Appendix 1: Thomas Hall Caine, ‘John Keats’

1 When Death glides gently in a holy sleep 2 On some dear nursling of first infant years, 3 Not for the future lost, are then our tears, 4 Only the sadden’d present bids us weep: 5 The tender child, with sunny eyes and deep, 6 And budding love, and sweetness that endears, 7 And silver voice whose tone affrays our ears – 8 This is the idol in our hearts we keep. 9 And shall we mourn, thou Poet of the flowers, 10 That daisies bloom’d above thee ere the hours 11 Of perfect fruitage brought thy riper parts? 12 Ah lo! thy orient muse of life bereft 13 Dying, the immortal youth of genius left 14 A deathless memory in our heart of hearts.

146 Appendix 2: Robert Browning, ‘Popularity’

I

1 Stand still, true poet that you are! 2 I know you; let me try and draw you. 3 Some night you’ll fail us: when afar 4 You rise, remember one man saw you, 5 Knew you, and named a star!

II

6 My star, God’s glow-worm! Why extend 7 That loving hand of his which leads you, 8 Yet locks you safe from end to end 9 Of this dark world, unless he needs you, 10 Just saves your light to spend?

III

11 His clenched hand shall unclose at last, 12 I know, and let out all the beauty: 13 My poet holds the future fast, 14 Accepts the coming ages’ duty, 15 Their present for this past.

IV

16 That day, the earth’s feast-master’s brow 17 Shall clear, to God the chalice raising; 18 ‘Others give best at first, but thou 19 ‘Forever set’st our table praising, 20 ‘Keep’st the good wine till now!’

147 148 Appendix 2

V

21 Meantime, I’ll draw you as you stand, 22 With few or none to watch and wonder: 23 I’ll say – a fisher, on the sand 24 By Tyre the old, with ocean-plunder, 25 A netful, brought to land.

VI

26 Who has not heard how Tyrian shells 27 Enclosed the blue, that dye of dyes 28 Whereof one drop worked miracles, 29 And coloured like Astarte’s eyes 30 Raw silk the merchant sells?

VII

31 And each bystander of them all 32 Could criticize, and quote tradition 33 How depths of blue sublimed some pall 34 – To get which, pricked a king’s ambition; 35 Worth sceptre, crown and ball.

VIII

36 Yet there’s the dye, in that rough mesh, 37 The sea has only just o’erwhispered! 38 Live whelks, each lip’s beard dripping fresh, 39 As if they still the water’s lisp heard 40 Through foam the rock-weeds thresh.

IX

41 Enough to furnish Solomon 42 Such hangings for his cedar-house, 43 That, when gold-robed he took the throne 44 In that abyss of blue, the Spouse 45 Might swear his presence shone

X

46 Most like the centre-spike of gold 47 Which burns deep in the blue-bell’s womb, Appendix 2 149

48 What time, with ardours manifold, 49 The bee goes singing to her groom, 50 Drunken and overbold.

XI

51 Mere conchs! not fit for warp or woof! 52 Till cunning come to pound and squeeze 53 And clarify, – refine to proof 54 The liquor filtered by degrees, 55 While the world stands aloof.

XII

56 And there’s the extract, flasked and fine, 57 And priced and saleable at last! 58 And Hobbs, Nobbs, Stokes and Nokes combine 59 To paint the future from the past, 60 Put blue into their line.

XIII

61 Hobbs hints blue, – straight he turtle eats: 62 Nobbs prints blue, – claret crowns his cup: 63 Nokes outdares Stokes in azure feats, – 64 Both gorge. Who fished the murex up? 65 What porridge had John Keats? Appendix 3: Christina Rossetti, ‘On Keats’

1 A garden in a garden: a green spot 2 Where all is green: most fitting slumber-place 3 For the strong man grown weary of a race 4 Soon over. Unto him a goodly lot 5 Hath fallen in fertile ground; there thorns are not, 6 But his own daisies: silence, full of grace, 7 Surely hath shed a quiet on his face: 8 His earth is but sweet leaves that fall and rot. 9 What was his record of himself, ere he 10 Went from us? Here lies one whose name was writ 11 In water: while the chilly shadows flit 12 Of sweet Saint Agnes’ Eve; while basil springs, 13 His name, in every humble heart that sings, 14 Shall be a fountain of love, verily.

150 Appendix 4: Alice Meynell, ‘On Keats’s Grave’

He said that the greatest delight of his life had been to watch the growth of flowers. And when dying ‘I feel them growing over me.’

1 They waited not for showers 2 But made a garden in the dark above him, 3 – Stayed not for the summer, growing things that love him. 4 Beyond the light, beyond the hours, 5 Behind the wind, where Nature thinks the flowers, 6 He entered in his dying wandering. 7 And daisies infantine were thoughts of his, 8 And different grasses solved his mysteries. 9 He lived in flowers a snatch of spring, 10 And had a dying longing that uncloses 11 In wild white roses. 12 Down from the low hills dark with pines 13 Into the fields at rest, the summer done, 14 I went by pensive ways of tombs and vines 15 To where the place I dream of is; 16 And in a stretch of meditative sun 17 Cloven by the dark flames of cypresses 18 Came to the small grave of my ended poet. 19 – I had felt wild things many a dreamy hour 20 Pushing above him from beyond the sea, 21 But when I saw it 22 It chanced there was no flower, 23 And that was, too, a silent time for me. 24 O life of blossoms – Proserpine! 25 O time of flowers where art thou now, 26 And in what darkness movest thou? 27 In the lost heart of this quiet poet of mine 28 So well-contented with his growth of flowers? 29 Beyond the suns and showers 30 Stirrest thou in a silence that begets 31 The exquisite thought, the tuneful rhyme – 32 The first intention of the violets, 33 And the beginnings of the warm wild-thyme? 34 Indeed the poets do know

151 152 Appendix 4

35 A place of thoughts where no winds blow, 36 And not a breath is sighing, 37 Beyond the light, beyond the hours, 38 Where all a summer of enchanted flowers 39 Do mark his place, his dying. 40 Sweet life, and is it there thy sceptre passes 41 On long arrays of flowering grasses 42 And rows of crimson clover? 43 Are these the shades thou reignest over? 44 Come ere the year forgets 45 The summer her long lover. 46 O Proserpine, November violets! 47 – Where art thou now? 48 And in what darkness movest thou 49 Who art in life the life of melodies? 50 Within the silent living poet’s heart 51 Where no song is, 52 Where, every one apart, 53 Arrays of the morn fancies err 54 Vaguer than pain in sleep, vaguer than pain, 55 And no winds stir;- 56 Over these shadows dost thou reign? 57 See now, in this still day 58 All winds are strayed and lost, wandered away, 59 Everywhere from Soracte to the sea. 60 All singing things muse in the sun, 61 And trees of fragrant leaves do happily 62 Meditate in their sweet scents every one, 63 The paeans done. 64 All olives turn and dream in grey at ease, 65 Left by the silver breeze. 66 Long smiles have followed the peal of mirth. 67 – But silence has no place for me, 68 A silent singer on earth. 69 Awake! 70 And thro’ the sleeping season break, 71 With young new shoots for this young poet’s sake, 72 With singing lives for all these dreams of mine, 73 O darkened Proserpine! 74 Out of the small grave and the thoughts I love 75 Stir thou in me and move, 76 If haply a song of mine may seem a dim 77 Sweet flower grown over him. 78 Oh come from underground and be 79 Flowers for my young dear poet and songs for me. Appendix 5: A. C. Swinburne, ‘In Sepulcretis’

I

1 It is not then enough that men who give 2 The best gifts given of man to man should feel, 3 Alive, a snake’s head ever at their heel: 4 Small hurt the worms may do them while they live – 5 Such hurt as scorn for scorn’s sake may forgive. 6 But now, when death and fame have set one seal 7 On tombs whereat Love, Grief, and Glory kneel, 8 Men sift all secrets, in their critic sieve, 9 Of graves wherein the dust of death might shrink 10 To know what tongues defile the dead man’s name 11 With loathsome Love, and probe that stings like shame. 12 Rest once was theirs, who had crossed to mortal brink: 13 No rest, no reverence now: dull fools undress 14 Death’s holiest shrine, life’s veriest nakedness.

II

15 A man was born, sang, suffered, loved, and died. 16 Men scorned him living: let us praise him dead. 17 His life was brief and bitter, gently led 18 And proudly, but with pure and blameless pride. 19 He wrought no wrong toward any; satisfied 20 With love and labour, whence our souls are fed 21 With largesse yet of living wine and bread. 22 Come, let us praise him: here is nought to hide. 23 Make bare the poor dead secrets of his heart, 24 Strip the stark-naked soul, that all may peer, 25 Spy, smirk, scoff, snap, snort, snivel, snarl, and sneer: 26 Let none so sad, let none so sacred part 27 Lie still for pity, rest unstirred for shame, 28 But all be scanned of all men. This is fame.

153 154 Appendix 5

III

29 ‘Now what a thing it is to be an ass!’ 30 If one, that strutted up the brawling streets 31 As foremen of the flock whose concourse greets 32 Men’s ears with bray more dissonant than brass, 33 Would change from blame to praise as coarse and crass 34 His natural note, and learn the fawning feats 35 Of lapdogs, who but knows what luck he meets? 36 But all in vain old fable holds her glass. 37 Mocked and reviled by men of poisonous breath, 38 A great man dies: but one thing worst was spared; 39 Not all his heart by their base hands lay bared. 40 One comes to crown with praise the dust of death; 41 And low, through him the worst is brought to pass. 42 Now, what a thing it is to be an ass!

IV

43 Shame, such as never yet dealt heavier stroke 44 On heads more shameful, fall on theirs through whom 45 Dead men may keep inviolate not their tomb, 46 But all its depths these ravenous grave-worms choke. 47 And yet what waste of wrath is mine, to invoke 48 Shame on the shameless? Even their natural doom, 49 The native air such carrion breaths perfume, 50 The nursing darkness whence vermin broke, 51 The cloud that wraps them of adulterate ink, 52 Hath no sign else about it, wears no name, 53 As they no record in the world, but shame. 54 If thankfulness nor pity bids them think 55 What work is this of theirs, and pause betimes, 56 Not Shakespeare’s grave would scare them off with rhymes. Appendix 6: Dante Gabriel Rossetti, ‘John Keats’

1 The weltering London ways where children weep 2 And girls whom none call maidens laugh, – strange road 3 Miring his outward steps, who inly trode 4 The bright Castalian brink and Latmos’ steep: – 5 Even such his life’s cross-paths; till deathly deep 6 He toiled through sands of Lethe; and long pain, 7 Weary with labour spurned and love found vain, 8 In dead Rome’s sheltering shadow wrapped his sleep. 9 O pang-dowered Poet, whose reverberant lips 10 And heart-strung lyre awoke the Moon’s eclipse, – 11 Thou whom the daisies glory in growing o’er, – 12 Their fragrance clings around thy name, not writ 13 But rumour’d in water, while the fame of it 14 Along Time’s flood goes echoing evermore.

155 Appendix 7: Oscar Wilde, ‘The Grave of Keats’, ‘Endymion’ and ‘The Garden of Eros’

‘The Grave, of Keats’

1 Rid of the world’s injustice, and his pain, 2 He rests at last beneath God’s veil of blue: 3 Taken from life when life and love were new 4 The youngest of the martyrs here is lain, 5 Fair as Sebastian, and as early slain. 6 No cypress shades his grave, no funeral yew, 7 But gentle violets weeping with the dew 8 Weave on his bones an ever-blossoming chain. 9 O proudest heart that broke for misery! 10 O sweetest lips since those of Mitylene! 11 O poet-painter of our English Land! 12 Thy name was writ in water – it shall stand: 13 And tears like mine will keep thy memory green, 14 As Isabella did her Basil-tree.

‘Endymion’

1 The apple trees are hung with gold, 2 And birds are loud in Arcady, 3 The sheep lie bleating in the fold, 4 The wild goat runs across the wold, 5 But yesterday his love he told, 6 I know he will come back to me. 7 O rising moon! O Lady moon! 8 Be you my lover’s sentinel, 9 You cannot choose but know him well, 10 For he is shod with purple shoon, 11 You cannot choose but know my love, 12 For he a shepherd’s crook doth bear, 13 And he is soft as any dove, 14 And brown and curly is his hair. 15 The turtle now has ceased to call 16 Upon her crimson-footed groom,

156 Appendix 7 157

17 The grey wolf prowls about the stall, 18 The lily’s singing seneschal 19 Sleeps in the lily-bell, and all 20 The violet hills are lost in gloom. 21 O risen moon! O holy moon! 22 Stand on the top of Helice, 23 And if my own true love you see, 24 Ah! if you see the purple shoon, 25 The hazel crook, the lad’s brown hair, 26 The goat-skin wrapped about his arm, 27 Tell him that I am waiting where 28 The rushlight glimmers in the Farm. 29 The falling dew is cold and chill, 30 And no bird sings in Arcady, 31 The little fauns have left the hill, 32 Even the tired daffodil 33 Has closed its gilded doors, and still 34 My lover comes not back to me. 35 False moon! False moon! O waning moon! 36 Where is my own true lover gone, 37 Where are the lips vermilion, 38 The shepherd’s crook, the purple shoon? 39 Why spread that silver pavilion, 40 Why wear that veil of drifting mist? 41 Ah! thou hast young Endymion, 42 Thou hast the lips that should be kissed!

‘The Garden of Eros’

1 It is full summer now, the heart of June, 2 Not yet the sunburnt reapers are astir 3 Upon the upland meadow where too soon 4 Rich autumn time, the season’s usurer, 5 Will lend his hoarded gold to all the trees, 6 And see his treasure scattered by the wild and spendthrift breeze. 7 Too soon indeed! yet here the daffodil, 8 That love-child of the Spring, has lingered on 9 To vex the rose with jealousy, and still 10 The harebell spreads her azure pavilion, 11 And like a strayed and wandering reveller 12 Abandoned of its brothers, whom long since June’s messenger 13 The missel-thrush has frighted from the glade, 14 One pale narcissus loiters fearfully 15 Close to a shadowy nook, where half afraid 16 Of their own loveliness some violets lie 158 Appendix 7

17 That will not look the gold sun in the face 18 For fear of too much splendour, – ah! methinks it is a place 19 Which should be trodden by Persephone 20 When wearied of the flowerless fields of Dis! 21 Or danced on by the lads of Arcady! 22 The hidden secret of eternal bliss 23 Known to the Grecian here a man might find, 24 Ah! you and I may find it now if Love and Sleep be kind. 25 There are the flowers which mourning Herakles 26 Strewed on the tomb of Hylas, columbine, 27 Its white doves all a-flutter where the breeze 28 Kissed them too harshly, the small celandine, 29 That yellow-kirtled chorister of eve, 30 And lilac lady’s-smock, – but let them bloom alone, and leave 31 Yon spirèd hollyhock red-crocketed 32 To sway its silent chimes, else must the bee, 33 Its little bellringer, go seek instead 34 Some other pleasaunce; the anemone 35 That weeps at daybreak, like a silly girl 36 Before her love, and hardly lets the butterflies unfurl 37 Their painted wings beside it, – bid it pine 38 In pale virginity; the winter snow 39 Will suit it better than those lips of thine 40 Whose fires would but scorch it, rather go 41 And pluck that amorous flower which blooms alone, 42 Fed by the pander wind with dust of kisses not its own. 43 The trumpet-mouths of red convolvulus 44 So dear to maidens, creamy meadow-sweet 45 Whiter than Juno’s throat and odorous 46 As all Arabia, hyacinths the feet 47 Of Huntress Dian would be loth to mar 48 For any dappled fawn, – pluck these, and those fond flowers which are 49 Fairer than what Queen Venus trod upon 50 Beneath the pines of Ida, eucharis, 51 That morning star which does not dread the sun, 52 And budding marjoram which but to kiss 53 Would sweeten Cytheræa’s lips and make 54 Adonis jealous, – these for thy head, – and for thy girdle take 55 Yon curving spray of purple clematis 56 Whose gorgeous dye outflames the Tyrian King, 57 And foxgloves with their nodding chalices, 58 But that one narciss which the startled Spring 59 Let from her kirtle fall when first she heard 60 In her own woods the wild tempestuous song of summer’s bird, Appendix 7 159

61 Ah! leave it for a subtle memory 62 Of those sweet tremulous days of rain and sun, 63 When April laughed between her tears to see 64 The early primrose with shy footsteps run 65 From the gnarled oak-tree roots till all the wold, 66 Spite of its brown and trampled leaves, grew bright with shimmering gold. 67 Nay, pluck it too, it is not half so sweet 68 As thou thyself, my soul’s idolatry! 69 And when thou art a-wearied at thy feet 70 Shall oxlips weave their brightest tapestry, 71 For thee the woodbine shall forget its pride 72 And veil its tangled whorls, and thou shalt walk on daisies pied. 73 And I will cut a reed by yonder spring 74 And make the wood-gods jealous, and old Pan 75 Wonder what young intruder dares to sing 76 In these still haunts, where never foot of man 77 Should tread at evening, lest he chance to spy 78 The marble limbs of Artemis and all her company. 79 And I will tell thee why the jacinth wears 80 Such dread embroidery of dolorous moan, 81 And why the hapless nightingale forbears 82 To sing her song at noon, but weeps alone 83 When the fleet swallow sleeps, and rich men feast, 84 And why the laurel trembles when she sees the lightening east. 85 And I will sing how sad Proserpina 86 Unto a grave and gloomy Lord was wed, 87 And lure the silver-breasted Helena 88 Back from the lotus meadows of the dead, 89 So shalt thou see that awful loveliness 90 For which two mighty Hosts met fearfully in war’s abyss! 91 And then I ‘ll pipe to thee that Grecian tale 92 How Cynthia loves the lad Endymion, 93 And hidden in a grey and misty veil 94 Hies to the cliffs of Latmos once the Sun 95 Leaps from his ocean bed in fruitless chase 96 Of those pale flying feet which fade away in his embrace. 97 And if my flute can breathe sweet melody, 98 We may behold Her face who long ago 99 Dwelt among men by the Ægean sea, 100 And whose sad house with pillaged portico 101 And friezeless wall and columns toppled down 102 Looms o’er the ruins of that fair and violet-cinctured town. 103 Spirit of Beauty! tarry still awhile, 104 They are not dead, thine ancient votaries, 160 Appendix 7

105 Some few there are to whom thy radiant smile 106 Is better than a thousand victories, 107 Though all the nobly slain of Waterloo 108 Rise up in wrath against them! tarry still, there are a few

109 Who for thy sake would give their manlihood 110 And consecrate their being, I at least 111 Have done so, made thy lips my daily food, 112 And in thy temples found a goodlier feast 113 Than this starved age can give me, spite of all 114 Its new-found creeds so sceptical and so dogmatical.

115 Here not Cephissos, not Ilissos flows, 116 The woods of white Colonos are not here, 117 On our bleak hills the olive never blows, 118 No simple priest conducts his lowing steer 119 Up the steep marble way, nor through the town 120 Do laughing maidens bear to thee the crocus-flowered gown.

121 Yet tarry! for the boy who loved thee best, 122 Whose very name should be a memory 123 To make thee linger, sleeps in silent rest 124 Beneath the Roman walls, and melody 125 Still mourns her sweetest lyre, none can play 126 The lute of Adonais, with his lips Song passed away.

127 Nay, when Keats died the Muses still had left 128 One silver voice to sing his threnody, 129 But ah! too soon of it we were bereft 130 When on that riven night and stormy sea 131 Panthea claimed her singer as her own, 132 And slew the mouth that praised her; since which time we walk alone, 133 Save for that fiery heart, that morning star 134 Of re-arisen England, whose clear eye 135 Saw from our tottering throne and waste of war 136 The grand Greek limbs of young Democracy 137 Rise mightily like Hesperus and bring 138 The great Republic! him at least thy love hath taught to sing,

139 And he hath been with thee at Thessaly, 140 And seen white Atalanta fleet of foot 141 In passionless and fierce virginity 142 Hunting the tuskèd boar, his honied lute 143 Hath pierced the cavern of the hollow hill, 144 And Venus laughs to know one knee will bow before her still.

145 And he hath kissed the lips of Proserpine, 146 And sung the Galilæan’s requiem, Appendix 7 161

147 That wounded forehead dashed with blood and wine 148 He hath discrowned, the Ancient Gods in him 149 Have found their last, most ardent worshipper, 150 And the new Sign grows grey and dim before its conqueror.

151 Spirit of Beauty! tarry with us still, 152 It is not quenched the torch of poesy, 153 The star that shook above the Eastern hill 154 Holds unassailed its argent armoury 155 From all the gathering gloom and fretful fight – 156 O tarry with us still! for through the long and common night,

157 Morris, our sweet and simple Chaucer’s child, 158 Dear heritor of Spenser’s tuneful reed, 159 With soft and sylvan pipe has oft beguiled 160 The weary soul of man in troublous need, 161 And from the far and flowerless fields of ice 162 Has brought fair flowers to make an earthly paradise.

163 We know them all, Gudrun the strong men’s bride, 164 Aslaug and Olafson we know them all, 165 How giant Grettir fought and Sigurd died, 166 And what enchantment held the king in thrall 167 When lonely Brynhild wrestled with the powers 168 That war against all passion, ah! how oft through summer hours,

169 Long listless summer hours when the noon 170 Being enamoured of a damask rose 171 Forgets to journey westward, till the moon 172 The pale usurper of its tribute grows 173 From a thin sickle to a silver shield 174 And chides its loitering car – how oft, in some cool grassy field

175 Far from the cricket-ground and noisy eight, 176 At Bagley, where the rustling bluebells come 177 Almost before the blackbird finds a mate 178 And overstay the swallow, and the hum 179 Of many murmuring bees flits through the leaves, 180 Have I lain poring on the dreamy tales his fancy weaves,

181 And through their unreal woes and mimic pain 182 Wept for myself, and so was purified, 183 And in their simple mirth grew glad again; 184 For as I sailed upon that pictured tide 185 The strength and splendour of the storm was mine 186 Without the storm’s red ruin, for the singer is divine,

187 The little laugh of water falling down 188 Is not so musical, the clammy gold 162 Appendix 7

189 Close hoarded in the tiny waxen town 190 Has less of sweetness in it, and the old 191 Half-withered reeds that waved in Arcady 192 Touched by his lips break forth again to fresher harmony. 193 Spirit of Beauty, tarry yet awhile! 194 Although the cheating merchants of the mart 195 With iron roads profane our lovely isle, 196 And break on whirling wheels the limbs of Art, 197 Ay! though the crowded factories beget 198 The blindworm Ignorance that slays the soul, O tarry yet! 199 For One at least there is, – He bears his name 200 From Dante and the seraph Gabriel, – 201 Whose double laurels burn with deathless flame 202 To light thine altar; He too loves thee well, 203 Who saw old Merlin lured in Vivien’s snare, 204 And the white feet of angels coming down the golden stair, 205 Loves thee so well, that all the World for him 206 A gorgeous-coloured vestiture must wear, 207 And Sorrow take a purple diadem, 208 Or else be no more Sorrow, and Despair 209 Gild its own thorns, and Pain, like Adon, be 210 Even in anguish beautiful; – such is the empery 211 Which Painters hold, and such the heritage 212 This gentle solemn Spirit doth possess, 213 Being a better mirror of his age 214 In all his pity, love, and weariness, 215 Than those who can but copy common things, 216 And leave the Soul unpainted with its mighty questionings. 217 But they are few, and all romance has flown, 218 And men can prophesy about the sun, 219 And lecture on his arrows – how, alone, 220 Through a waste void the soulless atoms run, 221 How from each tree its weeping nymph has fled, 222 And that no more ‘mid English reeds a Naïad shows her head. 223 Methinks these new Actæons boast too soon 224 That they have spied on beauty; what if we 225 Have analysed the rainbow, robbed the moon 226 Of her most ancient, chastest mystery, 227 Shall I, the last Endymion, lose all hope 228 Because rude eyes peer at my mistress through a telescope! 229 What profit if this scientific age 230 Burst through our gates with all its retinue 231 Of modern miracles! Can it assuage 232 One lover’s breaking heart? what can it do Appendix 7 163

233 To make one life more beautiful, one day 234 More godlike in its period? but now the Age of Clay 235 Returns in horrid cycle, and the earth 236 Hath borne again a noisy progeny 237 Of ignorant Titans, whose ungodly birth 238 Hurls them against the august hierarchy 239 Which sat upon Olympus, to the Dust 240 They have appealed, and to that barren arbiter they must 241 Repair for judgment, let them, if they can, 242 From Natural Warfare and insensate Chance, 243 Create the new Ideal rule for man! 244 Methinks that was not my inheritance; 245 For I was nurtured otherwise, my soul 246 Passes from higher heights of life to a more supreme goal. 247 Lo! while we spake the earth did turn away 248 Her visage from the God, and Hecate’s boat 249 Rose silver-laden, till the jealous day 250 Blew all its torches out: I did not note 251 The waning hours, to young Endymions 252 Time’s palsied fingers count in vain his rosary of suns! 253 Mark how the yellow iris wearily 254 Leans back its throat, as though it would be kissed 255 By its false chamberer, the dragon-fly, 256 Who, like a blue vein on a girl’s white wrist, 257 Sleeps on that snowy primrose of the night, 258 Which ‘gins to flush with crimson shame, and die beneath the light. 259 Come let us go, against the pallid shield 260 Of the wan sky the almond blossoms gleam, 261 The corncrake nested in the unmown field 262 Answers its mate, across the misty stream 263 On fitful wing the startled curlews fly, 264 And in his sedgy bed the lark, for joy that Day is nigh, 265 Scatters the pearlèd dew from off the grass, 266 In tremulous ecstasy to greet the sun, 267 Who soon in gilded panoply will pass 268 Forth from yon orange-curtained pavilion 269 Hung in the burning east, see, the red rim 270 O’ertops the expectant hills! it is the God! for love of him 271 Already the shrill lark is out of sight, 272 Flooding with waves of song this silent dell, – 273 Ah! there is something more in that bird’s flight 274 Than could be tested in a crucible! – 275 But the air freshens, let us go, why soon 276 The woodmen will be here; how we have lived this night of June! Appendix 8: Thomas Hardy, ‘At the Pyramid of Cestius Near the Graves of Shelley and Keats’

1 Who, then, was Cestius, 2 And what is he to me? – 3 Amid thick thoughts and memories multitudinous 4 One thought alone brings he. 5 I can recall no word 6 Of anything he did; 7 For me he is a man who died and was interred 8 To leave a pyramid 9 Whose purpose was exprest 10 Not with its first design, 11 Nor till, far down in Time, beside it found their rest 12 Two countrymen of mine. 13 Cestius in life, maybe, 14 Slew, breathed out threatening; 15 I know not. This I know: in death all silently 16 He does a finer thing, 17 In beckoning pilgrim feet 18 With marble finger high 19 To where, by shadowy wall and history-haunted street, 20 Those matchless singers lie . . . . 21 – Say, then, he lived and died 22 That stones which bear his name 23 Should mark, through Time, where two immortal Shades abide; 24 It is an ample fame.

164 Appendix 9: Thomas Hall Caine, ‘To OMB’

1 Wrestling, we cannot let our angels go 2 Until perforce they bless us; sunward then 3 Wearing the rose of youth they pass our ken 4 Adown their weltering way in Eve’s warm glow. 5 Stay thou, even thou, and bless us! yea that so 6 Thy sinuous loins engirt about with truth 7 Fulfil the broad-thewed promise of their youth; 8 Nay stay; nor leave us till thy name we know. 9 Prevailing, thou art gone; and now at gaze, 10 We strain sad eyes into the crimsoning haze, 11 Even to the eternal city of the sun. 12 Foredoomed to go, farewell! albeit lies 13 Down meads of memory till the Day be done 14 Thy path predestined through the centuries.

165 Appendix 10: Ella Wheeler Wilcox, ‘The King and the Siren’

1 The harsh King – Winter – sat upon the hills, 2 And reigned and ruled the earth right royally. 3 He locked the rivers, lakes, and all the rills – 4 ‘I am no puny, maudlin king’, quoth he, 5 ‘But a stern monarch, born to rule, and reign; 6 And I’ll show my power to the end. 7 The Summer’s flowery retinue I’ve slain, 8 And taken the bold free North Wind for my friend.’ 9 ‘Spring, Summer, Autumn – feeble queens they were, 10 With their vast troops of flowers, birds and bees, 11 Soft winds, that made the long green grasses stir – 12 They lost their own identity in things like these! 13 I scorn them all! nay, I defy them all! 14 And none can wrest the sceptre from my hand. 15 And trusty North Wind answers to my call, 16 And breathes his icy breath upon the land.’ 17 The Siren – South Wind – listening the while, 18 Now floated airily across the lea. 19 ‘O King!’ she cried, with tender tone and smile, 20 ‘I come to do all homage unto thee. 21 In all the sunny region, whence I came, 22 I find none like thee, King, so brave and grand! 23 Thine is a well-deserved, unrivalled fame; 24 I kiss, in awe, dear King, thy cold white hand.’ 25 Her words were pleasing, and most fair her face, 26 He listened rapt to her soft-whispered praise. 27 She nestled nearer, in her Siren grace. 28 ‘Dear King’, she said, ‘henceforth my voice shall raise 29 But songs of thy unrivalled splendour! Lo! 30 How white thy brow is! How thy garments shine! 31 I tremble ‘neath thy beaming glance, for oh, 32 Thy wondrous beauty makes thee seem divine.’ 33 The vain King listened, in a trance of bliss, 34 To this most sweet-voiced Siren from the South. 35 She nestled close, and pressed a lingering kiss

166 Appendix 10 167

36 Upon the stern white pallor of his mouth. 37 She hung upon his breast, she pressed his cheek, 38 And he was nothing loath to hold her there, 39 While she such tender, loving words did speak, 40 And combed his white locks with her fingers fair. 41 And so she bound him, in her Siren wiles, 42 And stole his strength, with every kiss she gave, 43 And stabbed him through and through, with tender smiles, 44 And with her loving words, she dug his grave; 45 And then she left him, old, and weak, and blind, 46 And unlocked all the rivers, lakes, and rills, 47 While the queen Spring, with her whole troop, behind, 48 Of flowers, and birds, and bees, came o’er the hills. Appendix 11: Tony Harrison, ‘A Kumquat for John Keats’

1 Today I found the right fruit for my prime, 2 not orange, not tangelo, and not lime, 3 nor moon-like globes of grapefruit that now hang 4 outside our bedroom, nor tart lemon’s tang 5 (though last year full of bile and self-defeat 6 I wanted to believe no life was sweet) 7 nor the tangible sunshine of the tangerine, 8 and no incongruous citrus ever seen 9 at greengrocers’ in Newcastle or Leeds 10 mis-spelt by the spuds and mud-caked swedes, 11 a fruit an older poet might substitute 12 for the grape John Keats thought fit to be Joy’s fruit, 13 when, two years before he died, he tried to write 14 how Melancholy dwelled inside Delight, 15 and if he’d known the citrus that I mean 16 that’s not orange, lemon, lime or tangerine, 17 I’m pretty sure that Keats, though he had heard 18 ‘of candied apple, quince and plum and gourd’ 19 instead of ‘grape against the palate fine’ 20 would have, if he’d known it, plumped for mine, 21 this Eastern citrus scarcely cherry size 22 he’d bite just once and then apostrophize 23 and pen one stanza how the fruit had all 24 the qualities of fruit before the Fall, 25 but in the next few lines be forced to write 26 how Eve’s apple tasted at the second bite, 27 and if John Keats had only lived to be, 28 because of extra years, in need like me, 29 at 42 he’d help me celebrate 30 that Micanopy kumquat that I ate 31 whole, straight off the tree, sweet pulp and sour skin – 32 or was it sweet outside, and sour within? 33 For however many kumquats that I eat 34 I’m not sure if it’s flesh or rind that’s sweet, 35 and being a man of doubt at life’s mid-way 36 I’d offer Keats some kumquats and I’d say: 37 You’ll find that one part’s sweet and one part’s tart: 38 say where the sweetness or the sourness start.

168 Appendix 11 169

39 I find I can’t, as if one couldn’t say 40 exactly where the night became the day, 41 which makes for me the kumquat taken whole 42 best fruit, and metaphor, to fit the soul 43 of one in Florida at 42 with Keats 44 crunching kumquats, thinking, as he eats 45 the flesh, the juice, the pith, the pips, the peel, 46 that this is how a full life ought to feel, 47 its perishable relish prick the tongue, 48 when the man who savours life’s no longer young, 49 the fruits that were his futures far behind. 50 Then it’s the kumquat fruit expresses best 51 how days have darkness round them like a rind, 52 life has a skin of death that keeps its zest. 53 History, a life, the heart, the brain 54 flow to the taste buds and flow back again. 55 That decade or more past Keats’s span 56 makes me an older not a wiser man, 57 who knows that it’s too late for dying young, 58 but since youth leaves some sweetness unsung, 59 he’s granted days and kumquats to express 60 Man’s Being ripened by his Nothingness. 61 And it isn’t just the gap of sixteen years, 62 a bigger crop of terrors, hopes and fears, 63 but a century of history on this earth 64 between John Keats’s death and my own birth – 65 years like an open crater, gory, grim, 66 with bloody bubbles leering at the rim; 67 a thing no bigger than an urn explodes 68 and ravishes all silence, and all odes, 69 Flora asphyxiated by foul air 70 unknown to either Keats or Lemprière, 71 dehydrated Naiads, Dryad amputees 72 dragging themselves through slagscapes with no trees, 73 a shirt of Nessus fire that gnaws and eats 74 children half the age of dying Keats . . . 75 Now were you twenty-five or six years old 76 when that fevered brow at last grew cold? 77 I’ve got no books to hand to check the dates. 78 My grudging but glad spirit celebrates 79 that all I’ve got to hand’s the kumquat, John, 80 the fruit I’d love to have your verdict on, 81 but dead men don’t eat kumquats, or drink wine, 82 they shiver in the arms of Proserpine, 83 not warm in bed beside their Fanny Brawne, 84 nor watch her pick ripe grapefruit in the dawn 170 Appendix 11

85 as I did, waking, when I saw her twist, 86 with one deft movement of a sunburnt wrist, 87 the moon that feebly lit our last night’s walk 88 past alligator swampland, off its stalk. 89 I thought of moon-juice juleps when I saw, 90 as if I’d never seen the moon before, 91 the planet glow among the fruit, and its pale light 92 make each citrus on the tree its satellite. 93 Each evening when I reach to draw the blind 94 stars seem the light zest squeezed through night’s black rind; 95 the night’s peeled fruit the sun, juiced of its rays, 96 first stains, then streaks, then floods the world with days, 97 days, when the very sunlight made me weep, 98 days, spent like the nights in deep, drugged sleep, 99 days in Newcastle by my daughter’s bed, 100 wondering if she, or I, weren’t better dead, 101 days in Leeds, grey days, my first dark suit, 102 my mother’s wreaths stacked next to Christmas fruit, 103 and days, like this in Micanopy. Days! 104 As strong sun burns away the dawn’s grey haze 105 I pick a kumquat and the branches spray 106 cold dew in my face to start the day. 107 The dawn’s molasses make the citrus gleam 108 still in the orchards of the groves of dream.

109 The limes, like Galway after weeks of rain, 110 glow with a greenness that is close to pain, 111 the dew-cooled surfaces of fruit that spent 112 all last night flaming in the firmanent. 113 The new day dawns. O days! My spirit greets 114 the kumquat with the spirit of John Keats. 115 O kumquat, comfort for not dying young, 116 both sweet and bitter, bless the poet’s tongue! 117 I burst the whole fruit chilled my morning dew 118 against my palate. Fine, for 42! 119 I search for buzzards as the air grows clear 120 and see them ride fresh thermals overhead. 121 Their bleak cries were the first sound I could hear 122 when I stepped at the start of sunrise out of doors, 123 and a noise like last night’s bedsprings on our bed 124 from Mr Fowler sharpening farmers’ saws. Notes

Introduction

1. Letter to George and Georgiana Keats dated 18 February 1819. All references to Keats’s letters are taken from Letters of John Keats, edited by Robert Gittings (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1975), and will be dated in the text. 2. Marjorie Levinson, Keats’s Life of Allegory: The Origins of a Style (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988). 3. Michael Schmidt, Lives of the Poets (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998). 4. Andrew Motion, Keats (London: Faber and Faber, 1997), p. xix. 5. ‘Continual Allegory’ is the title of the second chapter in William Henry Marquess’s Lives of the Poet: The First Century of Keats Biography (University Park: Pennsylvannia State UP, 1985), p. 73. 6. Jack Stillinger, ‘The “Story” of Keats’, in The Cambridge Companion to Keats, edited by Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001), pp. 246–60 (p. 253). 7. John Barnard, ‘Keats’s Letters’, in The Cambridge Companion to Keats, edited by Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001), pp. 120–34 (p. 123). 8. Andrew Bennett, Keats, Narrative and Audience: The Posthumous Life of Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994), p. 1. 9. Garrett Stewart, ‘Keats and Language’, in The Cambridge Companion to Keats, edited by Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001), pp. 135–51 (p. 135). 10. Lynne Pearce, Woman/Image/Text: Readings in Pre-Raphaelite Art and Literature (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), p. 28. 11. The edition of Shelley’s poetry referred to throughout is Shelley: Poetical Works, edited by Thomas Hutchinson (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1971). Future references will appear in the text. 12. Hunt employs this term to describe his first experience of Keats’s poetry (see Chapter 2, p. 44). 13. Quoted in Marquess, p. 38. 14. Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 1999), p. 185. 15. See Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (Penguin: London, 1991) for contextual background on consumption in the nineteenth century, and Hermione de Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats (New York: Oxford UP, 1991) for Keats’s relation to the discourse of disease. 16. Jennifer Davis Michael, ‘Pectoriloquy: The Narrative of Consumption in the Letters of John Keats’, European Romantic Review 6 (1996), 38–56

171 172 Notes

(pp. 48, 53). Michael suggests that as Keats’s poetic output ceased, he left ‘only pectoriloquy, the potently signifying speech of the body’ that is voiced in his letters (p. 53). The auto-cannibalism of his vital organs can be read as ‘an embodied and interpretable text’ (p. 46). Denise Gigante similarly identifies a relationship between textuality and the consump- tive body: ‘Keats is virtually unique among poets in the fact that the details of his physical disintegration, the “ghastly wasting-away of his body and extremities” documented in painful detail in the journal letters of Severn, form an appendix (if not more vital appendage) to his literary corpus’. See ‘Keats’s Nausea’, Studies in Romanticism, 40 (2001), 481–510 (p. 508). 17. Andrew Epstein, ‘ “Flowers that Mock the Corse Beneath”: Shelley’s Adonais, Keats, and Poetic Influence’, Keats-Shelley Journal, 48 (1999), 90–128 (p. 111). 18. For a more detailed discussion of Bakhtin’s view of the complementary Other, see Deborah J. Haynes, Bakhtin and the Visual Arts (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995). 19. See Deborah Cherry and Griselda Pollock, ‘Woman as Sign in Pre-Raphaelite Literature: A Study of the Representation of Elizabeth Siddall’, Art History, 7 (1984), 206–27. 20. For a discussion of the gendering of TB, see Susan J. Wolfson, ‘Feminizing Keats’, in Critical Essays on John Keats, edited by Hermione De Almeida (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1990), pp. 317–56. 21. Anne K. Mellor, Romanticism and Gender (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 171–86 (p. 171). See also Margaret Homans, ‘Keats Reading Women, Women Reading Keats’, Studies in Romanticism, 29 (1990), 341–72. 22. Anne K. Mellor, ‘Keats and the Complexities of Gender’, in The Cambridge Companion to Keats, edited by Susan J. Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001), pp. 214–29. 23. Margaret Homans, ‘Amy Lowell’s Keats: Reading Straight, Writing Lesbian’, The Yale Journal of Criticism, 14 (2001), 319–51 (p. 329); James Najarian, Victorian Keats: Manliness, Sexuality, and Desire (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002). 24. Lives of the Great Romantics II: Keats, Coleridge and Scott by their Contempo- raries: Keats, edited by Jennifer Wallace (London: Pickering and Chatto, 1997), p. xviii. 25. Toril Moi, ‘Patriarchal Thought and the Drive for Knowledge’, in Between Feminism and Psychoanalysis, edited by Teresa Breman (London: Routledge, 1989), pp. 189–205. See also Sexual/Textual Poli- tics: Feminist Literary Theory, edited by Toil Moi (London: Methuen, 1985) and the chapter entitled ‘Self and Others’ in Lois McNay, Foucault and Feminism: Power, Gender and the Self (Cornwall: Polity Press, 1992), pp. 157–91. 26. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, 3 vols (London: Lane, 1979), I. 27. For example, George H. Ford examines the Romantic poet’s influence on nineteenth-century writers at the expense of pictorial renderings. See Keats and the Victorians: A Study of His Influence and Rise to Fame Notes 173

1821–1895 (London: Archon Books, 1962). Similarly, Marquess devotes only a single passage to the Pre-Raphaelites in his study of Keats’s afterlife. Admittedly, Lives of the Poet focuses on biography, but even Grant F. Scott’s book on Keats as an ekphrastic poet limits any discussion of paintings by Millais and Hunt to a few paragraphs. See the chapter entitled ‘Words into Pictures’, in The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts (London: New England UP, 1994), pp. 68–95. 28. Quoted in Cedric Watts, A Preface to Keats (London: Longman, 1985), p. 66. 29. See Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (New York: Columbia UP, 1985). 30. Grant F. Scott, ‘Language Strange: A Visual History of Keats’s “La Belle Dame sans Merci” ’, Studies in Romanticism, 38 (1999), 503–35 (p. 532).

1 Keats’s posthumous life of elegy

1. Jeffrey C. Robinson, Reception and Poetics in Keats: ‘My Ended Poet’ (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), p. 52. 2. Robinson’s appendix consists of over thirty elegies to Keats. Whilst the focus of this chapter is on nineteenth-century tributes, Robinson’s survey attests to the continuing compulsion to elegise Keats. 3. Letter to Dante Gabriel Rossetti dated 26 March 1880 (Caine’s reference to Keats as a ‘perennial’ also appears in this letter). This letter and Caine’s sonnet to ‘John Keats’ are part of an extensive correspondence that will be discussed at greater length in Chapter 3 (see note 16). 4. Andrew Epstein, ‘ “Flowers that Mock the Corse Beneath”: Shelley’s Adonais, Keats, and Poetic Influence’, Keats-Shelley Journal, 48 (1999), 90–128 (p. 128). 5. If we accept Denise Gigante’s portrait of Keats as a poetic ‘ravener’ who succumbed to a ‘fiercely carnivorous consumption’, it can be argued that ‘Adonais’ continues a process initiated by the subject. See ‘Keats’s Nausea’, Studies in Romanticism, 40 (2001), 481–510 (pp. 483–4). 6. Peter M. Sacks, The English Elegy: Studies in the Genre from Spenser to Yeats (London: John Hopkins UP, 1985), p. 36. 7. Michael O’Neill, ‘Adonais and Poetic Power’, The Wordsworth Circle, 35 (Spring 2004), 50–7 (p. 51). 8. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (London: Yale UP, 1979), p. 6. 9. Letter to John and Maria Gisbourne dated 5 June 1821. The phrase ‘piece of art’ is also from this source and emphasised in the original. In a letter to Claire Claremont, dated 8 June 1821, Shelley stresses that ‘Adonais’ is ‘better than anything that I have yet written’. The edition of Shelley’s letters referred to throughout this chapter is The Complete Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley, edited by Roger Ingpen, 10 vols (London: Ernest 174 Notes

Benn, 1965), X. Subsequent references to Shelley’s letters will be dated in the text. 10. For a discussion of the rivalry between Shelley and Keats, see James A. W. Heffernan, ‘“Adonais”: Shelley’s Consumption of Keats’, Studies in Romanti- cism, 23 (1984), 295–315 (pp. 299–300). 11. The edition of Shelley’s poetry referred to throughout this chapter is Shelley: Poetical Works, edited by Thomas Hutchinson (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1971). All subsequent references will appear in the text. 12. Susan J. Wolfson, ‘Keats enters history: Autopsy, Adonais, and the fame of Keats’, in Keats and History, edited by Nicholas Roe (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995), pp. 17–45 (p. 32). 13. Shelley’s Preface to ‘Adonais’ in W. M. Rossetti, The Adonais of Shelley (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891), p. 70. All subsequent references to the Preface are from this edition. 14. See Rachel Falconer, Orpheus Dis(re)Membered: Milton and the Myth of the Poet-Hero (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996). For a full account of Shelley versus Southey, see Heffernan, pp. 301–4. 15. Richard Monckton Milnes, Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats, 2 vols (London: Moxon, 1848). For further details on early biographies of Keats, see Lives of the Great Romantics II: Keats, Coleridge and Scott by their Contemporaries: Keats, edited by Jennifer Wallace (London: Pickering and Chatto, 1997). 16. According to Robinson, Alice Meynell’s description of Keats as ‘my ended poet’ encapsulates this Victorian archetype. 17. W. G. T., ‘The Poems of Percy Bysshe Shelley’, Metropolitan Magazine, 14 (September 1835), 53–66. Quoted in Wolfson, p. 19. 18. Shelley refers to Keats’s ‘penetrable’ nature in the Preface (p. 70). 19. Sacks, The English Elegy, p. 5. See pp. 4–8 for an in-depth discussion of ‘the dramatic relation between loss and figuration’ in the stories of Apollo and Daphne, Pan and Syrinx (p. 4). Certain images in ‘Adonais’, such as ‘his light limbs’ (92), suggest an Orphic dismemberment that not only recalls the attempted rapes of both Daphne and Syrinx, but more specifically relates to the violence of the Ciconian women – most notably, the rape- like imagery of their phallic missiles, the silencing of their victim’s ‘lifeless tongue’ and the dispersal of the male form: ‘His limbs lie scattered in various places.’ See Mark P. O. Morford and Robert J. Lenardon, Classical Mythology, 3rd edn (New York and London: Longman, 1985), p. 286. 20. See Ovid, Metamorphoses, translated by A. D. Melville (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1986), pp. 234–41, and James George Frazer, The Golden Bough: Studies in the History of Oriental Religion: Adonis, Attis, Osiris, 12 vols, 3rd edn (London: Macmillan, 1941), I. 21. Milton can only summon ‘mild whispers’ and ‘wanton winds’ in ‘Lycidas’, whereas Shelley’s voice captures the primal power of Nature. 22. Laurence Coupe, Myth (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 25. 23. Frazer’s heroic challenger must pluck the golden bough, the repository of Jupiter’s power (Myth, p. 25). Notes 175

24. Richard Holmes, Footsteps: Adventures of a Romantic Biographer (London: Harper Collins, 1985), p. 197. 25. See Matthew Arnold, Essays in Criticism: Second Series (London: Macmillan, 1892), p. 252. 26. See Milnes, Life, Letters, and Literary Remains, pp. 105–6. Framed together, John Linton Chapman’s paintings, ‘Tomb of Shelley’ and ‘Tomb of Keats’ (both 1862), similarly join the poets in death. 27. Ian Jack and Robert Inglesfield speculate that ‘Popularity’ was written between 1853 and 1855 even though it was not published until 1863 (in Dramatic Lyrics). The edition referred to is The Poetical Works of Robert Browning, edited by Ian Jack and Robert Inglesfield, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), V, pp. 434–40. All subsequent references to this poem will appear in the text. 28. Keats and the Victorians: A Study of His Influence and Rise to Fame, 1821–1895 (London: Archon Books, 1962), p. 10. 29. For further details of Browning’s enthusiasm for Keats, see Yas Shen ‘Robert Browning and a Letter of John Keats’, Studies in Browning and his Circle, 6 (1978), 32–8 (pp. 32–3). 30. Stephen Gurney contests this position by identifying deep and profound resonances between the poets. See ‘Between Two Worlds: Keats’s “Hype- rion” and Browning’s “Saul” ’, Studies in Browning and his Circle, 8 (1980), 57–74. For another perspective on the literary affinity between Keats and Browning, see Sung Ryol Kim, ‘Browning’s Vision of Keats: “Cleon” and the “Mansion of Many Apartments” Letter’, Victorian Poetry, 34 (1996), 223–32. 31. In terms of length, ‘Adonais’ consists of fifty-five stanzas while ‘Popu- larity’ only runs to thirteen; in terms of the number of lines, Shelley’s elegy is almost eight times longer than that of Browning. 32. Celeste M. Schenck, ‘Feminism and Deconstruction: Re-Constructing the Elegy’, Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature, 5 (1986), 13–27 (p. 15). 33. ‘On Keats’, 11–13. The edition referred to is The Poetical Works of Christina Rossetti, edited by W. M. Rossetti (London: Macmillan, 1928), p. 291. Subsequent references to this poem will appear in the text. 34. Frances Thomas, Christina Rossetti: A Biography (London: Virago, 1992), p. 55. 35. Lona Mosk Packer, Christina Rossetti (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1963), p. 14. 36. Barbara Fass, ‘Christina Rossetti and St Agnes’ Eve’, Victorian Poetry, 14 (1976), 33–46 (p. 35). 37. Antony H. Harrison, Christina Rossetti in Context (Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP, 1988), p. 48. 38. David Latham, ‘Haunted Texts: The Invention of Pre-Raphaelite Studies’, in Haunted Texts: Studies in Pre-Raphaelitism, edited by David Latham (Toronto: Toronto UP, 2003), pp. 1–33 (p. 22). 39. ‘On Keats’s Grave’ appeared in an early manuscript that included poems dated from December 1868 to April 1870. 176 Notes

40. The flowers that grew over Keats’s grave invariably prompted a tender remembrance of the poet. The ‘violets and daisies’ (p. 70) that Shelley notes in the Preface to ‘Adonais’ are described as ‘A light of laughing flowers along the grass’ in the elegy itself (441). Unlike Shelley, however, the flora and fauna in Meynell’s elegy does not indicate the prowess of the elegist, but recalls the connection Keats made between flowers, fecundity and poetic conception:

A rosy sanctuary will I dress With the wreathed trellis of a working brain, With buds, and bells, and stars without a name, With all the gardener Fancy e’er could feign, Who breeding flowers, will never breed the same. (‘Ode to Psyche’, 59–63)

41. Although Rossetti’s interest in Keats emerged in the 1840s, it was not until 1881, a year before his death, that this elegy was published. 42. To generate each separate fricative sound, the tongue must perform a complete velic closure to trap air in the mouth, thereby rendering the articulation of Rossetti’s half-line linguistically strenuous. 43. Forming a further connection between Rossetti and his elegiac predecessors, Shelley also introduces the dreaded river of forgetfulness in ‘Adonais’. Plutarch called Dionysus ‘son of Lethe’, referring to his association with wine; thus, the role that Shelley selects to manage or repress Keats’s rebirth insidiously impedes the subject through an allusion to his own poetic fears (Robert Graves, The Greek Myths [London: Penguin, 1992], p. 57). Epstein argues that Keats’s aesthetic is turned against him in ‘Adonais’. The subject’s indeterminacy enables Shelley to consign him to ‘an endless paralysis of sleep’, a ‘Cold Pastoral’ of silence and inertia (‘Flowers that Mock’, p. 119). 44. Keats requested that the inscription on his gravestone read: ‘Here lies one whose name was writ in water.’ However, it was ‘embellished by Charles Brown so as to concur with Shelley that Keats’s death was hastened by enemies’, and subsequently read: ‘This grave contains all that was Mortal, of a YOUNG ENGLISH POET Who, on his Death Bed, in the Bitterness of his Heart at the Malicious Power of his Enemies, Desired these Words to be engraven on his Tomb Stone.’ Brown later considered the alteration to be a ‘sort of profanation’, but he was not alone in his desire to supple- ment the terse line that Keats proposed. Some fifty-five years after Keats’s death, a medallion by John Warrington Wood (based on a medallion plaque by Giuseppe Girometti) and a poem engraved by Major-General Sir Vincent Eyre were unveiled beside the Romantic poet’s tomb. The first line of verse questions the epitaph it is intended to complement: ‘Keats! if thy cherished name be “writ in water” ’ (my emphasis). All references to Brown are quoted in Robert Woof and Stephen Hebron, John Keats (Grasmere: Wordsworth Trust, 1995), p. 167. See also for a brief history of Keats’s grave in ‘The Protestant Cemetery’. 45. Appendix 7 includes all the poems I will be discussing in this section: ‘The Grave of Keats’, ‘Endymion’ and ‘The Garden of Eros’. Notes 177

46. The edition of Wilde’s poems used throughout this section is the Complete Works of Oscar Wilde, introduction by Vyvyan Holland (London: Collins, 1990). Subsequent references will appear in the text. 47. In a letter to Lord Houghton, c.16 June 1877, Wilde comments on the marble tablet next to Keats’s grave. He does not attempt to alter the ‘fairly good lines of poetry on it’, but critiques Wood’s relief for not capturing the ‘finely cut nostril, and Greek sensuous delicate lips’ that he supposes Keats to have possessed. (The Letters of Oscar Wilde, edited by Rupert Hart-Davis [London: Hart-Davies, 1962], p. 41. Subsequent refer- ences to Wilde’s letters will appear in the text). As James Najarian suggests, Wilde ‘condemned the more anatomically accurate paintings’ of Keats, preferring instead ‘Severn’s feminized, beautified, popularized versions’. See Victorian Keats: Manliness, Sexuality, and Desire (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), p. 44. 48. This description appears in a version of the poem that was enclosed in a letter to Lord Houghton, discussed in the previous note, along with a third, slightly different version entitled ‘Heu Miserande Puer’ (see ‘The Tomb of Keats’, Irish Monthly Magazine [July 1877], 476–8). The edition of Wilde’s essays I will be referring to throughout this section is The Artist as Critic: Critical Writings of Oscar Wilde, edited by Richard Ellman (London: W. H. Allen, 1970). 49. Letter dated January 1893, quoted in Melissa Knox, Oscar Wilde: A Long and Lovely Suicide (London: Yale UP, 1994), p. 40. See also Alan Sinfield, The Wilde Century: Effeminacy, Oscar Wilde and the Queer Moment (London: Cassell, 1994). 50. Emma Speed was the daughter of George Keats, the poet’s younger brother who emigrated to America in 1818. After hearing a lecture given by Wilde in Kentucky on 21 February 1882, she invited the speaker to look at Keats’s letters and manuscripts. Speed subsequently sent Wilde the manuscript of ‘Sonnet on Blue’ to which he responded: ‘It is a sonnet I have always loved, and indeed who but the supreme and perfect artist could have got from a mere colour a motive so full of marvel; and now I am half enamoured of the paper that touched his hand, and the ink that did his bidding, grown fond of the sweet comeliness of his charactery.’ 51. James Najarian, ‘ “Greater Love”: Wilfred Owen, Keats, and a Tradition of Desire’, Twentieth-Century Literature, 47 (2001), 20–39 (pp. 21, 23). 52. Najarian reminds us that Wilde’s adopted name Sebastian ‘adds a distinctly homoerotic element’ to the image of Keats pierced by critics’ arrows (Victorian Keats, p. 19). 53. Other authors, namely Thomas Hood and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, also referred to Keats as Endymion. 54. Christopher Ricks, Keats and Embarrassment (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 13. In representing Keats as Adonais, Shelley is not only alluding to the mythological significance of this figure, but also equating the dead poet with his own effeminised portrayal of the character. 178 Notes

55. The theme of belatedness is also a concern for Keats in Endymion: ‘Ay, the count/Of mighty Poets is made up [...] the sun of poesy is set’ (II, 723–4, 729). 56. David Bergman, Gaiety Transfigured: Gay Self-Representation in American Literature (Wisconsin: Wisconsin UP, 1991), pp. 44, 45 (original emphasis). 57. See Jonathon Dollimore, Sexual Dissidence: Augustine to Wilde, Freud to Foucault (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), p. 65. 58. The edition of Hardy’s poems referred to throughout this section is Thomas Hardy: A Critical Selection of his Finest Poetry, edited by Samuel Hynes (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1984). Subsequent references to his poems will appear in the text. 59. Even though the later poem, ‘At a House in Hampstead Sometime Dwelling of John Keats’ (1920), moves from Rome to England and focuses on the subject, Keats is still an ‘umbraged ghost’, a malcontent ‘haunting’ the author (15, 1). Another feature common to all Hardy’s elegies on Keats, including ‘At Lulworth Cove a Century Back’ (1920), is the prevalence of question marks: the repeated half-line ‘You see that man?’ structures the central section of ‘Lulworth Cove’, while the first five verses of ‘At a House in Hampstead’ end with questions. This insistent uncertainty derives, in part, from guilt as Hardy felt burdened by the poor critical reception Keats received during his lifetime.

2 Pre-raphaelite visions of Keats’s poetry

1. Letter from Thomas Hall Caine to William Michael Rossetti, dated 27 September 1879, in reference to Arthur Hughes’s painting ‘Music Party’ (which was accompanied by a quotation from ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’). For more details on the Caine correspondence, see Chapter 3, n. 16. 2. Julie F. Codell, ‘Painting Keats: Pre-Raphaelite Artists Between Social Transgressions and Painterly Conventions’ Victorian Poetry, 33 (1995), 341–70 (p. 366). 3. Hunt’s formative relationship with Keats’s work is recorded in the artist’s autobiography, Pre-Raphaelitism and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 2 vols (New York: AMS Press, 1967), I, pp. 105–7. Unless otherwise stated, all quotations by Hunt on the subject of Keats are taken from these pages. G. H. Fleming argues that Hunt knew of Keats’s poetry as early as 1845. See John Everett Millais: A Biography (London: Constable, 1998), p. 35. 4. George H. Ford, Keats and the Victorians: A Study of His Influence and Rise to Fame 1821–1895 (London: Archon Books, 1962), pp. 107–8. 5. Letter to George and Georgiana Keats written between December 1818 and January 1819. 6. J. R. MacGillivray goes even further, suggesting that Keats was not only a crucial influence on the PRB but, albeit anachronously, was actually a member of the movement: ‘Keats was really a Pre-Raphaelite – thirty years before the Brotherhood.’ Keats: A Bibliography and Reference Guide Notes 179

with an Essay on Keats’ Reputation (University of Toronto: Toronto UP, 1949), p. lx. 7. See n. 4. 8. Hunt’s comment on Keats’s verse comes from his autobiography, Pre- Raphaelitism, p. 80. Rossetti’s statement is quoted in Memorials of Edward Burne-Jones, edited by Georgiana Burne-Jones, 2 vols (London: Lund Humphries, 1993), I, p. 145. 9. Stephen Spender, ‘The Pre-Raphaelite Literary Painters’, in Pre-Raphaelitism: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by James Sambrook (Chicago: Chicago UP, 1974), pp. 118–25 (p. 121). 10. Percy Muir, Victorian Illustrated Books (London: B. T. Batsford, 1971), p. 207. 11. Arthur Henry Hallam, ‘On Some of the Characteristics of Modern Poetry, and on the Lyrical Poems of Alfred Tennyson’, Englishman’s Magazine (August 1831), pp. 616–28. 12. Quoted in Keats: Narrative Poems, edited by John Spencer Hill (London: Macmillan, 1983), pp. 61–2. Such a subjective response to this poem was not unique and merely served as an invitation to Keats’s detractors. His ‘artistry’ was associated with ‘a kind of prettifying ornateness and fuss- iness’ characteristic of the Cockney School (Kelvin Everest, ‘ “Isabella” in the market-place: Keats and feminism’, in Keats and History, edited by Nicholas Roe [Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995], pp. 107–26 [p. 109]). 13. Jack Stillinger, ‘The “story” of Keats’, in The Cambridge Companion to Keats, edited by Susan Wolfson (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001), pp. 246–60 (pp. 257, 258). 14. Review of The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis and the Visual Arts by Grant F. Scott, in The Keats-Shelley Review, 10 (1996), p. 108. 15. See Marjorie Levinson, Keats’s Life of Allegory: The Origins of a Style (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), pp. 97–104. 16. The Paragone debate, or Ut Pictora Poesis, is testament to the creative ‘productivity’ of ekphrasis. 17. Quoted in Anne Clark Amor, William Holman Hunt: The True Pre-Raphaelite (London: Constable, 1989), p. 43 (original emphasis). 18. Pre-Raphaelites Re-Viewed, edited by Marcia Pointon (Manchester: Manchester UP, 1989), pp. 5–8. 19. Codell, ‘Painting Keats’, p. 352. Judith Bronkhurst is equally convinced by Hunt’s didactic narrative: see The Pre-Raphaelites, edited by Leslie Parris (London: Tate Gallery, 1984), pp. 57–8. 20. Wayne Cook, ‘John Keats and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood: Pictorial Poetry and Narrative Painting’, University of Hartford Studies in Literature, 20 (1988), 1–21 (p. 8). 21. See Cook, ‘Keats and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood’, p. 3. Millais lamented a lack of vibrancy in art of the period: ‘when the turn of violet comes, why does the courage of the modern imitator fail? If you notice, a clean purple is scarcely ever given these days’ (quoted in Amor, The True Pre-Raphaelite, p. 32). Despite Millais’s complaint, it is noticeable that the young women in Arthur Hughes’s work are usually clothed in 180 Notes

brilliant shades of purple, most notably in scenes of courtship: ‘The Long Engagement’, ‘The Pained Heart’, ‘Fair Rosamund’, ‘The Brave Geraint’, ‘The Rift within the Lute’ and ‘A Music Party’. William Morris purchased Hughes’s ‘April Love’ (1855–6) soon after completion because of his asso- ciation between violet and desire. 22. A History of British Art, Andrew Graham-Dixon. BBC Television, 1996. 23. Cook suggests that Keats was the most significant influence: ‘Before he “skimmed” – the word is his – Ruskin’s Modern Painters, Hunt took from Keats a foundation for his belief that he should paint something new, of his time, with the same vividness and intensity that he praised in Keats’ (‘Keats and the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood’, p. 5). 24. See Christopher Wood, The Pre-Raphaelites (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), p. 14; Russell Ash, Sir John Everett Millais (London: Pavilon, 1996), Plate 3; Ash, Millais, Plate 3; Steven Adams, The Art of the Pre-Raphaelites (London: New Burlington Books, 1992), p. 33; and Andrew Graham-Dixon, A History of British Art (London: BBC Worldwide Limited, 1996), p. 175. 25. Lynne Pearce, Woman/Image/Text: Readings in Pre-Raphaelite Art and Literature (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), p. 96. 26. The Athenaeum (1849), p. 575, quoted at length in Pre-Raphaelitism, I, pp. 178–9. 27. Letter to Shelley, dated 16 August 1820, commenting on The Cenci. 28. Elizabeth Jones, ‘Writing for the Market: Keats’s Odes as Commodities’, Studies in Romanticism, 34 (1995), 343–64 (p. 343). 29. See Kurt Heinzelman, ‘Self-Interest and the Politics of Composition in Keats’s “Isabella”’, ELH, 55 (1988), 159–93. 30. Cedric Watts claims that it was this dictionary that provided Keats with his striking lines of pearl divers suffering from decompression sickness in ‘Isabella’, an image in which the relation between economic gain, human loss, and poetic sensation is vividly realised. See Cedric Watts, A Preface to Keats (London and New York: Longman, 1985), p. 6. 31. Susan Wolfson, The Questioning Presence: Wordsworth, Keats, and the Interrogative Mode in Romantic Poetry (Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1986), p. 280. 32. W. M. Rossetti, Life of John Keats (London: Walter Scott, 1887), p. 181; Literary Gazette (9 June 1849), p. 433. 33. The PRBs’ first proposed project was to illustrate Keats’s ‘Isabella’. If, as Codell suggests, Moxon’s rigorous protection of copyright had not prevented the scheme, ‘the plan to make copperplate etchings, [was] a lucrative commercial project’ (‘Painting Keats’, p. 348). 34. This sketch was begun after the artist and Millais observed a Chartist demonstration which led to ‘bloody strife’. Hunt and Millais followed the demonstration from Russell Square, across Blackfriars to Kennington Court, but as the former recalled, ‘we did not venture on to the grass with the agitators’. Whilst taking a curious interest in the Chartist’s revolt, both artists remain at a safe distance, empathising with radicalism but not embracing it (Pre-Raphaelitism, I, p. 101). 35. Bronkhurst in The Pre-Raphaelites, edited by Parris, p. 245. Notes 181

36. From a biographical perspective, Amor describes Hunt’s captivation with his father’s business when he was a child. Even though the family went to live in the suburbs of London, ‘young Holman continued to haunt the warehouse, keenly observing everything that went on in there’ (Amor, p. 15). A schoolbook, dated 12 September 1837, shows how heavily his interests were ‘biased in favour of simple accountancy and currency conversion, as befitted a boy who was meant to follow his father into trade’ (pp. 18–19). 37. As MacGillivray summarises, ‘he [Keats] was a merely literary poet in the narrowest sense of the term, out of all touch with the life of the age, without intellectual interests or moral concerns, a confectioner of verbal sweetmeats’ (Keats’ Reputation, p. xii). It is only relatively recently that Keats’s social and political concerns have become the subject of critical interest. See, for example, Nicholas Roe’s John Keats and the Culture of Dissent (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997). 38. Jan Marsh, Pre-Raphaelite Women: Images of Femininity in Pre-Raphaelite Art (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987), p. 47. 39. Bronkhurst in The Pre-Raphaelites, p. 245. 40. As Jason Rosenfeld states, ‘The career of Sir John Everett Millais [. . .] revolved around the Royal Academy of Arts’. See Pre-Raphaelite and Other Masters: The Andrew Lloyd Webber Collection (London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2003), p. 45. Thus, his membership of the PRB could be viewed as a temporary blip in an otherwise exemplary career (argu- ably, the Pre-Raphaelite rebellion could still be seen as centred on, and therefore intrinsically related to, the Academy). In later years, Millais would denounce the idea of ‘schools’ or groups of painters, such as the one to which he had previously belonged, dismissing them as ‘artistic cliques’. See ‘The Late President’, The Artist, 18 (1896), 385–92 (p. 386). 41. See Mary Bennett, Millais PRB–PRA (London: Royal Academy, 1967), p. 13. 42. A reviewer for The Artist lists some of the prices paid for Millais’s later work: ‘ “The Princes in the Tower” brought nearly £4,000, “The Order of Release” more than £2,800, “Victory, O Lord!” £2,047, “Jephthah” £3,990, and “Chill October” £3,225’ (p. 386). This rapid change in Millais’s fortunes is attributable to many factors; most significantly, alter- ations in the art market and a subsequent shift in public taste (for further discussion on this topic, see G. D. Leslie, The Inner Life of the Royal Academy [1914], George Moore, Modern Painting [1898], and Lucy Crane, Art and the Formation of Taste, in Bernard Denvir, The Late Victorians: Art, Design and Society 1852–1910 [London: Longman, 1986], pp. 33–6, 127–30, 217–20). On a personal level, the artist replaced his meticulous approach with a quicker, more impressionistic style. This facilitated the ‘line of production’, the ‘pot-boiler[s] of genius’ that characterise his later career (Other Masters, p. 45; The Artist, p. 390). 43. Codell, ‘The artist colonized: Holman Hunt’s “bio-history”, masculinity, nationalism and the English school’, in Re-framing the Pre-Raphaelites: Historical 182 Notes

and Theoretical Essays, edited by Ellen Harding (Bournemouth: Scolar Press, 1996), pp. 211–29 (p. 215). 44. The prie-dieu also belonged to Hunt. 45. See Amor, pp. 193–4. 46. See ‘The artist colonized’, p. 226. 47. The artist was actually working on a portrait of his wife whilst painting ‘Isabella’. 48. See Boccaccio’s introduction to The Decameron, translated by G. H. McWilliam (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), pp. 49–64. 49. Letter to F. G. Stephens, dated 9 October 1866, quoted in The Pre- Raphaelites, p. 216. 50. Bennie Gray in The Last Romantics: The Romantic Tradition in British Art, edited by John Christian (London: Lund Humphries, 1989), p. 92. 51. Walter Crane’s ‘The Eve of St Agnes’ is a reverent portrait of Madeline in the act of worship. Her Victorian attire covers legs, arms and chest, her hair is swept neatly off her face, and her head is bowed modestly in prayer. This remains, however, a rare example of propriety in Keats-based art at this time. Averil Burleigh’s illustration of 1911 captures the conflict between sexuality and morality as Porphyro serenades Madeline while she is deep in prayer. This neat opposition is, however, problematised by the open curtains which invite access to the bed. See The Poems of John Keats (London: Chapman and Hall, 1911). Keats’s boundaries are never distinct; as sensuality permeates the prescribed territories of morality, Madeline’s religious desires are cautiously met by, or transferred into, a secular form of satisfaction. Therefore, an intersection between two seemingly irreconcil- able themes is forced after the moment of consummation which causes the disorientation ‘and even dismay’ of both the heroine and the reader. 52. See Fleming, Millais, pp. 203–6. 53. See Nina Auerbach, Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth (Cambridge, USA: Harvard UP, 1982). 54. All the paintings discussed in this section confine their respective heroine to a claustrophobic interior, a feature highlighted in Strudwick’s ‘Isabella’ by the windows which reveal an outer world into which the brothers flee. 55. Quotations by Pearce in this paragraph refer to Woman/Image/Text, p. 105. 56. As Ralph Pite suggests, there is an ‘ambiguous distance between narrator and protagonist’ in ‘Isabella’. Keats is self-conscious about his position in the text; therefore, in contrast with Millais’s painting, the reader is not forced to accept a single viewpoint. See Ralph Pite, ‘The Watching Narrator in “Isabella” ’, Essays in Criticism, 40 (1990), 287–302 (p. 288). 57. David Gentleman’s illustration of 1966 addresses the gendered issue of specularity in this scene by revealing the secreted Porphyro as he parts the curtain to peer at Madeline. Therefore, both hero and heroine are equally subject to the viewer’s gaze, but our position – observing the oblivious Madeline – is still comparable to Porphyro’s. See The Poems of John Keats, edited by Aileen Ward (New York: The Heritage Press, 1966). Notes 183

58. Griselda Pollock, ‘What’s wrong with images of women?’, Screen Education, 24 (1977), 25–33 (p. 30). 59. Levinson states: ‘Madeline is self-seduced: Ravished by her own voluptu- ousness, voluntary, and in short masturbatory dreaming’, Keats’s Life of Allegary, p. 111. 60. Charlotte Yeldham, Women Artists in Nineteenth-Century France and England: Their Art Education, Exhibition Opportunities and Membership of Exhibiting Societies and Academies, with an Assessment of the Subject Matter of their Work and Summary Biographies, 2 vols (London: Garland Publishing, 1984), I, p. 150. 61. E. B. S., ‘Eleanor F. Brickdale: Designer and Illustrator’, The Studio, 13 (1898), 103–8 (p. 108). As MacGillivray states, ‘Keats was given his full share of fine paper and beautiful printing’ (Keats Reputaion, p. lxxi). The demand for lavishly illustrated volumes of Keats’s poetry increased steadily during the nineteenth century with a number of individual poems published as ornamental keepsakes. 62. Arthur Fish, Henrietta Rae (London: Cassell and Company, 1905), p. 99. Fish includes a colour reproduction of ‘Isabella’. 63. Dictionary of Women Artists, edited by Delia Gaze, 2 vols (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997), I, p. 318. 64. Isabella or the Pot of Basil (Edinburgh and London: T. N. Foulis, 1907). 65. For Bell’s illustration, see Poems by John Keats (London: George Bell & Sons, 1897), p. 175. 66. The Times (15 March 1886), p. 12. 67. See Academy Notes of 1895, p. 36, for a reproduction of Gloag’s ‘Isabella’, and Academy Notes of 1898, p. 94, for Bedford’s. In her catalogue of paintings by nineteenth-century women artists, Yeldham lists another version of ‘Isabella’ by Ida Nettleship which was exhibited in the same year as Bedford’s. 68. Quoted in Pearce, p. 98. 69. Hughes was not the only artist to be influenced by Hunt’s early rendering of ‘Eve’. E. A. Abbey’s illustrations to this poem show the lovers huddled together as they sneak past a drunken porter who is sprawled across the bottom of the staircase. See Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (January 1880), p. 173. 70. Keats is indicative of a larger trend towards the merely ‘illustrative’ in literary paintings of the late Victorian period. 71. Frank Bridge’s symphonic poem ‘Isabella’ was performed for the first time in 1907, marking a final flourish of creative interest in Keats’s tale. However, in recent years a number of works attest to the continuing cultural legacy of ‘Isabella’: Caroline Blackburn’s ‘L’Amico Fritz’ (2000), a painting based on Mascagni’s opera, features a pot of basil as ‘a personal bow to the Pre-Raphaelites and Romantics in specific terms to both the poem and the painting Isabella and the Pot of Basil’ (http://www.leopardskin.co.uk/ opera/fritz.html). In addition, Jennifer Gentile’s ‘Isabella Holding a Pot of Basil’ (1994) and Mike Groom’s ‘A Pot of Basil’ (2003) register an emerging interest in film shorts based on this source. The visual potential 184 Notes

of Keats’s poetry is no longer limited to the ‘traditional’ arts, but lends itself to a modern, multimedia age. 72. Aubrey Beardsley’s illustration of ‘Isabella and the Pot of Basil’ for The Pall Mall Magazine epitomises this trend. The full-length female figure brooding over her beloved’s decapitated remains trades on the now formulaic image by Hunt (the obligatory watering can – also seen in Waterhouse’s version – is evident to the left of the drawing). However, rather than the lush growth of basil in Hunt’s version, Beardsley’s plant is withered, indicating the current climate of visual interactions with this source. In addition, two flowing lines converge to create the impression of a crocodile’s jaw pointing in between the heroine’s legs. This threat- ening image suggests the artist’s sensitivity to, and abnormal exaggera- tion of, the Pre-Raphaelites’ focus on the theme of sexuality in Keats’s poetry. Beardsley is therefore satirising and re-interpreting what has become anecdotal. Echoing Keats’s regard for romance in the poem itself, Beardsley’s ‘Isabella’ works within, yet displays his discomfort at, the conventional.

3 Rossetti’s influence on Keats’s posthumous reputation

1. George Milner, ‘On Some Marginalia Made by Dante Gabriel Rossetti in a Copy of Keats’s Poems’, Englische Studien, 61 (1929), 211–9 (p. 212). Jerome McGann’s discussion of Rossetti’s aesthetic raises a number of parallels with Keats. If we accept – as outlined in the introduction – the inherent ambiguity of Keats’s verse, then Rossetti’s indefiniteness, his resistance to finality, mirrors the forefather. The ability to create ‘multiple perspectives in a single picture’, offering different views of the same subject, is distinctly Keatsian. Dante Gabriel Rossetti and the Game that Must be Lost (New Haven: Yale UP, 2000), p. 106. 2. Quoted in George H. Ford, Keats and the Victorians: A Study of his Influence and Rise to Fame 1821–1895 (London: Archon Books, 1962), p. 109. Rossetti referred to Keats as ‘a glorious fellow’ in a letter to his brother, dated 20 August 1848. See The Correspondence of Dante Gabriel Rossetti: The Formative Years, 1835–1862: Charlotte Street to Cheyne Walk, edited by William E. Fredeman, 2 vols (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2002), I, p. 68. 3. Julie F. Codell, ‘Painting Keats: Pre-Raphaelite Artists Between Social Transgressions and Painterly Conventions,’ Victorian Poetry, 33 (1995), 341–70 (p. 342). See also Codell, ‘The artist colonized: Holman Hunt’s “bio-history”, masculinity, nationalism and the English school’, in Re- framing the Pre-Raphaelites: Historical and Theoretical Essays, edited by Ellen Harding (Bournemouth: Scolar Press, 1996), pp. 211–29 (p. 211). 4. As Jan Marsh states, Rossetti’s sketch of ‘La Belle Dame’ was ‘the first surviving criticism sheet, dated March 1848’, yet it should also be remembered that ‘the earliest surviving Cyclographic drawing is a study for Hyperion by Holman Hunt, inscribed and dated 1847’. Hunt may have Notes 185

produced the first interart interpretation of Keats’s poetry, but it was not the work specified by the artist. See Jan Marsh, Dante Gabriel Rossetti: Painter and Poet (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), p. 41. 5. Arthur C. Benson, Rossetti (London: Macmillan, 1904), p. 12. Rossetti recalls that he began reading ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’ when he was eighteen see Dante Gabriel Rossetti, John Keats: Criticism and Comment (London: Thomas J. Wise, 1919), p. 14. William Michael Rossetti suggests that his brother was even younger when he became interested in Keats, ‘Towards 1846 Bailey’s Festus, and from a rather earlier date Keats, also ranked with the highest’, while Ford dates Rossetti’s ‘discovery’ of Keats to a specific year, 1845. See W. M. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti as Designer and Writer (London: Cassell & Company, 1889), p. 7. 6. Quoted in Ford, Keats and the Victorians, p. 93. 7. The edition referred to is cited above: Rossetti, John Keats: Criticism and Comment. 8. William Gaunt, The Pre-Raphaelite Tragedy (London: Jonathan Cape, 1965), p. 219. ‘The last phase’ is a chapter heading in this study. 9. Even though McGann questions the perception of Rossetti and his work as a failure, his final chapter is called ‘Sinking Star’ and the title of his study suggests the ultimate futility of his subject’s aesthetic (see Game that Must be Lost, pp. 143–57). 10. Recovery, Respite, Catastrophe and Decline are all chapters in Marsh’s biography of Rossetti. 11. Thomas Hall Caine, Recollections of Rossetti, 2nd edn (London: Cassell and Company, 1928), p. 33. 12. Roger C. Lewis, ‘The Making of Rossetti’s Ballads and Sonnets and Poems (1881)’, Victorian Poetry, 20 (1982), 199–216 (p. 202). 13. Philip Marston suggested such an enterprise to ‘restore him [Rossetti] to his kingdom’ (see Pre-Raphaelite Tragedy, pp. 215–20). The first significant movement, consisting of adopted Pre-Raphaelite ‘brothers’, bonded to the extent that Anne Clark Amor questions the sexual tendencies of certain members. The moment which began the movement is presented as decidedly homoerotic: ‘A common love of Keats drew Rossetti like a magnet to Hunt’s studio, and the two men immediately became inti- mate’ (Anne Clark Amor, William Holman Hunt: The True Pre-Raphaelite [London: Constable, 1989], p. 35). A reunion between these men is described in similar terms: ‘One look and they were embracing each other as thankfully as lovers after a quarrel’ (p. 54). Thomas Woolner, an original member of the Brotherhood, suspected that the relationship between Hunt and Millais was homosexual, which the former later denied, but as Amor states, ‘whatever their exact relationship, they were intensely emotionally dependent on each other, and in later years both men found it difficult to establish satisfactory relationships with women’ (p. 42). 14. Vivien Allen, Hall Caine: Portrait of a Victorian Romancer (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), p. 95. 186 Notes

15. Allen writes,

He [Caine] was introduced to Rossetti’s poetry by a casual acquaint- ance during a holiday in the Lake District. The Liverpool city council had booked him to give a series of lectures at the Public Library that winter. Fired with a proselyte’s enthusiasm, he threw out his original scheme and devoted his lectures to Rossetti’s poetry instead. When they were completed, in March, 1879, he rewrote them for publica- tion and sent the magazine [Colburn’s New Monthly Magazine] in which they appeared to Rossetti.

Vivien Allen, Dear Mr. Rossetti: The Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Hall Caine 1878–1881 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000), pp. 9–10. 16. This letter is dated 29 July 1879, and is part of an extensive correspond- ence housed in the Manx National Heritage Library on the Isle of Man. The letters between Rossetti and Caine have been edited by Vivien Allen (see n. 15), but the sections of the correspondence quoted in this chapter are from my own transcripts of the letters. Unless otherwise stated, all future references to the correspondence between Rossetti and Caine will derive from my work on the letters and will subsequently be dated in the text (the date given is as it appears on the manuscript). I am most grateful for Vivien Allen’s guidance and the help of Roger Sims, Librarian Archivist at the Manx National Heritage Library, for allowing me to handle original and unpublished material within the Hall Caine archive. 17. Quoted in Allen, Dear Mr. Rossetti, p. 7. 18. Paul Hammond, Love Between Men in English Literature (London: Macmillan, 1996), p. 133. 19. Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, edited by Oswald Doughty and John Robert Wahl, IV (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 1621. Subsequent references to this edition will appear in the text with the relevant page number. I should clarify, before elaborating upon this issue, that it is not my intention to reveal a hidden, homosexual Rossetti. The artist was reputed to be a ‘hot-blooded womanizer’ (Jan Marsh, The Legend of Elizabeth Siddal [London: Quartet Books, 1989], p. 84). Yet, as Marsh suggests in her biography of the artist, Rossetti appealed to both sexes: ‘It was said that there was not a woman he could not have won, and hardly a man who could resist his generous, genuine charm’ (Painter and Poet, p. xii). 20. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (New York: Columbia UP, 1985), p. 4. 21. Caine wrote two sonnets on Oliver Madox Brown: the first was written in July 1880 and the second in July 1881. The sonnet I am concerned with here is the latter. 22. Benson, p. 66. The press advertisement is part of the Hall Caine archive (see n. 16). 23. Quotations from an advertisement in Thomas Hall Caine, Cobwebs of Criti- cism (London: Elliot Stock, 1883), p. 267. Notes 187

24. Caine claims that during his stay with Rossetti, ‘I never met her [Jane Morris]’ because ‘as often as she came he would write a little note and send it out to me, saying: “The lady I spoke about has arrived and will stay with me to dinner. In these circumstances I will ask you to be good enough to dine in your own room to-night” ’ (Recollections, p. 141). Rossetti was evidently trying to keep his male and female acquaintances, or heterosexual and homosocial spheres, separate. 25. Robert Woof and Stephen Hebron, John Keats (Grasmere: Wordsworth Trust, 1995), p. 180. 26. See Milner, ‘On Some Marginalia’, p. 212, and Rossetti’s letter to Jane Morris, dated 28 January 1880 (Doughty and Wahl, p. 1704). 27. Hamlet, Act 3, Scene 1, line 60. Rossetti cautioned Caine: ‘We will talk of your Sonnet book and of everything in the circle but not of outside matters of any kind which I do not entertain at all’ (13 April 1881, original emphasis). 28. See Chapter 1, pp. 31–3 for a detailed discussion of this sonnet. 29. See René Girard, Deceit, Desire, and the Novel: Self and Other in Literary Structure, translated by Yvonne Freccero (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1965). 30. Similarly, McGann views the ‘unforgotten, unforgettable faces’ of Rossetti’s large canvases as ciphers; even though the subject is female, ‘a disturbing male gaze turns to look back at itself’ (Game that Must be Lost, p. 154). 31. E. Warwick Slinn, ‘Rossetti’s Elegy for Masculine Desire: Seduction and Loss in the House of Life’, in Haunted Texts: Studies in Pre-Raphaelitism, edited by David Latham (Toronto: Toronto UP, 2003), pp. 53–69 (p. 57). 32. An illustration by Max Beerbohm depicts Theodore Watts and Frederick Shields cautioning Caine against reading his ‘luridly arresting [. . .] literary efforts’ to Rossetti as they contribute to the artist’s insomnia. See Max Beerbohm, Rossetti and his Circle (London: William Heineman, 1922). 33. William E. Fredeman, ‘ “What is Wrong with Rossetti?”: A Centenary Reassessment’, Victorian Poetry, 20 (1982), xv–xxviii (p. xvii). 34. Quoted in Lewis, p. 203. Similarly, Caine regards ‘Hand and Soul’ as ‘charming’, and describes the sonnets as ‘exceedingly beautiful’ (24 February 1880; March 1880). 35. Gaunt refers to Rossetti as ‘the Prospero of Cheyne Walk’ in The Pre- Raphaelite Tragedy, p. 217, and Swinburne describes 16 Cheyne Walk as ‘the paternal household’ (The Swinburne Letters, edited by Cecil Y. Yang, 6 vols [New Haven: Yale UP, 1959], I, p. 118). Ford is a sterner critic and views the artist’s manipulative tendencies as ‘sheer bullying’ (Keats and the Victorians, p. 108). 36. See The Swinburne Letters, I, p. 118. 37. Rossetti almost sacrificed the £1550 offered by Liverpool Council for ‘Dante’s Dream’ as a point of principle over the non-exhibition of his work. For a further discussion of this incident, see Caine, Recollections, pp. 124–32. 38. Russell Ash, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (London: Pavilion, 1995), p. 8. 188 Notes

39. Virginia Surtees, The Paintings and Drawings of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1828–1882): A Catalogue Raisonné (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 156. Noticeably, an economic discourse encroaches on McGann’s discussion of Rossetti’s aesthetic. The artist ‘promises an art of consuming luxury’, producing works that ‘are about being expensive’, yet Rossetti remains mindful of ‘expenditure’, maintaining a balance between ‘imaginative profusion and waste’ (Game that Must be Lost, pp. 97, 151, 144). 40. Another ‘bonus’ that Rossetti tries to engineer for Caine is an acquaint- ance with Lord Houghton (who opposes Caine’s proposed lecture, for encroaching on his efforts to obtain a pension for Keats’s sister, but is finally appeased): ‘I am extremely glad you have got some recognition from Lord Houghton, as he may prove useful in one way or another’ (11 October 1880). 41. In the chapter entitled ‘The Principle of Reciprocity’, Lévi-Strauss outlines the significance of exchange and compensation in marriage. See The Elementary Structures of Kinship, rev edn, translated by James Harle Bell, John Richard von Sturmer and Rodney Needham (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1969), pp. 52–68. 42. Letter dated 27 July 1820. Quoted in William Henry Marquess, Lives of the Poet: The First Century of Keats Biography (London: Pennsylvania UP, 1985), p. 63. For a discussion of Romantic and Victorian discourses of consumption, see Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (London: Penguin, 1991) and Alan Bewell, Romanticism and Colonial Disease (Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 1999). 43. Marsh suggests that this process of self-fashioning began at an early age for Rossetti. A self-portrait of 1847 casts ‘the artist as a young poet in the style of Shelley or Keats’ (Painter and Poet, p. 22). 44. See Milner, ‘On Some Marginalia’, pp. 217–18 for an entire list of Rossetti’s ranking system. A system of asterisks was similarly applied to the PRB’s list of immortals: Keats attained the high rank of two stars. 45. Evelyn Waugh, Rossetti: His Life and Works (London: Duckworth, 1928), p. 208. 46. Robert Buchanan, ‘The Fleshly School of Poetry: Mr. D. G. Rossetti’, The Contemporary Review, 18 (1871), 334–50, in An Anthology of Pre-Raphaelite Writings, edited by Carolyn Hares-Stryker (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), pp. 237–47. Buchanan initially felt an affinity with Rossetti’s style, but was excluded from the avant-garde for his views on Swinburne. His scathing critique denounced the ‘thorough nastiness’ and intellectual inferiority of Rossetti’s poetry (‘Jenny’, in particular, was singled out for its supposed indecency). For a more detailed discussion of this controversy, see ‘The Aesthetic Conspiracy’ in J. B. Bullen, The Pre- Raphaelite Body: Fear and Desire in Painting, Poetry, and Criticism (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), pp. 157–64. 47. Thomas Hall Caine, Cobwebs of Criticism (London: Elliot Stock, 1883), pp. 175–80. Notes 189

48. Marsh argues that ‘late-onset breakdowns’, such as Rossetti suffered from, ‘are more common in those with high degrees of narcissism’ (Painter and Poet, p. 451). 49. Letter dated 19 May 1881, in Rossetti, Criticism and Comment, p. 16. 50. The English Poets: The Nineteenth Century: Wordsworth to Rossetti, edited by T. H. Ward, 5 vols (London: Macmillan, 1891), IV, 633–42. 51. Desmond MacCarthy, ‘Rossetti and Hall Caine’, in Portraits (London: Douglas Saunders with MacGibbon & Kee, 1955), pp. 226–33 (p. 229). 52. Alicia Craig Faxon, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (London: Abbeville Press, 1989), p. 217. 53. See Milner, p. 215, for an example of Rossetti’s quasi-religious adoration of Keats. 54. For a discussion of Bakhtin’s formative ideas on aesthetics, see Deborah J. Haynes, Bakhtin and the Visual Arts (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995). 55. Scheler’s theory is outlined and discussed in Deceit, Desire and the Novel, pp. 11–14. 56. Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry (London: Oxford UP, 1973). 57. The effect of this despondency on his work is revealed in a conversation with Caine in which he outlines a working practice dictated not by Romantic bursts of inspiration, but tried and tested procedures.

‘Now I paint by a set of unwritten but clearly defined rules, which I could teach to any man as systematically as you could teach arithmetic.’ ‘Still,’ I said, ‘there’s a good deal in a picture beside what you can do by rule eh?’[. . .] ‘Conception, no doubt; but beyond that, not much.’ (Recollections, p. 80)

58. Whilst the subject interested Rossetti over a period of years, resolution became increasingly elusive. 59. Quoted in Marsh, p. 431. 60. In both Hyperion. A Fragment and The Fall of Hyperion. A Dream, Mnemosyne imparts visionary gifts and musical talents onto the male subject. She is ‘an awful Goddess’, ancient and powerful, who empowers the poet: by contrast, in his inability to complete the tribute to Mnemosyne, Rossetti displays the weakness that Keats’s Apollo discards (Hyperion. A Fragment, 46). 61. See ‘Ekphrasis and the Other’ in W. J. T. Mitchell, Picture Theory: Essays on Verbal and Visual Representation (Chicago and London: Chicago UP, 1994), pp. 151–81 (p. 154). 62. McGann, p. 150; Mitchell, p. 154. To purists such as Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and C. S. Baldwin, ekphrasis is a transgression of artistic boundaries, an ‘amplification rather than progression’. See Lessing, Laocoon, translated by Ellen Frothingham (New York: Noonday, 1957), and Baldwin, Medieval Rhetoric and Poetic (New York: Macmillan, 1924), p. 12. 190 Notes

63. See Grant F. Scott, The Sculpted Word: Keats, Ekphrasis, and the Visual Arts (Hanover and London: New England UP, 1994), pp. 31–4. Both Baldwin and Moore’s comments recall early objections to Keats’s poetry, thereby reinforcing the ideological problems of ekphrasis when interpreting this poet. 64. Barbara Charlesworth Gelpi states that ‘in Victorian society the arts were becoming feminized’, and Rossetti repeatedly saw himself in terms of a prostitute who was economically dependent upon patrons and publishers. In Part I, I noted Rossetti’s regard for Keats as a female commodity, a bargaining tool, thereby transposing onto the subject his own insecurities over being ‘an effeminized victim dependent upon masculine capital’. See Gelpi, ‘The Feminization of D. G. Rossetti’, in The Victorian Experience: The Poets, edited by Richard A. Levine (Columbus: Ohio UP, 1982), pp. 94–114 (pp. 104, 108). 65. See Bryan Wolf, ‘Confessions of a Closet Ekphrastic: Literature, Painting and Other Unnatural Relations’, Yale Journal of Criticism, 3 (1990), 181–204. 66. Marsh describes how in the early years of the Brotherhood, Rossetti ‘proposed that everyone illustrate Keats’s Isabella’. Hunt drew ‘Lorenzo at his Desk in the Warehouse’ and Millais responded with a drawing that would become the preliminary design for ‘Isabella and Lorenzo’ (both of which are discussed in Chapter 2). Rossetti did not, however, attempt a design. His failure to engage visually with Keats’s poetry is not only ‘characteristically contrary’, but also indicative of his relationship with the forefather (Painter and Poet, p. 42). 67. John Beer, Romantic Influences: Contemporary-Victorian-Modern (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1993), p. 51. 68. See W. M. Rossetti, The Works of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (London: Ellis, 1911), pp. 268–9. 69. Lucy Newlyn, ‘The Anxiety of the Writing Subject’, Studies in Romanticism, 35 (1996), 609–28. 70. Walter Jackson Bate, The Burden of the Past and the English Poet (London: Chatto & Windus, 1971), pp. 133–4. Cited in Beer, Romantic Influences, p. 52. 71. Rossetti had a keen eye for detecting Keats’s influence in the work of his siblings. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Rossetti feared that lines in Christina’s ‘A Royal Princess’ were too reminiscent of Keats, and similarly cautioned William against over-reliance on this particular poet. 72. Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence, pp. 87–8 (original emphasis), and G. Kim Blank, Wordsworth’s Influence on Shelley: A Study of Poetic Authority (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 20.

4 Keats’s Belle Dame as Femme Fatale

1. See Leonard Roberts, Arthur Hughes: His Life and Works; A Catalogue Raisonné (Suffolk: Antique Collectors’ Club, 1997), pp. 150–2. 2. Regardless of when they were popular, ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, ‘Isabella’ and ‘La Belle Dame’ attracted numerous painters and illustrators. If Notes 191

not equally fruitful, other poems by Keats also inspired visual inter- pretations. As Helen Haworth states, ‘Endymion was evidently enor- mously popular in the nineteenth century, among the wider reading public if not among the more sophisticated critics’, and proceeds to discuss the ‘two magnificent folio editions’ of 1873 and 1888 (‘ “A Thing of Beauty is a Joy Forever?”: Early Illustrated Editions of Keats’s Poetry’, Harvard Literary Bulletin, 21 [1973], 88–103 [pp. 93, 89]). The former contained six engravings by F. Joubert from original paintings by Edward John Poynter. Elenore Abbott’s illustrations for Endymion are equally noteworthy due to their strong lines and vivid movement, a style particularly suited to a depiction of Circe (some of Claude Shepperson’s visual renderings on this theme are also striking). Full- scale oil paintings include, amongst many others, H. O. Walker’s semi-circular Endymion in the Library of Congress, Washington DC, in which the hero is shown in a typical state of repose beneath a crescent moon. 3. Grant F. Scott, ‘Language Strange: A Visual History of Keats’s “La Belle Dame sans Merci” ’, Studies in Romanticism, 38 (1999), 503–35 (p. 503). 4. Quotation by William Morris in The Poems of John Keats, edited by Miriam Allott (London: Longman, 1970), p. 501. Eugene Mason comments on the artist’s relationship with Keats: ‘Morris was whole- hearted in allegiance, holding him to be the first of modern poets’ (‘The Influence of Keats’, The Bookman [February 1921], 185–7 [p. 186]). 5. ‘La Belle Dame’s’ appeal was not limited to visual interpretations; the poem also attracted numerous composers during this period. On The Lied and Art Song Texts Page, Ted Perry lists twelve musical arrangements for ‘La Belle Dame’ dating from 1877 to 1945. These include Edward MacDowell’s symphonic poem of 1888 (not performed until 1908), Cecil Armstrong Gibbs’s score of 1929, and Charles Villiers Stanford’s arrangement of 1877 (see http://www.recmusic.org/lieder/). 6. Nina Auerbach, Woman and the Demon: The Life of a Victorian Myth (London: Harvard UP, 1982), p. 7. 7. See Robert Graves, The White Goddess: A Historical Grammar of Poetic Myth, rev. edn (London: Faber and Faber, 1961). 8. Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, No Man’s Land: The Place of the Woman Writer in the Twentieth Century, 3 vols (New Haven and London: Yale UP, 1989), II, p. 8. 9. Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony, 2nd edn, translated by Angus Davidson (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1951), pp. 199, 212–3. 10. Karen Swann, ‘Harassing the Muse’, in Romanticism and Feminism, edited by Anne K. Mellor (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1988), pp. 81–92 (p. 88). 11. Paul Edwards, ‘Ambiguous Seductions: “La Belle Dame Sans Merci”, “The Faerie Queen” and “Thomas the Rhymer” ’, Durham University Journal, 51 (1990), 199–203 (p. 203). 12. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A Source Book and Research Guide, edited by Malcolm South (Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1987). See, in particular, the section by Ruth Berman, pp. 147–53. 192 Notes

13. ‘Word, Dialogue and Novel’, in Julia Kristeva: The Kristeva Reader, edited by Toril Moi (Oxford: Blackwells, 1986), pp. 34–61 (p. 47). 14. Other possible sources for Keats’s ‘La Belle Dame’ include Alain Chartier’s ballad of the same name, Palmerin of England, Malory’s Morte d’Arthur (IV, I), ‘The Mermaid of Galloway’ by Allan Cunningham and William Hilton’s painting, ‘The Mermaid’. 15. The version of the ballad I am referring to is entitled ‘True Thomas and The Queen of Elfland’. 16. A notable example is Miriam Allott’s annotated edition of Keats’s poems, which states that ‘La Belle Dame’ was ‘strongly influenced by memories of Spenser’s fatal enchantresses in The Faerie Queen’ (p. 500). 17. The edition used is The Faerie Queen, edited by Thomas P. Roche (London: Penguin, 1978). Subsequent references will appear in the text. 18. Ronald Tetreault, ‘Women and Words in Keats (with an Instance from La Belle Dame sans Merci)’, in The Mind in Creation: Essays on English Roman- ticism in Honour of Ross G. Woodman, edited by J. Douglas Kneale (Ottawa: McGill-Queen’s UP, 1992), pp. 58–73 (p. 59). 19. Earl R. Wasserman, The Finer Tone: Keats’ Major Poems (Baltimore: John Hopkins UP, 1953), pp. 74–5. See also Bernard Breyer, ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, Explicator, 6 (1947), p. 18, and Charles I. Patterson, The Daemonic in the Poetry of John Keats (London: Illinois UP, 1970), pp. 125–51. 20. Anne K. Mellor, English Romantic Irony (London: Harvard UP, 1980), pp. 93–4. 21. Gerald Enscoe, Eros and the Romantics: Sexual Love as a Theme in Coleridge, Shelley and Keats (The Hague: Mouton, 1967), p. 141. 22. Jacqueline M. Labbe, Romantic Visualities: Landscape, Gender and Romanticism (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp. 108–10. 23. Karla Alwes, Imagination Transformed: The Evolution of the Female Character in Keats’s Poetry (Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1993), p. 106. 24. Richard Monckton Milnes, Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats, 2 vols (London: Moxon, 1848). 25. Jerome J. McGann, The Beauty of Inflections: Literary Investigations in Historical Method and Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), pp. 32, 38. The chapter entitled ‘Keats and Historical Method’ discusses the ‘socio- logical poetics’ of the two versions (p. 62). See also McGann’s A Critique of Modern Textual Criticism (London: Chicago UP, 1983), pp. 23–4, for his theory of the critical edition and the copy-text, and Theresa M. Kelley, ‘Poetics and the Politics of Reception: Keats’s “La Belle Dame Sans Merci” ’, English Literary History, 54 (1987), 333–62. 26. Virginia M. Allen, ‘ “One Strangling Golden Hair”: Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s Lady Lilith’, Art Bulletin, 66 (1984), 285–94 (p. 287). 27. Rossetti referred to his later works as ‘my beauties’, and described ‘A Vision of Fiametta’ as a ‘ripper’. Russell Ash, Dante Gabriel Rossetti (London: Pavilion), Plates 22, 38. 28. Elizabeth G. Gitter, The Power of Women’s Hair in the Victorian Imagination’, PMLA, 99 (1984), 936–54 (p. 948). Notes 193

29. Anthony Hobson, The Art and Life of J. W. Waterhouse RA, 1849–1917 (London: Studio Vista and Christie’s, 1980), p. 76. See also Anthony Hobson, J. W. Waterhouse (London: Phaidon, 1989). 30. Waterhouse’s 1905 painting of ‘Lamia’ similarly focuses on a doleful rather than destructive woman. Like his vision of the Belle Dame, Water- house’s Lamia is wistful and even her hair is coiled into a bun at the base of her neck rather than wound around the hero’s neck. The only hint of a reptilian nature is the scaly pattern on her dress. By the 1909 version of ‘Lamia’, the metamorphosis from siren to warm-blooded woman is complete; she has shed her snake-like skin – now draped across her deli- cate pink dress – and assumed a new identity. As Lamia gazes at her reflection in the pond, readjusting to Selfhood after the restrictive cast of Otherness, Waterhouse’s painting mirrors the chameleonic changeability of Keats’s heroines. Similarly capturing a Keatsian moment of transfor- mation, Anna Lea Merritt’s 1906 version of ‘Lamia’ focuses on the heroine arising from her previous existence of siren as a New Woman. 31. Quoted in Art and Life, p. 76. 32. Wilfred Mellers and Rupert Hildyard, ‘The Edwardian Age and the Inter- War Years’ in The Cambridge Guide to the Arts in Britain: The Edwardian Age and Inter-War Years, edited by Boris Ford, 9 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989), VIII, p. 18; John Ferguson, The Arts in Britain in World War One (Southampton: Stainer and Bell, 1980), p. 3. 33. Theodore Roszak, ‘The Hard and the Soft: The Force of Feminism in Modern Times’, in Masculine/Feminine: Readings in Sexual Mythology and the Liberation of Women, edited by Betty and Theodore Roszak (New York: Harper & Row, 1969), pp. 87–104 (p. 88). 34. Volume Two of Gilbert’s and Gubar’s trilogy No Man’s Land is subtitled ‘Sexchanges’. 35. Amanda Kavanagh, ‘A Post Pre-Raphaelite: Sir Frank Dicksee’, Country Life (1985), 240–2 (p. 241). 36. E. Rimbault Didbin, ‘The Art of Frank Dicksee, RA’, Christmas Art Annual (1905), 1–32 (p. 15). 37. Joseph A. Kestner, Masculinities in Victorian Painting (Aldershot: Scolar Press, 1995), p. 105. See also ‘The Male Gaze in the Art of Frank Dicksee’, Annals of Scholarship, 7 (1990), 181–201. 38. Dicksee’s painting is reminiscent of previous renderings of this poem. Walter Crane’s 1865 version shows the woman on horseback looking down on the knight (Crane’s knight is, however, moving along with the lady). Painted two years earlier, Arthur Hughes’s 1863 version of ‘La Belle Dame’ is equally ambiguous. Once again, the Belle Dame is positioned above the knight as she sits on his horse, yet his physical stature domi- nates the centre of the composition and he holds the reins. Scott observes that ‘the painting is a tangle of ideological contradictions’, combining both versions of the text: the man can be seen as a ‘knight-at-arms’ and a ‘wretched wight’, while the Belle Dame can be seen as a temptress or an innocent victim yearning for companionship (‘Language Strange’, 194 Notes

p. 515). As I will demonstrate shortly, Keats’s ballad elicits contradictory responses from even the most predictable painters. 39. Quoted in ‘The Male Gaze’, p. 184. 40. See Didbin, p. 19. 41. In her critical edition of Keats’s poems, Miriam Allott suggests a source for the word ‘thrall’ that refers to Lancelot. Cay’s translation of Dante’s Inferno includes the lines: ‘we read of Lancelot, / How him love thrall’d’ (V, 124–5). 42. For a discussion of the ‘Sumptusus pageantry’ in this painting, see A. L. Baldry, ‘A Romanticist Painter: W Russell Flint’, Studio, 60 (1914), 253–64 (p. 254). 43. The inclusion of the ‘pale kings and princes’ is not unique to this visual interpretation of the ballad. With its soft pastels, ethereal spectres, wily Belle Dame and comatose knight, Flint owes an obvious debt to Henry Meynell Rheam’s ‘La Belle Dame’ Sans Merci (1897). The position of the ghosts in Flint’s painting also resembles Arthur Hughes’s compositional arrangement of 1863, while menacing spectres feature in William Bell Scott’s illustration of 1873. The most striking rendering of the ‘pale kings and princes’ appears in Robert Anning Bell’s illustration of 1897 (see Poems by John Keats [London: George Bell & Sons, 1897]). The first image of this facing-page illustration shows the slumbering lovers enfolded in each other’s arms, yet the final word of the verso is ‘dream’d’ which signals to the spectres on the next page. The gulf of space between these images reinforces the illusory nature of the phantom-like projections. Emerging from the rock face at the top right of the composition, this eerie assembly hangs over the sleeping couple; ominous, unyielding and ancient, they represent a manifestation of the knight’s internalised fate. 44. Pat Barker, The Ghost Road (London: Penguin, 1996), p. 46. 45. Sebastian Faulks, Birdsong (London: Vintage, 1994), p. 455. 46. Keats probes these potentially volatile social junctures in his narrative poems. For example, ‘The Eve of St Agnes’ juxtaposes the conventions of pre-arranged marriages with the impulsiveness of romantic love. Julie Codell reads this poem as the dramatic ‘collision of dying feudalism with emerging capitalism’, an interpretative model which can also be applied to ‘Isabella; or, the pot of’ (‘Painting Keats: Pre-Raphaelite Artists Between Social Transgressions and Painterly Conventions’, Victorian Poetry, 33 [1995], 341–70 [p. 350]). While this represents a limited view of the subtextual battles in Keats’s poetry, what emerges is how relevant this aspect of the Keatsian discourse was for the cultural climate of the early twentieth century when many authors and artists felt that they were ‘Wandering between two worlds, one dead, / The other powerless to be born’ (Matthew Arnold, ‘Stanzas from the Grande Chartreuse’, 85–6). 47. Kestner asserts that only one representation of Keats’s poem was by a female artist and, again incorrectly, credits Anna Lea Merritt’s painting with being the only canvas to picture the knight asleep (see Masculinities in Victorian Painting, p. 110). Around a quarter of a century before Flint depicted the Belle Dame hovering over a slumbering knight, Merritt’s Notes 195

1884 version, now lost, envisages a buxom Dame in Grecian pose with her hair cascading onto the drowsy knight. He leans against her, providing the horizontal platform for her central, columnar figure. 48. For background information on King, see Jan Marsh and Pamela Gerrish Nunn, Women Artists and the Pre-Raphaelite Movement (Somerset: Virago, 1989), pp. 137–9, and Colin White, The Enchanted World of Jessie M. King (Blantyre: Canongate, 1989). 49. Walter R. Watson, ‘Miss Jessie M. King and her Work’, The Studio, 26 (1902), 176–88 (p. 187). 50. In addition, King produced a number of bookplates for ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’, one of which illustrates the last two lines of the poem (reproduced in The Studio, 26 [1902], p. 186). King’s elegant use of space and the confidence of her line are demonstrated in this design as two female figures face one another in perfect symmetry. The sphere which radiates loops across the women creates an endless circle, reflecting Keats’s linguistic poise and the unsolvable enigma of ‘Beauty is truth, truth beauty, – that is all / Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.’ 51. King was not the first artist to represent the Belle Dame as a victim. Eliza- beth Siddal’s treatment of the subject (c.1855) is stark with two figures compressed into the centre of the sketch as heavy horizontal lines force the knight down onto the Belle Dame. The knight is in control, oppressing the lady with his physical proximity and fingering her hair like a malevolent puppeteer. Rather than entrapping the knight in the fatal tresses that absorbed Rossetti the Belle Dame passively submits to her master. Moreover, it was not only female artists who sympathised with a ‘harassed’ Belle Dame. William Bell Scott’s illustration of 1873 depicts a vulnerable and clearly frightened woman who clings to the male for support. The Belle Dame is dependent on the knight yet even though he holds the reins of the horse, his head is lowered in an obliv- ious dream-state. Anticipating King’s sketch, the knight is not the enemy; he is merely misguided in his allegiances. 52. Scott sees this sketch as an ‘anomaly’: it ‘resists the gender battles that typify most nineteenth-century representations of the ballad’ (p. 532). King’s lady is neither predator nor victim, and therefore the sketch is relegated to a coda at the end of the critic’s main argument. King’s sensi- tivity to the source is exceptional, yet it remains crucial to the evolution of these visual renderings. King is, for example, indebted to Waterhouse for the heroine’s expression of honest affection and, looking ahead, she anticipates Frank Cadogan Cowper’s post-war iconography. This sketch does not run ‘counter to the tradition’ of late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century depictions of ‘La Belle Dame’, but plays a central part in its development. 53. Of all the sirenesque creatures King visualised, not one conforms to the Victorian ‘stereotype’ of the femme fatale. Examples include a drawing of a woman caught in a fisherman’s net with the accompanying verso ‘Only a Little Mermaid Fast Asleep’, while numerous sketches show feminine 196 Notes

sea-creatures as protectors of the ocean: ‘The Fisherman Watched Over by the Mermaids’, ‘Guardian Angels of the Sea’ and the playful nymphs in ‘The Mermaids’ Cove’. In ‘The Sea Voices’, enchanting mermaids appear before young girls who look up longingly; adorned with haloes, the sea voices represent females who have fulfilled an aspiration to remove themselves from the known world and exist within their own sphere. Whilst employing the Aesthetes’ loaded iconography, King resituates the ‘harassed’ figure of the mermaid within a visual discourse of empowerment. 54. See, for example, Rossetti’s ‘How Sir Galahad, Sir Bors, and Sir Percival were fed with the Sanc Grael; but Sir Percival’s Sister Died by the Way’ (1864) and Burne-Jones’s tapestry, ‘The Failure of Sir Gawaine: Sir Gawaine and Sir Uwaine at the Ruined Chapel’ (1895–6). 55. The figure of the dead knight appears elsewhere in King’s work. A sketch of the seventeenth-century folksong ‘The Twa Corbies’ focuses on the ‘new-slain knight’ as the ravens prepare to feast on his corpse (6). Although the gruesome details of the birds’ ‘dinner sweet’ bear no resem- blance to Keats’s ballad, this folksong features a narrator who records another speaker and a ‘lady fair’ who callously finds herself ‘anither mate’ (8, 11, 12). This version of ‘The Twa Corbies’ is included in The Oxford Book of English Verse, 1250–1900, edited by Arthur Quiller-Couch (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1919). 56. As the speaker points out, the knight’s death-like appearance is at odds with the season of plenty, autumn. In prematurely heralding the winter, he is effectively removed from Nature’s cycle and confined to stasis. 57. See John Nash’s ‘Oppy Wood: Evening’ and Paul Nash’s ‘We Are Making a New World’. 58. See, for example, Cowper’s later work, ‘The Four Queens’ (1954). Like Waterhouse, Dicksee and Flint, Cowper was a respected artist. He trained and exhibited at the Royal Academy where he was made a full member in 1936, and painted mainly literary, biblical and historical subjects. Peter Nahum refers to the artist as ‘one of the last exponents of the Pre-Raphaelite tradition’. See The Last Romantics: The Romantic Tradition in British Art, edited by John Christian (London: Lund Humphries, 1989), p. 134. 59. See the chapter entitled ‘The Divides of War’, in Asa Briggs, A Social History of England, 2nd edn (London: Penguin, 1987), pp. 292–317. 60. Painted at the turn-of-the-century, Ferdinand Hodler’s ‘The Dream’ (Le Rêve, 1897–1903) presents a similarly fatalistic view of male mortality and romance. A girl with flowing, auburn hair sits in a field among long grasses and tall-stemmed flowers. Beneath her, in a rectangular inset, lies the figure of a man in a position comparable to that of Cowper’s knight. The significant difference in Hodler’s depiction is the man’s nakedness. In a complete reversal of the standard Victorian gaze, it is the ‘hero’ rather than the heroine who is vulnerable his displayed form is part of the female’s fantasy, her ‘dream’. Hodler’s depleted ‘hero’, like Keats’s knight, could be asleep ‘On the cold hill side’, experiencing the physical changes of his forebears: ‘I saw their starved lips in the gloam, / With Notes 197

horrid warning gapèd wide (44, 41–2).’ His wasted figure, skeletal hands and bluey-greenish pallor indicate disease and death. 61. Recorded in Gertrude Stein’, Everybody’s Autobiography (London: William Heineman, 1938), p. xi. 62. Lawrence is quoted in Ferguson, p. 37. 63. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women: The Traditions in English, edited by Sandra M. Gilbert and Susan Gubar, 2nd edn (London: W. W. Norton & Co., 1996), p. 1205. 64. Women and World War One: The Written Response, edited by Dorothy Goldman (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 1. 65. Quoted in No Man’s Land, II, p. 32. 66. Quoted in Praz, pp. 233–4. 67. Walter Pater, ‘Leonardo da Vinci’, in The Renaissance: Studies in Art and Poetry: The 1893 Text, edited by Donald L. Hill (London: California UP, 1980), p. 98. Pater is quoting 1 Corinthians 10:11. 68. Woman and War is the second section of Olive Schreiner’s Woman and Labour (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1911). 69. Philip Wylie, Generation of Vipers, 20th edn (London: Muller, 1955), pp. 215–6. 70. See Schreiner, Woman and Labour, pp. 77–9. Kipling’s slogan – ‘The female of the species is more deadly than the male’ – transfers the responsibility of the war onto women; men were thereby absolved of killing the enemy through a fetishised image of female sadism. 71. Erich Maria Remarque, All Quiet on the Western Front, translated by Brian Murdoch (London: Vintage, 1996), p. 39. 72. Cowper’s Belle Dame bears more than a passing resemblance to Averil Burleigh’s illustration of 1910 (in particular, the art-nouveau pattern of her dress and her position in the centre of the composition). However, Burleigh’s Belle Dame confronts the viewer with direct eye contact. Sitting amongst her previous victims, strung up in trees, she remains unrepentant, a woman without pity. This is her domain, yet by envis- aging a powerful Belle Dame, Burleigh endorses the conservative view of woman as potential predator. 73. This Belle Dame remains a ‘stubborn anachronism’ for Scott, being at once ‘a great red butterfly’ emerging from the knight’s armour and a ‘lethal spider who has ensnared her victim, drained his life-blood and aban- doned his carcass’; she is a ‘new creature’ whilst also echoing Swinburne and Pater’s portrait of a woman ‘vain and indifferent to the despoliation of history’ (pp. 530–1). 74. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics: A Study of the Economic Relation Between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1898), p. 144. 75. Scott claims that in the second half of the twentieth century, ‘La Belle Dame’ ‘had clearly lost its currency and its capacity to charm. The genre had been exhausted’ (‘Language Strange’, p. 531). He does, however, list three artists – Aaron Judan (1955), David Gentleman (1966) and Michael Renton (1986) – who have engaged with Keats’s ballad, and a film 198 Notes

version, Ugetsu (1953), directed by Kenji Mizoguchi. At the time of writing, Renzo Roblodowski had three images from Keats’s poems, including ‘La Belle Dame’, on the web (see http:// academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/cs6/image-renzo/pages/ belle-dame-sans-merci.htm). 76. See Jeffrey Robinson’s appendix to Reception and Poetics in Keats: ‘My Ended Poet’ (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998). 77. Tony Harrison, ‘A Kumquat for John Keats’ (Newcastle upon Tyne: Bloodaxe Books, 1981). Bibliography

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Note: Page numbers in bold refers to figures.

Allen, Virginia M., 116 Works: Allen, Vivien, 82 Cobwebs of Criticism, 86, 94 Arnold, Matthew, 21 ‘John Keats’, 12, 146 artistic medium, 4, 10, 45–6, 50, 64, ‘To OMB’, 84, 88, 165, 186n21 98–100, 141–2 Cawein, Madison Julius Auerbach, Nina, 108, 116–17 ‘Lilith’s Lover’, 117 ‘Siren Sands’, 135 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 6–7, 8, 97, 104 Cherry, Deborah, 7 Barnard, John, 2 Clare, John, 31 Bedford, Ella M., 74 Codell, Julie F., 43, 48, 57–8, 59, Bell, Robert Anning 61–2 ‘Isabella’, 72 consumption, 5–7, 12–13, 17, 25, 51, ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 92, 143 194n43 gendering of, 7 Bennett, Andrew, 2 see also Keats, John, death of, as Blanchard, S. Laman, 15, 31 tragic poet Bloom, Harold, 13, 98–100, 105 Cook, Wayne, 48 Boccaccio, Giovanni Cowper, Frank Cadogan, 196n58 The Decameron, 54–5, 62, 76 ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 132, Brawne, Fanny, 6, 95, 113 134, 136, 138, 140–1, 144, Brickdale, Eleanor Fortesque 196–7n60, 197n72, n73 ‘Isabella’, 72 Crabbe, George, 136 Brown, Oliver Madox, 81, 83–4 Crane, Walter, 107, 182n51, 193n38 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 25 Browning, Robert, 29, 39, 103, Dante Alighieri, 103 175n30 Dicksee, Frank, 125–6 and ‘Adonais’, 22–3 ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 121–3 ‘Popularity’, 9, 16, 22–5, 29, 147–9; and consumerism, Edwards, Paul, 110–11 24–5; rebirth in, 23–5; Enscoe, Gerald, 112 recomposition in, 23 Epstein, Andrew, 12–13

Caine, Thomas Hall, 83 Falconer, Rachel, 15 correspondence with Dante Fass, Barbara, 27 Gabriel Rossetti, 6, 10, 82–104, Faxon, Alicia Craig, 95, 99 186n15, n16 First World War, 121–2, 126–7, and homoeroticism, 84–5 131–2, 134–5, 136 as questor, 87–90, 97 Fleming, G. H., 44–5

211 212 Index

Flint, William Russell, 126 ‘Lorenzo at his Desk in the ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, Warehouse’, 56–7, 180n34 123–5 ‘Rienzi’, 49 Frazer, James George, 20 Jones, Elizabeth, 54 Gilbert, Sandra M., 109, 136 Gilman, Charlotte Perkins, Keats, John 137–8 as beloved, 87–8, 90, 96 Girard, René, 87–8, 89, 96, and consumerism, 53–5, 57, 97, 104 180n30 Gittings, Robert, 45–6 death of, 5–7, 12–13, 15–16, 92–3 Gloag, Isobel L., 74 and effeminacy, 7, 8, 37–8 Graham-Dixon, Andrew, 49, 50 epitaph of, 32–4 Gubar, Susan, 109, 136 and indeterminacy, 2, 140, 142; see also negative capability Hammond, Paul, 83, 85, 88 letters of, 2, 3–4 Hardy, Thomas, 9, 178n59 and ornateness, 45–6, 123–4, ‘At the Pyramid of Cestius Near 179n12, 183n61 the Graves of Shelley and and poetic identity, 1, 2, 5, 15, 16, Keats’, 40–1, 164 75; see also negative capability ‘The Darkling Thrush’, 131 as tragic poet, 15–16, 23, 31, Harrison, Antony H., 27 90–92, 93–4 Harrison, Tony Works: ‘A Kumquat for John Keats’, 143–5, Endymion, 15, 18, 22, 36, 37–9, 86; 168–70 illustrations of, 190–1n2 Heffernan, James A. W., 18 ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, 42, 67, Heinzelman, Kurt, 54 194n46; illustrations of, Hildyard, Rupert, 120 182n51; ornateness in, Hobson, Anthony, 118 45–6 Homans, Margaret, 8 ‘The Eve of St Mark’, 92 Houghton, Lord, see Milnes, Richard Hyperion: A Fragment, 49, 93, 99, Monckton, Lord Houghton 189n60 Hughes, Arthur, 179–80n21 ‘Isabella; or, the Pot of Basil’, 42, ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, 75 52–5, 57, 70–1, 182n56, ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 107, 194n46; films of, 183–4n71; 193n38 musical scores of, 183n71 Hunt, William Holman, 10, 42, 43, ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 11, 45, 55, 57–8, 79, 180n23 196n56; and bibliographic and consumerism, 59–62, 63–4, debate, 114–15, 120, 122–3, 77–8, 181n36 192n25; femme fatale in, and later success, 59 108–12, 115–18, 120, 123, Works: 136–40, 197n70; indeterminacy ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, 44, in, 110, 111, 112–14, 140–3; 47–9, 59 knight’s narrative in, 111–13, ‘Isabella and the Pot of Basil’, 59–64, 118, 124–5, 127, 137, 60; artistic responses to, 70–1, 140; literary heritage of, 72–3, 184n72; sexuality in, 110–11, 116, 192n14; 61–2, 63–4 musical scores of, 191n5; Index 213

regeneration in, 108–9, and later success, 58–9, 181n40, n42 138–9, 142 Works: ‘Ode on Melancholy’, 32 ‘The Eve of St Agnes’, 67–70, 67, ‘Ode to a Nightingale’, 20, 32 74–5; sexuality in, 68–70, ‘On First Looking into Chapman’s 182n56 Homer’, 26 ‘Isabella and Lorenzo’, 49–52, 50, ‘On Seeing the Elgin Marbles’, 26 55; consumerism in, 53; Kestner, Joseph A., 126 consumption in, 51; politics King, Jessie Marion, 195–6n53 in, 49, 51–2 ‘Isabella’, 71–2, 73 Milnes, Richard Monckton, Lord ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 127–31, Houghton, 5, 15, 44, 115 128, 129, 130, 195n52, Milton, John, 14, 22, 93 196n55 Moi, Toril, 8 ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’, 195n50 Motion, Andrew, 1–2 Kristeva, Julia, 110 Najarian, James, 8, 35–6, 37–8 Labbe, Jacqueline M., 112–13 negative capability, 1, 16, 118, 120 Lamb, Mary Montgomerie, 117 Newlyn, Lucy, 104–5 Lawrence, D. H., 133–4 Nunn, Pamela Gerrish, 126–7 Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 90, 188n41 Levinson, Marjorie, 1, 46, 58, 70, O’Neill, Michael, 18, 20 110, 140–1 Orpen, William Lowell, Amy, 8 ‘A Village: Evening’, 134 Ovid, 17, 19 McGann, Jerome J., 115, 184n1, 185n9, 187n30 Packer, Lona Mosk, 27 Maclise, Daniel Pater, Walter, 95, 135–6 ‘Madeline After Prayer’, 64–7, 66 Pearce, Lynne, 2–3, 63, 69 Manet, Edouard Pollock, Griselda, 7 ‘Olympia’, 68–9 Praz, Mario, 109, 117 Marquess, William Henry, 2 Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 4, 9–10, Marsh, Jan, 72, 80, 99, 126–7 42–7, 79–80, 108, 127 Mellers, Wilfred, 120 and consumerism, 57–8, 71–2, Mellor, Anne, 7, 112 76–8, 180n33, 184n72 metamorphosis, 17 formation of, 44–5, 48, 49, 55–6, metonymy, 17–18, 35, 68–9 178n6 Meynell, Alice, 9, 13, 26, 31, 32, 34, 39, 146 Rae, Henrietta and ‘Adonais’, 30 ‘Isabella’, 71 ‘On Keats’s Grave’, 28–30, Remarque, Erich Maria, 138 151–2; flowers in, 29, Ricks, Christopher, 37 176n40; form of, 29; Robinson, Jeffrey C., 12, 16, 28–9 rebirth in, 30; recomposition in, Rossetti, Christina, 9, 13, 30, 31, 34, 29–30; sexuality in, 30 39, 144 and ‘Popularity’, 29 and ‘Adonais’, 26, 28 Michael, Jennifer Davis, 6, 171–2n16 and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 26–7, Millais, John Everett, 10, 42, 32, 33 43, 44 Keats’s influence on, 26–7 214 Index

Rossetti, Christina – continued Schreiner, Olive, 135–6, 137 ‘On Keats’, 26–8, 29, 150; allusions Scott, Grant F., 108, 118 to ‘The Eve of St Agnes’ in, Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, 10, 89, 27–8; allusions to ‘Isabella; 90–1, 104 or, the Pot of Basil’ in, 26–7; Severn, Joseph, 36 decomposition in, 28; form of, ‘Keats Reading at Wentworth 26; sexuality in, 27–8 Place’, 3–4 Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 6, 10–11, 45, Shakespeare, William, 103 116–18, 129, 137 Shelley, Mary, 21 and Christina Rossetti, 26–7, 32, Shelley, Percy Bysshe 33 ‘Adonais’, 4, 9, 11, 22, 23, 26, 28, and consumerism, 91–3, 97, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 46; 188n39 ambition of author in, 13–14, correspondence with Thomas Hall 18–21; androgyny in, 6; Caine, 6, 10, 82–92, 186n15, effeminised subject in, 6–7, n16 177n54; figure of Adonis in, and eccentricity, 80–1, 89, 187n37 19, 37; figure of Dionysus, 19, and ekphrasis, 100–1, 104, 189n62 25; impotency of subject in, and homoeroticism, 84–6, 92, 18, 19; Keats and the critics in, 96–7, 104, 185n13, 186n19 14–15, 18; sensitivity of and homosociality, 8, 10, 78–9, 83, subject in, 6, 15 85, 187n24 posthumous reputation of, 21–2 and ill health, 81, 99–100 Siddal, Lizzie, 7, 195n51 interest in Keats, 44, 45, 78–9, 86, Sinfield, Alan, 37 184n1, 185n5, 188n44, siren, 11, 108, 109, 115–17, 135–8 190n71 Speed, Emma, 35, 177n50 and Keats’s epitaph, 32–3, Spenser, Edmund 176n44 The Faerie Queen, 110–11, 192n16 and Keats’s poetic identity, 11, 32, Stillinger, Jack, 2, 45–6 86, 92–6, 97–8, 105 Strudwick, John Melhuish and lack of productivity, 10–11, ‘Isabella’, 64, 65, 182n54 96, 98, 100–4, 107, 189n57, Surtees, Virginia, 101 190n66 Swann, Karen, 109 as mediator, 87–90, 97, 187n35 Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 31, Works: 135 ‘John Keats’, 31–3, 34, 87, 155 ‘In Sepulcretis’, 31, 153–4 ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, 11, 93 94, 101–3, 107, 115–16 Tetreault, Ronald, 111, 113, 140 ‘Mnemosyne’, 90, 91, 94, 99, 100, Thomas, Frances, 26–7 101, 102–3, 189n58, n60 Thomson, James, 117–18 Rossetti, William Michael, 99, 103 Roszak, Theodore, 120–1 Wasserman, Earl R., 111 Waterhouse, John William Sacks, Peter M., 13, 17, 174n19 ‘Isabella’, 74–5, 76 Scharf, George, 75 ‘La Belle Dame sans Merci’, Schenck, Celeste M., 26, 28 118–21, 119 Schmidt, Michael, 1 ‘Lamia’, 193n30 Index 215

Wilcox, Ella Wheeler Works: ‘The King and the Siren’, 135–6, ‘Endymion’, 36–9, 142, 156–7 166–7 ‘The Garden of Eros’, 39, 40, 156–63 Wilde, Oscar, 9, 13, 144 ‘The Grave of Keats’, 33–5, 156; and ‘Adonais’, 35, 36, 37, 39 Keats’s epitaph in, 33–4, and Christina Rossetti, 34, 39 177n47 and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 33, 34, Wolfson, Susan J., 15, 21, 54–5 39 Women’s Rights Movement, 120–1, and decomposition, 37, 41 134–8 and effeminacy, 37–9 Wylie, Philip, 137 and homoeroticism, 34–9 and recomposition, 34–5 Yeldham, Charlotte, 71