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Preface Chapter 1 Notes Preface 1. For further discussion and bibliography, see my “Nouveau ouancienromanˇ : Open Structures and Balzac’s ‘Gobseck,’” Texas Studies in Literature and Lan- guage 20 (1978): 15–19. 2. A convenient bibliography of these and other such work accompanies Robert Scholes’ Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction (New Haven: Yale UP,1974) 201–17. 3. E.g., B. E. Perry, The Ancient Romances: A Literary-Historical Account of Their Origins (Berkeley: U of California P, 1967) 30–31. 4. E.g., André Malraux, marginal annotation to Gaïton Picon’s Malraux (Paris: Seuil, 1953) 66; Maurice Z. Shroder, “The Novel as a Genre,” Theory the Novel, ed. P. Stevick (New York: Free P, 1967) 14–17. 5. E.g., Juan Ignacio Ferreras, Teoria y praxis de la novela: La ultima aventura de Don Quijote (Paris: Ediciones Hispanoamericanas, 1970) 5, 16. 6. E.g., Arthur Heiserman, The Novel before the Novel: Essays and Discussions about the Beginnings of Prose Fiction in the West (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1977) 3–4. 7. E.g., Philip Stevick, ed., “Introduction,” Theory of the Novel 4. Chapter 1 1. David I. Grossvogel, Limits of the Novel: Evolutions of a Form from Chaucer to Robbe-Grillet (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1968) 278. Indeed, “Formula kills the novel more quickly and more decisively than it kills any other genre, because ...the novel cannot afford in any sense to repeat itself”—John Bayley, “Character and Consciousness,” New Literary History 5 (1974) 232; and Ronald Hayman, “Deprived of Novelty, the Novel Ceases to Be Itself”—The Novel Today: 1967–1975 (London: Longman, 1976) 133. 2. See, Allan H. Pasco, Novel Configurations: A Study of French Fiction, 2nd ed. (Birmingham: Summa, 1994) 99–122. 3. Cloonan, French Review 81 (2007): 61–77. 4. Cf., Frank Kermode, “Novel and Narrative,” Theory of the Novel: New Essays, ed. John Halperin (New York: Oxford UP, 1974) 156. 166 NOTES TO PAGES 2–5 5. Doody demonstrates convincingly that the novel continues from antiquity, though I wish she had added the aesthetic impulsion, however weak, to her concept of the novel as prose fiction of a certain length—True Story of the Novel (New Brunswick: Rutgers UP, 1996) 16. Terry Eagleton’s definition is the same: “A novel is a piece of prose fiction of a reasonable length”—The English Novel (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005) 1. Likewise, E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel, Harvest Books (1927; rpt. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1954) 5–6. There are variants, but most definitions hold close to a combination of character and narrative. 6. Percy Lubbock’s definition is somewhat more interesting. For him, the subject is “the novelist’s intention, in a phrase,” and he wants it to be “expressible in ten words that reveal its unity”—The Craft of Fiction (New York: Viking, 1957) 41–42. 7. Maurice Blanchot, “Autour du roman,” L’Arche 9 (September 1945): 109. For considerations of the recent novel, see, Warren Motte, Fables of the Novel: French Fiction Since 1990 (Chicago: Dalkey Archive Press, 2003), Motte, Fiction Now:TheFrenchNovelintheTwenty-FirstCentury(Chicago: Dalkey Archive Press, 2008), and Alain-Philippe Durand and Naomi Mandel, eds., Novels of the Contemporary Extreme (New York: Continuum, 2006). 8. In an interview with Bettina Knapp, Raymond Queneau said, “We consider the Rhétoriqueurs to be our literary ancestors”—French Novelists Speak Out (Troy, NY: Whitston, 1976) 45. 9. Ricardou is, of course, opposing what he considers an oversimplification— Nouveau roman: Hier, aujourd’hui: Communications et interventions du col- loque tenu du 20 au 30 juillet 1971 au Centre culturel international de Cerisy- la-Salle, 2 vols. (Paris: 10/18, 1972) 2.43. 10. For a time, a number of New Novelists were claiming that their readers were free to create their own fictions from the works the authors offered. See, e.g., Jean Ricardou, “Naissance d’une fiction,” Nouveau roman: Hier, aujourd’hui 2.393–417, and Alain Robbe-Grillet, “An Interview with Alain Robbe-Grillet,” by Beverly Livingston, Yale French Studies 57 (1979) 235. The novelists’ insin- cerity was perhaps highlighted by the vociferous rejection of Jean Alter’s interpretation, which was not harmonious with the author’s intention— “Perspectives et modèles,” Nouveau roman: Hier, aujourd’hui 1.35–73. 11. Pavel, “The Novel in Search of Itself: A Historical Morphology,” The Novel, ed. Franco Moretti, vol. 2 (Princeton: Princeton UP, 2006) 3–31. 12. Barzun, “The Novel Turns Tale,” The Novel and Its Changing Form: Essays, ed. R. G. Collins (Winnipeg: U of Manitoba P, 1972) 128–29. 13. Virginia Woolf, “Modern Fiction,” The Common Reader, first series (1925; London: Hogarth P, 1962) 190. 14. W. Tatarkiewicz, “Form in the History of Aesthetics,” Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas, ed. Philip P.Wiener, 5 vols. (New York, Scribner, 1973–74) 2: 216–25. 15. Leonard Orr, Problems and Poetics of the Nonaristotelian Novel (Lewisburg: Bucknell UP, 1991) 14. NOTES TO PAGES 6–9 167 16. Hunter, Before Novels: the Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fic- tion (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990) 7. Although I agree with Franco Moretti that genres are morphological, at least to the point that incorporated sub- sets can vary paradigmatically, I differ in that I do not believe that the novel genre, at least, is chronologically demarcated. Moretti’s best examples justify his belief in temporality, but they are rather limited generic structures or sub- genres, like epistolary novels, gothic novels, and historical novels, and it seems both more interesting and more useful to see the similarity between these and other kinds of novels. Such attempts uncover the structures that transcend time, while components (or subsets) like plot, character, and theme of the definition change. See, Franco Moretti, Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Mod- els for a Literary History (London: Verso, 2005). Michael McKeon recognizes that prior to the eighteenth century there were novels, although they were indiscriminately referred to as romances, histories, or novels. They mediated history and romance as the middle class rose and took form, though he believes that Richardson and Fielding, in particular, introduced something new to the enlightenment culture—McKeon, The Origins of the English Novel: 1600–1740 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1987) 25–26. Doody makes the point that “[s]ets and subsets are not stable entities but fluid variables dependent on the conceptual interests of those who deal with them”—The True Story of the Novel xvii. See, also, Arthur Heiserman, TheNovelBeforetheNovel(Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1977), and Pierre Grimal, ed., “Introduction,” Romans grecs & latins. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade (Paris: Gallimard, 1963) ix–xxiv, who provide numerous examples of ancient novels. 17. Neither Lynn A. Higgins, NewNovel,NewWave,NewPolitics:Fictionandthe Representation of History in Postwar France (Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1966) 14, nor Bloom were, of course, the first to make such a point. As Wallace Martin pointed out, Roman Jakobson argued in an essay of 1921 that each new generation of writers “tends to assert that the works of its predecessors are improbable, artificial, stylized, not true to life”—Recent Theories of Narrative (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1986) 64. 18. Not everyone agrees with this distinction. Jeremy Hawthorn takes his def- inition from the Oxford English Dictionary: “a novel is a ‘fictitious prose narrativeortaleofconsiderablelength...in which characters and actions representative of the real life of past or present times are portrayed in a plot of more or less complexity’ ”—Studying the Novel, 4th ed. (London: Arnold, 2001) 4. 19. Leonard Orr gives an excellent summary of those who have believed that art must be unified (or coherent, complete, or closed)—Problems and Poetics 13–30—though he disagrees and considers novels that are “epistemologi- cal rather than emotional in mode ...non-mimetic ...non-chronological but not achronological ...and non-teleological” to differ in nature, thus are non- aristotelian (31). The concept of resolution, rather than unity, may avoid the problem whether the novel’s predominant design is an image or a sequence. 168 NOTES TO PAGES 9–11 20. Pablo Picasso, “Conversation with Picasso,” by Christian Zervos, in The Cre- ative Process: A Symposium, ed. Brewster Ghiselin (Berkeley: U of California P, 1954) 49. 21. Richter, Fable’s End, Completeness and Closure in Rhetorical Fiction (Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1974) 6–7. For contrary examples, for example, see what Gayatri Spivak has to say about recent literary discourse: “Whereas in other kinds of discourses there is a move toward the final truth of a situation, literature, even within this argument, displays that the truth of a human situation is the itinerary of not being able to find it. In the general discourse of the humani- ties, there is a sort of search for solutions, whereas in literary discourse there is a playing out of the problem as the solution, if you like”—In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York and London: Methuen, 1987) 77. 22. Robin Wood, “Godard and Weekend,” Weekend/Wind from the East, by Jean- Luc Godard, Modern Film Scripts (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972) 5. For an illustration, see the conflicting readings author and critic give William Burrough’s The Exterminator—Ihab Hassan, “The Subtracting Machine: The Work of William Burroughs,” Critique 6 (1963) 10. 23. Kermode, The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (Oxford: Oxford UP, 1967) 138. 24. I make more distinctions than Northrop Frye’s drama, epos, fiction, and lyric, only as a matter of usefulness and common practice. I would also agree with Stephen Heath that “the [Aristotelian] lyrical-epical-dramatic triad is ...a matter not of genres but rather of modes of enunciation, ways of present- ing that do not in themselves involve any defined content”—“The Politics of Genre,” Debating World Literature, ed.
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