A Case Study of Indonesia – US Bilateral Relations (2006 – 2013)

The Promotion of US Campaign of War on Terrorism in Indonesia through Hollywood Action and War Films: A Case Study of Indonesia – US Bilateral Relations (2006 – 2013)

By Tommy Surya Pradana ID No. 016201100081

A Thesis presented to the Faculty of Humanities President University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Bachelor Degree in International Relations Major in Diplomacy

2015

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Abstrak

Industri perfilman Amerika Serikat (Hollywood) dipercaya berperngaruh besar terhadap pembentukan opini masyarakat dunia karena produk-produk filmnya yang tersebar luas secara global dengan jumlah yang berlimpah dan bahkan sudah menjadi standar hiburan tersendiri bagi khalayak luas, terutama di Indonesia. Banyaknya pengambilan tema tentang terorisme serta penggambaran eksplisit terkait isu-isu terorisme di dalam film-film Hollywood bergenre action dan war membuat penulis tertarik untuk melakukan penelitian tentang bagaimana film-film ini mempromosikan kampanye Amerika Serikat dalam perang melawan terorisme di Indonesia.

Dalam melakukan studi ini, penulis menggunakan teori diplomasi publik sebagai kerangka teoretis. Penulis mengambil kasus-kasus terkait Hollywood, Indonesia, Amerika Serikat, dan terorisme yang terjadi pada tahun 2006-2013 sebagai ruang lingkup dan keterbatasan penelitian. Berdasarkan hasil yang didapat, bisa disimpulkan bahwa Hollywood berperan cukup besar dalam membentuk opini masyarakat Indonesia dengan menggambarkan kekejaman, kegilaan, dan kebrutalan para teroris yang tidak dapat dibenarkan oleh alasan apapun dalam menjalankan aksinya pada film-film Hollywood bergenre action dan war yang didistribusikan ke Indonesia. Ditemukan juga adanya implikasi ketergantungan masyarakat Indonesia terhadap film-film Hollywood serta kebijakan pemerintah yang mendukung penuh distribusi bahkan produksi film Hollywood di Indonesia.

Penelitian ini signifikan untuk para pelajar bidang studi Hubungan Internasional, terutama bagi yang tertarik atau yang juga sedang melakukan penelitian terkait sektor diplomasi publik, diplomasi budaya, Hollywood, dan/atau terorisme.

Kata Kunci: Hollywood, Action, War, Terrorism, Public Diplomacy, Indonesia, US.

Abstract

The United States film industry, or generally known as Hollywood, is considered as having a massive influence towards the creation of global public opinion because of their film products which globally prevail with an abundant amounts and have becoming the global public standard of entertainment, especially in Indonesia. The ample numbers of terrorism-theme and also explicit depiction regarding terrorism issues in Hollywood action and war films has making the writer interested to conduct a research on how these films promote US campaign in war on terrorism in Indonesia.

In doing this study, the writer applied public diplomacy theory as theoretical framework. The writer studied Hollywood, Indonesia, US, and terrorism related case which happened in 2006-2013 as the scope and limitations of study. Based on the result of this study, it can be stated that Hollywood has fine role and contribution in shaping the opinion of Indonesian public by depicting ruthlessness, psychopathy, and savagery of terrorists in doing their action—which cannot be justified by any reasons—in Hollywood action and war films distributed to Indonesia. There is also some founding on the implication of Indonesian public dependencies towards Hollywood films and also Indonesian government policy which support the distribution and even the production of Hollywood films in Indonesia.

This study is significant to the students of International Relations study program, especially for those who are interested or also doing researches in regards to public diplomacy, culture diplomacy, Hollywood, and/or terrorism.

Keywords: Hollywood, Action, War, Terrorism, Public Diplomacy, Indonesia, US.

Acknowledgements

In this great opportunity, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my thesis supervisors, Prof. Anak Agung Banyu Perwita Ph.D., Eric Hendra SIP., MA, and Isyana Adriani Arslan, BA, for their patient guidance, enthusiastic encouragement, and constructive critiques during the planning, development, and analysis of my study. My grateful thanks are also extended to Azalia Primadita Muchransyah, S.Psi., M.Si. for being my informal thesis advisor and providing me Hollywood scriptwriting formula materials and also Moja Nurkalam and Ade Farida for their helpful assistance by giving me access to the US Embassy Library to collect vital resources to complete my research.

I would also like to thank my fellow students in President University International Relations batch 2011, especially Anna Indah Pratiwi, Hafiz Sandria, and Taris Hirzi Iman for their helpful contributions regarding the information of thesis formality requirements. I also wish to acknowledge the abundant support from my friends in CouchSurfing Writer’s Club and Premiere Filmmaking Club, especially Farida Susanty, Bagia Arif Saputra, Angga Permana, Ruby Astari, Monica Yohari, Pelita Yunanda Purnama, Nur Ulfanny Lukman, Nadya Kalya Komala, Yasika Ayudaning Puspita, Intan Faradila, Yohana Amelia Agustin, Michelle Ribka Prayogo, and Alief Syahru Ramdhani for frequently reminding me of how great I am and how I should always be confident of myself during my thesis development.

In the end, I would like to thank my beloved parents for never giving up on me.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PANEL OF EXAMINERS APPROVAL SHEET……………………………………..……...... i

THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER ...………………………………………..ii

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY……………...……………………………………………iii

ABSTRACT (INDONESIAN)……………….…………………………………………………..iv

ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)…………………….……………………………………...... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………...... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………..……………………………………vii

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………..……...……………………………1 – 20 1.1. Background of the Study…………………………………………………………………1 1.2. Problems Identified…….………………………………………………………………..10 1.3. Statement of The Problems.…………………………………………………………...... 11 1.4. Research Objectives……………………………………………………………………..12 1.5. Significance of Study……………………………………………………………………12 1.6. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework………………………………………………...13 1.7. Definitions of Terms………………………………………………………………….....16

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1.8. Scope and Limitations of Study…………………………………………………………19 1.9. Thesis Outline…………………………………………………………………………...19 II. ANTI-TERRORISM VALUES IN HOLLYWOOD ACTION AND WAR FILMS...……...21 2.1.The Western Values: The Messages inside Hollywood Action Film…………………....21 2.2. Understanding War Films and the Perspectives of War…………..…………………….33 2.3. Hollywood Films and People’s Mind: How it Works…………………………………..39 2.4. Hollywood Action and War Films & Terrorism after 9/11………………….………….45 III. US – INDONESIA BILATERAL RELATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER “WAR ON TERRORISM”…………………………………………………………………………...... 51 3.1. A Historical Overview of US – Indonesia Bilateral Relations………………...... 51 3.1.1. Post-Independence Era…………………………………………………………...51 3.1.2. New Order Era…………………………………………………………………...52 3.1.3. Reformation Era………………………………………………………………….54 3.2. Hollywood Film Distributions in Indonesia after 9/11………………………………….57 3.3. US - Indonesia Strategic Partnership in Combating Terrorism…………………...... 60 IV. INDONESIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS HOLLYWOOD AND TERRORISM: CASE STUDY (2006 – 2013)……………………………………………..………………………...65 4.1. ‘Java Heat’ Review: Cultural Cooperation of Campaigning Anti-Terrorism….……….66 4.2. Indonesian Government Perception and Policy towards Hollywood Action and War Film……………..…………………………………...…………………...………….....69 4.3. Indonesian Government Perception and Policy towards Terrorism...... ……...... 70 4.4. Analysis and Interpretation of Data……………………………………………...... 75 V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION…………………………..……………...….78 VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………..…………………....80

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Chapter I Introduction

1.1. Background of Studies

Since its term was first used as a distinct field of study in 1919 on the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth University, international relations always defined as a branch of political science which focuses on affairs, interactions, and relations between nations, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations (MNCs) within the frameworks of international system (About International Relations, n.d.). As it analyzes and formulates foreign policies of a given State and following the patterns of international affairs and historical background, IR is interdisciplinary field of study which keeps developing as time goes on. In its political discipline, to reach the fulfillment of mutual benefit from other countries, the established bond are formed by applying the art and practice of negotiation between representatives of state, generally known as ‘diplomacy’ (Merriam Webster Inc., n.d.). The history of diplomatic activities can be traced back in the early age when tribe leaders negotiated marriages and regulations of hunting and trade (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., n.d.). Since then, traditional diplomacy studies mainly focused on diplomats as a government representatives to resolve the affairs among states and to negotiate the fulfillment of state interests by conducting foreign policies that is based on mutual agreements.

The growth of interstate diplomatic relations and the nations’ power to in late 20th century has created historical occurrence called globalizations, which had been described by Jan Aarte Scholte, a professor of politics and international studies and director of the Centre for the Study of Globalization and Regionalization, as the cross-border relations between countries which happens as the cause of states’ development of interdependence and international exchange (Scholte, 2005). Globalization has been a major discussion in the study of International Relations because of its massive effect to the world development and to the expansion of

1 international relations frameworks itself. It also changes the perspective of how power not only works in military and economic shapes, but also in culture and communications aspects. Moreover, globalization allows people to understand the development of relationships between an individual states from a more-or-less side by side presence towards their integration in international system, which makes them becoming more interdependent on each other than before and where events occurring abroads are far more likely to influence them than they would have about ages ago (Baylis & Smith, 2001).

As the world developed into a modernized environment by the development of technology and globalizations, the concept of diplomacy was also broadened to another level of engagement. In 1965, Edmund H. Gullion used a term ‘public diplomacy’, which had been founded earlier before in a section from The Times in January 1856, on the purpose of replacing ‘traditional diplomacy’ by describing it as ‘diplomacy concentrates on dealing with the public attitudes and opinions on the creation and execution of foreign policy’ (Cull, 2006). To emphasize, it’s a kind of diplomacy that not only deals with inter-governmental officials, but also with non- governmental institutions and mass audiences. Montville invented the phrase ‘Track One’ and ‘Track Two’ diplomacy to distinguish modern diplomacy based on the actors and the subjects of diplomacy (Davidson & Montville, 1981-1982). Whereas ‘Track One’ diplomacy conducted by diplomats as government representatives, ‘Track Two’ diplomacy focused on conflict resolution efforts by professional non-governmental conflict resolution experts and theoreticians. In the Glossary of Terms for Conflict Management and Peacebuilding, United States Institute of Peace inserted the term of ‘Track Three’ diplomacy to described people diplomacy undertaken by individuals and private groups to boost interaction and understanding between hostile communities and involving awareness raising and empowerment within these communities (United States Institutes of Peace, 2011).

Many scholars consider USA as a state that can successfully applying its public diplomacy in order to gain political support and positive opinion towards international public since the WWII. One of the scholars, Jill A. Schuker, even

2 claimed that public diplomacy is historically one of America’s most effective tools of outreach, persuasion, and policy (The Edward Murrow Center of Public Diplomacy, 2004). Arrived from the conclusion that public diplomacy acts in a broader area than traditional diplomacy, this also means that not only diplomats, but any non-governmental individual or institutions can also be included as public diplomacy actors. Among many non-governmental institutions and individual actors in US, the most phenomenal one which sparking so much concerns and discussions by being one of the most powerful weapons of influence towards lifestyle and image building is the cinema of the United States, which like to be generally referred as Hollywood.

By looking at the enormous success of Hollywood, it is hard not to consider it as one of the biggest social influencer in global range. Since the early 20th century, Hollywood has had a massive and influential effect on cinema across the world. The history of Hollywood film production itself can be traced back in the early 1900, when US filmmakers started migrating to the Hollywood town in Los Angeles, California in order to avoid the tight procedures enacted by Thomas Edison's Motion Picture Patents Company in New Jersey because the patents of the filmmaking were legally possessed by Edison and independent filmmakers were frequently restricted—or worse, prosecuted—by Edison to end their creations (Kelly, 2008). Kelly (2008) also mentioned that the first motion picture studio was built in by filmmaker David Horsley's general manager Al Christie in 1911, in an old building on the southeast corner of Sunset Boulevard and Gower Street. Movie studios soon began to appear all over Hollywood after Christie's appearance, including ones for Cecil B. DeMille in 1913, the Charlie Chaplin Studio in 1917, and many others.

Since the 1920s “Hollywood Golden Age” era, when Hollywood started to focus on feature film and full-length film production than ‘short’ and ‘two-reels’ film, Hollywood industry has earned more profit annually than that of any other country’s film industry. The studios were producing out a total of about 400 films a year, appreciated by an approximate audience of 90 million American publics per week

3 at motion pictures' height of popularity in the mid-1940s (Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., n.d.). Several name like Stanley Kubrick, Walt Disney, James Dean, Audrey Hepburn, Marilyn Monroe, and even the US presidential couple Ronald and Nancy Reagan were gaining their fame by producing and contributing in Hollywood film productions. US produces so many great story-tellers working inside Hollywood from time to time, which able to tell stories of Americans working to fight adversity and tragedy and also stories of love and loss and redemption while inserting values of liberation, freedom, gender equality, and democracy as the main vision of all human being in this Earth. They are able to entertain and thrill common society by showing gunfight, martial arts, and explosion—the event which almost didn’t occurred at their common lifetime. Within a short period of time, Hollywood film industry has successfully breaking through the international film market and getting special places in every country’s theaters.

As Hollywood film studios capable to distribute their films globally, soon it began to slowly change the world’s perspective about motion picture. The influence of Hollywood gave many impacts to worldwide film industries. They tend to look up to the American film industry as their ultimate standard. Gary Rodman even stated that although Hollywood films are influenced from other countries’ films, the impact is less-powerful than what Hollywood films’ did to the rest of the world (Rodman, 2012). The impact is massive because by the time Hollywood successfully promoted their filmmaking standards to the world, soon the other countries’ film began to input the lifestyle values of US into their films, which in the end had successfully inducing it to the national viewers’ culture. This social phenomenon of Hollywood socio-cultural adaptation is generally referred by international public as Hollywoodization (Oxford Dictionaries, n.d.). Y Bi answers the questions about the source of this Hollywood ‘powerful forces’ by stating that “Hollywood films tend to build the national image characterized by freedom, equality, prosperity, and other positive aspects that reinforced by the filmmakers to the storyline (Ibbi, 2013).”

Once again, it is hard not to include Hollywood as one of the public diplomacy actors, as they give as much contribution as government’s public diplomacy program to boost US cultural and socio-political image to global society. Miller (2010) stated that “The most widespread social anxiety about film is to do with concerns about cultural imperialism. Cinema has been a model for the global prominence of US culture, underwritten by the state.” The triumph of Hollywood film industries towards globalization has created modern society to consider culture as a great weapon of mass influencing. Joseph S. Nye confirmed it by introduced a concept called ‘soft power’, which described the strength of attraction, persuasion, and cooperation through the promotion of nation’s culture, values, and policies as one of the vital instrument in the system of globalization (Nye, 1990). As Mike Medayov stated “If culture is on the front line of world affairs in the times to come, then Hollywood, as much as Silicon Valley, the Pentagon, or the U.S. State Department, has a starring role (Gardels & Medayov, 2009).”

There has been many rumors going out about the involvement of government inside Hollywood film productions. However, we can refer to the history when it comes to that question. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first US President to have an apprehensive concern to make the cinema as a vital part of US propaganda instrument after the Japanese outbreak in December 1941 on Pearl Harbor brought the US into the World War II (Stern, 2000). Thus, an amount of distinctive governmental institutions were established. However, their clumsy works bring about an observed necessity to form a single institution to administer the supplement of war propaganda into the motion picture. The effort was proved successful for military and political wellbeing the minute it emanated to getting an all-encompassing division of the inhabitants and developing consensus or inspiring denial of the real or imaginary adversary. They also delivered a dynamic power for independent critics of modern occasions as Lowell Mellett has been assigned by Franklin D. Roosevelt to the department of coordinator of government film (Burns, 2010). He pressured Hollywood industry into helping the war effort, Burns (2010) continued, although he actually had no authority over Hollywood films. Mellett stated in private witness on 13 January 1945 that he was apportioned to convince

Hollywood to "attach morale-embracing and citizenry poignant themes in its films by all means necessary.” Fortunately, many filmmakers acknowledged the inevitability (and likely the commercial success they would reap) of encouraging the struggle against totalitarianism as public opinion is vital to the war effort. Burns (2010) mentioned Frank Capra, a Hollywood renowned director, which created a U.S. government-funded series which consisted of seven part of films to support the war struggle titled Why We Fight.

Starting from the 21st century, US government, supported by Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) and neoliberal cultural policy makers, takes a firm position that film philosophy is best to be left by free-market forces control. Looking back to the free-market ideology that permitted US film to develop as a commercially sponsored and private enterprise as was later the case with the US broadcasting industry to gain an insight of this occurrence (Oulette, 2000). Oulette (2000) also implied that the US government has strongly pursued the liberalization of many countries to support the US film industry, particularly in international treaty negotiations, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Moreover, the growth of the Hollywood films on a global scale keeps sustaining and watching Hollywood films—especially action and war films—in each countries’ theater has becoming a worldwide lifestyle since the early 21st century. We can see one example from the number of Total Worldwide Lifetime Gross of “Saving Private Ryan”, an epic action-war film made by Steven Spielberg in 1998, which hits $481,840,909 by 2014, with production budget which costs $70 million (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). Another solid example shown by the number of Total Worldwide Lifetime Gross of “The Avengers”, an epic superhero action film directed by Joss Whedon and distributed by Walt Disney Motion Picture Studios, which hits $1,518,594,910 by 2014 with production budget which costs $220 million (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). This also means that Hollywood keeps investing high amount of budget in action and war films production with realistic expectation of much higher profit even after the WWII ends.

It is interesting to look at Indonesia as one of the active consumers of Hollywood action and war films in this early 21st century age. The two biggest cinema network in Indonesia, 21 Cineplex and Blitz Megaplex, has always provide Hollywood biggest action and war films as one of their main products in their theatres, and mostly it succeeded to attract more consumers to come and watch. There is a case which happens in February 2011 when all of the recent Hollywood films were being withdrawn from Indonesia because of the disagreement from MPA (Motion Pictures Association) about the recent tax and customs duty policy from Indonesia Directorate General of Customs (Samboh, 2011). These action quickly sparked furor and became a huge public issue in Indonesia, especially people living in urban areas. Many Indonesian afraid they cannot watch any good entertainments because all of their films and TV shows are considered ‘mediocre’ and they have been waiting for the upcoming Hollywood action and war films like “Thor” and “Transformers: Dark of The Moon” (Wardhani, Fans Reaction Mixed Over Hollywood Boycott, 2011). This issue does not stand out in long time because finally in the end of July 2011, MPA has finished all of their tax and custom problems and started importing films to Indonesia again (Republika, 2011). However, the effect of the ‘Hollywood withdrawal’ incident has proven that Indonesian people are not only attracted by Hollywood films, but also being dependent on them.

Soon after that, many Hollywood filmmakers are using Indonesia as one of their strategic location to shoot their films. There are many films to be mentioned, but specifying the genre on action and war films, there are “The Philosophers”, “Java Heat”, and another upcoming cyber-crime action films titled “Blackhat” directed by Michael Mann, which has been critically acclaimed for his successful action films in the international market like “Heat” and “Public Enemies”. Moreover, they are using several talented Indonesian actors and actresses to star as an important role in their films, like Atiqah Hasiholan in “Java Heat” and Cinta Laura Kiehl in “The Philosophers”. This ‘Hollywood withdrawal’ effect seems to impact both the Hollywood filmmakers and Indonesian culture observers itself on how they see

7 each other not only as mutual partner, but also as the effective agent of cultural and social values exchanges.

Several days after the 9/11 incident on World Trade Center, US president George W. Bush initiated to declare war on terrorism at 21 September 2001 along with a statement of half-persuasion-half-coercion to every country to support US foreign policy in combating terrorism, “And we will pursue nations that provide aid or safe haven to terrorism. Every nation in every region now has a decision to make: Either you are with us or you are with the terrorists.” (CNN, 2001). Following those incident, several act of terrorism also began to happen in many countries, including Indonesia with Bali bombing in 2002 (GlobalSecurity, 2002) and JW Marriott Hotel bombing in 2003 (Glendining & Weaver, 2009). Terrorism suddenly has become a major global issues and talk among the global citizens since then. The subject of terrorism was not addressed in a major way for some years in Hollywood’s production studios, not only in regards of profitmaking concerns with regard to an exhausted audience, both domestic and international, but also because earlier circumstances considered as bizarre and naturally pleasurable had been so “brutally realized” on the 9/11 tragedy. One of the earliest cases of films speaking about the condition in post 9/11 America was Syriana: a movie that is partially constructed on the journals of Robert Baer, an Ex-CIA agent. Exploring the political, economic, legal, and social effects of the oil business, and how its mechanisms breed terrorism, the main character, elderly CIA agent Bob Barnes, is surrounded in a system of control relations connecting mighty Washingtonian law firms, the US government, the corrupt elites of a Middle Eastern sheikdom, and Texan oil business (Gaghan, 2005). This “system” applies all means necessary to improve its political-economic interests and produces terrorism as a form of blowback.

It took more than four years for the Hollywood to tackle 9/11 directly. In United 93, Paul Greengrass retold the story of the hijacked flight that did not reach its intended target on September 11th. Instead it crashed into a field in Pennsylvania, supposedly because the passengers revolted against the hijackers. The director offers only a distanced portrait of the hijackers – although the first scene in the movie, a prayer

8 ritual in the morning hours of September 11th, 2001, depicts them as devout Muslims on a mission (Greengrass, 2006). However, since United 93 is all about the heroic actions of the passengers and their sacrifice, the motivation and personal background of the terrorists remain rather obscure to the moviegoer. Oliver Stone’s World Trade Center did not even show the planes hitting the towers. Instead, Stone concentrated on a human interest story based on the miraculous rescue of two survivors from Ground Zero (Berloff, 2006). World Trade Center, moreover, successfully reaping $162,970,240 estimated total worldwide lifetime gross with $65,000,000 production budget (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). These has shown that the incident of worldwide terrorism has raised global citizen’s awareness and affected them not only in political, but also sentimental ways. Moreover, it is possible that Hollywood film approach might be a strategic solution for both of them in campaigning anti-terrorism issues.

The strength of Hollywood films as public influencer and their based-on-profit orientation seems to be harmonious with US government foreign policy and Indonesia domestic policy to combat terrorism. Long time before the tragedy of 9/11, Hollywood filmmaking has already using terrorism as a central focus, as one reproduction inside general principles of the increasing levels of governmental violence in American society, in US foreign policy, and also across the international level. One classic of this genre—which shown Hollywood’s fascination with terrorism in the early World War II era—was Alfred Hitchcock’s Saboteur, presenting a worker-hero who mishaps into an underground prison of American Nazi fifth journalists planning to interfere hydroelectric dams, aircraft hangars and marine warships (Viertel, Harrison, & Parker, 1942). This dramatic narration by Viertel, Harrison, & Parker (1942)—the bombing of a US ship—was based on historical occurrence adjoining the secretive incineration of the U.S.S. Lafayette, an ocean insert being overhauled as a warship in 1942. Terrorism had been spread with destructive power since the 1960s, traversing such varied regions as North America, Latin America, Asia, and lately the Middle East. Terrorism has become an important element of fantasies, narratives, and myths that contribute so much to pleasurable film, with its global conspiracy, bizarre sceneries, explicit fierceness,

9 and the controversies of good versus evil. The depictions of counter-terrorists versus terrorists have a natural photographic charm above everything in the US where the culture of gun using, local violence, killing sprees, and a thriving economy struggle overflow the scenery. The assaults of the Al-Qaeda on the World Trade Center and Pentagon inexorably intensified public enthusiasm on terrorism, powered by increasing terror and suspicion meant to inspire a new generation of films in which influential descriptions of televised terrorism sensationalize origins of actual terrorism that currently invokes the intimidation of weapons of mass destruction.

The bilateral relations between Indonesia and US has been established officially in 1949 by US government opening its Embassy in Jakarta and still maintain to continue their mutual relationship in economy, politic, security and defense, environment, and tourism sectors until now (Embassy of Republic Indonesia in Washington DC, n.d.). MPA and other US film distributors also still continuing their film import to Indonesia cinema networks especially in action and war films, which contain many political values of US society. They even have their own active fan-base community of specific action and war Hollywood film franchises, such as Indonesian Marvel Community and Indonesia Star-Wars Community (Tempo, 2014). These shown that Hollywood action and war films are not only gaining receptive response from Indonesian film consumers, but also successfully creating loyal customers networks inside the Indonesia.

1.2. Problems Identified

As culture has becoming more powerful as the tools of global communication and public influencer in this early 21st century, the role of Hollywood filmmakers and distributors is getting broader by being not only profit-oriented business actors, but also as effective public influencers and global communicators which promoted many values of US. The effectiveness of films as the weapon of political outreach can be seen from the research conducted by a team of political scientist at University of Notre Dame in Indiana, which have shown that popular sentimental films can

10 affect political attitudes of the viewers (Whitnall, 2013). Dr. Todd Adkin, the studies’ lead author, stated in Whitnall (2013) that the film consumers tend to watch films by the expectation to be entertained and are not prepared to encounter and evaluate political messages as they would during campaign advertisements or network news.

Hollywood films can be one of a strategic solution to boost the values of democracy, freedom, and justice in order to campaign war on terrorism. The past occurrence of Bali and JW Marriott bombings, which heavily damaged Indonesian tourism and foreign investment sectors, has raised public awareness and concern about the danger of terrorism movement in Indonesia, thus also creating public fascination and trend of anti-terrorism issues. This condition somehow become a major opportunity for the importance of both Hollywood film producers and US government itself, whereas Hollywood action and war films not only able to generate potentially huge profit in Indonesian cinema, but also indirectly supporting US government to promote war on terrorism issues.

Indonesia has maintaining its strategic position as a good bilateral partner of US in many sectors until now. With Hollywood films holding its position as the consumer’s favorite in Indonesia, it has become much easier for US government not only to introduce their current political issues, but also to get positive attitude from Indonesian government towards their foreign policies, especially in war on terrorism campaign. This thesis concentrates on analyzing the role of Hollywood films as public influencer by learning on case studies on how their action and war films helps to promote US campaign on war on terrorism.

1.3. Statement of The Problem

a. Topic : This thesis is about the promotion of US campaign of war on terrorism in Indonesia through Hollywood action and war films in 2006- 2013. The assessment will be done by analyzing case studies of strategic partnership and bilateral relations between US and Indonesia on anti-

terrorism issues, the awareness level of anti-terrorism in Indonesia based on its national security policy and foreign policy that related with counter terrorism act, and Hollywood action and war films that contributed in the promotion of anti-terrorism values. b. Question : How did the US promote the campaign of war on terrorism in Indonesia through Hollywood action and war films: a case study of Indonesia – US bilateral relations (2006-2013)?

1.4. Research Objectives

Based on the problems statement explained above, the objectives of this thesis are: I. To analyze the promotion of US war on terrorism campaign in Indonesia through Hollywood action and war film. II. To prove that film industry can be a major influencer of values and culture throughout global sector in this 21st century. III. To provide data for further researches about US – Indonesia bilateral relationship, US – Indonesia strategic partnership in countering terrorism, public diplomacy, and Hollywood film influences.

1.5. Significance of Study

This thesis will be a significant endeavor in providing a better understanding and clear explanation about the diplomatic strategy of US through cultural and political approach by Hollywood. This thesis will also be beneficial to the students of international relations, especially those who studied in cultural diplomacy, soft power, terrorism, and public diplomacy area. By having in-depth comprehension about the strength of Hollywood films as public diplomacy contributors, students can determine the vital elements which will work effectively to promote values and interests of the state to the other nations and therefore can suggests more effective methods of boosting public diplomacy. Moreover, this thesis will also provide valid data and will be helpful for related studies and researches.

1.6. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Due to the discussion, which elaborating the promotion of US campaign of war on terrorism through Hollywood action and war film to Indonesian film consumers, this thesis will use ‘public diplomacy’ as the most suitable theory for its main theoretical framework.

Public diplomacy was a term which first used by Edmund H. Gullion to describe a new modern diplomacy which ‘concentrates on dealing with the public attitudes and opinions on the creation and execution of foreign policy (Cull, 2006).’ Alan K. Henrikson explains it further by describing it as ‘the conduct of international relations by governments through public communications media and through dealings with a wide range of non-governmental subject (political parties, corporations, trade associations, labor unions, educational institutions, religious organizations, ethnic groups, and so on including influential individuals) for the purpose of influencing the politics and actions of other governments (Henrikson, 2006).’ There are no one true consensus definition to public diplomacy itself, because the scope is getting broader and continue to change over time. However, from the explanations by Alan and Edmund, it can be concluded that public diplomacy generally understood as a modern diplomatic acts which deals with foreign publics to inform and influence ideas and values.

Film, television, music, sports, video games and other social/cultural activities are seen by public diplomacy supporters nowadays as massively important opportunities for otherwise diverse citizens to understand each other and essential to the international cultural understanding, which they state is a key goal of modern public diplomacy strategy. It involves not only shaping the messages that a country wishes to present abroad, but also analyzing and understanding the ways that the message is interpreted by diverse societies and developing the tools of listening and conversation as well as the tools of persuasion.

The globalization and evolution towards democracy of international society has carried about the emerging of other actors, who, for the moment, are likely to be referred to with the generic term ‘non-state’, and have global interests and the will to make their way to be triumphant on the world stage. In this context, Hollywood places itself on the top of the other non-state actors as the most influential actors to promote US values in international level. Hollywood films can be credited as one of the most powerful public diplomacy instruments US can have. Hollywood keeps producing action and war films that contains values of freedom, liberation, and democracy in which they sometimes also include US government as the key leaders of achieving peace for the whole world through their principles and values. “White House Down”, “Zero Dark Thirty”, and “Iron Man” can be examples for the action and war film which promotes the act of sincerity of US government and military to struggle for the peace of nations and the whole world through their counter-act of terrorism. Moreover, they also keep getting much higher profit from those kind of films even though the production consumes massive budget, which become motivation for Hollywood film studios to produce more and more action and war films with the same relevant values every year. These things indirectly but effectively leads to promotion of the commitment and consistency of US government to combat any act which considered as threat for the sustainability of world peace and democracy, especially terrorism itself, as portrayed in almost all Hollywood action and war films.

With many factors of strength as mentioned above, there is a clear sight that Hollywood action and war films will be significantly effective to promote US anti- terrorism campaign. To examine the promotion of US campaign of war on terrorism in Indonesia through Hollywood action and war films, this thesis will apply ‘public diplomacy’ theory as the foundation of its theoretical frameworks.

US Government •Foreign policy to support international distributions of Hollywood films •Forming strategic partnership with Indonesia to combat terrorism

Indonesia Hollywood •Gaining entertainment and US •Promoting US values of values of anti-terrorism from freedom and anti-terrorism Hollywood action and war depicted in action and war films films towards Indonesia •Forming strategic partnership •Generating profit received with US to combat terrorism from Indonesian film consumers

TABLE 1.1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK (ADOPTED FROM INFORMATION FRAMEWORK CONCEPT)

The result of this thesis will be determined by the conceptual framework shown by the Table 1.1 above. Adopted from the concept of the ‘Information Framework’ proposed by Zaharna (2009), which explains a direct process of transmitting information with the purpose of persuading and control, we will conduct the analysis by firstly studying the five dominant feature of the information framework concept from the interactions and relationship conditions between Hollywood, Indonesia, and US. Those five dominant features are: the creation of message, control, interaction, channels, goal (Zaharna, 2009). From those five dominant features, we will get to know how the promotion works, which will be our study’s independent variable.

The outline of mutual relationship between them in context of film distributions and war on terrorism campaign can be generally put as said: Indonesia, US, and

Hollywood each has mutual relationship drawn by the interests of each other’s. US needs Hollywood action and war films to indirectly promote values which related to anti-terrorism issues and Hollywood needs US government to support its global distribution through foreign policy in open and free market. Indonesia also needs Hollywood to gain decent entertainment and Hollywood also needs Indonesia to generate profit received from the dependency of Indonesia towards its’ films. Meanwhile, US and Indonesia also need each other to increase citizen public acknowledgment about the danger of terrorism and therefore gaining public support to establish strategic partnership to counter every terrorism act and strengthening their bilateral relationship in security & defense sector.

From those outline of mutual interest, the writer will discuss the values depicted inside Hollywood action and war films and the creation and execution of those values (the creation of message, control, and goals). The writer will also discuss the overview of Indonesia – US bilateral relations and Hollywood film distribution flow in Indonesia (interaction and channels). In the end, the writer will concentrate to analyze those founding to conclude how US promote their war on terrorism campaign through Hollywood action and war films in Indonesia based on the study’s dependent variable: national security and foreign policy and strategic partnership and bilateral relations with US that related to Hollywood films and counter terrorism act.

1.7. Definition of Terms

a. Public Diplomacy i. A term coined by Edmund H. Gullion, which had been founded earlier before in an article from The Times in January 1856, on the purpose of replacing ‘traditional diplomacy’ by describing it as ‘diplomacy concentrates on dealing with the public attitudes and opinions on the creation and execution of foreign policy (Cull, 2006).’

ii. Alan K. Henrikson explains it further by describing it as the conduct of international relations by governments through public communications media and through dealings with a wide range of nongovernmental entities (political parties, corporations, trade associations, labor unions, educational institutions, religious organizations, ethnic groups, and so on including influential individuals) for the purpose of influencing the politics and actions of other governments (Henrikson, 2006). b. Soft Power. A term founded by Joseph S. Nye to described the strength of attraction, persuasion, and cooperation through the promotion of nation’s culture, values, and policies as one of the vital instrument in the system of globalization (Nye, 1990). c. Terrorism Merriam Webster Online described terrorism as the “use of violent acts to frighten the people in an area as a way of trying to achieve a political goal” (Merriam-Webster Inc., n.d.). However, in international scope, terrorism has no legitimately binding, criminal definition and has proved controversial. Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the international community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed, legally binding definition of this crime. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term "terrorism" is politically and emotionally charged (Hoffman, 1998). The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. During the 1970s and 1980s, as the United Nations attempts to define the term stumbled mainly due to differences of opinion between various members about the use of violence in the context of conflicts over national liberation and self-determination (Martyn, 2002).

17 c. US Campaign of War on Terrorism Also known as Global War on Terror (GWoT), US Campaign of War on Terrorism refers to the international military campaign that started after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, according to Wolfe (2008). The George W. Bush administration defined the following objectives in the War on Terror, based on The White House official website (Office of the Press Secretary, 2003):  Defeat terrorists such as Osama bin Laden, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and demolish their organizations  Identify, locate and demolish terrorists along with their organizations  Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists o End the state sponsorship of terrorism o Establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with regard to combating terrorism o Strengthen and sustain the international effort to combat terrorism o Work with willing and able states o Enable weak states o Persuade reluctant states o Compel unwilling states o Interdict and disorder material support for terrorists o Abolish terrorist sanctuaries and havens  Diminish the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit o Partner with the international community to strengthen weak states and prevent (re)emergence of terrorism o Win the war of ideals  Defend US citizens and interests at home and abroad o Integrate the National Strategy for Homeland Security o Attain domain awareness

o Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical, physical, and information-based infrastructures at home and abroad o Implement measures to protect US citizens abroad o Ensure an integrated incident management capability

1.8. Scope and Limitation of Study

The scope of this study is limited to a state level and only on Hollywood action and war films with terrorism as its main topic from 2006-2013 only. Indonesia – US bilateral relations and their strategic partnership to counter terrorism act with Hollywood films to promote the campaign should be the main focus of this subject.

This study does not cover any other countries and films outside Indonesia and US that doesn’t have any relations with the topic.

1.9. Thesis Outline

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter will explain the background of the study and problem identification by brief enlightenment about the current condition of Hollywood phenomena in Indonesia, US-Indonesia bilateral relationship, and the hypothesis of Hollywood action and war films influence towards Indonesian views on terrorism. This chapter also provide the thesis question, theoretical framework, conceptual framework, and scope of the study offered as the foundation of this analysis. Moreover, this chapter described the significance of study and definition of terms to facilitate the study.

Chapter 2: Anti-Terrorism Values in Hollywood Action and War Films (Case Study 2006-2013)

This chapter provides comprehensive, further analysis and understanding about Hollywood action and war films and values of liberation, freedom, democracy, and anything related to war against terrorism depicted inside them. This chapter also discussed how those values have the ability to influence and promoting anti- terrorism campaign.

Chapter 3: US – Indonesia Bilateral Relations before and after “War on Terrorism”

This chapter explains the bilateral relationship of US-Indonesia before and after George W. Bush declared “War on Terrorism” after the World Trade Center incident in September 11th, 2001. Not only comprehending the US-Indonesia bilateral relations from historical analysis, this chapter also described the history of terrorism incident in Indonesia and US before 9/11 incident and how it influence their national security policy to protect their people from the danger of terrorism.

Chapter 4: Indonesian Attitude towards Hollywood and Counter-Terrorism: Case Study 2006-2013

This chapter goes deep further, analyzing how the values of Hollywood action and war films contributed towards US-Indonesia bilateral relations in terrorism sector and Indonesian foreign policy against terrorism after 9/11 incident. This chapter also analyze and interpret the data provided by two chapters (2 and 3) before using qualitative method.

Chapter 5: Conclusion

This chapter concludes every data and findings on this study, thus defining the result of the analysis and stating the recommendation which the writer found constructive on potential leads to another study significant to this thesis.

Chapter II Anti-Terrorism Values in Hollywood Action and War Films

2.1. The Western Values: The Messages inside Hollywood Action Film

Hollywood action film has been critically acclaimed as one of the biggest profit- generating entertainment worldwide. Binder stated that this kind of film which protagonists are plunge into a sequences of encounters that characteristically include physical performances, suspenseful fighting scenes, viciousness, and hysterical pursuits are being fancied by international audiences, especially in this globalized 21st century age (Binder, 2013).

Year Film Production Domestic Worldwide Budget Lifetime Grosses Lifetime Grosses 2006 Casino Royale US$150,000,000 US$167,445,960 US$599,045,960 2007 Transformers US$150,000,000 US$319,246,193 US$709,709,780 2008 The Dark Knight US$185,000,000 US$534,858,444 US$1,004,558,444 2009 Avatar US$237,000,000 US$760,507,625 US$2,787,965,087 2010 Inception US$160,000,000 US$292,576,195 US$825,532,764 2011 M.I.: Ghost US$145,000,000 US$209,397,903 US$694,713,380 Protocol 2012 The Avengers US$220,000,000 US$623,357,910 US$1,518,594,910 2013 Iron Man 3 US$200,000,000 US$409,013,994 US$1,215,439,994

TABLE 2: 2006-2013 SAMPLE OF HOLLYWOOD ACTION FILM: BOX OFFICE LIST1

From table 1 above, we can see how Hollywood keeps investing huge amount of production budget to produce action films and consistently generating massive, multiple amount of profit from domestic and worldwide screening. These has shown that Hollywood action film has been well-responded by global citizen as

1 All the data retrieved December 5th from Box Office Mojo http://www.boxofficemojo.com/ 21 their standard of entertainment consumption, and it’s also considered as one of the most successful and sustainable business in this early 21st century.

Following Dr. Todd Adkin studies about sentimental films and its influence to the viewers (Whitnall, 2013), it is concluded that Hollywood action films have potentially influenced the global society in certain aspects. To determine what kind of values depicted in Hollywood action films, we need understand what Hollywood films can be categorized as ‘action’ film and the basic values that constructed plot elements and conclusion of the stories.

King (2000) described action film as:

“a kind of film which typically involve high-budget portrayals of main characters engaged in a series of dramatic, dangerous events involving narrow escapes, fights, or rescues, all filmed in a face-paced style that keeps audiences wondering if the hero or heroine will make it out alive at the end of the film.”

The first American action film ever was made in 1903, titled The Great Train Robbery, which was produced, directed, and written by Edwin S. Porter. With ten minutes duration and US$150 production budget, The Great Train Robbery was considered a breakthrough in filmmaking because it applied an amount of pioneering methods including multiple editing, on-location shooting, and camera movement (Archive.org, n.d.). The Great Train Robbery became an enormous accomplishment and is considered one of the first Western films since them.

Thought it fits to be categorized as an action film, The Great Train Robbery was also being considered as “western” film because of its cowboy theme. Though their classification differs where ‘action’ defines plot structure and intensity and ‘western’ defines theme, settings, and characters of the film, we can conclude that the first Hollywood action film ever made was also a western film.

The American Film Institute describes western films as those kind of films which "set in the American West that embodied the spirit, the struggle and the departure of the new frontier (American Film Institute, n.d.)." The term Western was first came from a July 1912 article in Motion Picture World Magazine to describe it as a film genre (MacMahan, 2014). Most of the physiognomies of Western films were part of 19th century popular Western fiction and were firmly in place before film became a popular art form, MacMahan (2014) stated. Over time, continue MacMahan (2014) westerns have been re-defined, re-invented and expanded, dismissed, re-discovered, and spoofed. In the late 60s and early 70s (and in subsequent years), 'revisionist' Westerns that questioned the themes and elements of traditional/classic westerns appeared (such as Sam Peckinpah's The Wild Bunch, Arthur Penn's Little Big Man, Robert Altman's McCabe & Mrs. Miller, and later Clint Eastwood's Unforgiven.

Usually, the dominant design of the western film is the classic objectives of preserving order and law on the border in a thrill-packed action story (Simmon, 2003). It is generally entrenched in model conflict - good vs. bad, virtue vs. evil, new arrivals vs. Native Americans (inhumanely portrayed as savage Indians), villains vs. heroes, social law and order vs. anarchy, and the cultivated East vs. West to name a few. Often the hero of a western meets his opposite "double," a mirror of his own evil side that he has to destroy.

Dancyger & Rush (2013) described specifically the central motifs of the classic Western as follows:

• The protagonist roles with a world perspective that is both ethical and just. • The protagonist has a divergent skill with weaponries and vehicles (or in this case, horses). • The antagonist has certain, single-minded goals and will be aware of no person or code that stands in his way. • The land plays a countrified, but grave, part as to signify freedom.

• Society is characterized by those powers that embody an establishing encouragement on life—the town, the army, married life, and children. • The skirmish between the powers of primitivism and those of civilization forms a certain predicament for the Western protagonist. • The performance shows itself out in a ritualized form and individual encounters are acted out rather than discussed.

Through times changing, action movies are produced rapidly by Hollywood using more different technical approaches and expanding its stories to a broader segment. The advancement in technology and globalization allows Hollywood films to explore more innovative techniques and methods to make their films to look as realistic as possible by the explosion, special effects by CGI, and intense fighting scene. Not only western, Hollywood also produces action films with modern and varied themes like superheroes, secret mission, treasure hunting etc. However, the values depicted inside action films have never been changed, though elaborated in a more contemporary way.

An example of a 21st century action film which gained fame and Box Office success and not using western theme was The Dark Knight. Based on the DC Comics character Batman, this film is the second part of Batman film series directed, co- written, and produced by Christopher Nolan and a sequel to Batman Begin. From US$185,000,000 estimated production budget, the film reach total domestic Box Office lifetime success of US$534,858,444 and worldwide lifetime gross of US$1,004,558,444 (Box Office Mojo, n.d.).

The Dark Knight tells the story about Bruce Wayne, a billionaire who has an alter- ego of a well-known superhero called ‘Batman’ which planned to end his crime- pursuing night in Gotham and leaving it to the side of Lt. Jim Gordon and Harvey Dent, Gotham’s new elected district attorney (Nolan & Nolan, 2008). Everything goes under control until a mastermind villain called Joker unleash chaos and thrusts Gotham into anarchy and terror by forcing Batman to go back into the streets of

Gotham and bringing his image as a vigilante who should surrender himself to the public or many people will be killed if not so.

Analyzing the plot elements and motifs of the story, The Dark Knight applied similar, although improved formulas of plot elements and motifs found inside the western film as presented by Dancyger and Rush (2013) before.

1. The protagonist (Bruce Wayne a.k.a. Batman), roles with a world perspective that is both ethical and just.  This can be seen from what Batman choose to fight for; the justice of Gotham. On the scene when Batman a.k.a. Bruce Wayne throw a fundraising party for Harvey Dent’s campaign, he gave a speech to the crowd: “…I believe in Harvey Dent. On his watch, Gotham can feel a little bit safer. A little more optimistic…” Also, when Bruce had a conversation with Rachel Dawes at the same scene, Bruce told Rachel: “Remember that day you once told me about when Gotham no longer need Batman? It’s coming. It’s happening now. Harvey is that hero. He locked up half of the city’s criminals, and he did it without a mask. Gotham needs a hero without a face.” Those statement implies that although Batman a.k.a. Bruce Wayne planned to retire, he’s leaving it to a person who he thinks is the right one, the one who stood up against crime in Gotham and fight for justice without a mask. 2. The protagonist has a divergent skill with weaponries and vehicles.  This motifs has been developed and adapted to a modern, 21st century technology where the weapons and vehicles are more sophisticated and theatrical. In this film, Batman is well-equipped with high-tech weapons and armors. He also masters the skill of bare hand martial arts and drives a sport motorcycle, a Lamborghini, and a Batmobile. 3. The antagonist has certain, single-minded goals and will be aware of no person or code that stands in his way.

 This motifs also has been developed and adapted to a modern, comprehensive understanding of power and terror. In this film, Joker, the main antagonist, simply wanted to put Gotham in chaos and brings Batman and Dent down to his level so he can put an order in society which he thinks is ‘equal’ and ‘fair’. The conversation between Batman and Joker on the scene where Batman interrogated Joker in police station below shows the Joker’s goal to bring Batman down to his level, a maniac sociopath criminal. o Batman : “You wanted me. Here I am.” o Joker : “I want to see what you do, and you didn’t disappoint. You let five people die. Then, you let Dent take your place. Even to a guy like me, that’s cold.” o Batman : “Where’s Dent?” o Joker : “Those mob fools want you gone so they can get back to the way things were, but I know the truth. There is no going back. You’ve changed things. Forever.” o Batman : “Then why’d you want to kill me?” o Joker : (laughs out loud) “I don’t want to kill you. What would I do without you? Go back to ripping off mob dealers? No. You, you complete me!” o Batman : “You’re a garbage who kills for money.” o Joker : “Don’t talk like one of them, no. No, you’re not. Even if you’d like to be. To them you’re just a freak. Like me. They need you right now, but when they don’t, they cast you out. Like a leper. Their morals, their codes…it’s a bad joke. Dropped at the first sign of trouble. They’re only as good as the world allows them to be. You’ll see…I’ll show you. When the chips are down, these people…they’ll eat each other. See, I’m not a monster. I’m just ahead of the curve.” The conversation below between the Joker and a mob leader on the scene after the deal has been completed implies that he thinks he has a true purpose which higher than just gaining money.

o Mob Leader : “What will you do with all your money?” o Joker : “You see, I’m a guy with simple taste. I enjoy dynamite, gunpowder, and gasoline!” (Joker’s guy comes and pour a gallon of gasoline to a gigantic stacks of money) o Mob Leader : “What!” (approach Joker) o Joker : “Eh, eh!” (points a gun to Mob Leader) “And you know the thing that they had in common? They’re cheap.” o Mob Leader : “You said you’re a man of your word.” o Joker : “Oh, I am.” (takes a lit cigar from Mob Leader’s mouth) “I’m only burning my half” (throw the cigar to the gigantic stacks of money. The money burns) “All you care about is money. This town deserves better class of criminals, and I’m gonna give it to them. Tell your man they work for me now. This is my city.” o Mob Leader : “They won’t work for a freak” o Joker : (takes off his knife and tosses it to his man) “Cut him up and offer him to his little Princes. Let’s show him just how loyal a hungry dog is.” (Joker’s men grabs the mob leader and bring him away). “It’s not about money. It’s about sending a message. Everything burns.” When the Joker visited Dent in a hospital, he said something that implies what he thinks he is and why he does it. “Introduce a little anarchy, upset the established order, and everything becomes chaos. I’m an agent of chaos. And you know the thing about chaos, Harvey? It’s fair.” 4. The land plays a countrified, but grave, part as to signify freedom. In this film, the land, Gotham, plays a role as a representation of freedom being oppressed by the force of anarcho-primitivism by Joker, who unleashed chaos and return the civilization of Gotham to non- civilized way of life through anarchy and chaos as being depicted in the point number 3 before. 5. Society is characterized by those powers that embody an establishing encouragement on life—the town, the army, married life, and children.

Gotham is considered as a city full of organized crimes, thugs, and mobs while some people like Bruce Wayne, Harvey Dent, Jim Gordon etc. believes that people of Gotham still have their sense of humanity and does not deserve their town to be that way. These things depicted in every scene of Jim Gordon and his family, in every scene where people of Gotham involves in it (bomb-in-a-boat scene, hospital bombing scene etc.), and also from the four points mentioned above (No. 1-4). 6. The skirmish between the powers of primitivism and those of civilization forms a certain predicament for the Western protagonist. Batman, in this film, is being brought down to the Joker’s level in the public’s eyes, along with Harvey Dent. Joker completely made Batman and Dent looks as a lawless figure which will only bring more chaos, terror, and anarchy (anarcho-primitivism) to people of Gotham (civilization). Although Bruce Wayne consistently fight in civilization’s side, he doesn't mind being outcast and hated by the people of Gotham for seeing him as an anarcho-primitivist as he will finally chose to quit his life as a Batman and leaving Gotham to Commissioner Jim Gordon and Harvey Dent as a new symbol of hope. 7. The performance shows itself out in a ritualized form and individual encounters are acted out rather than discussed. This point is actually what makes this film, and every film, to be an action film. It is clearly shown in many scenes that the Joker isn’t a negotiable villain and Batman is a martial art superhero who specialized in combat, so they acted out their conflict in physical way.

The Dark Knight is one of many examples that every modern action film applied old western film motifs as the main standard and developed it to a whole new broader range of theme. Moreover, not only giving decent entertainment, there are also values related to anti-terrorism depicted in this film. Klavan (2008) even made a statement that The Dark Knight is a film that successfully shown the horrific face of terrorism to the audience by the appearance of Joker and the chaos he unleash

28 against the people of Gotham, and this film is “generating a profit by portraying the values and requirements that the Bush administration fail to articulate”.

Hollywood action filmmakers, have already familiar with the values of white vs. black as being explained in point No. 1 and No. 3 above. The main protagonist with decent, moral values and the main antagonist driven by certain purposes and will be aware of no person or code that stands in his way. Griffith (2004) even construct the simplified formula of Hollywood film to analyze “how good film stories work.”

1. A protagonist realizes s/he desires something 2. S/he catches into misfortune trying to achieve what s/he wants 3. S/he now has to escape from the mischief to acquire what s/he wants 4. In the ending, win or lose, the character typically understands that they now need something else instead or need to change their behavior to society in order to acquire their objectives.

We can analyze The Dark Knight and other action films by this simplified formula to find if the values are matched to Dancyger & Rush (2013) western film motifs.

 The Dark Knight (Nolan & Nolan, 2008) o Bruce Wayne wanted to retire as Batman and leave Gotham in the hands of Lt. Jim Gordon and Harvey Dent because he thought people of Gotham deserve heroes without masks and Gordon and Dent is capable of cleaning up the streets from criminals and making people of Gotham to feel safe and secure. o A criminal mastermind called the Joker unleash madness and terrorizing Gotham by killing important people, taking control of the city, playing mad games, attempting murder on Dent and Gordon, and bringing Batman down to his level in public eyes so no one can feel safe and secure. o While Dent being disfigured, Batman and Gordon has to come back to the streets of Gotham to face Joker and put an end to his chaos.

o Batman won his battle against the Joker, but he found out that Dent has lost his mind, and he’s attempting to kill Gordon’s children. So he confront Dent. Dent got killed in the middle of the confrontation, so Batman told Gordon to create a public opinion that Batman killed Dent and should be hunted down as a fugitive. Batman disappeared, but Gotham safe.  Captain America – The First Avenger (Markus & McFeely, 2011) o Steve Rogers, a suffocating Brooklyn boy cannot fulfill the requirements to oblige to his country by joining the army due to his small body and flimsy vigor. In the meantime, Dr. Abraham Erskine (Stanley Tucci), enthralled with Rodgers’ steadfast principle serving his country, agrees to give Rogers a chance and receives his most recent submission while Rogers waits on a health inspection table for his fifth physical test. Dr. Erskine then chooses him as the subject of his new experimental formula to turn him into an extraordinary powerful soldier after Rogers surpasses through armed forces exercise and standards exams by depending on his determination and intelligences. Rogers was transformed into a bigger and heavier form of human by an injection with an Erskine’s super soldier serum. o Tired of playing the part of Captain America in shows set up to entertain the troops and encourage enlistment in the army, Rogers parachutes behind enemy lines to rescue the abandoned Allied soldiers at a Hydra weapons plant where his old friend Bucky is being held. At the plant, Rogers saves Bucky and the rest of the Allied team, and together they escapes the exploding facility. o Rogers recruits Dum Dum Dugan, Barnes, Jim Morita, Gabe Jones, Jacques Demier, and James Montgomery Falsworth to assault other identified Hydra headquarters to regain Tesseract, which have retain indefinable supremacy and will be castoff by Hydra and Red Skull to made weapons of mass destruction. Rogers and his team arrest Dr. Zola while confronting a Hydra train, but not without

sacrificing Rogers’s best comrade Bucky who is shot and thrown off the train. o Rogers has lastly confronting Red Skull in his aircraft and conquered him, but the airplane is still weighed down with explosives and headed for New York City. Rogers resolves that the only one approach to avoid innocent lives from being taken is to martyr himself and dive the airplane into the deep ocean.  Thor (Miller, Stentz, & Payne, 2011) o Frost giants break in to Asgard and try to steal the powerful frost cube during Thor’s coronation ritual. Thor is strong-minded to reprimand the frost giants for their grave offense even though such an exploit is in contrast to his father Odin’s desires. However, Thor ignores his father and recruits his associates to escort him on the hazardous trip to Jotunheim. o Odin acknowledges he was a fool to think Thor was prepared to be king after Thor pledges an act of war towards the frost giants. Thor was stripped out of his power and casted out to Earth along with his hammer. Which has been commanded that only he who is praiseworthy shall be capable to use Thor’s hammer. o After he landed, Thor is strong-minded to reclaim Odin’s noble graces. He knows he located his hammer when he hears of a suspicious object that crash landed in the desert. He breaches into the government encampment set up around it, overthrows all the safeguards, and grips the holder—but the hammer won’t move, which means Thor is still not worthy. Meanwhile, Loki (Tom Hiddleston), who wants the throne for himself, realizes that Thor won’t bother to discontinue doing his effort to fly back to Asgard and so guides the slayer to Earth to interfere him. Thor gives his life to save the people around him. This act finally proves him praiseworthy. His hammer glides from the boulder it was attached in, straight to his hand. Thunder recovers his strength to full power.

o Endeavoring to validate his usurpation of the authority, Loki attempts to abolish Jotunheim. Meanwhile, Thor breaks the rainbow bridge, which severs his connection to Earth in order to prevent genocide on the frost giants. This also separates his linking to Jane, the lovely astrophysicist he’s in love with, thus verifying his final praiseworthiness.

From these plot analysis, we can conclude that most Hollywood action film developed western film characteristics and elaborated them into modern and broader meanings so the exploration for the new themes and adjustment of modern values are possible. The values of modern Hollywood action film also focusing to the white vs. black motifs where the audiences are driven to root for the protagonists’ (white) side of altruism.

There are some founding that indicate the values and elements that can promote freedom and anti-terrorism depicted inside modern Hollywood action film.

 The protagonists, with their worthiness of wit, will, and skills, always struggle in the name of homeland safety and security; a land without fear, terror, killing, and madness.  The antagonists have the idea to pursue something they thought is good, but are driven by madness, loath of power, and revenge. They choose coercion, terror, and destruction over cooperation and peace. They will recognize no morals or values stands in their way to achieve their goals.  Though struggling with all the power they have, it was always never enough, and the protagonists always have to sacrifice something in the end for the greater goods.2

2 This ‘sacrifice’ term can be independently referring to the soldiers who were being sent to Afghanistan and Iraq and were deceased while ‘struggling to protect their homeland’. 32

 There are elements which are independently referring to the current issues of terrorism such as: Weapons of Mass Destruction, genocide, plane loaded with explosives heading towards United States etc.

2.2. Understanding War Films and the Perspectives of War

Although this genre also typically shows major sequences of explosions, gun- shootings, and confrontations, war films is different than action films. War Films often recognize the dreadfulness and despair of war, allowing the real combat fighting or conflict deliver the main plot or contextual for the action of the film (Filmsite, n.d.). Referred by Filmsite, classic fundamentals in the war plots include POW encampment experiences and discharges, underwater combat, reconnaissance, individual valor, "war is hell" viciousness, midair skirmishes, threatening dugout/infantry practices, or male-bonding companion journeys during period of war.

Although this type of genre has not been produced as frequent as action films by Hollywood studios, it has been existed ever since the most primitive years of cinematic production in the silent era, and it still always gain profitmaking achievement in national and worldwide Box Office. Filmmakers have been provided ample opportunities for material from American history, stretching from the French and Indian Wars to the Vietnam War. In particular, the many wars of the 20th century (primarily the First and Second World Wars, but also subsequent wars) have provided rich material for film makers. Initially, as being explained in Filmsite, war films primarily existed as propagandist newsreels or reconstructed documentaries. However, with the groundbreaking release of Birth of a Nation (1915) and encouragement by Franklin D. Roosevelt for Hollywood studios to produce war films with the insertion of political messages and resulted in receptive responses by the filmmakers on World War II (Burns, 2010), not only did the war film genre establish many conventions, but Hollywood producers also began to recognize the box-office potential of war and anti-war films.

The plot structure and elements of war film tends to be more complex and more difficult than action film. Rather than thrilling the audiences with physical western- type sequences, war film speaks more of values, morals, and character difficulties. Dancyger and Rush (2013) stated that:

“War films is important, because it threatened us. It is a national melodrama; these films are about transgression and power. How does the individual survive intact, physically and mentally? How are we, the audience, to feel about a particular war, or about war in general? War isn’t simply a test of character in these films; more often, it is a plea to reflect upon the issues of war.”

Dancyger & Rush (2013) also specified the characteristics of war films as follows:

 The focused character has a main objective: survival. This might be meaning national survival, personal survival, or the survival of the political or personal values he have faith in.  The values of the character are being tested.  The polarizations of human manners—altruism and barbarism—coexist and are as much in combat as are the combatants.  Violence plays a dominant part.  Affiliations, male–male and male–female, take on specific significance.  Every single film conveys a specific political viewpoint of war. Several films are critical of war; others propose that war carries out the best and the worst in the characters.  There is a primal distinction and concentration to individual manners.  The antagonist is visually unseen.

Hollywood war films started to directly tackle the issue of 9/11 in year 2008 since Paul Greengrass unexpectedly and successfully brought the drama of humanity and civil heroic of 9/11 tragedy in United 93. War films that rather concentrate to dramatize the war on terrorism than bringing explosive-packed action sequences to enthrall the audiences like In the Valley of Elah, The Hurt Locker, Body of Lies,

Zero Dark Thirty etc. enters the industry and receiving a lot of critical acclaim and commercial success. Some media even think that Hollywood is trying to reshape how the global film audiences think about US involvement in Iraq and Afghan by releasing those counter-terrorism-related war films (Goldberg, 2014).

Year Film Production Domestic Worldwide Budget Lifetime Grosses Lifetime Grosses 2006 United 93 US$15,000,000 US$31,483,450 US$76,286,096 2008 Body of Lies US$70,000,000 US$39,394,666 US$115,097,286 2008 The Hurt Locker US$15,000,000 US$17,017,811 US$49,230,772 2012 Zero Dark Thirty US$40,000,000 US$95,720,716 US$132,820,716 2013 Lone Survivor US$40,000,000 US$125,095,601 US$149,295,601

TABLE 3: POST-9/11 HOLLYWOOD WAR FILMS BOX OFFICE3

A Hollywood war film that the writer considers as “exploiting the whole issue of 9/11, US Middle-East involvement, and counter-terrorism” is Zero Dark Thirty, which directed by Kathryn Bigelow and written by Mark Boal. Portrayed as "the story of history's greatest manhunt for the world's most dangerous man", the film sensationalizes the manhunt for Osama bin Laden, the al Qaeda leader after the 9/11 terrorist outbreaks in the US. This search eventually leads to the discovery of his compound in Pakistan, and the military raid on it that resulted in his death on May 2, 2011. With estimated $40,000,000 production budget, it grosses total $95,720,716 in domestic Box Office and $132,820,716 worldwide (Box Office Mojo, n.d.).

Zero Dark Thirty also received wide critical acclaim, and was nominated for five Academy Awards at the 85th Academy Awards, including Best Picture, Best Actress (Jessica Chastain), Best Original Screenplay, and Best Film Editing, and won the award for Best Sound Editing. Zero Dark Thirty earned four Golden Globe Award nominations, including Best Motion Picture – Drama, Best Director, and

3 All the data retrieved December 28th, 2014 from http://www.boxofficemojo.com/ 35

Best Screenplay, with Jessica Chastain winning the award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama (USA Today, 2013).

We will analyze this film as a sample of Hollywood war films to find the values depicted inside them and to relate how those values and ideas can promote US anti- terrorism campaign.

 Zero Dark Thirty (Boal, 2012) o The focused character has a main objective: survival. This might be meaning national survival, personal survival, or the survival of the political or personal values he have faith in. . Maya, as the central character here, has only one goal: protecting Homeland (United States) from further attack by terrorists by capturing Osama bin Laden. This depicted in dialogue of the scene where she have to convince Joseph Bradley that she had found a lead to bin Laden’s private courier after the Times Square bombing incident.  Maya : “I really need to talk to you about beefing up our surveillance operation on the caller.”  Bradley : “We don’t have a surveillance operation on the caller. (turning to Maya) Someone just tried to blow up Times Square and you’re talking to me about some facilitators who some detainee seven years ago said might have been working with Al Qaeda?”  Maya : “He’s the key to bin Laden.”  Bradley : “I don’t care about bin Laden. I care about the next attack. You’re going to start working on American Al-Qaeda cells. Protect the Homeland.”  Maya : “bin Laden is the one who keeps telling them to attack the homeland. If it wasn’t for

him, Al Qaeda would still be focused on overseas targets. If you really want to protect the Homeland, you need to get to bin Laden.” o The values of the character are being tested. . In the scene when Maya left alone by Dan with Ammar, who’s being tortured for the sake of extracting information about Abu Ahmed, Ammar said to her that her friend (Dan) is an animal, and asked her to help him. Maya stuttered, found her values about humanity has been tested when he saw someone tortured so bad, but finally accepted to justify the torture as she approached him and said “You can help yourself by being truthful” with forceful, self-determined expression. o The polarizations of human manners—altruism and barbarism— coexist and are as much in combat as are the combatants. . David Denby, film critic from The New Yorker praised the filmmakers for their method. "The virtue of Zero Dark Thirty," wrote Denby, "is that it pays close attention to the way life does work; it combines ruthlessness and humanity in a manner that is paradoxical and disturbing yet satisfying as art." However Denby criticized the filmmakers for getting blocked on the gap between fact and fiction (Denby, 2012). Denby stated:

“In bidding to show, in a mainstream movie, the reprehensibility of torture, and what was done in our name, the filmmakers seem to have conflated events, and they have generated a sore controversy by which the chairs of two Senate commissions have said that the information used to find bin Laden was not uncovered through waterboarding. Do such scenes hurt the movie? Not as art; they are expertly done, without flinching from the horror of the acts and without exploitation. But they damage the picture as a

mistrusted authentic account. Bigelow and Boal want to assert the authority of fact and the liberty of fiction at the same time, and the paradox marks an ambitious project.” o Violence plays a dominant part. . This film blatantly presents the violence of torture as the only way to extract certain information from Ammer and the violence of raid in bin Laden’s safe house where the soldiers just shoot every men they see inside and leave children and women—except one they thought was dangerous. o Affiliations, male–male and male–female, take on specific significance. . There are almost no such presentation of intimate relationships between the characters in this film. They are professionally and intensively working hard to achieve their target by any means necessary. On the Marriott bombing scene, before the bombing, Jessica and Maya had a dinner and Jessica asked Maya about her relationship with Jack. “Did you two hooked up yet?” and Maya answered “We’re partners. I’m not that girl who got laid” thus responded by Jessica “So, no boyfriends?” and Maya shook her head. However, one clear thing was Maya has a sisterhood bond with Jessica after the Marriott bombing scene, and she was very devastated when Jessica died in Camp Chapman attack scene. o Every single film conveys a specific political viewpoint of war. Several films are critical of war; others propose that war carries out the best and the worst in the characters. . Dargis (2012), who designated the film a New York Times critics' pick, said that:

“The film shows the dark side of that war. It shows the unspeakable and lets us decide if the

death of Bin Laden was worth the price we paid. It's pitiful, and as the movie heads toward its emphatically non-triumphant finish, it is impossible not to realize with anguish that all that came before – the pain, the suffering and the compromised ideals – has led to this.”

o There is a primal distinction and concentration to individual manners. . Every protagonists character on this film, including Maya, the central character, are shown to be a strong, smart, and determined people who will never stop or even taking a little rest before their target is achieved: capturing bin Laden and bring safety to their Homeland. o The antagonist is visually unseen. . The main antagonist’s face, Osama bin Laden, is directly invisible. We cannot identify his face when he was shot and brought to the camp in Jalalabad, Afghanistan. The one who can identify him is only Maya, who is the specialist for the raid operation. Osama himself is not being pictured along the film, only the visualization of his body without recognizable face.

From the analysis above, we can conclude that modern Hollywood war films tend to emphasize the dramatization and sentiment of “War on Terror” by the visualization of war cruelty, bombing tragedy and its horrifying portrayal, and by the dialogue and plot which depicted how the protagonists never stop to struggle combating terrorism in order to defend and protect their homeland. The contemporary war film has largely encouraging a more anti-war attitude that really questions the people’s perspective of war, as well as how war reveals human nature. Considering the public’s sustained discouragement of war, as well as war’s important ties to sociopolitical matters, this tendency in the war film genre will probably persevere perpetually.

2.3. Hollywood Films and People’s Mind: How It Works.

This subchapter will explain how Hollywood films can have the ability to influence values and political attitudes of its audiences. In order to discuss this matter, we will elaborate the explanations based on two points: the input and output of Hollywood films ideological values. The input point will explain how values are made and depicted inside the films and analyzing the influence behind those values insertion, while the output explain the cause and the effectiveness of the transmission of the values. There are some valid study results we can refer to from each points: the study results of University of Notre Dame to explain the output and Matthew Alford’s article titled ‘Propaganda Model for Hollywood’ to explain the input.

In explaining Hollywood’s ideological input, Matthew Alford creates an article that challenges the analytical framework of Herman and Chomsky’s “Propaganda Model”, as it has the enduring applicability to approach a range of public institutions but has not been applied to Hollywood (Alford, 2009). In a personal messages from Chomsky to Alford, Chomsky explained that ‘he does not know much’ about Hollywood, while in Alford (2009), Herman stated his openness for a further researches, saying that “there is no logical reason why films and other popular media should not be subject to the same general principles”. He also adds in Alford (2009) that “there may be special factors of these media and local conditions that will modify the applicability of the propaganda model”.

Herman & Chomsky (1994) describe how propaganda and systemic predispositions function in mass media by proposing a conceptual model in political economy advanced called ‘The Propaganda Model’. The model, explained by Herman & Chomsky (1994) try to find the explanation of how people are being influenced and how consensus for economic, social and political policies is "mass-produced" in the public awareness due to this propaganda. The theory, Herman & Chomsky (1994) continue, hypothesizes that the method in which news is designed builds an essential conflict of interest which turns as propaganda for autocratic powers.

Using Herman and Chomsky’s five filters (concentrated ownership; the importance of merchandising; dependence on establishment sources; the disproportionate ability of the powerful to create flak; and a dominant ideology of ‘us’ versus the ‘Other’), Alford applied this ‘Propaganda Model’ conceptual framework to analyze if Hollywood films behavior is a subject to any political importance of the studio owners and/or the filmmakers behind the story-making process. Below are the result of his analysis based on those five filters (Alford, 2009):

 Concentrated Corporate Ownership o Alford (2009) explained that there are six major studios in Hollywood which have dominations, thus indirect control to the immense mainstream of the world shows business: Sony Pictures Entertainment (Sony), Disney (owned by the Walt Disney Company), Paramount (Viacom Inc.), 20th Century Fox (NewsCorp), Universal (General Electric/Vivendi), and Warner Bros (TimeWarner Inc.). According to Alford (2009), these companies finance, produce, and distribute their own films, and also select projects originated by independent filmmakers. Furthermore, Alford (2009) continued that the studios’ paternal corporations also have considerable holdings in other industries beyond entertainment and are well-incorporated into the predominant order, which subjugates their output within standard ideological bounds. This, according to Alford (2009), creates a significant impact on Hollywood films' story-making process. While Hollywood is being alerted of its international markets, Alford (2009) stated that it is legally responsible to make films about and for America and Americans, sidelining the importance of non-nationals. Hollywood films will also tend to evade political storylines that are unaccustomed to spectators. Alford (2009) added a statement from film producer Robert Evans (executive from Paramount Pictures) which said that “Filmmakers don’t do the unexpected, they’re too scared – the prices are too high”.

 The Importance of Merchandising o Even if movies are not at the mercy of on advertising revenue, Alford (2009) found in his study that product settlement and merchandising agreements are prevalent and eye-catching to filmmakers because, even if the movie be unsuccessful commercially, the producer undergoes the loss. Consequently, Alford (2009) continued, the major producers sell markets (film audiences) to buyers (advertisers) for financial safekeeping. Intrinsically, the film producers attempt for their benefaction and “develop specialized workforce to gather advertisers and explain how their programs serve advertisers’ needs”, Alford (2009) emphasized. Thus, according to him, numerous films are under burden to evade raising ‘thoughtful intricacies and troubling controversies’ because this would hamper with the ‘buying mood’ in the media channel. Alford (2009) argues that instead of raising controversies, they will more to be expected to ‘casually entertain’ and successively ‘fit in with the soul of the main purpose of program acquisitions; the distribution of a selling message’.  Dependence on Establishment Sources o Alford (2009) refers to Herman and Chomsky’s observation, which found that the Pentagon (US Department of Defense) have massive and wealthy public relations divisions, which ensure special access to the media which filmmakers have made use of in regards of their advisory and substantial to minimize budgets while keep creating authentic-looking films in exchange for prudently fabricated script re-workings that guarantee fine coverage of the military for public relations and recruitment.  The Disproportionate Ability of the Powerful to Create Flak o Punishment or ‘flak’ refers to the ‘negative responses to a media statement or program’ that ‘may take the form of letters, telegrams, phone calls, petitions, law suits, speeches, bills before Congress,

and other modes of complaint, threat, and punitive action’. Alford (2009) stated that:

“The government is a major producer of flak, regularly assailing, threatening, and correcting the media, trying to contain any deviations from the established line, and the corporate community has also sponsored the creation of organizations like the right-wing Accuracy in Media (AIM) whose sole purpose is to produce flak.”

Reactions from enforcers can be intense on the occurrences when fundamental movies that challenge US power do appear. Alford (2009) gave some example of the attacks as follows: . The New York Post reported in 2008 that Hillary Clinton had ended her financial connection with the Turkish producers of Valley of the Wolves Iraq, a film that depicted the US military as ruthless intruders. . Actress Jane Fonda was maligned and even falsely imprisoned by the US government because she broadcasted anti-war messages on Radio Hanoi at the peak of the Vietnam War. Moreover, Alford (2009) said that “All publicity is not necessarily good publicity when filmmakers knock up against the limits of tolerance in the US political system.”  A Dominant Ideology of ‘Us’ Versus the ‘Other’ o As we have analyzed in the subchapter 2.1, Alford (2009) stated that “Hollywood narratives are frequently based on polarized representations of good and evil, with the audience rooting for the good guys.” Then, Alford (2009) also refers to Herman and Chomsky’s argument that Communism has always been perceived by the authoritative as the ‘maleficent’ as it “threatens the very root of their class position and superior status.” Alford (2009) argues that since the concept of Communism is rather vague, it can be used against anyone ‘advocating policies that threaten property interests

or support accommodations with Communist states and radicalism’. The support of abusive institutions abroad is justifiable as a ‘lesser evil’ with Communism presented as the worst imaginable result. However, Alford (2009) discovered that after the end of Cold War and 9/11 tragedy, it became fashionable to associate the ‘Other’ with the East, predominantly Islam and specifically its ‘radical’ form.

In the end, Alford (2009) concluded his analysis by making a statement:

“Hollywood films do not tend to play party politics. However, movies use politics in the broader sense constantly in the way they present the US, its enemies, its victims, the effectiveness of state violence and so on. In fact, it is not politics that is absent from Hollywood movies in terms of foreign policy, it is a sense of subversive or even rational politics –interrogating the representations of the US, its enemies and its use of force – that has been carefully filtered out.”

In explaining Hollywood’s effective ideological output, a study conducted by a team of political scientists at the University of Notre Dame in Indiana found that popular films has a certain power to bring political messages, as it “possess the ability to change attitudes, especially on issues that are unframed by the media (Adkins & Castle, 2014).” Around 300 students at Notre Dame – half of whom said they regarded themselves as conservative – were surveyed on their political views, shown a film, then questioned again. Some were asked to watch a “control” movie seen as having no underlying political leanings, while others were shown As Good As It Gets or The Rainmaker. The study found that viewers of both As Good As It Gets and The Rainmaker became more liberal on health-care-related policies as a result of watching the movies, with this change persisting two weeks after viewing the films. Dr. Todd Adkins, the study’s lead author said that those who watched the films with both subtle and strong liberal messages were likely to experience leftward shifts in attitude, regardless of their stances beforehand. “Viewers come expecting to be entertained and are not prepared to encounter and assess political messages as they would during campaign advertisements or news,” Adkins &

Castle (2014) said. Such evidence strongly supports the contention that popular films possess the capability to change attitudes on political issues.

By referring to the study results above and also the analysis from subchapter 2.1 and 2.2, it is concluded that Hollywood action and war films theoretically have the ability to change film audiences’ attitudes on terrorism issues. However from such impact, there is some direct involvement from US government towards its story- writing process. The relationship between CIA and several Hollywood production studios in terms of Pentagon advice and material to save costs and reconstruction of script and the ability of US government to create flak added another function to its intelligent role against Hollywood. In their influential role, Hollywood films rather use certain sociopolitical issues to create sentiment drama to arouse and provoke the thoughts and feelings of the audiences.

2.4. Hollywood Action and War Films & Terrorism after 9/11

The events of September 11 were being considered as “the most immediately and extensively documented catastrophe in human history” by Hoberman on The L Magazines, and he continued by referring to the Los Angeles Times report that in the days following the cataclysm, entertainment industry concern that the public appetite for plots involving disasters and terrorism has vanished (Hoberman, How 9/11 Changed Hollywood, 2012). He even stated in his article on The Guardian that all of Hollywood disaster movies had finally come home to roost and the industry imagined itself implicated (Hoberman, The Avengers: Why Hollywood is No Longer Afraid to Tackle 9/11, 2012). Only days after the 9/11 event, Hoberman (Why Hollywood is No Longer Afraid to Tackle 9/11, 2012) continued, releases were delayed, movies re-edited, projects cancelled and there were solemn promises from Hollywood producers that motion pictures would henceforth be a "kinder, gentler" form of entertainment.

Hollywood has been experimenting with terrorism even before the 9/11 tragedy, when terrorism had not yet struck the US directly. Riegler (2014) stated that in late 45

1970s, major events like the Munich hostage massacre or the Entebbe rescue mission were re-enacted in 21 Hours at Munich and Victory at Entebbe. During the 1980s, Riegler continued, Hollywood became increasingly involved in Middle Eastern conflicts and suffered a string of attacks as well as hijackings, and he refers to William Palmer’s statement that as the result of those, the depiction of terrorism hardened: its perpetrators were coined as arch enemies of the US, and lacked any legitimate cause (Palmer, 1995). Following the event, Riegler continued, in the end of the Cold War, apolitical terrorists dominating Hollywood film industry as the main antagonists, and the movie terrorists of the 1990s are ethnically varied: European radicals in Passenger 57, Irish republicans in Blown Away, resentful former employees of law enforcement agencies in Speed and renegade soldiers in Die Hard II (Riegler, 2014). Riegler also stated that Hollywood reacted swiftly after the bombing of the World Trade Center in 1993, which became the first act of radical Islamist terrorism on US soil (CNN Library, 2015), and introduced the jihadist in films like True Lies, Executive Decision, The Siege, and Rules of Engagement to the screen as a group of ideologists whose fanatical in his hatred of the US, displaying no regard for innocent life when enacting spectacular violence, and rejecting all possibilities of moderation.

Many film analysts and critics argued that Hollywood is dead after 9/11 because the horrific tragedies have been shown to the public’s eyes directly and it impacts most of them in every aspects, thus creating fighting, war, and disaster-based entertainment is no longer effective and only severing the pain and trauma. However, Hoberman wrote in his article, referring to The Washington Post which reported that during the first months after 9/11, Hollywood action films DVD surprisingly were being demanded in local rentals by film consumer, and. action films like Die Hard or True Lies were rented three times more frequently than before, as if the often agonizing inefficacy of real-life counterterrorism had to be waged for in the range of entertainment (Hoberman, The Avengers: Why Hollywood is No Longer Afraid to Tackle 9/11, 2012). Moreover, he continued, this phenomena were being followed by the decisions made by Hollywood producers in early October, when US and British forces launched "Operation

Enduring Freedom" to invade Afghanistan, the studios prepared to unleash whatever military films were on their shelves, including Black Hawk Down, We Were Soldiers and The Sum of All Fears.

According to some critics, Hollywood’s exploration of the post 9/11 world had started in earnest with Steven Spielberg’s War of the Worlds: A modern adaptation of the classic extraterrestrial invasion story by H. G. Wells, and Preston (2005) from The Guardian labelled the film “the first piece of multiplex fodder ripped straight from the rubble of 9/11”, while Hoberman (How 9/11 Changed Hollywood, 2012) criticized it as “exploiting 9/11 as an entertainment,” Spielberg remarked on the connections of his film to reality in an interview with (Abramowitz, 2005):

"I think 9/11 reformed everything I'm putting into 'War of the Worlds’. How we come together, how this nation unites in every known way to survive a foreign invader and a frontal assault. We now know what it feels like to be terrorized, and suddenly, for the first time since the Revolutionary War, certainly the first time since the Civil War, we know what it's like to have our two front teeth knocked out, which is what happened when they took down both towers of the World Trade Center. I think a lot of films, whether they intend to or not, are a reflection of our own paranoia and fear from what happened in 2001."

In 2006, film directors Paul Greengrass and Oliver Stone release their tragedy films, United 93 and World Trade Center, at the same time, which directly and deliberately tackling the issues of 9/11. Both of them were commercially success at domestic and international Box Office, with United 93 scored US$31,483,450 from domestic and US$76,286,096 worldwide with estimated US$15,000,000 production budget (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). Meanwhile, World Trade Center scored US$70,278,893 from domestic and $162,970,240 worldwide from estimated US$65,000,000 production budget (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). Bradshaw (2011) commented about United 93 and World Trade Center:

“Greengrass's film (United 93) is a bold and brilliant drama which attempts to think the unthinkable and put us inside one of the planes, while Stone's film (World Trade Center) is sentimental, weepy and emotional, whose

agonizingly self-conscious patriotism results in a melancholy slowness of pace which misrepresents the meaning of September 11.”

Scott (2006) described World Trade Center as follows:

"The film’s astonishingly faithful re-creation of the emotional reality of the day produces a curious kind of nostalgia. It’s not that anyone would wish to live through such agony again, but rather that the extraordinary upsurge of fellow feeling that the attacks produced seems precious. Also, very distant from the present. Mr. Stone has taken a public tragedy and turned it into something at once genuinely stirring and terribly sad. His film offers both a harrowing return to a singular, disastrous episode in the recent past and a refuge from the ugly, depressing realities of its aftermath."

After those two films released and became international Box Office, suddenly everything related to 9/11 tragedy was much more tolerated to be portrayed on cinema screen. Those two films became Hollywood’s guidance on how to depict 9/11 tragedy into the cinema. Hollywood even dares to exploit “War on Terror” event such as The Hurt Locker which tells a story about a group of bomb-disposal unit in Iraq and Zero Dark Thirty which tells a story about 10 years manhunt for Osama bin Laden. In many Hollywood action films, the elements of 9/11 tragedy were also found depicted blatantly, but carefully, just like what we found in subchapter 2.1 above. Hoberman also found 9/11 brutal madness and destruction depicted in The Avengers, a film about a group of superheroes trying to cooperate and stops the alien from another world to destroy New York City (Hoberman, The Avengers: Why Hollywood is No Longer Afraid to Tackle 9/11, 2012), while Buchanan (2013) found the similarities of 9/11 destructive chaos portrayed in Man of Steel. Moreover, most of Hollywood action and war films which depicting elements of 9/11 tragedy were gaining commercial success in domestic and international Box Office. Riegler (2014) even quoted director Paul Haggis in explaining this phenomena:

“Hollywood films offered a fantasy where the message is that if we can’t win over there, we can win it at home on our screens”

From what we have discussed, it can be seen that Hollywood has two ways of depicting 9/11 terrorism in cinema:

1. Picturing the horror of destruction and tragedy with many elements related to it without even mentioning 9/11 terrorism tragedy. Ex: The Dark Knight (2008), Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), The Avengers (2012). 2. Mentioning 9/11 terrorism and exploiting the theme without portraying the horrors of destruction and focused to emphasize the emotional, sentimental thrills and melodrama moments of 9/11 terrorism tragedy. Ex: United 93 (2006), World Trade Center (2006), Zero Dark Thirty (2013).

Moreover, we can also concluded Hollywood views and clear, firm stances on terrorism from our discussion above and from subchapter 2.1, and 2.2 as well.

1. Hollywood views terrorism as the product of “mad,” psychotic minds and essentially “un-American.” We can see it from every antagonists character in Hollywood films: Joker (The Dark Knight) is an unknown psychopath who got no nationality and residential data anywhere in Gotham or US, Loki (Thor) is a mad, Jotunheim resident, and Red Skull (Captain America: The First Avenger) is a mad Germany Nazi. 2. The dark side of counter-terrorism, the employment of extralegal and ‘dirty measures’ is not left out of the picture. In Hollywood action films, almost all the protagonist came from outside the US legal law enforcement unit. Batman (The Dark Knight), Thor, and Captain America were a superhero, an ordinary people who has granted superpower abilities, which has no legal bindings to fight terrorism, but justifiable to position themselves among the legal law enforcement unit because they have the superpower abilities which those law enforcers do not have and they have the will and principles to do what is right for people around them, for their homeland, and for humanity. Also, in Zero Dark Thirty, the film emphasizes how CIA tortured their captive to extract information by any means necessary. Torture itself has been regarded as ‘crime of humanity’, but Zero Dark

Thirty depicted the scene to show the dark side of counter-terrorism and ‘dirty measures’ to fight to protect the homeland.

Chapter III US – Indonesia Bilateral Relations Before and After

“War on Terror”

3.1 A Historical Overview of US – Indonesia Bilateral Relations

Based on the official website of US Department of State, it was stated that the United States established diplomatic relations with Indonesia in 1949, following its independence from the Netherlands (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, n.d.). Since the fall of Suharto regime in 1998, Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs explained that Indonesia’s democratization and reform process has increased its stability and security, and resulted in strengthened US – Indonesia relations. However, from US Department of State in the Office of the Historian official website, actually it is stated that US – Indonesian interaction has a long history, dating back to the early nineteenth century when sufficient numbers of U.S. traders and others stopped in the then-Dutch colony to warrant the establishment of a consular post (Office of the Historian, n.d.), relations remained on an informal level until after Indonesian independence following World War II. In this subchapter, we will discuss about the brief history of US – Indonesia bilateral relations from post- independent era until reformation era.

3.1.1. Post-Independence Era

The United States Department of State in the Office of the Historian official website confirmed that the first formal interaction between US and Indonesia began with The United States recognition of the Republic of the United States of Indonesia (RIS) on December 28, 1949, when U.S. Ambassador H. Merle Cochran stated his authorizations and a memorandum of compliments on Indonesian freedom to President Sukarno of Indonesia from President Harry S. Truman. Moreover, they continue, the presence of Cochran also establishing diplomatic relations between Republic of the United States of Indonesia and US while on 20 February 1950

Indonesia also selected Dr. Ali Sastroamidjojo as the first Indonesian Ambassador to the United States (Office of the Historian, n.d.).

In 1950, Indonesia signed an agreement of first economic and technical cooperation with USAID (United States Agency for International Development) (USAID, n.d.). Based on the USAID official website, the initial U.S. development support for Indonesia addressed the most urgent needs, such as assistance to overcome food shortages, solve critical health problems, rehabilitate transportation facilities and develop industries (USAID, n.d.). However, according to O'Connor (2007), it was not long after Sukarno started to pivoting Indonesian political vision by placing the figurehead of Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) D. N. Aidit and Njoto as ministers without portfolio and pushing his NASAKOM (Nationalist, Religion, and Communism) ideology that he began to act against the US by stating his historical, radical rejection “Go to hell America with your aid!” O’Connor (2007) also implied that the US had reacted to Sukarno’s rejection by supporting Suharto to gain the presidential position, which also brought the overthrow and elimination of communism in Indonesia in 1965.

3.1.2. New Order Era

Based on the Country Studies Series by Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress official website, Indonesian relations with the United States were generally warm and cordial after the descending of Sukarno and the establishment of Suharto's New Order government, seeing the United States assistance to recover the economic stability of the country both bilaterally and through the IGGI during the Cold War (Federal Research Division, n.d.). In 1991 United States trade with Indonesia was greater than its trade with all of Eastern Europe, while despite its professed nonalignment, Indonesia also recognized the importance of the United States military and political presence in Southeast Asia in maintaining the regional balance of power (Federal Research Division, n.d.). There were issues according to sources above, however, which divided the two countries in the early 1990s, when

52 the United States rejected Indonesia's archipelagic claims to jurisdiction over the vital deep water straits linking the Pacific and Indian oceans and also vigorously opposed Indonesia's efforts to promote the NFZ (Nuclear-Free Zone) through ASEAN (Federal Research Division, n.d.). Meanwhile, according to USAID official website, through a time of great economic growth in Indonesia in 1970s, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate (USAID, n.d.).

The APSNet Policy Forum stated that Indonesia resented the attention given to the issue by United States Congress concerning human rights and East Timor, continued to irritate political communication between Jakarta and Washington, and in the end was roused to action by human rights advocacy groups (APSNet Policy Forum, n.d.). Efforts to sanction Indonesia by cutting off military assistance or threatening its Generalized System of Preferences status were viewed in Jakarta as anti-Indonesian, while the official United States government position, as stated in March 1992 by Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Kenneth M. Quinn, was that cutting ties "would not produce the desired results which we all seek and could have negative consequences: for United States Indonesia relations; for our limited influence in Indonesia; and most importantly, for the people of East Timor" (APSNet Policy Forum, n.d.). While the United States government wished to work cooperatively with the Indonesian government to promote development and respect for human rights in East Timor, it also had to be able to work productively with the Indonesian government on a broad range of issues because it was an important regional power and one with a growing extra-regional voice.

Wardaya (2007) stated that United States Congress seemed more reluctant than the executive branch to separate the issue of broader interests with Indonesia from the problem of human rights by implying Congressional and NGO critics argument that “United States policy rested on an out-of-date view of Indonesia's strategic importance now that the Cold War that had ended (Wardaya, 2007).” Later in 1992, United States legislation was discussed that would have terminated all of Washington's aid and trade concessions to Jakarta and required the United States to

53 oppose World Bank loans to the country. In reality, Wardaya (2007) mentioned that The US Congress only cut off grant military training assistance through International Military Education and Training (IMET) to Indonesia in 1992 in response to a November 12, 1991, incident in East Timor when Indonesian security forces shot and killed East Timorese demonstrators. Even it is a relatively insignificant sanction in terms of its functional impact on Indonesia's military, it is one fraught with negative symbolic value as an expression of United States interests in the bilateral relationship.

3.1.3. Reformation Era

According to Bodirsky (2012), Indonesia has experienced a substantial era of political alteration which can be seen from an amount of key reforms applied in the resolution of changing Indonesia towards democracy and enhancing good governance since the upheaval of totalitarian President Suharto in 1998. Not only improved the domestic political climate, these political developments within Indonesia also opened the door to a closer relationship with Washington (Bodirsky, 2012). Bodirsky (2012) continued that as the world’s most populous Muslim country, Indonesia’s bilateral relations with the United States are already well- established, seen from its emergence as a key regional ally in the global war on terror and also as a strategic anti-communist barricade during the Cold War.

Even though a substantial charge has been remunerated for this counter-terrorism dexterity with the US, as evidenced by the Bali bombings and the ongoing struggle with domestic fundamentalist activities like Jemaah Islamiyah, US-Indonesian relations however go much unfathomable than just the war on terror, Bodirsky stated (2012). The United States has greeted Indonesia's assistances to regional security, especially its foremost important act in serving restore democracy in Cambodia and in reconciling territorial disputes in the South China Sea, according to Council on Foreign Relations official website (Xu, 2014). Based on the press statement of US Department of State, in November 2005, the Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs also executed a National Security Waiver provision

54 delivered in the FY 2005 Foreign Operations Appropriations Act to eliminate congressional boundaries on Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and fatal defense articles under direct commands delegated by the Secretary of State (McCormack, 2005). These actions signified a reinstatement of normalized military relations, allowing the U.S. to provide greater support for Indonesian efforts to restructuring the military, upsurge its ability to respond to national and regional disasters, and encourage regional stability.

According to the Embassy of The Republic of Indonesia in Washington DC, in order to support the recovery of the tsunami catastrophe and restoration progression in Aceh, another USAID grant with an amount of US$ 371.3 million was acknowledged by Indonesia, and it was drafted in the Strategic Objective Grant Agreement (SOAG) to Support Tsunami Recovery and Reconstruction which was jointly signed by the Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency and the USAID on 7 July 2005 (Embassy of Republic Indonesia in Washington DC, n.d.). It had assisted subsidizing the construction of 100km Calang, Banda Aceh main road in Aceh province as well as the development of FKIP Unsiyah, Aceh. In the investment sector, US investment in Indonesia reached a value of US$ 930.8 million in 2010 or increased by 542.7% compared to the US$ 171.5 million in 2009 (USAID, n.d.). The amount placed the United States as the 3rd biggest investor in Indonesia after Singapore and Britain. For the period of January – March 2011, the investment value stood at US$ 359.1 million which afforded the country as the second biggest investor in Indonesia after Singapore (USAID, n.d.).

Turning point in the bilateral relations between Indonesia and the US was signed by President Barack Obama’s visit to Indonesia on 9-10 November 2010 in which the President of both countries officially launched the Indonesia - US Comprehensive Partnership (CP). Before the launching, bilateral relations between the two had been implemented through the first Indonesia-United States Joint Commission Meeting (JCM) in Washington, D.C. on 17 September 2010 which was moderated by Foreign Minister of both countries (Embassy of Republic Indonesia in Washington DC, n.d.). As been officially stated in Embassy of

Republic Indonesia in Washington DC website, the JCM (Joint Commission Meeting) I agreed to launch a Plan of Action for Indonesia-US Comprehensive Partnership which would be the blueprint for cooperation guidelines between the two countries as well as forming six Working Group (WG) in Democracy and Civil Society Climate and Environment; Education; Trade and Investment; Security Issue; and Energy. On the next Joint Commission Meeting (JMC) II in Nusa Dua, Bali on 24 July 2011, both Foreign Ministers declared a Joint Statement on the development of future strategic vision for Indonesia-US cooperation and discussed various cooperation potentials as well as regional issues (Embassy of Republic Indonesia in Washington DC, n.d.).

In December 2010, according to Onishi (2011) in New York Times, United States reaching out to Indonesian youngsters by establishing @america, a high-tech, interactive operation heralded as the digital-age successor to the venerable American Cultural Center, which is also being American public diplomacy’s latest effort to win over young foreigners, especially in Muslim countries (Onishi, 2011). Based on @america official website, it is a 21st-century cultural center where visitors can explore and experience the United States, and express their thoughts and ideas about America, also represents the United States government’s first attempt at creating a full-fledged cultural center since the September 11, 2001 attacks. At @america, visitors could discover state-of-the-art technology and learn more about the United States. Through discussions, web-chats, cultural performances, debates, competitions, and exhibitions, visitors can experience the best of America: its ideals, creativity, and diversity (@america, n.d.). This American Cultural Center located at third floor of Pacific Place Mall, Sudirman Central Business District, Jakarta.

From what we have seen on the brief explanations about US – Indonesia bilateral relations history above, we can see that US has maintained a fine mutual bonding with Indonesia since the first diplomatic relations established in the post- independence era. Some of the disagreements and disputes in past times do not prolong and do not influence US – Indonesia bilateral relations on a major scale

56 since US has significant amount of interests with Indonesia, seen by the amount of investment and aid provided by the US. The Comprehensive Partnership, which had signed in 2010, tighten the mutual relations and give much promising future for the cooperation between them. The removal of congressional restrictions on Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and lethal defense articles project the coexistence of vision of Indonesian military enhancement and US counter-terrorism interests.

3.2. Hollywood Film Distribution in Indonesia

In this subchapter, we will discuss Hollywood film distribution in Indonesia from two perspectives: the import film distribution companies, which analyzes the film market condition in Indonesia from its history and present times, and the Indonesian distribution and censorship policies, which argue on the course of Censorship Law and Eight Amendment of Tax Income Duty for Importation Law.

According to Imanjaya, Sasono, Darmawan, & Ismail (2011), in Indonesia, film distribution runs in a non-transparent market condition, except in Post-Independent era where open market system applied. Since New Order era, the commercial activity in import sector and film purchasing was held without transparency, when only two entities took role in film industry which is importer and producer, stated Imanjaya, Sasono, Darmawan, & Ismail (2011). Moreover, Imanjaya, Sasono, Darmawan & Ismail (2011) continued that there are no formal institution to manage practice distribution, Imanjaya said, because the ownership of the company moving on the import and cinema sector are is a same company.

According to Imanjaya, Sasono, Darmawan, & Ismail (2011) the era of film trading in post-independent era is called the era of “American Motion Picture Association of Indonesia (AMPAI)”. He continued that film distribution were dominated by true sale system and ran by regional distributors who usually also work as broker and booker. However the condition of cinema were influenced by PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) political maneuver, which is against US favor. In 1962-1963, a resistance movement called Committee of US Imperialist Film Boycott Movement

(PAPFIAS) struggled to break AMPAI domination in a subversive way until finally on 17 August 1964, Indonesian government stopped the activity of AMPAI (Imanjaya, Sasono, Darmawan, & Ismail, 2011).

The condition was different after Suharto became the president. Based on Kristanto (2011), in the New Order, Minister of Information gave the rights to import film to PT Suptan Film, which now is well-known by Cinema 21. This film distributor company, Kristanto (2011) implied, practicing import film monopoly with its cinema network by also owning shareholdings in three import film companies which have direct connections to MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America): Camila Internusa Film, Satrya Perkasa Esthetika Film, and Amero Mitra Film. Kristanto (2011) also stated that this era is the beginning where this film distributor company enlarge its cinema network around Indonesia and matters of import films become non-transparent by public.

Nowadays, Kristanto (2011) stated that from 180 films imported in 2010, those three companies have distributed 119 films, which all came from Hollywood. Another import films came from Parkit Film, (36 Bollywood films), Teguh Bakti Mandiri (11 Mandarin films), and Rapi Film (3 films), which also under the auspices of 21 Cinema. One more import film distributor, Kristanto (2011) stated, is Jive Entertainment (10 films) is a company which supports Blitz Cinema.

In February 2011, all of the recent Hollywood films were being withdrawn from Indonesia because of the disagreement from MPA (Motion Pictures Association) about the recent tax and customs duty policy, which responded by mass commotion in social media and became a huge public issue in Indonesia, especially people living in urban areas. Indonesian film consumers were concerned that they cannot enjoy any decent entertainment because all their local films and TV shows are considered ‘mediocre’ and they have been waiting for the upcoming Hollywood action and war films like “The Green Hornet” and “Transformers: Dark of The Moon (Wardhani, Fans Reaction Mixed Over Hollywood Boycott, 2011).” Apparently, Indonesia Directorate General of Customs has amended its Tax Income

Duty for Importation Law, which changed the regulation of import films duty to balance the opportunity of local films and import films to be successful in Indonesian cinema and to anticipate the development of film technology to digital film by no longer counting the amount of tax duty from the length of celluloid film tape, but based on the duration of films (Toyudho, 2011). Toyudho (2011) mentioned, assuming one minute equals 27,42 meters, multiplied by customs value US$ 0,043 and Rupiah currency was on Rp9100 per US dollar resulted in Rp10.729 per minutes. The government then increased the rates 100%, which resulted in Rp21.458 per minutes as the new import duty for import film distributions. Fortunately, starting on July 2011, MPAA has agreed to the new terms from Indonesia Directorate General of Customs and started to distribute Hollywood films to Indonesia again (Republika, 2011).

In terms of censorship, all of local films and import films have to go to LSF (Indonesian Film Censorship Board) before they are screened in local cinemas. LSF has stated that the films which shown in Indonesian cinema, whether local films or import films, have to follow the legal basis which listed in UU No. 33 Year 2009 Chapter 3, Verse 5-7 (Lembaga Sensor Film, 2009).  Verse 5: The activity of film production and film business done based on freedom of creativity, innovation, and work which uphold the values of religion, ethics, moral, decency, and national culture.  Verse 6: Film, which become the main element of film production and film business, are strictly forbidden to contain these specific elements: o Encouraging public to commit violence, gambling, and drugs and narcotic abuse. o Accentuate on pornography. o Provoking intergroup, interracial, and interethnic conflict. o Degrading, harassing, and/or besmirch values of the religion. o Encouraging public to act against the law o Degrading the values of humanity.

 Verse 7: Film, which become the main element of film production and film business, should be included by age classifications of film audiences, which consists of: o For all ages. o For audiences with age 13 or above. o For audiences with age 17 or above. o For audiences with age 21 or above.

Since the reformation era, only one Hollywood film has been banned to screen in Indonesian cinema. Noah, a film directed by Darren Arronofsky, which tells the epic biblical story of Noah’s ark, was banned by LSF due to religious reason (Kwok, 2014). LSF member Zainut Tauhid Sa’adi said in Kwok (2014) "Members of the Film Censorship Board have agreed to reject [the film]. We don’t want a film that could provoke reactions and controversies.” Moreover, the news of this ban was followed by Indonesian large condemnation and derision in social media account, as several public figures in Indonesia like Joko Anwar (film director and screenwriter), Mumu Aloha (managing director of Detik.com), Mohamad Guntur Romli (Islamic scholar) responded angrily to the ban using their personal social media accounts (Kwok, 2014).

Seeing from all of those aspects, not only Hollywood films are being welcomed by Indonesian import film companies and film audiences, but they also dominating the import films screened in cinema networks in Indonesia and become the primary choice for consumption of cinema entertainment by film audiences. This condition implicates that Hollywood films have become superior in Indonesia film market. Even there are censorship boards which inspected the films before being screened, Hollywood films imported to Indonesia are almost always passed the censorship.

3.3. US - Indonesia Strategic Partnership in Combating Terrorism

Cooperation between the U.S. and Indonesia on counter-terrorism has increased steadily since 2002, as terrorist attacks in Bali, Jakarta and other regional locations

60 revealed the existence of terrorist organizations, principally Jemaah Islamiyah, in Indonesia. Former Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri was also among the first world leaders to condemn the 9/11 terrorism act and express sympathy to the American people. She did so in person on a visit to the White House on September 19, 2001. On that same occasion, she and President George W. Bush "vowed to open a new era of bilateral cooperation based on shared democratic values and a common interest in promoting regional stability and prosperity (The White House, 2001)."

During the 2003 visit, Bush and Megawati identified the war on terrorism as a common priority, while also focused on democratic development, economic reform, anti-corruption efforts, trade and investment ties, and proper Indonesian civil- military relations. Bush made a point of emphasizing Indonesia's "powerful example" of Muslim democracy, and together, they took a visit to meet with moderate Muslim, Christian, and Hindu religious leaders. Minutes after the meeting, echoing sentiments he had expressed in the 2001 meeting and at many other times, President Bush told the Indonesian press (The White House, 2003),

"We know that Islam is fully compatible with liberty and tolerance and progress, because we see the proof in your country and in our own. Terrorists who claim Islam as their inspiration defile one of the world's great faiths. Murder has no place in any religious tradition..."

The rehabilitation of relations between the two countries was complete with the normalizing of inter-military relations in 2005 and reinforced by American perceptions of Indonesia's seriousness in the war on terrorism (Bureau of East Asia and Pacific Affairs, 2010). One of the main points of the relationship became broad counterterrorism cooperation: "Assistance for financial intelligence unit training to strengthen anti-money laundering, counterterror intelligence analysts training, funds for the establishment of a national police counterterrorism unit, and for counterterrorism training for policy and security officials," including assistance in establishing Indonesia's elite and effective counterterrorism unit Detachment 88 (Vaughn, 2010).

Detachment 88 was formed after the 2002 Bali bombings and became operational in 2003 (McDonald, 2008). The name of the organization, according to Brig. Gen. Pranowo, the Indonesian Police Headquarter Anti-Terror Director, is taken from the number of Australian fatalities in the 2002 Bali bombing, the largest number from a single country (Harvey, 2004). This special unit, according to Harvey (2004) is being funded by the US government through its State Department's Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), and is currently being trained in Megamendung, 50 km south of Jakarta, by the CIA, FBI, and US Secret Service. Most of these instructors were ex–US Special Forces personnel. Training is also carried out with the aid of Australian Special Forces and various intelligence agencies. Detachment 88 is designed to become an anti-terrorist unit that is capable to counter various terrorist threats, from bomb threats to hostage situations. This 400-personnel strong special force went to full operation in 2005. They consist of investigators, explosive experts, and an attack unit that includes snipers (Amirullah, 2013).

Detachment 88 has disrupted the activities of Central Java–based Islamist movement Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) and many of its top operatives have been arrested or killed. Abu Dujana, suspected leader of JI's military wing and its possible commander, was detained on June 9, 2007 (Gelling, 2007). Azahari Husin was shot and killed in 2005. The Indonesian terrorist organization suffered a further blow when arguably their last surviving and large prominent figure, Noordin Mohammad Top was killed in a shootout with Detachment 88 on 17 September 2009 at Solo, Central Java (Shears, 2009).

Although Detachment 88 gained widespread success of countering terrorism in Indonesia, it was also receiving criticism regarding to the use of torture as one of its interrogation method, which seen as violation against human rights by public. In 2013, a video of masked Densus 88 officers severely interrogating and continually striking several wounded suspects surfaced on YouTube. In the 14-minute video, an officer shoots one unarmed suspect in the back. According to McBrien (2013), this video interposed the argumentative relationship between the unit and

Indonesia’s Muslim organizations, which carry considerable weight in a country with the world’s largest Muslim population (McBrien, 2013). After several prominent Muslim leaders called for the disbandment of Densus 88, the National Commission on Human Rights, Komnas HAM, launched an investigation, eventually confirming the authenticity of the video. McBrien (2013) also stated that the YouTube video only added to concerns over Densus 88’s extrajudicial killings, sparking debate in the Indonesian legislature over whether or not to end the unit’s mandate.

The obstacles of Indonesia counter-terrorism partnership with US do not only come from public perspective about Detachment 88 human rights violation, but also come from some of Moslems in Indonesia, which were unhappy about the US involvement in funding and training of Detachment 88. After the use of force by US in Iraq has evoked anger and apprehension around the world, some local religious organizations with assistance of local religious media even publicized their argument that there are conspiracies of religion defamation behind the US funding and training of Detachment 88 (Kiblat.net, 2013) (VOA-Islam.com, 2009) (ArRahmah.com, 2012). These conspiracy theories have sparked doubts among Indonesian citizens if Detachment 88 only favors US interest by killing ‘jihadis’ and creating bad images of Islam as a religion of terror.

Seen from its overall achievement, the writer argues that Indonesia – US cooperation of counter-terrorism has still been maintained in a favorable condition to overcome the difficulties and achieving their mission of securing nations against terrorism. The removal of congressional restrictions on Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and US – Indonesia Comprehensive Partnership also clearing a way to enhance Indonesian military and special counter-terrorism forces, thus establishing a near-borderless, unconditional security cooperation. The writer argues that this situation, however, also creating a negative image that portraying Indonesian dependency towards US in military sector to public. The fact that US funds and trains special counter-terrorism forces in world’s most populous Moslem nation and

63 counter-publication from local religious media can be a vital problem for US to gain anti-terrorism support from Indonesian public.

However, based on how Hollywood films stays as a dominant entertainment for cinema enthusiast in Indonesia with having no such difficult efforts to enter the market and how they taking clear stances against terrorism in their action and war film story-writing, the writer argues that it is possible to boost US anti-terrorism campaign through Hollywood action and war films distributed in Indonesia. On next chapter, we will discuss about “Java Heat” (2013), a Hollywood action film which portrays the cooperation of Indonesian cops and an FBI secret agent to fight a gang of terrorism in Java Island. Moreover we will also discuss about Indonesian public and government perceptions and attitude towards Hollywood films and terrorism.

Chapter IV Indonesian Attitude towards Hollywood and Counter- Terrorism: Case Study 2006-2013

This chapter will be divided into three subchapter. In the first subchapter, we will discuss about “Java Heat”, a Hollywood action film which collaborated with Indonesian actors and filmmakers with the story related to Indonesian terrorism topic. The writer interested to discuss this film because of the relevance with the thesis topic and because of this film might giving a fine example of how US should conduct their public diplomacy in campaigning war on terrorism with any Moslem- populated countries, including Indonesia. In the second and third subchapter, the writer will analyze how Indonesian government react towards Hollywood action and war films and terrorism.

In etymology, perception derived from Latin perceptio or percipio, which defines the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the environment (Schachter, 2011). In the context of public diplomacy, Wyne (2009) stated about how important perception is:

“Indeed, one of the main conclusions at which I have attained is that the traditional tripartite notion of power—military, economic, and political— is passing into unfashionableness. I am calling, then, for scholars to recognize a fourth form of power, one that appreciates world opinion’s influence. Rather than calling it information power, I would call it perceptual power. Perceptions are based not only on information, but also on fictions, distortions, our own prejudices, and herd behavior. Perceptual power is the most important form of power. It is distributed among the greatest number of players; it is the most dynamic, shifting, as it does, on the basis of daily events; and, perhaps most importantly, as seen above, it crucially influences each of the other three forms of power.”

From his statement, it is implied that the power of perception is moderately shifting to be as important as political, military, and economic power of nations, as to influence perception can crucially impact those three forms of main power. It can

65 be concluded that from changing perception, one also have the power to influence the attitude and the establishment of nation’s policy in certain issues, as public diplomacy mainly concentrate to influence and change attitudes and perception on the creation and execution of foreign policy. The analysis of how the Indonesian government react towards Hollywood action and war films and terrorism themselves will be the main focus of the discussion of this chapter, therefore to be concluded in the next chapter.

4.1. “Java Heat”: Cultural Cooperation of Campaigning Anti-Terrorism

In 2013, Hollywood had ever worked to produce an action film with Indonesian film casts and crews, titled “Java Heat”. Directed by Connor Allyn and produced by Margate House Film, Java Heat tells the story about a Muslim detective which teams with an American secret agent posing as a graduate student to find the man behind a series of deadly terrorist bombings in Indonesia (Allyn & Allyn, 2013). Although this can be considered as a Hollywood film, the film was shot in Middle Java region, exactly in Yogyakarta. This film also starred by famous actors from Hollywood and Indonesia, such as Kellan Lutz, Mickey Rourke, Ario Bayu, and Atiqah Hashiholan (Allyn & Allyn, 2013). This film was screened at the Dallas International Film Festival in the U.S. on April 4, was played in Germany, and also screened at the Taormina Film Festival in Sicily, Italy, from June 15 to 22. It was released in Indonesia on April 18, 2013 (Suwastoyo, 2013).

Film critics and journalists responded to this movie in different perceptions. IMDb (Internet Movie Database) official site rated this film 5.2 out of 10.0 (IMDb.com, 2013). Metacritic official site scored this film 35 out of 100 (Metacritic.com, 2013). Rotten Tomatoes even scored this film 8 out of 100 with no consensus follows (Rotten Tomatoes, 2013). Nanwani (2013), from The Jakarta Post, stated:

“Java Heat is original, intense and will provide a fix to all action film lovers. In 97 minutes, the movie touches on various aspects, including religious tolerance. The movie will also enthrall history lovers, as Javanese culture is a fundamental aspect of the film. The Hollywood

writers do an admirable job in including many important issues in the country. However, the cop-buddy action method makes the delivery controversial for those who have visited the amiable city of Yogyakarta or generally watch movies about Indonesia, many of which explore the drama, peacefulness or exoticism of the country. There are scenes featuring explosions in the modern-day Yogyakarta that may surprise residents or those who once live in the city.”

However, Orndorf (2013), from Online Film Critics Society, stated:

“Java Heat recollects a sense of humid, busy street life and domestic tradition, making sprees into the swarming population more interesting than anything the dull plot has to offer. It's violent enough to numb, but Allyn doesn't launch the effort to stimulating heights of entertainment. In the end, Java Heat works better as a travel piece than an international actioner.”

In an interview session conducted by Cinemags Indonesia, Allyn (Cinemags, 2013) mentioned that:

“I made this film to merge Eastern and Western, to show friendship between American special agent and Indonesian Moslem police who have to resolve their differences to fight the same enemies; it’s a hard thing which they have put much effort on it together.”

Allyn also stated about his purposes on making an action film in Indonesia in an interview session with Screen Daily (Kay, 2012):

“Our goal was to take the action movie audience on a thrill ride into the heart of the world’s largest Muslim nation, as our two heroes wrestle with the cultural stereotypes that divide the West and Islam,”

Unfortunately, this film is a total failure in US Box Office earnings. Java Heat only made US$1,061 domestic total gross in US from US$15,000,000 production budget (Box Office Mojo, 2013). One of the reason, despite of its bad criticism and review, is that Java Heat has been leaked and pirated worldwide even before its release date. However, Allyn made a statement in the interview session with Wall Street Journal that he didn’t surprised about the piracy and didn’t take that matter seriously

(Yuniar, 2013). On the contrary, Java Heat was being well-received in Indonesia, seeing from its total audiences which achieved estimated number of 100,000 in the total screenings (KapanLagi.com, 2013). Although this film also got bad reviews from Indonesian bloggers in context of the plot and script, this film can caught the attention of Indonesian film audiences by casting some of the best Hollywood actors and showing many explosion and shooting scenes in Java region; things which rarely shown in Indonesian cinema (Adithya, 2013).

Java Heat has shown that Hollywood not only started to recognize Indonesia as a potential partner for expanding their film business in a broader sector, but also realized how counter-terrorism combined with bilateral relations issue can be a profitable theme to be explored to reach Indonesian film market. From what we have seen in chapter 2 about how Hollywood tells their stories and in chapter 3 about US bilateral relations with Indonesia, US image as the cooperative and trustworthy partner of Indonesia for counter-terrorism will be cultivated, and therefore strengthen the positive perception of public towards US and the idea of ‘War on Terrorism’ itself.

In public diplomacy theory, Riordan (2005) has stated that “In context of US, creating a national, western American brand and the assertion of it as possessing unique and universal validity can be a counter-productive and mistaken approach.” To create a recommendation, Riordan (2005) suggested that:

“The messages of public diplomacy have to be more sophisticated and subtle. It involves a more open, and perhaps humble, approach, which recognizes that no one has a monopoly of truth or virtue, that other ideas may be valid and that the result may be different from the primary message being promoted.”

This case of Java Heat may be an excellent example given by Hollywood to US in order to campaign war on terrorism and establishing dialogue of counter-terrorism topic by public diplomacy approach. In this film, American secret agent played by Kellan Lutz has to adapt to Java culture and environment by teaming up with an

Indonesian cop named Hashim, played by Ario Bayu. In a dialogue on a scene where Jake—the American secret agent played by Kellan—has agreed to team up with Hashim, Hashim stated “From now on, let’s play by our rule. Java rule!” This indicate that Hollywood has understand that eradicating terrorism needs full support and cooperation by other nations, and subtle approach to understand Eastern value are required to establish more trust and strengthening the relationship with other nations, especially Indonesia, which are one of the most Moslem populated countries in the world.

4.2. Indonesia Government Perception and Policy towards Hollywood Action and War Films

We have already discussed in chapter 3 how even there are dispute between Hollywood and Indonesian government regarding tax systems and custom, Indonesian government applied some rules that are not too weighing for Hollywood film studios to distribute their films to our local cinema networks. There are also abundant amount of Hollywood films distributed to Indonesia every year, which in the end dominating national cinema network over Indonesian films. This condition has shown that Indonesian government is being receptive towards almost all Hollywood films that distributed to Indonesia.

In 2013, Mari Elka Pangestu as the Minister of Creative Economy and Tourism at that time stated her supportive attitude towards Hollywood producers that wanted to shoot their film in Indonesia by providing ‘One Stop Services’ (Hasanuddin, 2013). She also made an official statement in website of Kemenparekraf (Indonesian Ministry of Creative Economy and Tourism) that the ministry has cooperated with immigration, custom and duty, police, and regional government sector to ensure every Hollywood producers that they get full support in terms of facility, licensing, storage, visa, and foreign crew services (Kementerian Pariwisata, 2013). Mari Elka Pangestu also officially stated that by this services, Indonesia will get an abundance of advantages in tourism promotion from the depiction

69 of Indonesian landscape in Hollywood films, as she recognizes the credibility of Hollywood films in international film market (Kementerian Pariwisata, 2013). Michael Mann, a Hollywood film director and producer, had experienced ‘One Stop Services’ when he directed and produced ‘Blackhat’, his recent cyber-crime action- thriller film in 2013, which also starred by Chris Hemsworth (Thor, Red Dawn) and released to international cinema in January 2015 (Kementerian Pariwisata, 2013).

The ‘One Stop Service’ support policy from Ministry of Creative Economy and Tourism for Hollywood film producers had shown us that Indonesian government not only welcomed Hollywood films to be distributed to Indonesia, but also giving full support for Hollywood film producers to shoot their film in Indonesia. The fact that government had allowed ‘Java Heat’ and ‘Blackhat’ to be produced using Indonesian crews and actors and also distributed to Indonesia had implied that Indonesian government has openness in Hollywood action and war film genre.

From the fact that has been collected above, it can be concluded that Indonesian government perceive Hollywood action and war films as the key to boost the promotion of tourism sectors by the depictions of Indonesian landscape and tour object inside their films, as they have already been aware to the culture power of Hollywood action and war films in the global scale. Moreover, the policies that Indonesian government establish related to Hollywood, such as ‘One Stop Service’ policy and the increase and shift of tax and duty system policy are the responses of how Indonesian government are fairly receptive towards Hollywood as they perceive them not only as their tourism promoter partners, but also as the most profitable import entertainment for the Indonesian public consumption.

4.3. Indonesian Government Perception and Policy towards Terrorism

In chapter 3, we have already seen how Indonesia has earned reputation as one of the most successful countries in the world at combating terrorism since September 11th 2001, with hundreds of arrests and convictions done by their counter-terrorism special forces Densus 88 (Special Detachment 88). In international level, Indonesia

70 has work together with several countries like Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, Australia, England, Canada, France, and United States itself to combat and prevent terrorism (The Economist, 2010).

In national sector, however, the government seem to be indulgent about the cases of Islamic radicalizations. Since late 2010, Yudhoyono's administration has remained nearly silent about the larks of Islamic vigilante groups called FPI (Islamic Defender Front), which have trashed bars and nightclubs, harassed churches and beaten religious figures who encourage pluralism (The Economist, 2010). When their political backers pushed a controversial anti-pornography law through parliament in 2008, Democrat Party, which is Yudhoyono's political party, joined them (The Economist, 2010). The Economist (2010) also reported that Yudhoyono's administration, for its part, once stated that JI was not officially registered as a terrorist organization because it did not even exist, thus Yudhoyono has renounced from pronouncing the group's name, his critics claim, because "Jemaah Islamiah" means "Islamic community"; he feared he might anger voters by associating Islam with terrorism.

Apart from the Indonesian political movements against radicalization, Abdurrahman Wahid, former President of Indonesia, claimed that extremism and fundamentalism ideology has no place in Islam. In his article titled “Right Islam vs. Wrong Islam” he stated his idea about teaching the moderate Islam as the way to counter radicalization and fundamentalism (Wahid, 2005):

“All too many Muslims fail to grasp Islam, which teaches one to be lenient towards others and to understand their value systems, knowing that these are tolerated by Islam as a religion. The essence of Islam is encapsulated in the words of the Quran, "For you, your religion; for me, my religion." That is the essence of tolerance. Religious fanatics--either purposely or out of ignorance--pervert Islam into a dogma of intolerance, hatred and bloodshed. They justify their brutality with slogans such as "Islam is above everything else." They seek to intimidate and subdue anyone who does not share their extremist views, regardless of nationality or religion. While a few are quick to shed blood themselves, countless millions of others sympathize with their violent actions, or join in the complicity of

silence. Muslims themselves can and must propagate an understanding of the "right" Islam, and thereby discredit extremist ideology. Yet to accomplish this task requires the understanding and support of like- minded individuals, organizations and governments throughout the world. Our goal must be to illuminate the hearts and minds of humanity, and offer a compelling alternate vision of Islam, one that banishes the fanatical ideology of hatred to the darkness from which it emerged.”

Indonesia also has its own institution regarding prevention of terrorism called BNPT (National Coordinating Agency of Terrorism Prevention). With Asyaad Mbai as the first leader, this institution was established in July 10th, 2010 by the Presidential Decree No.46/2010, which based on the recommendation of Commission I of Indonesian House of the Representatives (DPR) in August 31st, 2009 about the supportive attitude towards war on terrorism, which contains four points as follows, according to BNPT official website (BNPT, n.d.): 1. Terrorism is an extraordinary crime against humanity which have to be considered as common enemy. 2. The effort to increase capacity and integration of prevention against terrorism; in order to increase citizen role. 3. To recommend Indonesian government to establish an institution which owned the operational authority to execute the duty of terrorism prevention. 4. To issued regulation as the elaboration of UU No. 34/2004 about Indonesian National Soldier, and UU No. 2/2002 about State Police of Republic of Indonesia, to set detailed terms and conditions about “Rule of Engagement” of Indonesian National Soldier in terms of Non-War Military Operation duty, including the rules of Indonesian National Soldier involvement in combating terrorism and Indonesian National Soldier support to State Police.

According to BNPT official website (BNPT, n.d.), the vision and mission of BNPT are:  Vision To actualize the prevention of radicalization and terrorism through the efforts of synergizing government institution and public and also to increase

the national awareness and international cooperation to ensure the preservation of national security.  Mission o To perform the efforts of terrorism act prevention, increasing the awareness level, and providing protection towards vital object which can be potential targets of terrorism attack. o Implement de-radicalization and fight against radical ideology. o Doing prosecution of terrorism by collecting intelligence and surveillance, and enforcement through coordination and cooperation with relevant institutions, communities, and all components. o Implement national capacity building and preparedness against the threat of terrorism. o Conduct international cooperation in combating terrorism.

Also, here are the main objectives and function of BNPT, according to BNPT official website (BNPT, n.d.):  Main Objectives o Developing policies, strategies and programs in the field of counter- terrorism. o Coordinate the relevant government agencies in the implementation and implementing policies in the field of counter-terrorism. o Implement policies in the field of counter-terrorism by establishing a Task Forces which consists of the elements of the relevant government agencies in accordance with each of the duties, functions and authority.  Functions o Development of policies, strategies and programs in the field of counter-terrorism. o Monitoring, analysis and evaluation in the field of counter-terrorism. o Coordination in the prevention and implementation of propaganda activities against radical ideology in the field of counter-terrorism.

o Coordinating the implementation of de-radicalization. o Coordinating the implementation of protection against objects that are potential targets of terrorism attacks. o Coordinating the implementation of the action, national capacity building and preparedness. o Implementing international cooperation in the field of counter- terrorism. o Planning, development and control of programs, administration and resources and cooperation among agencies. o Operating Task Forces in the framework of prevention, protection, de-radicalization, action and preparation of national awareness in the field of counter-terrorism.

Below are the main structures of BNPT, based on the official website of BNPT (BNPT, n.d.):

TABLE 4: BNPT MAIN STRUCTURE, TAKEN FROM BNPT OFFICIAL WEBSITE (BNPT, N.D.) According to BNPT official website, to carry out the duties and functions, task forces is established in BNPT environment consisting of elements relevant agencies

74 and community (BNPT, n.d.). Assignment of police and military elements are earmarked/prepared under the control of operation (BKO) (BNPT, n.d.).

Unfortunately, the government did not give much credibility and authority to BNPT to prevent terrorism directly from capturing the potential terrorist itself. In 2011, Mbai stated his will to gain more credibility and authority to capture terrorists in Indonesia even before the culprit done his intention, as he compare the condition to the England, which can capture potential terrorists without being afraid to be suspected of violating human rights (Agustia, 2011).

From these cases, the writer implies that although Indonesian government has been taking serious effort in combating terrorism in international level by the achievements done by Densus 88, they have not been able to take religious radical movements in Indonesia as a serious matter: potential source of terrorism. The policies established by Indonesian government related to countering terrorism are the establishment, international cooperation, and execution of Densus 88 and also the creation of Presidential Decree No.46/2010 followed by the establishment of BNPT. However, seeing also from the limited credibility given by Indonesian government to BNPT, we can conclude that Indonesian government perceive terrorism as a serious external threat but fail to see deeper from inside the country that it is continuously and consistently growing as a potential threat, thus have no further framework policy to anticipate them.

4.3. Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Based on the founding that have been discussed before, the writer will analyze how the message and values has been carried over by using the five dominant features of ‘Information Framework’ (creation of message, control, interaction, channels, and goal).

 The Creation of Message : In chapter 2, we can see that Hollywood film producers and story makers are stating their clear stance against terrorism

by the emotional and visual depiction of horror and savagery of terrorism inside Hollywood action and war films. The study conducted by Adkins (2014) shows that it is certain that watching films with emotional contents can change the audiences’ attitude towards certain issues.  Control : In chapter 2, we can see that in establishing the story, Hollywood filmmakers tend to be independent, but somehow are adjusting towards the general American audience preferences and marginalizing the international market because the production budget are too high to be daringly experimental. There also implication of the involvement of CIA and Pentagon to provide advisory and material to save budget in exchange of the reconstruction of the script and also the ability of them to create flak. While it may be meant to ensure good coverage of the military for recruitment and public relations, but it can also add function for nation branding purpose in international scale, as Kotler & Gertner (2002) stated about the nature of nation branding: “A ‘core concept’ or idea is crafted that collects elements of a country’s attributes and assets that position the country for internal and external publics.”  Interaction : In context of its medium (Hollywood film), the interaction between the filmmakers and the audience are limited. The audience have the ability to criticize and/or give feedback to the film, but it is up to the Hollywood filmmakers whether to incorporate the criticism and feedback or not. This rule is applied the same to all the global film audiences, especially Indonesian film audiences, since it is also supported by the dependency attitude of Indonesian public towards Hollywood films, especially action and war films.  Channels : We have discussed in chapter 3 how the overview of the condition of US – Indonesia bilateral relations and the Indonesian government policy towards distribution and production of Hollywood films allowed them to gain domination in Indonesian cinema.  Goals : In chapter 2, we have seen about why Hollywood film producers and filmmakers inserted those depictions and

values inside their action and war films. Not only that their purpose are profit-oriented, they also wanted to emphasize the moral and humanity values to make their audiences question how they see war and terrorism and what war and terrorism are truly reveal about human nature.

From all of the five dominant features of Hollywood action and war films, we can conclude that Hollywood has the sufficient ability to influence Indonesian perception and attitude towards terrorism to be parallel towards US campaign of war on terrorism. Analyzing further by looking from the supportive perception and policies towards Hollywood action and war films and also some establishment of policies to wage war against terrorism from the Indonesian government, it is concluded that Hollywood action and war films have promoting US campaign on war on terrorism in Indonesia by emotionally and visually depicting terrorism act and the terrorists themselves as psychotic, ruthless, and horrific in many of their films which distributed to Indonesia.

Chapter V Conclusion and Recommendation

As it have been discussed in the first chapter regarding the statement of the problem, it has been identified that the problem is: How did the US promote the campaign of war on terrorism in Indonesia through Hollywood action and war films: a case study of Indonesia – US bilateral relations (2006-2013)?

From the discourses of the data which has been collected and theoretical framework that has been applied as it has been discussed in Chapter 1, 2, 3, and 4, the conclusion can be established from the statement of the problem as have been identified above. In more detail, the conclusion of this research can be described as follows.

Through applying the ‘Information Framework’ concept to the mutual relationship between Indonesia, US, and Hollywood for analyzing the promotion of war on terrorism in Hollywood action and war films in Indonesia as our independent variable, it can be concluded that Hollywood action and war films potentially effective to influence Indonesian public perception towards war on terrorism. Furthermore, if we put the dependent variable of how Indonesian perceive Hollywood and terrorism in chapter 4, we can conclude that in campaigning war on terrorism, Hollywood action and war films have promoting US campaign on war on terrorism in Indonesia by emotionally and visually depicting terrorism act and the terrorists themselves as psychotic, ruthless, and horrific in many of their films which distributed to Indonesia. The power from Hollywood and also from the fine establishment of Indonesia – US bilateral relationship has influence the support from Indonesian government with the policies related to international film productions and distributions and regarding to counter terrorism act, including the establishment of Densus 88 and BNPT and also international cooperation for training of Densus 88 and tightening national security from terrorism with other countries. In regards of its adequate bilateral relations with US, Indonesia also

78 maintaining its favorable position as one of US’ best partner in combating terrorism and in Hollywood film distribution business.

Recommendations:

1. To routinely assemble and conduct dialogues between the representative of US and moderate Moslems in Indonesia about how they should cooperate to anticipate the cultivating principle of radicalization and fundamentalism. 2. Learning from “Java Heat”, US governmental public diplomats should recognize and give more subtle approach to understand the Eastern culture and values in order to gain more positive attitude eastern countries— especially Indonesia—to campaign war on terrorism.

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