MDA or HDA.
• Telecommunications room (TR): Supports cabling to areas outside the computer room and shall meet the specifications of ANSI/TIA-569-B. The components of the cabling infrastructure, as defined by TIA-942, are as follows: o Horizontal cabling o Backbone cabling o Cross-connect in the ER or MDA o Main cross-connect in the MDA o Horizontal cross-connect in the TR, HDA, MDA o Zone outlet or consolidation point in the ZDA o Outlet in the EDA
TIA 942 In a data center, including HDAs, the maximum distance allowed for horizontal cabling is 90 m, independent of media type. With patch cords, the maximum channel distance allowed is 100 m, assuming 5 m of patch cord at each end of the channel for connection to end equipment.
When a ZDA is used, horizontal cabling distances for copper may need to be reduced. Depending on the type and size of the data center, the HDA may be collapsed back to the MDA. This is a typical design for enterprise data centers. In this scenario, the cabling from the MDA to the EDA, with or without a ZDA, is considered horizontal cabling. In a collapsed design, horizontal cabling is limited to 300 m for optical fiber and 90 m for copper.
TIA-942 defines the maximum distance for backbone cabling as being application and media dependent.
Tier Ratings for Data Centers Additional considerations when planning a data center infrastructure include redundancy and reliability. TIA-942 describes redundancy using four tiers to distinguish between varying levels of availability of the data center infrastructure. The tiers used by this standard correspond to industry tier ratings for data
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centers, as defined by the Uptime Institute. The tiers are defined as Tier I, II, III and IV, where a higher tier rating corresponds to increased availability. The requirements of the higher-rated tiers are inclusive of the lower level tiers. Tier ratings are specified for various portions of the data center infrastructure, including telecommunications systems architectural and structural systems, electrical systems and mechanical systems. Each system can have a different tier rating, however; the overall data center tier rating is equal to the lowest of the ratings across the infrastructure.
Tier Ratings for Data Centers
Tier I Data Center: Basic A data center with a Tier I rating has no redundancy. The data center utilizes single paths and has no redundant components.
A Tier I data center is susceptible to disruptions from both planned and unplanned activity. It has computer power distribution and cooling, but it may or may not have a raised floor, a UPS, or an engine generator. The critical load on these systems is up to 100 percent of N. If it does have UPS or generators, they are single-module systems and have many single points of failure. The infrastructure should be completely shut down on an annual basis to perform preventive maintenance and repair work. Urgent situations may require more frequent shutdowns. Operation errors or spontaneous failures of site infrastructure components will cause a data center disruption.
Tier II Data Center: Redundant Components A data center with a Tier II rating has redundant components, but utilizes only a single path.
Tier II facilities with redundant components are slightly less susceptible to disruptions from both planned and unplanned activity than a basic data center. They have a raised floor, UPS and engine generators, but their capacity design is N+1, which has a single-threaded distribution path throughout. Critical load is up to 100 percent of N. Maintenance of the critical power path and other parts of the site infrastructure will require a processing shutdown.
Tier III Data Center: Concurrently Maintainable A data center with a Tier III rating has multiple paths, but only one path is active.
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Tier III level capability allows for any planned site infrastructure activity without disrupting the computer hardware operation. Planned activities include preventive and programmable maintenance, repair and replacement of components, addition or removal of capacity components, testing of components and systems and more. For large sites using chilled water, this means two independent sets of pipes. Sufficient capacity and distribution must be available to simultaneously carry the load on one path while performing maintenance or testing on the other path.
Unplanned activities such as errors in operation or spontaneous failures of facility infrastructure components will still cause a data center disruption. The critical load on a system does not exceed 90 percent of N. Many Tier III sites are designed with planned upgrades to Tier IV when the client’s business case justifies the cost of additional protection. The acid test for a concurrently maintainable data center is the ability to accommodate any planned work activity without disruption to computer room processing.
Tier IV Data Center: Fault Tolerant A data center with a Tier IV rating has multiple active paths and provides increased fault tolerance.
Tier IV provides site infrastructure capacity and capability to permit any planned activity without disruption to the critical load. Fault-tolerant functionality also provides the ability of the site infrastructure to sustain at least one worst-case unplanned failure or event with no critical load impact. This requires simultaneously active distribution paths, typically in a system-to-system configuration. Electrically, this means two separate UPS systems in which each system has N+1 redundancy. The combined critical load on a system does not exceed 90 percent of N. As a result of fire and electrical safety codes, there will still be downtime exposure due to fire alarms or people initiating an emergency power off (EPO). Tier IV requires all computer hardware to have dual power inputs. The acid test for a fault tolerant data center is the ability to sustain an unplanned failure or operations error without disrupting computer room processing. In consideration of this acid test, compartmentalization requirements must be addressed.
6.3 Data Center Operations
Once considered the showcase of IT, datacenters are now perceived as operational boat anchors – considered a purgatory by IT professionals and a CAPEX money pit by the CFO and finance. The recent economic downturn and ensuing recession are to blame for this. In an effort to cut costs anywhere, executive management eventually turned their sights to IT and the glass house and told the CIO to find a more cost effective approach to support the business. In this regard, outsourcing has been a logical alternative.
Today, we deliver these services in the context of a consulting engagement which take clients through an assessment exercise designed to align IT operations with business requirements that results is a more holistic view of IT resources. These are then further optimized using state of the art transformation approaches such as cloud computing, virtualization, legacy modernization and master data management which delivers resources on demand at significantly lower costs – which for some customers can reach as high as 70% depending on the size of their data center and assets involved. Server Management • Server monitoring and reporting – covers all operational parameters done onsite or remotely with tools that provide utilization, performance and availability reports. • Administration and troubleshooting of servers/ services – includes all aspects of relevant ITIL processes • Install/ upgrade/ patching of servers – covering a broad range of operating systems includes full system backup after an initial installation
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• Server security & hardening - highly customized capabilities, updated as threats evolve to ensure that critical resources have up-to-date patches and are able to defend against known vulnerabilities • Backup, recovery and job scheduling – this includes full, incremental or cumulative approaches covering clients, servers and storage units.
Network Management
• Network Monitoring and Reporting – goes beyond 24x7 monitoring to include proactive problem identification and resolution of a enterprise IT environment, historical trend information and up-to-date performance snapshots. • Administration and troubleshooting of devices & services - Automated procedures and analytics identify and fix potential problems before performance is affected. • Install/ upgrade/ patching of devices - including all associated administrative services such as adds, moves and changes • Network security and hardening - approaches include the use of the latest standard IPS/IDS devices to monitor all network end points • Configuration and backup management – including service restoration, image maintenance and rollbacks.
Storage Management All listed capabilities support a range of deployment models including RAID, SAN, Virtualization and cloud.
• Storage monitoring and reporting – covers all operational parameters done onsite or remotely with tools that provide utilization, performance and availability of all storage resources. • Administration and troubleshooting - includes automated operations and analytics based on thresholds and triggered events • Install/ upgrade/ patching - including all associated administrative services such as adds, moves and changes • Security & hardening - covers the removal of vulnerable and unnecessary services, patching security holes, and securing access controls. • Configuration and backup management – including cloud based and deduplication approaches.
Database Administration
Arguably, the most important aspect of IT operations – and the one that is the most complex – is database operations and a supporting master data management architecture. The lack of a well thought out architecture can lead to inaccurate record keeping effecting customer satisfaction – and if not addressed – lost business. With cloud technologies gaining acceptance as a preferred deployment model, the need for well thought out data architectures that takes into consideration distributed resources, industry specific compliance and security requirements becomes even more crucial and problematic.
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• Production Services - includes managing and monitoring mission critical databases, and standardizing business rules and procedures across the organization and implementing industry best practices . • Application Services • Database design – consulting services for creating architectures that integrate disparate application structures providing consistency for accurate data capture and reporting. • Database refreshes – full support for all proscribed procedures from leading database providers such as Oracle, Sybase, SQL Server and DB2 UDB • Security and audits – Covers the design, implementation and monitoring secure infrastructures to initiating pre-defined responses to cyber crime incidents. • Deployment and administration – global rollout services via a wide range of methods including public and hybrid cloud; • Query tuning and performance- models the expected usage of a system by simulating multiple users accessing the system concurrently. Offeriong covers databases related, application servers related, user interfaces related. • Consulting - Full suite of assessment and design services covering all aspects of database rollouts, implementations, integration and sustaining activities from both an IT and business process perspective.
Desktop Operations - Desktop Lifecycle Management
The increasing adoption of hosted virtual desktops (HVDs) by enterprises will have a profound effect on IT operations. According to industry analysts, the market for HVD will reach $65.7B by 2013 and will comprise more than 40% of the worldwide professional PC market at that time. This trend will have a fundamental impact on IT desktop operations – shaping everything from PC purchasing strategies to application delivery, maintenance and security.
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Total Cost of Ownership Disposition • User data backup, restoration and migration - similar to services provided for enterprise data storage and management • Retiring desktops – including tools, processes and methodologies for cost-effective asset management • Resale
Planning and Testing • Platform selection/upgrade • Planning and Testing of critical components • Information Gathering • Supplier Contact • Product review
SOE Procurement • Information Gathering – • Product configuration • Vendor sourcing – use of structured methodologies with scorecards that drive selection criteria • Customer interactions • New desktop procurement -
ROI Imaging and Staging • Monitor procurement • Customer-site or remote-site configuration – see remote infrastructure section for complete listing of offerings
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• Deploy and Configure OS – Microsoft Desktop Deployment Partner (DSP), with expertise in supporting Fortune 10 client environments
Deployment and Support • Application deployment – as with OS, including package creation and testing • Configuration settings – done pre-implementation for swifter distribution • Desktop Deployment Readiness Assessment and Orientation - readiness includes full review of supporting infrastructure as well as the creation of a database that catalogs all information required to track an IT asset • Providing break/fix - full suite of remedial services • Troubleshooting, maintenance – automated operations with available 24/7 help desk support for quick problem resolution • Security and Patch Management – automated software distribution with zero touch which covers the removal of vulnerable and unnecessary services, patching security holes, and securing access controls, application security patches or service packs, removing default folders and components
ITIL Installs, Moves, Adds, Changes (IMAC) • Change Management – includes, but not limited to, prioritizing requests, information gathering, scheduling, planning, testing and validating • Dispatching, communication – including impact reports • Planning • Delivery coordination • Supplier management
6.4 Data Center Maintenance
The data center is valuable as long as it is functioning properly. When it comes to improve performance and service of data center, the term ‘maintenance’ becomes quite important. Data Center maintenance is a critical factor that helps to keep the data center running smoothly and helps to prevent problems occurring that may lead to downtime and it also ensures that the data center runs at its optimal level of service. It is important to maintain the various areas of the data center from the cooling system to the power management and battery back up to keep the data center up and running at all times. Because a data center is run on a 24/7 basis, it is important to carry out routine maintenance and inspections in order to take preventive measures on time as this will enable you to see potential problems that may occur and enable you to take action immediately that will save you time and money in the future. For all data centers the acceptable level of downtime is zero and keeping the data center up and running all of the time is an important issue. By having a good maintenance policy the data center can continue to deliver to its clients the best level of service. It is critical for all data centers to be able to deliver their services to their clients and any outage or periods of downtime will have a negative effect on the reputation of the data center. Providing continuous service is crucial and having the right maintenance service is essential in order to ensure customer satisfaction all of the time.
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Ensuring the reliable operation of the entire system is possibly the most important issue for the data center so it is therefore important to have periodic maintenance to guarantee that the infrastructure provides the right level of reliability and that the data center can deliver the level of service that is expected from the clients. you can consider onsite and remote maintenance options Maintenance Management System Implementing a maintenance management system is the best way to ensure that all the different areas of the data center will receive the right amount of attention when it comes to periodic inspections and maintenance. This will guarantee that all the aspects of the data center will be covered when it comes to maintenance. It is important to have the preventive maintenance scheduled as this will help to eliminate any downtime from occurring in the future and make it possible for the data center to provide the best possible service to its customers. All the aspects of data center maintenance are important from the cleaning and maintenance of the air conditioning and cooling systems to the inspection of the cables, fire prevention equipment and power back up systems are all equally important to ensure a smooth 24/7 operation of the data center to be ready for any type of problems that may occur. Keeping the equipment maintained properly will make sure that it will run optimally and at the correct temperature to deliver a reliable service when needed. Data center maintenance is a key factor in ensuring the reliable every day running of the data center to deliver the highest level of service to the clients.
6.5 Developing an Annual Maintenance Schedule
Preventive maintenance is conducted to keep equipment working and should be used as a strategy to improve the performance of your data center environment assets. Most companies implement a preventive maintenance strategy to protect themselves against unplanned downtime as well as to extend the operating life of the equipment inside their data center or server room.
According to research done by Forrester Research, Inc., companies are more focused on service continuity, achieving continuous availability, and limiting the amount of downtime on their equipment in today’s critical environments. There is also a strong emphasis on the adoption of standards in an effort to maximize the benefit of a company’s assets. Preventive maintenance is the best approach a company can take to accomplish these initiatives while getting the most value out of their assets. It is essential for all companies that want to maximize the benefits of their assets to implement a high-quality preventive maintenance program on the critical environment equipment such as Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), batteries, HVAC and generators.
Preventive maintenance programs can help companies maximize the benefits of these assets in several ways. These value-added benefits include, but are not limited to, decreasing the potential downtime of the asset, preventing failures from occurring, extending the life expectancy of the equipment, and allowing the equipment to run more efficiently.
The number one preventable cause of downtime - insufficient maintenance
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maintenance program. One of the common failures on Data Center equipment is in the UPS with the batteries. These batteries are the heart of the UPS and need maintenance to trend performance and to identify any batteries with potential for failure. Considering the fact that one single battery failure can cause an entire UPS to fail, battery maintenance should be a fundamental part of business. Another common failure is overheating of the UPS - this failure is usually caused by dust blocking the air filters, which will cause the UPS to shut down. Replacing the filters is an inexpensive and effective part of a good UPS maintenance plan. Regular maintenance will help ensure the UPS and batteries keep running through outages, utility spikes, and unforeseeable power issues.
Within the HVAC system the most common failures tend to be high temperature or high head failures. Both malfunctions can be prevented by changing air filters frequently as well as by power washing the condenser to maximize air flow and to maintain the operation of the unit. In generators, most maintenance is preventive by nature because of the durability of diesel engines. By following recommended maintenance procedures, a company will substantially increase assurance that the generator will start and run when needed most. A good preventive maintenance program for a generator should include a resistive load bank test. A load bank test allows the engine to reach its full operating temperature which burns out the accumulation of un-burnt fuel and allows the generator to run cleaner and more efficiently.
Corrective repairs typically cost two to four times more than preventive maintenance
The “run it until it breaks” methodology does not work when dealing with most applications and especially not with critical environment equipment in a data center. No matter how a situation is assessed, downtime is disastrous and carries an enormous price tag. Corrective repairs typically cost two to four times more than preventive maintenance due to their inherent inefficiencies. Companies also have the potential of losing revenue as well as damaging their reputation if their equipment fails and their customers are impacted. It makes good business sense to have a preventive maintenance program in place in an effort to minimize unplanned downtime.
The most simplified way to reduce the potential of equipment failure and unplanned downtime is performing regular scheduled maintenance. Another primary goal of a preventive maintenance program is to maintain the equipment’s reliability. This is accomplished by replacing worn components before they actually fail and cause the unit to go down. Most qualified maintenance companies record and trend equipment deterioration, as well as known common failures of equipment, in an effort to increase the equipment’s uptime. A maintenance company should replace worn parts as part of their standard scope of work during a maintenance visit. Preventive maintenance activities should include checks, adjustments, lubrication, cleaning, changing filters, and so on. Performing these basic checks and replacing deteriorated parts will substantially decrease the likelihood of an unplanned outage.
Proper maintenance adds years to the life expectance of critical equipment
Extending the life expectancy of your equipment is a crucial aspect of preventive maintenance because the cost of the critical infrastructure equipment is a major capital investment. Part of managing one’s assets is based on the Return of Investment (ROI) and getting the maximum benefit from the assets based on cost. A standard preventive maintenance program will decrease the total cost of the investment by extending the life and reducing repair costs of the asset. According to a study performed by Jones Lang LaSalle, a preventive maintenance investment not only pays for itself but also produces a substantial ROI. The study shows that a good preventive maintenance program can yield up to a 500% return in some cases. The primary reason that this significant ROI is achieved is because proper maintenance adds years to the life expectancy of the equipment. The delay in replacing equipment allows companies to avoid the expensive capital outlay needed to replace the equipment for years. Basically, the longer the capital expense can be deferred the higher the ROI because the bulk of the return comes from increasing the useful life of the equipment.
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Performing maintenance can help you save energy
Performing maintenance can also help equipment run more efficiently, which in turn helps with the longevity of the equipment, but more importantly saves money by reducing the amount of energy the equipment uses. Scopes of work to help equipment run more efficiently should include regular checks of the quality of fluids, frequently changing air filters, and power washing condenser coils to name a few. Checking fluids is essential because contaminants can result in diminished performance. Changing filters frequently is important because it will maximize the airflow in the equipment. One of the most important maintenance checks on HVAC equipment is regularly cleaning the condenser coils. Condensers are known to draw in dirt, pollen, and other debris that restricts airflow and reduces efficiencies. Power washing the condenser on a regular basis will ensure that the HVAC equipment will run efficiently and also will help reduce emergency service calls. According to the Consortium of Energy Efficiency, facilities in which proper HVAC preventive maintenance is completed will use approximately 15% to 20% less energy than those where systems are allowed to deteriorate. With the high cost of energy it is crucial to maintain the equipment in a data center in order to take advantage of efficiencies and save money.
If preventive maintenance has not been a high priority, then the critical environmental equipment in a data center has probably experienced a number of equipment failures during the past year. Some of the failures may be random, but the majority are a direct result of not implementing a preventive maintenance program. Preventive maintenance programs are conducted to keep the equipment running efficiently and effectively and to prevent failures before they occur. Long term benefits include: improved reliability, decreased cost of replacements, decreased downtime, and more efficient equipment. Good preventive maintenance programs should include partial or complete overhauls at specific set periods and recording equipment trends to know when to replace or repair worn parts before they cause an unplanned outage.
Companies should work with their maintenance provider to develop a scope of work and then standardize that scope throughout the company. With the exorbitant cost of downtime, a strong preventive maintenance program is not an option, it is a must.
6.6 Planning Power for a Data Center
Planning power for your data center normally requires planning these four components of a power plan:
• Electrical power from the local utility company • Power filtering and monitoring • Backup UPSs (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) • Backup generators
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The main planning task involving electrical power from the local utility company concerns power grids. It is best if your data center can be connected to multiple power grids. If power to one grid is lost, all or at least some portion of your data center will continue to operate normally. Bear in mind that multiple power grids will require multiple sets of power transformers, circuit breaker panels, and battery backup units.
Power requirements can be determined by researching manufacturer specifications for each piece of equipment you wish to place in your data center and tallying the results. However, the average lifespan for a server is four years and hopefully your data center will survive many iterations of new server technology. Therefore, you have to plan with generous rough estimates and add a safety factor (20-50%) for growth. Keep in mind that if the devices have redundant power supplies, you must figure in the combined wattage drain.
A current industry standard for estimating power requirements is to estimate 60 watts of power per spare foot. As network and server devices are becoming smaller and smaller, the standard estimation is quickly rising to 100 watts per square foot. Another equation that yields similar, but not identical, results is to estimate 4 kilowatts of power per 19” rack. Just a few years ago, that rule of thumb was 2 kilowatts per 19” rack.
When calculating the total power requirement to feed your data center, you must figure in the power required by the HVAC system. A standard way to measure this is to add up the total equipment power requirement and add 70 percent.
Power typically needs to be available in both 115v and 230v to every location within the data center. The proper jacks must be installed to match the type the equipment you will be connecting. You must also determine if your equipment will need single or three phase power.
Some equipment will require special adapters for connection to single or three-phase power; ensure that you have reviewed the technical specifications for any device that does not plug into a standard outlet.
Power to devices with redundant power supplies should come from separate circuits, providing an additional layer of redundancy and stability.
UPS and Backup Generators UPS sizing should take into account the amount of total power required to operate the data center and the length of time required to get the backup generator into service. Generator sizing should take into account the total power required to operate the data center and the total length of time you want the data center to be able to operate on its own power. It does little good for your generator to provide 2,000amps if it runs out of fuel in 30 minutes. Make sure you include the HVAC and emergency lighting power requirements in your calculations. Engineering Staff College of India Page 315 of 348
UPS capacity is typically measured in Volt-Amp’s (VA). VA is a unit for measuring power. Like the Watt (W), it describes a quantity of electrical power. To convert from W to VA, multiply by 1.4.To convert from VA to W, multiply by 0.714. Make sure you size the UPS with your equipment’s peak power load in mind. A device might draw 1000 watts during normal operation but when the device is turned on it might draw 1500 for startup. You must size a UPS that will handle this peak load.
Both UPSs and backup generators should be tested at regular intervals, at least once every six months. Depending upon your business requirements, redundant UPS and backup generators may be appropriate.
Power Conditioners The electronic equipment that the data center will house can be extremely sensitive to “dirty” power. “Dirty” power is that which has high frequency noise in the line, varying voltages, surges, and other electrical impurities. These electrical impurities can disrupt and even ruin sensitive electronic equipment. The electrical system should be tested for quality of power. If not found to be within acceptable tolerances, power conditioners can be installed to “clean” the power and protect the data center equipment.
Surge Arrestors Voltage spikes can disrupt or even destroy data center equipment. Surge arresting equipment should be included as part of the electrical system. Most Power conditioners and UPSs perform surge arresting as part of their feature set. If you are not using a power conditioner or UPS, a separate surge arresting unit must be installed.
Emergency Power Off According to NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 75 “Standard for the Protection of Electronic Computer/Data Processing Equipment”, an emergency power off switch must be placed at every point of entry to the data center. This switch must cut power to every computer system, UPS and HVAC. It must be clearly labeled and unobstructed.
HVAC (HEATING, VENTILATING, AIR CONDITIONING) Modern computing and network equipment is much smaller than equipment utilized in even the recent past. A small number of large servers have been replaced with a large number of small servers, and those small rack-mount servers are giving way to blade servers. More servers in the same space mean more heat that must be dissipated.
An industry standard rule of thumb for estimating cooling requirements is to estimate one BTU (British Thermal Unit) of cooling for every three kVa of power. You will often see cooling described in terms of tonnage. One ton of air is equal to 12,000 BTUs.
Maintaining the data center between 70 and 74 F provides the best balance between safe equipment operating temperature, operator comfort, and acceptable relative humidity levels. The relative humidity of a data center is optimally kept between 45 and 50 percent range. Relative humidity levels that are too high can cause component corrosion. Levels that are too low can make the occurrences of ESD (electrostatic discharge) dangerously high.
As mentioned earlier in this document, a raised floor system makes it very easy to design and tailor an HVAC airflow system to cool the equipment racks. The HVAC system pumps cooled air into the plenum between the sub floor and the raised floor. Grated or perforated tiles are strategically placed in front of or underneath (depending on the design of the rack) the racks to be cooled. The holes in these special tiles allow the cool air to escape the sub floor and be delivered to the racks. The return air is then drawn back into the HVAC to be cooled and delivered to the racks again.
HVAC equipment should be redundant. It does you little good to have power and network connectivity if you have to shut down your servers because they can’t be kept cool. Engineering Staff College of India Page 316 of 348
Critical to the operation of the data center, the air temperature, humidity level, and the health of the cooling systems must be monitored. Most modern HVAC systems offer an SNMP agent that can be tied in to your monitoring system in the NOC.
6.7 UPS and Battery System for a Data Center
The UPS — and, in many cases, the backup diesel-powered generators — are crucial to maintaining a constant flow of power in the event of a power failure from the public utility. Several basic principles should guide the size and capability of the UPS system. First, the UPS should be sized to energize all computer equipment, HVAC systems and other electrical devices (such as emergency lighting and security devices) for 100 percent of the power demand for no less than 15 to 20 minutes after a power interruption. Second, the UPS should be sized for "peak" load or fault overload conditions. This relates to the surge in power demand when the equipment is first energized. As a rule of thumb, size the UPS for 150 percent of operating demand. Third, the UPS should be continuously operational to filter and condition the power.
If a UPS is not used, then surge protection should be provided at the panels with a stand-alone isolation/regulation transformer. To sustain power beyond the 20-minute threshold, install a diesel generator to provide backup power for longer-term outages. For Tier 3 and Tier 4 levels of fault tolerance, an additional backup generator will be required. Consider local ordinances and codes relating to fuel tank location and noise abatement. Periodically test the generators to ensure their operational integrity.
To prevent single points of failure, all elements of the electrical systems, including backup systems, are typically fully duplicated, and critical servers are connected to both the "A-side" and "B-side" power feeds. This arrangement is often made to achieve N+1 redundancy in the systems. Static switches are
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sometimes used to ensure instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.
The Data Center Institute predicts that over the next five years, power failures and limits on power availability will halt data center operations at more than 90% of all companies. This prediction underscores the need for data center managers to properly size UPSes. This is especially true with per- rack power demands continually increasing in density and technologies such as blade servers.
In the event of an outage, a UPS ensures that critical operations can continue by providing interim power until it can switch to a generator or other power source. UPSes can also alert staff of potential problems and provide automated shutdown of equipment to minimize disruptions.
Determining the proper UPS size for the load it supports can be challenging. Specifications are not always clearly stated, voltage information on equipment nameplates is not accurate for sizing purposes, and power factors can be confusing
Use Watt Rating, Not VA Rating
When comparing load requirements and UPS power profiles, calculate the measurements in watts and not VAs (volt-ampere). Watt ratings represent the actual power the IT equipment consumes or the UPS delivers. VA ratings consider the AC current reactance and impedance that may flow into and out of a load. This is important for sizing wiring, fuses, and circuit breakers.
Depending on the IT equipment and the type of power supply it uses, the watt and VA rating may not be equal. The difference is the power factor. For equipment with power supplies that use PFC (power factor correction), the power factor is 1.0 or 100%, meaning the wattage and VA rating is the same. Devices that use power supplies without PFC have a power factor that expresses the difference in the form of a percent or decimal figure. For example, a UPS with a rating of 1,000VA and a power factor of 0.6 provides 600 watts of power. The VA rating is always the same or higher than the watt rating (watts=VAs *power factor)
Calculate Load Profile
The load profile should include the servers, network infrastructure, and other critical devices. “An accurate load profile and realistic future load projection are essential to proper UPS sizing,” says Stark.
Accurate IT equipment load estimates can prevent over provisioning UPS systems. Don’t use the power rating on the nameplate to estimate actual loads. As noted by HP’s Power Calculator Technology Brief, the nameplate ratings are often much higher than the power actually used by the equipment. "If you're working with an existing data center and they're either upgrading or relocating, you can get some actual running load data," says Stark. "That's preferable if we can get it." According to guidelines in the publication "High Performance Data Centers," developed by Rumsey Engineers and based on work by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, using actual measurements of the load of an equivalent operating data center can also help develop the load profile.
Consider Safety Margins, Expansion, Redundancy
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In addition to determining the actual load the UPS needs to support, you need to add a safety margin for maximum loads. “Because we don’t see a large fluctuation in the steady state, we normally recommend a safety margin of 5 to 10%,” says Stark.
For expansion, consider how much more equipment or density you expect the UPS to support in the future. If you are planning to add servers to existing racks in the next year or two, for example, consider their power requirements and increase the load profile accordingly. If you’re unsure as to expansion needs, consider HP’s UPS best practice recommendation of a 60 to 80% of maximum UPS capacity. In addition, the guidelines in “High Performance Data Centers” recommend a modular UPS approach to allow for future growth and to optimize matching of capacity with load.
Finally, if you need redundancy, the UPS may run at only partial capacity during normal operations, depending on the configuration. For example, an N+1 parallel redundant configuration may use four parallel 40kW UPS modules, each operating at 75% load to support 30kW each (120kW total). If one UPS fails, then the remaining three operate at 100% load, supporting 40kW each. For efficiency, the “High Performance Data Centers” guidelines recommend using more small UPS systems running at higher partial loads instead of a few large UPS systems each operating at low partial load capacity.
Allow For the Power Run Time
Another factor to consider when sizing a UPS is the amount of time you need it to power the equipment it protects. “Unless the UPS is being specified for a relatively small application—one to two lightly loaded racks, for instance—the UPS battery should only be viewed as a means to either carry the load until a generator is available, or provide time for an orderly shutdown of the servers,” says Stark. “Depending on the type of load density, the servers will overheat within a few minutes without air conditioning, so longer battery time is of little value. This is especially true with blade servers.”
A minimum of 10 minutes of run time for high-load servers and notes that an average power loss is 30 minutes. If the UPS software includes a safe shutdown feature, the run time must be long enough to accommodate the load until the servers and other equipment are shut down. If the equipment is connected to a generator, then the run time must be sufficient for the generator to activate.
There is a direct correlation between the load and the run time. For example, a 10kW UPS might support an 8kW load for 10 minutes and a 6kW load for 15 minutes. The UPS vendor should be able to provide the run times for various loads. As with other load calculations, the run time specifications should be based on watts, not VAs.
Put It Together
After you figure the load profile, add the safety margin and expansion requirements, consider redundancy, and factor in the required run time, you should have the total watt requirement for your UPS. Be sure to understand and properly apply the power factor, watt ratings, and VA ratings of any UPS system you are considering.
In addition, look for important support and maintenance features to minimize disruptions. “We always recommend an external wraparound maintenance bypass to allow service and maintenance of the UPS without interruption to the load,” says Stark. “The ability to remotely monitor the UPS and receive alarms is also preferred. Most UPS vendors offer software that will allow monitoring of the UPS over a network, with the ability to send emails or text messages on alarm conditions.”
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Because of the significant risk of electrical fires in a data center, installing a comprehensive fire detection and suppression system is mission-critical for protecting life and property, as well as ensuring quick operational recovery.
Detection devices should be installed beneath the raised floor, as well as throughout the data center facility, in accordance with regulation NFPA 72E. Detectors should include both heat- and smoke-sensing devices and be interconnected with the fire suppression system, local alarms, and local or central monitoring stations. The detectors should be positioned in relation to airflow patterns to ensure early detection of an imminent electrical fire. Fire suppression includes four categories:
• The installation of fire-rated walls in accordance with the NFPA 75 standard • The installation of a sprinkler system — either a pre-action or flooded system • The use of a chemical or "clean agent" suppression system as the first line of defense • Manual systems, including manual pull stations and portable fire extinguishers that are positioned throughout the data center
FIRE PROTECTION The data center should to be equipped with a passive fire suppression system. That is, one that activates automatically with no human intervention. These systems come in two main varieties, chemical suppression systems and sprinkler systems.
There is also a need to have manual gas or sprinkler activation switches, portable fire extinguishers, and floor tile lifters placed throughout the data center. They need to be clearly marked and unobstructed.
FM200 FM200 is the best option for fire suppression. FM200 employs heptafluoropropane, an invisible gas that draws the heat energy out of the fire and stops combustion. It is not damaging to the equipment or personnel. With the use of this non-harmful agent, the data center can return to operation more quickly after a fire incident. When using a gas suppression system, the law requires that manual abort switches
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be placed in easily accessible locations throughout the center. Check with local fire codes to determine the specifics.
Sprinkler System Sprinkler systems deliver water to the data center. This is the most damaging option for the data center equipment. Sprinkler systems come in two varieties, wet pipe and dry pipe. Wet pipe systems constantly have pressured water in the pipes on the ceiling of the data center. Dry pipe systems do not have water delivered to the ceiling pipes until it is activated. This second option lessens the chance for water leaks.
It is important to integrate a sprinkler system with the data center power cut off so power is severed before the water is delivered. All that water mixed with all that electricity makes for an extremely hazardous situation. It is also important to include a drainage system so the room does not fill up with water.
Some state and local fire codes mandate that sprinkler systems be present regardless of the use of a gas suppression system, like FM200. Check with local fire department or the county clerk’s office to obtain the proper regulations for the area(s) you plan to build in.
6.9 Data Center Cooling Management System
Data centers perform computing functions vital to the country economy, yet they require large amounts of energy to operate. To support the growing demand for processing power throughout the nation, data centers are using ever more compact and energy-intensive servers—even as the total number and size of data centers continues to increase. This is creating a serious burden on the electric grid.
Manage Power and Cooling Issues
Correctly managing power and cooling issues can enable an IT organization to improve reliability in mission-critical environments, increase data center efficiency, and reduce energy costs. There are many cutting edge technologies that can be implemented, such as direct liquid cooling and In-Row cooling, but these are best employed when building a data center from scratch and unfortunately for many companies, major investments in IT or infrastructure are unrealistic in today’s economic environment.
A number of benefits can result by better management of data center power and cooling issues; these include a better data center infrastructure, reduced overheating risks which in turn mean fewer failures, and reduced energy expenses—reduced operating costs. Electronic Environments’ goal is to provide customers with a means to understand their power and cooling needs as well as the best way to maintain their data centers’ now and into the future.
Below you will find information on each of energy saving solutions from Electronic Environments:
Brush Sealed Raised Floor Grommets – The AirGuard™ brush sealed floor grommets help to prevent air loss in plenum cooled floors when access holes are required for cable routing through the raised floor. An immediate “energy-savings” benefit is realized by using the AirGuard products.
HotSpotr™ Air Movers– HotSpotr is a family of thermostatically controlled airflow improvement products that move chilled data center air to precisely where it is needed the most, and remove heated exhaust air directly back to your computer room air conditioners (CRACs).
Ultrasonic Humidification – With ever-increasing requirements for reliability and availability, environmental control is critical to protecting today’s sensitive computer systems. A clean, filtered Engineering Staff College of India Page 321 of 348
environment with precise control over temperature and humidity is mandatory. The ultrasonic approach to control humidity uses a Piezoelectric transducer that converts a high frequency electronic signal into high frequency mechanical oscillation, which ultimately converts water into vapor at low temperature and pressure.
Demand Based Cooling (DBC) –This is a comprehensive solution that incorporates the latest in control technology to dynamically manage airflow and cooling. Benefits of this system include more efficient cooling (up to 30% savings on cooling electricity or the ability to add 30% more servers), user selectable SNMP alarms, trending, and reporting of data center environmental conditions.
During an adverse event such as a computer room air conditioner (CRAC) failure, the DBC system automatically manages the cooling resources in the data center by shifting available cooling from zones that have excess cooling to zones that require more cooling.
The entire process to design and implement an RSIC solution for a typical data center can be completed in less time, and at less expense, than an infrastructure upgrade such as a new CRAC or liquid cooling solution. On-site survey and analysis, CFD modeling, reviewing the options and designing the ideal solution requires a total of approximately three weeks. The modifications themselves are usually completed in a just a few days.
And the results come just as swiftly. The system provides real-time airflow and temperature control, an active user interface, and 24/7 thermal monitoring and alarming, with automated adjustment of fan speeds in zones during an operational failure. The result is the virtual elimination of hot spots, rack temperatures that do not exceed 77°F, and a significant reduction in energy consumption, typically between 20% and 30%. In many cases, data center operators choose to use the improved cooling efficiency to install more servers in the same space, without having to install more infrastructure. Thus the useful life of a data center is immediately extended, with operating and capital expenses much lower than other heat-reduction solutions. Room Scale Intelligent Cooling technology is helping data centers that can no longer take the heat move into the future, with a low-cost approach that’s totally cool.
6.10 Physical Security for a Data Center
The Perfect Location First make sure the location of the center is some distance from the headquarters; about 20 miles should be enough, and it should also be about 100 feet from the main road. Avoid the risk of bad neighbors,
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chemical facilities, airports or power plants. In addition, do not choose an area prone to earthquakes, floods or hurricanes. Make sure to scrap the data center sign.
Does the Site have Redundant Utilities? Data centers require two utility sources such as water, electricity, data and voice. You should trace the electricity source back to two separate substations and the water source back to two separate main lines. The two lines ought to be underground and should enter the building from two different points with the main lines of water. If you have difficulty getting these connections, use the anticipated power usage of the data center as a leverage to get the electricity or water company to accommodate the special needs of the building.
Pay Attention to the Walls The walls should be made of one foot thick concrete since this is thick enough to effectively protect against the elements and even explosives. Walls that have a Kevlar lining further boost the effectiveness of the wall. Concrete is not very expensive.
Avoid Windows The data center should have a warehouse-like design and not like that of an office building. If windows must be there, then limit them to administrative areas or break rooms and use glass that is laminated with bomb-resistant material.
Use Landscaping for Added Protection Landscaping such as trees, gulleys and boulders can be useful in obscuring security devices like electric fences, and can conceal the building from cars passing nearby or even prevent them from getting close. In addition, the landscapes help beautify the compound of the facility.
A 100 Foot Buffer Zone You can alternatively use crashproof barriers where it is not possible to have landscaping to protect the facility from vehicles. Bollard planters are not only more attractive but also less conspicuous than other types.
Crash Barriers at Vehicle Entry Points You can control access to the loading dock and the parking area by having a guard station with staff that handle the retractable bollards. Your green light and raised gate act as visual indications that the bollards have been lowered and the driver can proceed. In situations where you might need extra security, you can leave the barriers up by default and only lower them when someone has been granted permission to enter.
Plan for Bomb Detection
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For a data center that is highly sensitive or is a likely target, you can have the security guards use mirrors to check for explosives underneath the vehicles, or you can provide them with portable devices for bomb detecting. To respond to a raised threat you can increase the number of vehicles to be checked; for instance employees’ vehicles and delivery trucks.
Limit Entry Points You can control the building’s access by establishing only one main entrance and a back entrance for the loading dock. This not only secures your facility but also brings down costs.
Make Fire Doors Exit Only In line with the fire codes your facility should have emergency exits for fire. Nevertheless, these doors should not have a handle on the outside and should be connected to a loud alarm system so that when they are opened they trigger a response from the security team.
Use of Plenty of Cameras You should have surveillance cameras installed all over the data center facility at all exits and entrances and any other access points in the facility. It is ideal to use a combination of pan-tilt-zoom cameras, low- light cameras, standard fixed cameras and motion-sensor devices. The footage should be recorded digitally and stored in an offsite location.
Protect the Building’s Machinery The mechanical area of the data center which houses uninterruptable power supplies and environmental systems should be kept strictly off limits. If your generators are outside then secure the area using concrete walls. For the two areas, make certain that all repair crews and contractors are escorted by an employee at all times.
Plan for Secure Air Handling It is important for data center systems to have air-conditioning, ventilating and heating systems that recirculate air instead of drawing it from outside. This would protect people as well as equipment from chemical or biological attack or even from smoke in case there was a fire nearby. For extra caution, have an alarm system in place to detect any biological or chemical contamination. Ensure that nobody can hide and nothing can be concealed in the ceiling and walls In secure areas of the data center such as the data room itself, make certain the internal walls run all the way from the sub-flooring where wiring is normally housed, to the ceiling.
Use Two-Factor Authentication There should be a biometric identification to sensitive areas of a data center, while you can use access cards in other less sensitive areas.
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Prohibit Food in the Computer Rooms You should provide a common area where your employees or other people can eat in order not to get food on the equipment. Also install visitors’ restrooms for people who do not have access to secure places in the building.
Logical Security
There are things to keep in mind when designing Logical security into a data center.
Computer Security
• Several levels of authorization should exist for administering devices. Engineers should be granted the minimum access necessary to complete their tasks.
• Server console access should be exclusive to a separate administrative network that can only be accessed from the NOC, where possible. If requirements specify access from a central administration area outside of the NOC, network connectivity should be run to that specific location, parallel to the company’s internal backbone. At the very least, strong encryption should be used for this kind of access.
Network Security
Network security is best implemented in a tiered fashion.
• Tier 1 is typically edge-access protection via firewalls for safeguarding access into the network.
• Tier 2 may be a firewall that separates publicly accessible devices such as web servers, DNS servers, mail relays, etc. from the rest of the internal network. Many times the Tier 1 and Tier 2 policies reside on the same physical device. In addition, communications that pass confidential or sensitive data to the outside should be strongly encrypted using a method like VPN tunneling that can be setup in parallel to the firewall.
• Tier 3 may also be implemented in environments where highly critical information, databases, or other such assets require additional separation from the rest of the network.
Intrusion Detection No matter how strong the security is compromises and incidents could occur. It is therefore very important to have a means of detecting such a breach in order to be able to respond to it and handle it in an appropriate manner. This should be implemented and available on both the computer and network level.
6.11 Disaster Recovery for a Data Center
There are many potential disruptive threats which can occur at any time and affect the normal business process. We have considered a wide range of potential threats and the results of our deliberations are included in this section. Each potential environmental disaster or emergency situation has been examined. The focus here is on the level of business disruption which could arise from each type of disaster. Potential disasters are assessed as follows: Engineering Staff College of India Page 325 of 348
Flood Fire Snow Storms Tornado Electrical storms Act of terrorism Act of sabotage Electrical power failure Loss of communications network services As per industry standards there are three approaches to deal with disasters.
Hot DR Site: Hot DR sites are suitable for applications and Services which are very critical in nature and can have down time from few minutes to few hours in case of any disaster. This approach is required for business critical services for example Bank datacenter, online transaction sites, Stock/share datacenters. Hot DR sites need to have online backup of All Services at Disaster recovery site. In case of Disaster, DR site initiates connections and business is back in action in minimum time. This approach need huge investments as datacenters are mirrored to DR Datacenter.
Warm DR Site: Warm DR sites are mix of Hot and Cold DR solution where only some of applications are considered for Disaster Recovery due to cost constraint or application dependency. RTO varies up to few days. Services are restored on priority or severity bases. To control the cost, only mission critical applications are considered for Hot DR and other are either moved to DR site or rebuilt in case of Disaster.
Cold DR site: Cold DR site has offsite backup of main Data center servers and services and in case of disaster backup is restored on newly procured and installed servers. Service restoration delay is up to week or more time. In This case, Disaster recovery relies on Backup solution. Backup is restored on newly built or moved servers. While planning for Cold DR site, only need to identify space for DR movement and have basic infrastructure built so that in case of disaster, services can be built. Example of Cold DR will be entertainment website etc
Approach is considered based on Maximum Tolerable Outage (MTO). MTO is time for which organization can tolerate to have outage. Any incident which occurs for less than this period cannot be considered as Disaster. If incident exceeds MTO, Management invokes DR plan so that organization can have business continuity with minimal impact on business.
For planning DR option always evaluate all business and budget aspacts and take right approach to implement DR plan. Once DR plan is in place, Implement the same using BCP (Business Continuity Process ) to initiate DR. Define processes and checklists to deal any such circumstances. When finding the right spot for a disaster recovery site, you have to take into account what type of disaster you're likely to be recovering from and how much protection you need. If you're located in an area at risk of natural disasters -- hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, flash fires etc. -- you need your DR site in an area that is not likely to be affected by the same type of disaster. And you don't want to go too far away because of latency issues.
The same goes for the area you want to set up shop in after getting your IT resources back to working level. You want that spot to be outside the disaster zone but close enough to get your key personnel there without too much cost or inconvenience.
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Organizations need to set up hot, cold or warm sites to continue operations depending on their recovery time objective (RTO) -- the maximum length of time it can go without its computer resources after a disaster. A hot site is replica of a company's data center. A cold site is nothing more than office space and minimum storage and networking equipment to let the company do enough to keep the doors open until it can re-open its main office. Awarm site has more IT resources than a cold site but less than a hot site. Hot sites cost a lot more than cold sites to set up, with the cost of warm sites falling in between.
Organizations also need to keep communications open with workers while recovering from disasters. Some use notifications systems such as MessageOne's AlertFind that sends mass emails and other Web-based messages to workers. These messages can keep staff abreast of developments such as when they can return to the main data center.
FAILOVER AND FAILBACK IN DISASTER RECOVERY PLANNING
Even the best laid out disaster recovery plans won't work if the technology comes up short. Recovering from disaster requires a business to replicate data offsite and then fail over and fail back after the disaster strikes.
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Failover is the process of automatically switching to the DR site when the primary site fails. This happens when disaster strikes. Failback is when the system is restored to its original state before the failure.
Replicating data between the primary and DR sites before failures ensures that data and applications are current at the secondary site. Asynchronous replication is used for long-distance replication, and better suited for DR than synchronous replication. Most storage vendors have synchronous and asynchronous replication tools specific to their arrays.
No DR plan is complete without testing, although this is often overlooked. Besides verifying the replication and failover/failback capabilities, DR tests can also train staff how to react when disaster strikes. Yet according to "Symantec's 2009 Disaster Recovery Survey", only 35% of more than 1,650 global IT managers contacted said they tested their disaster recovery plans at least once a year.
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VIRTUAL SERVERS AND DISASTER RECOVERY PLANNING
The rise in virtual servers is changing the game for disaster recovery, and in many cases, DR drives companies to virtualize servers.
Virtual server images are more portable because they are not tied to specific hardware, and you don't need the same hardware at your disaster recovery site as you have at your primary site. Companies don't have to buy hardware in pairs when setting up DR sites. They can move out old servers to their DR site when they buy new servers for their primary site.
By storing virtual images on a storage area network (SAN), you can take advantage of replication and snapshot tools either built into arrays or included with storage virtualization products
Organizations can virtualize servers at their primary and disaster recovery site, or only at the DR site. It is easier to manage DR if both sites are virtualized but some applications on the primary site may not lend themselves to running on virtual servers. Replication and testing can be more difficult if only the DR site is virtualized.
VMware's Site Recovery Manager (SRM) makes DR even easier with virtual servers by automatically moving and restoring virtual environments between VMware ESX clusters. VMware Site Recovery Manager also automates DR testing without disrupting production servers.
WAN OPTIMIZATION
Getting the most of wide area network (WAN) bandwidth is another key piece to successful DR operations. Many organizations choose to implement WAN optimization tools instead of paying for DS-3 or higher speed circuits to carry traffic.
WAN optimization eliminates redundant data transmission by deduplicating data when replicating it between sites. It also uses quality of service to prioritize traffic.
OUTSOURCING DISASTER RECOVERY SERVICES
Outsourcing disaster recovery is an option for organizations without resources to dedicate to DR. But outsourcing doesn't alleviate the need for planning. You still need to understand your RTO and recovery point objective (RPO), and how long you might have to operate from your DR site.
Geography also plays a role when outsourcing disaster recovery. You don't want your provider too close to you if you're worried about a natural disaster. But the location of a providers' other clients also matters. Cloud disaster recovery services often share resources to help keep costs down, but what happens if too many of their customers are located in the same area and a disaster hits? That can make availability a problem.
The deciding factors when looking at outsourcing vs. in-house DR is the costs involved and how much time it would take to implement DR under each scenario. Large vendors such as SunGard, IBM, and Iron Mountain Inc. provide DR services, but there are also many smaller collocation providers.
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Chapter 7 Overview of IT in Power Distribution
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7.1 Present Power Scenario
The power sector in the country is one of the fast growing sectors having an installed capacity of 202.979 GW as on May 2012. The coal based generation is 114.782 GW followed by Hydro power of 39.06 GW. Renewable sources of power of 24.5 GW is already available and there is a continuous effort to increase the renewable generation. Emphasis is also given to increase the solar power in Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission 20,000 MW by 2022. The total length of Transmission system above 132KV 2,65,000 circuit KM. As per National Electricity policy, 100% electrification of villages is expected to be completed by 2012 and the per capita consumption is expected to grow to 1000 units.
7.2 Need of IT Implementation – Hurdles, Cost Impact, Advantages New Trends
In the power system, Distribution forms the ultimate link between the consumer and the utility. In view of the large growth in customers, meeting the customer’s expectations requires additional tools in consumer service. It is in this context, IT is introduced to help the distribution engineer as a part of the reform process in areas such as metering, billing and collections, operations and consumer service. IT is also considered an important tool in the energy audit and estimation of baseline losses, substation automation and complaint handling operations to make the DISCOMS into commercially viable entities under the overall guidance of MOP. The reforms have brought about various improvements in operational structure, commercial orientation and transparency in operation and overall customer orientation in several states. However there has been limited success in institutionalizing these changes and sustaining these improvements over a period of time. Therefore, the need of the hour was to find out a tool for successful implementation of reforms.
MOP has set up an IT task force for the power sector distribution. The task force has suggested 3 to 5 year IT implementation road map with short and long term IT initiatives. Use of IT in commercial procedures and in improving the quality of supply to minimize the human interface, to avoid human errors and chances of willful mistakes are now being practiced by many utilities
Major impact of IT in distribution 1) Integrated metering, billing, and collection systems 2) Energy accounting systems 3) Distribution automation for metro cities and high revenue earning industrial areas.
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The long term areas cover core business processes. Computerized billing can be expanded to cover all customer groups, growing further into a comprehensive Customer Information System. Gradually the sophisticated call centre functionality can be added to all areas Service connection and maintenance processes can be systemized and integrated with CIS. Asset and work management, outage management and dist. Automation can be implemented in parallel.
The new trends in IT implementation include automated meter reading, Trouble call management systems for quick restoration of supply, centralized trouble call centers allowing the customers to pay their bills through discom websites or internet banking. Customer service such as new connections, billing complaints etc. can be monitored by the customer through web based applications.
7.3 IT in system integration planning
Planning of the distribution system requires accurate data of the system data of lines and substations for the area where system improvements are planned. We also need the data relating to maximum demand and energy consumption year wise perhaps for the last 10 years to estimate the trends. Using the trends, load forecast has to be done to arrive at the projected demand for the horizon year. Various methods for load forecast are available such as
Trends: In this method, the trends for the growth in energy and consumption are computed based on the past data. Though this is a simple method, it has limitations as the historical relationship between energy consumption and time may not hold for the future
The future demand and consumption are computed considering: – Compound growth rates (Or) – Curve fitting using a suitable mathematical model through extrapolation.
Econometric Approach: It focuses on identification of correlation between demand for electricity and the variables which contribute to the causes of past growth and variation in growth. For adopting this method of forecast, projections of independent variables such as growth in GDP, population and house holds, etc. are needed
End-use Approach: This method focuses on uses of electricity. Used primarily in the forecast of residential, commercial and industrial sectors. It takes into account Specific consumption of major appliances, Degree of saturation of each appliance per customer, Number of customers, Growth of each of the above
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Using the load forecast developed using the appropriate models and appropriate system planning package is to be selected for running the load flows and horizon year system capacity is to be worked out with necessary substation and line capacities.
7.4 IT in Fault Finding, Fault Level Calculations and Restoring Supply
A distribution system, particularly an overhead type, is susceptible to various types of faults. In the event of a permanent fault, the protective devices are expected to operate and isolate the faulty section from healthy section. However, if the fault is of a high impedance type, the protective devices may not operate to isolate the faulty section. In such situations, locating of faults becomes more difficult. In both cases, some customers experience a power interruption. Since no information on status of various devices in the distribution system is available, there is no direct way to find out about the outages. Thus, the dispatchers depend on telephone calls from customers or a sudden change in power flow at a metered location upstream in the system to come to know of the outages.
Customers’ calls only provide an approximate location of the outage. Once the approximate location of outages is known, line crew are dispatched to drive along the lines to look for fault. After the faulty area is identified, it has to be isolated from the rest of the system, if the fuse protecting that line has not blown. This is done by first opening the substation breaker and then manually operating the switches or removing the fuses. Coordination between the line crew and dispatcher is maintained via portable radio to perform this task properly. The next step is to restore power to those sections of the system which are healthy. The power to these sections may be provided from alternates routes.
The dispatcher determines such possible routes and ask the line crew to operate the isolators. Most of the isolators cannot be operated under load; therefore, the substation breaker is opened before closing the isolators. Since the whole process is done manually, it takes a long time.
Automation of this function requires installation of remotely controlled sectionalizers on the feeders and installation of sensors on the feeders and / or at customer locations to detect interruption of service. One popular approach is based on gathering outage information from customers via telephone or radio communication. Whenever a sustained interruption takes place, either the affected sensors automatically send the information to the central computer or the calls received from the customers are logged into a database. Many utilities have already implemented some level of automation in handling calls related to power interruptions. Such activity has been called ’Trouble Call Analysis’.
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also automatically mapped on the system map by some utilities. From these maps inference can be obtained about possible locations of faults.
Once the location is known, the faulty section is isolated from the rest of the system with the help of remote controlled sectionalizers if the protective devices have not already isolated the faulted section. Subsequently, the switching needed to restore power to healthy sections of the system can be accomplished remotely. Moreover, since the location of the outage is known, the crew is sent to the precise location instead of asking to go in a general area. Thus, the whole process of outage identification and service restoration can be accomplished more efficiently by less people in short time.
7.5 IT in Maintenance Management System
The reliability of supply in any distribution system depends upon following stringent standards in construction and timely maintenance of the distribution assets as per the prescribed schedules. Reminding the operator of the system on the daily tasks to be performed facilitates effective maintenance. To do this, Automated mapping and facilities management (AM/FM) is an important utility application. It permits incorporation of GPS data relating to electrical assets superimposed on the geographical maps. With the help of these maps and the database associated with those maps, the utilities can manage their distribution facilities more efficiently. Some of the common functions performed by the AM/FM systems are distribution system facility mapping, right of way/permit tracking, and facilities inventory and system and equipment maintenance schedules. Functions for which analysis of system data is required can be performed by loading real-time data into AM/FM systems. These functions include outage analysis and system restoration, maintenance of various equipment in the substations. In the event of an outage; the calls from customers at a call centre are displayed on the system maps. Then, from the outage pattern, possible causes of outage are determined. For example in case a failed tower, based on the outage location displayed in the map and details of the location such as type of tower, Bill of quantities, details of the supplier, availability of the tower parts at various stores/ nearest store, availability of the repair gangs and their location, quick action can be taken to repair the damaged tower and restoration of supply. The maps are then used to direct crew to perform switching operations for remote operation of motorised switches. Similarly all the maintenance activities related to substation maintenance can be scheduled in the system so that the operator will be reminded to perform the scheduled task at the appropriate time.
The AM / FM systems are generally very data and graphics intensive and user friendly and it can cut costs across operations, planning, billing, and facilities management departments.
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7.6 IT in SCADA System
The Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) System is a powerful tool in the hands of operator to remotely monitor and control the substation and lines.
The SCADA system can be thought of comprising of three building blocks namely Control centre, controlled plant and a communication system connecting both Fig-1. The details of each of the blocks can be seen as follows:
HOW A SCADA system works
Fig-1: SCADA System Diagram.
1. Control centre from which all control activity is carried out. It consists of Dual redundant hot standby computer system with redundant LANS, Operator terminals, Communication interfaces, Storage devices for storage of Data and peripherals such as printers, data loggers and video cameras. When additional functionalities such as Distribution Automation system functionalities are contemplated , we may go in for additional processors 2. Communication System which provides the connectivity between the control centre and the equipment in the field which is to be controlled. The communications infrastructure has to communicate with the RTUs in substations, equipment online, individual customer locations and control points in the distribution system. Engineering Staff College of India Page 335 of 348
Different communication options available are -Public Switched Telephone Networks -Power-line carrier -Radio communications -Optical fibers -VSAT communications -Ethernet communications (Fig.2 & Fig.3) Thin Ethernets Thick Ethernets Thin EthernetETHERNET Segment – Bus Topology Topology
Figure-2: Ethernet Communications
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Figure-3: 10 Base-T (also Fiber) – Star Topology
Power-line carrier based communications suffered from heavy attenuation in certain parts of the distribution system like cut points on the line where hand made jumpering is made.
Radio communications suffer from the problems of line of sight and also distance of communication is limited by fading of signals. While selecting radio communications it is necessary to study the noise levels in the project areas and choose receiver sensitivity is well above the noise levels so that effective communication can happen under all weather conditions. Development of packet radio technology and the availability of 900 MHz spectrum to electric utilities has made radio a very popular communication medium. Currently available radio systems of point to point and point to multipoint communications can communicate with points in a large area very reliably.
Spread Spectrum radios using frequency hopping between two frequencies are also commonly used for secure communications.
Developments in the fiber-optic technology have made it a viable communication medium for certain applications and its use in distribution systems has been increasing steadily. Further new transmission lines of voltages 132KV and above are built with OPGW (Optical Ground Wire) earth conductor to provide the required band width for utility SCADA requirements and also communication requirements of the future as shown in Fig-4. For the existing transmission lines ADSS (All Dielectric Self Supported) cables are laid as shown in Fig-5.
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Figure-4: Transmission Tower with OPGW and ADSS Conductors
Figure-5: Details of ADSS Cable
Cellular telephone technology is also becoming popular for communication in distribution system.
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Very Small Aperture Satellite Terminals (VSATs) .as a communications medium has been experimented by some utilities where large data communication requirements are to be met.
Ethernet communications are very useful between different control centre components. Ethernets have high data transmission speeds typically 100 MBPS
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs): If we consider, SCADA system as a Master –Slave communication system, the RTU in a substation takes the role of a slave to faithfully implement the commands from the control centre. Further, we can build intelligence into the RTU to perform a few critical operations such as switching of capacitors and raising or lowering of transformer taps during the outage of communications. Such RTUs have the capability of reporting the log of operations to the Master stations on restoration of communications.
Now-a-days we have powerful Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) which have the capability of measuring, monitoring, control, protection and communicating either to the local operator or the remote host are becoming very popular. These are used in substation SCADA to replace the conventional RTUs.
Implementation of SCADA in distribution systems improves the efficiency of operations in a Distribution system besides saving the costs. It also permits loading of distribution assets to their full capacity.
7.7 IT in Energy Accounting and Energy Audits
Energy accounting and energy audit is one of the most important tools for the DISCOM which provides the means to identify the areas of leakage, wastage or inefficient use of energy. It helps in identifying measures suitable for reduction of T&D losses and can lead to significant cost and energy savings
The ISO 9001:2000 defines audit as a systematic, independent and documented process for obtaining audit evidence and evaluating it objectively to determine the extent to which audit criteria are fulfilled.
ENERGY AUDITING IN A POWER UTILITY INVOLVES • Identifying energy losses and quantifying them; • Segregating the losses into technical and commercial losses; • Estimating the energy conservation potential of a system; and • Proposing economically viable and attractive solutions.
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Energy accounting gives us an overall picture of energy availability and its use. Energy audit helps us in analyzing the data in a systematic and meaningful manner to evolve appropriate measures to:
Introduce checks and balances in the systems for reducing AT & C losses and Achieve technical performance.
ENERGY AUDIT FOR A DISTRIBUTION UTILITY ¾ Ensures that input into an area are recorded; ¾ Ensures that the corresponding output units are recorded; ¾ Identifies areas of deficiency (under recording and/or theft) and its correction; and ¾ Enables accurate calculation of system losses (both technical and commercial).
Energy audit in a power utility provides a benchmark or reference point for managing energy in the utility and the basis for planning a more effective use of energy in the utility. Proper energy accounting and auditing would facilitate in the creation of a data base to act as input of the following improvements in the distribution system: ¾ Load management; ¾ Details of power factor, active and reactive power flows and suitable location for reactive power injection in the system; ¾ Assessment of diversity in the system; ¾ Optimum utilization of equipment and services; ¾ Improved voltage profile in the system; ¾ Details of category-wise consumption of loads and proper forecast of demand; and ¾ Better system augmentation and expansion planning.
PROCEDURE FOR CONDUCTING AN ENERGY AUDIT 1. Gathering and colleting information in a specially designed, “Energy Systems Questionnaire” format, for the utility under study, 2. Inter-and Intra-utility comparison of the collected data. 3. Assessment of present efficiency index for energy consumption in the utility / transformation. 4. In-depth study of utility operation, equipment and system for a general review of the energy systems to assess the operational efficiency and potential for economizing the same. 5. Evaluation of the detailed recommendations for energy conservation, 6. Formulation of strategies and detailed action plans in consultation with plant management for implementation of the identified energy saving measures. 7. Training operating personnel in the specifics of energy conservation to enable them to implement the recommendations and also to monitor the progress on a periodic basis.
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While determining the quantum of losses, it is very difficult to get a very accurate picture of these losses due to the following reasons: The energy meters provided on 11 kV feeders are of Class 1 / Class 0.5 accuracy, whereas at consumer installations the meters are of Class 2 accuracy; All the energy consumed is not recorded due to illegal tapping, theft pilferage etc.; The sending end readings are taken on a particular day whereas the readings for consumers are taken in a staggered manner; The meter readings of some consumers are not taken due to locked premises / defective meters; Meters are not reading at light load; Meters are not recording within prescribed accuracy limits; and Assessment of consumption in respect of un-metered consumers is missing.
CONDITIONS FOR PERFECT ENERGY AUDIT All consumers’ installation are metered. All meters are read simultaneously. Electronic tri-vector meters are provided on secondary side of all the distribution transformers. The same accuracy class of energy meters is provided both for measuring energy input to system and energy sales.
FEW OBSERVATIONS ABOUT ENERGY ACCOUNTING • Energy accounting forms the basis for a detailed and complete evaluation of the power supply system. It is a system of recording, analyzing and reporting energy consumption and cost on a regular basis. This helps in an accurate accounting of the energy generated, transferred, as well as the energy lost and revenue realized at each level of power generation, transmission and distribution. • Energy accounting is needed to estimate the AT&C losses and determine their sources in the utilities so that measures could be taken to reduce them. The adoption of proper energy accounting would also facilitate increased revenue realization for the energy supplied to the consumers through the identification of areas and causes of high energy losses and cutting down on its own expenses on account of the operational inefficiencies. It also helps the utility in bringing accountability and efficiency in its working. This would enable improving the financial health of the utility and would contribute substantially towards overall development of the power sector. • The energy accounting procedure involves the preparation of energy balance, which is a set of relationships accounting for all the energy which is produced and consumed. It also involves the preparation of accounts of energy flow to various segments, energy consumption by various categories of consumers, energy losses including both technical and commercial losses at various stages, and energy required for meeting the technical requirements of the system out of total available quantum over a specified time period. This has to be done at all levels of responsibility. The exercise involves establishment of an energy measurement system and segregation of technical and commercial losses related to the different responsibility areas.
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• The steps that can be taken at the feeder level for energy accounting are to measure the energy received at the feeder, list the customers billed, record the revenue from bills, compute the difference in billing and collections and obtain the difference in input energy cost at the feeder level and the total revenue realized from collections. • Special cases that may arise in the sub-transmission and distribution systems include the case of feeders crossing boundaries and feeding the loads (either in part or in full) of other areas also. Such inter-area exchanges should be avoided at the 11 kV level by network reconfiguration and administrative / jurisdictional adjustments. • Practices such as well defined procedures for reading of the energy meters (on 11 kV feeders) not having data logging facilities, and consumer meters, simple procedures to correct for non-simultaneous reading of consumer meters and billing cycles and accounting for un-metered consumption till such time as 100% consumer metering is in place would enhance the reliability and correctness of energy accounting. • The management of a utility needs to address he problems of lack of meters, inadequate workforce, insufficient numbers of computers, time parallax in data collection, corruption and inefficiency of the workforce in order to implement energy accounting. • Advanced IT technologies are helpful in the preparation of electrical network database and documentation and consolidation of consumer details, which are essential first steps in energy accounting.
7.8 IT in Metering System
Metering technologies have evolved over a period of time starting from electromechanical meters to static meters and later on to the present day Smart meters. The capabilities of meters evolved from simple recording of energy to communication of recorded energy through Automated Meter reading systems to either a data collecting device or a billing computer through an appropriate communication system. Smart grid concepts of the present day permit the meter to communicate the meter data to the Meter Data Management system (MDMS) of the utility employing smart meters. These meters not only communicate the metering data relating to the energy but also any tampering of the meter at the customer location. Data transmission between the utility Meter Data management system and the meter (both ways) happens through secured communication system employing data encryption protocols.
The concept of load control has changed radically from the utility controlling the consumer loads to that of consumer enabling. In this concept the MDMS continuously broadcasts the price signals for energy for different time periods of the day (which in turn depends upon the generation mix dispatched) and the consumer has the option to select the price at which he intends to utilize the supply. Engineering Staff College of India Page 342 of 348
Smart grids with smart meters prompted the vendors to develop smart appliances which can be programmed to run by the meter using a low power radio such as Zigbee communications. Appliances such as washing machines, dryers can be programmed to run during times of minimum cost of energy which reduces not only the consumer bills but also improves the system load curve permitting the utility to avoid procurement of costly power. The Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) can perform not only these functions, but can also be integrated into various business applications such as load forecast, energy management, demand response etc.
A typical example of the above can be seen in the figure below:
Meter communicates with Meter Data Management System( MDMS) on one side and the Home Area Network (HAN)
Zig bee communication
Meter compliant to AMI ( Smart meter) Meter Data Management System Home Area network AMI Process Utilities such as Southern California Edison have already installed over 3million smart meters as a part of the smart grid programme. They provide to the consumer an IT tool called Energy Guzzler which gives the optimal programme for running the appliances on feeding of the customer load data. With the introduction of smart metering the utility reports reduction in peak demand of 1000 MW.
7.9 IT to reduce AT & C Losses
IT is an important tool firstly to analyze the total input into the system by gathering the meter reading data from all the boundary metering points. From this we can compute the District, division, subdivision or
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section inputs. The billed units for the jurisdiction of each administrative unit are compiled from the billing server and also the demand served for the billed units.
The collection details against the billed demand are gathered from the server and the sum of the same is computed. The difference of the collected amount against the billing demand represents the AT&C losses. So, The AT&C losses not only reflect the technical and commercial losses but also the billing efficiency. So improvement of AT&C losses needs a three pronged attack to reduce the technical looses by studying the system condition through load flows and proposing system improvements wherever necessary in the form additional substations/lines, augmentation of line/ transformer capacities, erection of new capacitor banks for reactive compensation etc.
Commercial losses need to be tackled by replacing all the defective meters, booking pilferage of energy by arranging intensive inspections wherever necessary. Similarly exceptionals such as meters not read, door locked cases should reviewed and recorded consumption shall be brought to book.
List of defaulters especially of those consumers who do not pay any / most of the bills shall be identified and their supply shall be promptly disconnected for realization of arrears. IT is a very useful tool to perform this task which is highly difficult to perform manually. The components of the technical and commercial losses are indicated in the table below.
Technical Losses Commercial Losses
11 kV line losses. Theft by direct tapping.
Distribution transformer losses (iron and Theft by tampering meters, CTs and PTs. copper losses)
LT line losses. Non-performing meters.
Losses due to loose jumper connections. Under-performing meters.
Short circuit and earth fault losses. Meters not read.
Losses in service mains and energy meters. Mistakes in billing, etc.
The Methodology for Estimation of these Losses is as follows: The procedure to determine technical losses on the 11KV feeder
Technical losses on the 11 kV feeder are assessed by conducting load flow analysis of the individual 11 kV feeder including distribution transformer and LT distribution losses.
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We consider the steady state model to find technical losses and take the loads to be of constant impedance.
Assessing Load Factor (LF) and Loss Load Factor (LLF) a) Copper losses of all transformers = Copper loss of each transformer capacity wise in kWh x Number of transformers capacity wise in the feeder.
Energy input to the transformer in a month b) LF = ------(Peak load of the transformer during the month x number of hours the transformer is in service during the month) c) LLF = 0.3 (LF) + 0.7 (LF)² (Energy sent out on the 11 kV feeder from SS – Energy losses in the 11 kV feeder) Capacity of the transformer d) Energy input to the transformer = ------Total transformer capacities in the feeder
Distribution Transformer Losses a) No-load losses i.e. iron losses: No-load losses in kWh of one distribution transformer = No load loss of transformer in kW x number of hours the transformer was in service during the month. b) Load losses, i.e. copper losses: Copper losses in kWh = Copper loss of each transformer capacity wise in kW x (Actual load / Full load)² x number of hours the transformer capacity wise was in service during the month x LLF.
Calculation of LT Line and Network Losses a) The losses of LT network of each capacity transformer are computed by averaging the losses of the LT network of all similar capacity transformers.
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b) The computed average losses of LT network radiating from each capacity transformer are extrapolated for assessing the total energy losses of LT network on the feeder.
11 kV Feeder Loss The monthly energy losses in the feeder should be computed by extrapolating the daily energy loss proportional to the energy sent out in the feeder, for all feeders for all the months in the audit period.
Energy losses in loose jumper connections, short circuit and earth faults on the lines, service mains and energy meters are assumed to be: a) 1% of the total energy sent out through the 11 kV line from the substation, for the 11 kV lines of 20 Km and more, and b) 0.5% of the energy sent out through the 11 kV line from the substances, for the 11 kV lines of less than 20 Km.
DETERMINING COMMERCIAL LOSSES The commercial losses are assessed by deducting technical losses from the total losses of the feeder, i.e. the difference between energy sent out and the energy sold. Thus, Commercial loss in the feeder = Energy loss – Technical loss.
The following activities are undertaken to record these losses:
The meter reading schedules of meter readers are revised and made coterminous with distribution transformers. On that day, the distribution transformer meter is also read and comparison is made between distribution transformer meter reading and sum total of consumption recorded in all other consumer meters coming under that distribution transformer. The difference is noted. If the losses are found to be high, action is initiated to trace the installation causing losses.
Actions Recommended for Reducing Technical Losses ¾ Reconfiguration; ¾ Reconductoring; ¾ Improving PF by installing Shunt Capacitors; ¾ Conversion from Single Circuit to Double Circuit; ¾ Setting up of more substations to improve voltage ; ¾ Changeover from Low Voltage Distribution System (LVDS) to High Voltage Distribution System (HVDS).
Actions Recommended for Reducing Commercial Losses ¾ Changeover to static meters with tamper proof data and remote metering facility; Engineering Staff College of India Page 346 of 348
¾ Replacing all burnt, stuck up, non-performing and underperforming meters; ¾ Calibrating the existing meters; ¾ Flying squads and Special task force for detection of pilferage of energy; AMR for online energy recording
7.10 Case Study of Successful Projects
The Central power distribution company in Andhra pradesh and also various other distribution companies have implemented the following IT applications which are working satisfactorily providing better customer service; a) Centralized Trouble call centre: All fuse-off calls will be reported by the customer to centralized call centre with a unique telephone number. The telephone number of the customer is linked to the customer database and the call centre simply identifies the details of the customer such as name of the customer, service number, address and the feeding source details such as the substation, feeder, transformer etc. Breakdown gangs will be straight away dispatched by the call centre to the customer location and this is hastening up the restoration process. This is helping the distribution to meet the standards of performance specified by the regulator in meeting the time lines. b) Metering and Billing: All meters in the jurisdiction of AP central power are read through handheld computers in which the bills for the customer consumption are immediately generated and delivered to the consumer on the spot. The consumption data stored in the handheld computers are subsequently transferred to the utility billing server for accounting purpose.
The central power website provides facilities for the online billing enquiry and bill payment through debit/credit cards or net banking. This facility allows the consumer to pay his bills from home without having to stand for long hours in the ques at the Electricity Revenue offices. c) Customer Complaints: The consumers can file complaints related to billing, service issues etc. directly in the company website. They are also provided the details of tariffs, planned shut downs indicating hours of no supply in a particular area etc.
All these efforts of Distribution companies have helped to make the life of consumers little more comfortable. The above examples indicated are true for many of the distribution companies in the country. Thanks to the support and imagination of of Ministry of Power Government of India for the support provided initially under APDRP programme where IT implementation in DISCOMS especially in the states following the reforms route. In the R-APDRP, IT implementation is taking a drivers seat in the Engineering Staff College of India Page 347 of 348
establishment of base line for losses for major towns, performing energy audits through third parties for the reduction in loss levels after ring fencing of major towns. Establishing SCADA for various major towns will pave way for improvements in operational areas and improve quality of service.
In the present context perhaps we cannot think of a DISCOM without IT support. The viability of distribution business will revolve around large scale technology implementation.
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