Lodges of Time and Space: the Stone Cairns of Red Wing By Michael Paul Bergervoet Submitted to the graduate degree program in Geography and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ________________________________ Chairperson Jay T. Johnson ________________________________ Jack Hofman ________________________________ Stephen Egbert ________________________________ Edward Fleming ________________________________ Daniel Hirmas Date Defended: December 5th, 2017 The Dissertation Committee for Michael Paul Bergervoet certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Lodges of Time and Space: the Stone Cairns of Red Wing ________________________________ Chairperson Jay T. Johnson Date approved: December 5th, 2017 ii ABSTRACT The stone cairns of Red Wing, Minnesota, USA, have been cloaked in mystery for centuries. Small in number, densely concentrated and originally built upon high, untimbered hilltops, the identity of the builders remains unknown to both researchers and Native people alike. Local Dakota people do not claim authorship but refer to these monuments as “hekti”, a “lodge of time and space”, and recognize them as places “where holy works were done.” Unfortunately all of the stone cairns have been dismantled since Euro-Americans first encountered them and the significance of their hollow architecture was never culturally examined. These unique stone features are presumed to be mortuary features and are therefore protected by Minnesota Statute 307.08 from any further molestation. After collecting and generating both quantitative and qualitative information, and by utilizing a mixed-methods approach, it is contended the stone cairns of Red Wing were constructed by the Spring Creek Oneota between AD 1300 – 1400. Furthermore, the stone cairns are principal components of a larger ritual landscape and quite possibly demarcate a physical and spiritual sanctuary during a period of significant environmental and/or social change across the continent. Based upon current evidence, the construction of the stone cairns was most likely overseen by an elite class of ritual leaders blessed by Thunder. Moreover, both Thunderbird and Water Spirit clans exert increased socio-political influence in Siouan village life during the late pre-contact period. Archaeological evidence in close proximity to the stone cairns confirms their presence. From an ethnographic perspective, the stone cairns of Red Wing function as sacred altars/conduits between the Above and Below worlds. This assertion is based upon Siouan iii interpretations of their placement, architecture, and significance of materials used in their construction. These interpretations, in combination with the juxtaposition of their original architectural profile with contemporary Ioway cosmological belief, illumine the original purpose and function(s) of the stone cairns. These results suggest the stone cairns of Red Wing stand as witness to the cultural crescendo of the Oneota tradition in this locality and/or they are an initial expression of Ioway ethnicity and tribalism in southeastern Minnesota. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My research journey has been long, difficult, and completely worthwhile. There are many people to thank and I must tip my cap to those directly and indirectly involved in this process. First of all, I need to acknowledge my committee members: Jay Johnson, Ed Fleming, Steve Egbert, Dan Hirmas, Jack Hofman, and also Ron Schirmer for his auxiliary supervision and support. I sincerely appreciate the challenge, encouragement, and patience provided by each of you. As a whole, your deep and diverse expertise has made my work that much stronger. You will always have my respect. Furthermore, my gratitude is extended to the Department of Geography at the University of Kansas and especially Dr. Margaret Pearce for the opportunity to learn, teach, and grow as a researcher and person. My time in Kansas impacted my life in a very positive way and it will never be forgotten or taken for granted. To my parents, Jerome and Marvel: Thank you for your encouragement and steady support of my scholastic pursuits through the years and for always being there during my struggles, too. I’m very lucky to have parents that emphasized the importance of reading, learning and thinking critically. I love you both. Dad: you’ve always liked reading other books about Native topics so hopefully you like mine, too! My siblings Shelley, Jane, Joann and Phil have been a steady source of encouragement, too. Thanks to all of you and many other close friends and family members who have extended their support and kept me motivated as well. My deep gratitude is also offered to Bronco and Elaine LeBeau for making me a part of your circle, for opening my eyes to the Lakota frame of mind, and for introducing me to myself. Your lives have positively affected mine in such a way that no price tag could ever be placed on the insight and instruction you’ve provided me over the years. For that, you’re forever in my heart and v there’s no escape. As you’ve graciously expressed to me, the “River” will always be home for me, too. Pilamaya. I am also grateful to many other Native people for sharing your time, knowledge, life experience and perspectives with me, which have altered how I look at the world in a very good way. My work would not be possible without your cooperation and support. Namely, these people include past and present members of the Prairie Island Tribal Council (namely Audrey Bennett, Victoria Winfrey, Ron Johnson, Al Childs, Johnny Johnson, Shelley Buck, Lu Taylor, Ed Buck), Calvin Campbell, Mr. and Mrs. Frank Royal, Kevin Tacan, Leonard Wabasha, James “Bunny” Campbell, Tom Ross, Kyle Iron Lightning, Glen Drapeau, Richard Ross, Marlow LaBatte, Grace Goldtooth, Melissa Cerda, Jim Jones, Gwen Westerman, Yvonne Bird, Nick Western Boy, John Reynolds, Avery Jones and Arthur Lockwood. Pidamaya (and Miigwech to Jim). My deep gratitude is also extended to Lance Foster from the Iowa Tribe of Kansas/Nebraska for his support and involvement in this project. Hopefully you and the Ioway people feel this research honors your ancestors and their sacred places. Wenawinnake. My gratitude is also extended to the Goodhue County Historical Society, my co-workers in the Cultural Resources Unit at the Minnesota Department of Transportation, and the Minnesota Office of the State Archaeologist. Your encouragement and thoughtful critiques really meant a lot to me. I want to specifically extend my sincere appreciation to Bruce Koenen, Craig Johnson, Dave Tovar and Cory Nowak for their interest and assistance. For the sake of brevity there are many individuals who offered me encouragement yet remain unnamed. You are not forgotten and thank you very much for supporting me. Moreover, my gratitude is also extended to the private landowners for allowing me access to the cairn sites and for their support of this research. Hopefully this research deepens and strengthens your fondness of the cairns as well as vi your personal connection with the land, too. It’s a truly remarkable place and the opportunity to study it has changed my life. My sincere thanks goes to all of you. My deepest gratitude goes to the late Curtis Campbell, Sr. and the late Winfred Red Cloud. I recognized you both as authorities and your immediate acceptance of me will always be cherished and sets a fine example for me to follow. At first you both intimidated me but by the end of our time together I hoped to be just like you: wise, respectful, knowledgeable, balanced, eager to help, and humble. I’ll never forget your smiles and the importance of laughter when life gets too serious. You embodied the principle of Wico-we-chi-wazi – Relatedness through Sharing, and your teachings have taken root in my mind and heart. As you taught me, the old ones stressed the importance of learning from other perspectives, to pursue wisdom, and to bravely and humbly endure life’s obstacles along the way. The purpose of life in the Dakota/Lakota way is “be a good relative”, which is identical to my tradition that says “love thy neighbor.” Actions speak louder than words, and yours speak loudly and beautifully in the mind of this Dutch Catholic kid that simply wanted to glean some of your wisdom in his attempt to see the landscape from your point of view. Pidamaya for sharing your ancestors’ knowledge with me, which I carry with humility and a deep sense of duty “to keep it straight” to this day. Furthermore, in a small and indirect way, I feel my research experience parallels your description of the seventh Dakota ceremony from long ago: Nagi Kagapi – the making of a soul. As you instructed me, the sacred Red Road and the pursuit of the Creator is the most difficult path to walk but the pain, solitude and suffering leads to woksape, i.e. Wisdom – the greatest treasure of all. Regardless of status, you embodied the traits of an ikce wicasta, a common/humble man, and I hope to be just like you someday. I feel honored by the Creator to have known you both, to have learned from your example, and to have set new goals for myself vii as a man. You were certainly placed on my path for a reason. May you be blessed forever for all of the good you did for me, which continues to impact my life in a very meaningful way. Wopida Tanka. Wakan Tanka kici un. To Deksi Curtis: to this day I still reflect upon the Dakota prayer included in your memorial. A righteous man asks the Creator for strength not because he wishes to be superior to others, but in order to defeat his greatest enemy: himself. This prayer speaks directly to my mind and heart, as you did so many times during our visits.