FONETIIKAN HISTORIASTA kl 2017 (3op) (FoA10 Soveltavaa ja monitieteistä fonetiikkaa; osa) tehtävä (palautus 12.5.2017 mennessä) "Fonetiikan kehitys Euroopassa 1800-luvulla" MATERIAALI: Kemp, J. Alan (2001). The development of phonetics from the late 18th to the late 19th century. Teoksessa S. Auroux, E.F.K. Koerner, H.-J. Niederehe & K. Versteegh (toim.), History of the Language Sciences. An International Handbook on the Evolution of the Study of Language from the Beginnings to the Present, 1468–1480. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. MacMahon, Michael K. C. (2001). Modern language instruction and phonetics in the later 19th century. Teoksessa S. Auroux, E.F.K. Koerner, H.-J. Niederehe & K. Versteegh (toim.), History of the Language Sciences. An International Handbook on the Evolution of the Study of Language from the Beginnings to the Present, 1585–1595. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. XXVIII. The Analysis of Speech and Unwritten Languages in the 19th Century and its Continuation in the 20th Century Die Erforschung der lautlichen Äußerung und nicht verschrifteter Sprachen im 19. und ihre Fortsetzung im 20. Jahrhundert L’e´tude de la parole et des langues non-e´crites pendant le XIXe sie`cle et sa continuation au XXe sie`cle 178. The development of phonetics from the late 18th to the late 19th century 1. Introduction speech sounds were John Wallis (1616Ϫ1703) 2. Early treatments of non-segmental features the famous mathematician and William 3. The vowel triangle Holder (1616Ϫ1698). At the end of the cen- 4. The beginnings of experimental phonetics tury the Swiss-born doctor, Conrad Amman 5. Developments in traditional approaches Ϫ 6. Germany: communication theory and a new (1669 1730) was working in the Netherlands terminology and published works on speech. All of the 7. The International Phonetic Association and last three mentioned were motivated in part its founders by their work as teachers of the deaf. In the 8. Conclusion early 18th century Denys Dodart (1634Ϫ 9. Bibliography 1707) and Antoine Ferrein (1693Ϫ1769) gave perceptive accounts of the mechanism of 1. Introduction phonation, till then little understood. (For further accounts of these early works The period dealt with by this section saw see Kemp 1994: 3102 ff. and biographical ar- enormous strides forward in knowledge of ticles in Asher 1994. A recent bibliography of the speech mechanism and ways of describing works relating to the history of phonetics it and of recording speech sounds. Neverthe- may be found in E. F. K. Koerner’s introduc- less, one must not forget the valuable work tion to the two works reproduced in Pan- done in earlier centuries, notably in the 17th concelli-Calzia 1940. These works of Pan- century, when scientific research flowered in concelli-Calzia are particularly informative in many areas and saw the founding of acade- tracing the development of early experimen- mies and societies, such as the Royal Society tal phonetic techniques.) in England, intended to further this research. Even before that there were perceptive ac- counts of the formation of speech, for in- 2. Early treatments of non-segmental stance by John Hart († 1574) in England, and features by the Dane, Jacob Madsen (1538Ϫ1586). Petrus Montanus (1594/95Ϫ1638) in the Thus by the late 18th century many of the Netherlands published his De Spreeckonst in elements of a proper science of phonetics 1635, though it remained little known until were already present. However, one area relatively recently (see Hulsker 1988). Fore- which had hitherto only received rather sum- most among English 17th-century writers on mary treatment was the analysis of non-seg- 178. The development of phonetics from the late 18th to the late 19th century 1469 mental features, such as rhythm and intona- 2.2. Another stimulus to phonetics came tion. from the elocutionists. Public speaking had deteriorated to a disastrous degree, and in 2.1. At the age of 75 Joshua Steele (1700Ϫ addition, there was increasing pressure in 1791) wrote a remarkable work on the non- Britain (notably in Scotland) for educated segmental aspects of speech (Steele 1775). people to speak with an English accent, con- One of his chief contributions was to clarify forming to what was established as the presti- and expand the use of certain terms: ‘accent’, gious accent of the time. The Irish actor ‘quantity’ ‘pause’, ‘emphasis’, also called Thomas Sheridan (1719Ϫ1788), father of the ‘poise’ or ‘cadence’, and ‘force’. Steele uses playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and a musical notation to record many of these Walker (1732Ϫ1807), who also started his ca- features. ‘Quantity’ (ϭ duration) is shown by reer as an actor, both taught elocution. Sheri- semiquavers, quavers, etc., and ‘accent’ (ϭ dan’s contribution to phonetics lies partly in pitch variation) by rising or falling oblique the description of speech contained in his lines attached to the stems of these notes, very popular Lectures on Elocution (1762) corresponding to the ‘slides’ which the voice and partly in his General Dictionary of the makes in speech. Steele suggested some of the English Language (1780). Like Steele, he was functions of pitch patterns Ϫ a final fall for concerned to emphasise the importance of completion, and a rise for non-completion. the non-segmental features of speech, which An increase in the extent of a movement he rightly believed were crucial to effective could indicate greater emotional involve- public speaking, and much of the Lectures is ment. ‘Pause’ is indicated by musical rests. concerned with the proper use of intonation. ‘Emphasis’ is more complex. Speech, he says, The importance of the Dictionary for phonet- is made up of ‘cadences’ or emphatical divi- ics lies in his attempt to record pronuncia- sions, each cadence, like a musical bar, being tions, with the idea of establishing a standard marked by a pulsation or ‘thesis‘ followed by accent which would replace local varieties. an ‘arsis’ or remission. The pulsation may This required him to develop a system of sometimes fall on a pause rather than a sylla- transcription, which consisted in a respelling ble, and be followed by one or more syllables of each word, using numeral diacritics to dis- in the remission. He marks the thesis with a ambiguate confusable letters. Walker’s Ele- small triangle and the unemphatic syllables ments of Elocution (1781) adopts a much with two or three dots. The speaker/hearer more formal approach than Sheridan in pre- instinctively feels the pulsations, and the al- senting rules for the use of intonation in Eng- ternation of ‘heavy’ and ‘light’, or emphatic lish, relating it to pauses and to grammatical and non-emphatic. Emphasis is not the same constructions. He was almost certainly influ- as ‘force’ (ϭ loudness) because it may fall on enced by knowledge of Steele’s work. His pause (i. e., silence) or on a whispered sylla- Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) had ble. The following is one of his examples: outstanding success, and provides invaluable Oh, ͉happiness ͉ our evidence as to what Walker considered a ͉D ͉D .. І ͉ D І ‘proper’ pronunciation at that time. tbeings ͉end and ͉aim ͉D І ͉D І ͉D 3. The vowel triangle In the third cadence the thesis falls on a pause and the syllable our is in the arsis. In By the middle of the 19th century it had be- spite of the varying number of syllables each come fairly common to show the relationship cadence has the same quantity. What Steele of vowels to each other by using a diagram calls the ‘measure’ of speech or ‘rhythmus’ Ϫ most commonly in the form of a triangle. consists of the number of cadences in a line One of the earliest examples of this in print or sentence. Steele’s attempt at analysis of appeared in the Dissertatio physiologico-me- non-segmental features is ahead of its time, dica de Formatione Loquelae (1781) by Chri- and in spite of some inconsistencies it de- stoph Friedrich Hellwag (1754Ϫ1835) Ϫ (see serves to be accorded an important place in Vie¨tor 1886). Hellwag took *a+ to be the phonetic history, notably in its ‘temporal’ ap- principal vowel. In 1780 he had presented the proach to rhythm, hotly disputed by some diagram with *a+ to the left and a branching traditional prosodists. path extending to the right and ending in *u+ 1470 XXVIII. The Analysis of Speech and Unwritten Languages in the 19th and 20th Century u ü i (e. g., by Dodart and Ferrein in the early 18th century, using excised larynxes) it was not till the end of that century that pioneering ex- o ö e periments were made in an attempt to pro- duce speech sounds artificially. The appara- å ä tus devised by Christian Gottlieb Kratzen- stein (1723Ϫ1795) and Wolfgang von Kem- a pelen (1734Ϫ1804) is described elsewhere (J Art. 180). By the early 19th century, with the Fig. 178.1: Hellwag’s vowel triangle of 1781. advent of more sophisticated apparatus, it had become increasingly possible to analyse speech experimentally. and *i+ (see Fig. 178.1). In between these three vowels are six others, said to be equally 4.1. Investigations of the acoustics of speech spaced from each other. In 1781 he turned sounds the diagram to put *a+ at the bottom. Hell- Early descriptions of speech tend to identify wag claimed that his order and positioning of different vowel sounds either by reference to the vowels was not only auditory in its basis the aperture of the lips or the internal cavity but also physiological, and gave short de- of the mouth, or to give them auditory labels scriptions of the tongue and lip positions. such as ‘thin’, ‘fat’, ‘clear’, ‘dark’. Hellwag The vowels *ü+ and *ö+ are placed centrally, had recognised that vowels have a character- * + * + sharing as they do with i and e respec- istic musical ‘pitch’, as had others prior to * + tively the same tongue position and with u the 19th century, but a theory to account for * + and o the same lip position.