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Hydrothermal Explosion Craters in Yellowstone National Park

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Hydrothermal Explosion Craters in Yellowstone National Park L. J. P. MUFFLER D. E. WHITE U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California 94025 A. H. TRUESDELL Hydrothermal Explosion Craters in Yellowstone National Park ABSTRACT proposed mechanism is reasonable. The sizes of craters expected in various rock types Hydrothermal explosions are produced correspond with those observed. when water contained in near-surface rock at temperatures as high as perhaps 250°C flashes INTRODUCTION to steam and violently disrupts the confining While preparing a geologic map of Lower rock. These explosions are due to the same Geyser Basin in 1966, we recognized two instability and chain reaction mechanism as large craters, each about 0.4 mi in mean geyser eruptions but are so violent that a diameter. Subsequently, other U.S. Geologi- large proportion of solid debris is expelled cal Survey personnel recognized similar craters along with water and steam. at a number of localities in Yellowstone Park Hydrothermal explosions are not a type of (Fig. 1). We have studied these other craters volcanic eruption. Although the required only in reconnaissance, and almost all the energy probably comes from a deep igneous data in this paper were obtained from the source, this energy is transferred to the sur- two craters in Lower Geyser Basin. None of face by circulating meteoric water rather than these craters has been mentioned previously by magma. The energy is stored as heat in in the geologic literature, although the small hot water and rock within a few hundred feet lakes within the Twin Buttes crater of Lower of the surface. Geyser Basin are labeled "crater lakes" on At least ten hydrothermal explosion craters, the Lower Geyser Basin map of the Hayden ranging in diameter from a few tens of feet to Sutvey (Hayden, 1883). about 5000 ft, have been recognized in Yel- We are grateful to R. L. Christiansen, G. lowstone National Park. Eight of these craters M. Richmond, and H. A. Waldrop for data are in hydrothermally cemented glacial de- on craters in the northern and eastern parts posits; two are in Pleistocene ash-flow tuff. of the Park and for many helpful discussions Each is surrounded by a rim composed of of the volcanic and glacial aspects of the debris derived from the crater. Juvenile vol- problem. We also acknowledge the mapping canic ejecta are absent, and there is no evi- and collaboration of our colleague R. O. dence of impact. Fournier, and the reviews of R. S. Fiske, D Geologic relations at the Pocket Basin J. Milton, R. F. Roy, and D. L. Blackstone. crater establish that the explosion there took place during the waning stages of early Pine- HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSIONS dale Glaciation. This association with ablat- The craters discussed here were not formed ing ice suggests that an ice-dammed lake by volcanic activity or by impact but by a existed over a hydrothermal system at the mechanism we term "hydrothermal explo- Pocket Basin site and that the hydrothermal sion." A hydrothermal explosion takes place explosion was triggered by the abrupt de- when water contained in near-surface rocks crease in confining pressure consequent to at temperatures as high as perhaps 250°C sudden draining of the lake. Most of the flashes to steam and violently disrupts the other explosion craters in Yellowstone Park confining rocks, expelling solid material as could have been triggered in the same manner. well as water and steam. Craters formed by Calculations of energy available in Yellow- hydrothermal explosions range in diameter stone hot-spring systems and of energy re- from a few tens of feet to at least 4000 ft. quired to form craters indicate that the Hydrothermal explosions are relatively un- Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 82, p. 723-740, 10 figs., March 1971 723 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/82/3/723/3432828/i0016-7606-82-3-723.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 MUFFLER AND OTHERS—HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION CRATERS common; thermal systems commonly dissi- tent) (White, 1967, p. 651-652). This insta- pate their heat by geyser and hot-spring bility produces hot-spring flow, geyser activ- action rather than by major eruptions or rock ity, and hydrothermal explosions, depending and water. on the physical characteristics of the system. In hydrothermal systems such as those of If near-surface permeability is relatively Yellowstone National Park, temperatures high, the instability of the hot-water column much higher than surface boiling can be is counteracted by convection, circulation, achieved at very shallow depths, because of surface boiling, and surface discharge as hot the increase of boiling point with pressure. springs. But if near-surface permeability is In many high-temperature water systems, the decreased by deposition of hydrothermal temperatures are controlled by the two-phase minerals or by a cap rock, steady-state proc- boundary between water and steam (Fig. 2). esses are not effective in dispersing the excess Such systems are inherently unstable because energy of high-temperature inflow, and geyser relatively low-temperature water (high in activity will result. density) is situated above high-temperature A geyser periodically erupts a turbulent water (low in density but high in energy con- mixture of water and vapor (White, 1967, JIO/OO' Figure 1. Map of Yellowstone National Park. Locations of hydrothermal explosion craters indicated by stars. Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/82/3/723/3432828/i0016-7606-82-3-723.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 CRATERS IN LOWER GEYSER BASIN 725 Temperature in °C take place at the same locality, but much time 50 100 150 is necessary to replenish the expended energy. We choose to designate this cratering mechanism as "hydrothermal explosion" rather than "hydrothermal eruption" in order to emphasize the distinctions from geyser Boiling point eruptions. "Hydrothermal eruption" is used curve under as a general term encompassing both hydro- hydrostatic thermal explosions and geyser eruptions. pressure Hydrothermal explosions have been re- ported from Lake City, California (White, 1955), Steamboat Springs, Nevada (White, 1955; White and others, 1964), Waiotapu, Temperature measured ot hole bottom during drilling New Zealand (Lloyd, 1959), and Tuscany, Italy (Marinelli, 1969). In addition, the 1957 eruption on Iwo Jima (Corwin and Foster, 1959) and the 1951-1952 activity at Nobon- betsu, Japan (Fukutomi and Fujiki, 1953), YELLOWSTONE No. 3 may also have been hydrothermal explosions. At Lake City, California, a previously incon- spicuous group of hot springs suddenly erup- ted on March 1, 1951, as violent mud vol- Fugure 2. Graph showing temperatures in canoes that involved over 300,000 tons of U.S. Geological Survey research drill hole Y-3 mud (White, 1955). Approximately 20 acres (just west of the Pocket Basin explosion crater) were intensely cratered and disturbed, and controlled by the boiling point curve. The curve shows the boiling point of pure water fine debris was showered as far as 4 mi away. under the hydrostatic pressure of liquid water During the declining activity that continued everywhere at the boiling point, assuming water for several days, five centers of activity evolved level to be at the ground surface. During drill- from what initially had been a single major ing at depths greater than 250 ft, the hole center. exhibited positive well-head pressures, per- A hydrothermal explosion is not a volcanic mitting temperatures to be slightly above the eruption, because no magma is directly in- two-phase curve for hydrostatic pressure alone. volved. The energy required is brought from depth by upflowing hot water and is stored p. 642). The violent nature of a geyset erup- as heat in water and rocks within a few tion is due to flashing of water to steam hundred feet of the surface. In contrast, rhe throughout a column of water everywhere at energy for a volcanic eruption is carried the boiling point. When water at the top of directly from depth to the surface by magma such a column is removed (for example, by or by fluidized rock. The explosive nature of bailing) the effective weight of the column some volcanic eruptions may be due either decreases, steam forms and displaces water, to rapid exsolution and expansion of gas further reducing the confining pressure at from magma or to vaporization of sea water depth, and the resulting chain reaction leads or cool ground water contacted by the magma. immediately to geyser eruption. If geyser When ground water is affected, the eruption eruptions are sufficiently violent, they can is termed "phreatic" (Stearns and Macdonald, expel rock fragments and can, in time, gradu- 1946, p. 16). ally destroy the geyser channels and termi- nate geyser activity (White, 1967, p. 681 - 682). CRATERS IN LOWER GEYSER BASIN Hydrothermal explosions are due to the Lower Geyser Basin is a broad, nearly flat same instability and chain reaction mecha- valley about 7200 ft above sea level, sur- nism as are geyser eruptions, but are so violent rounded by rhyolite plateaus that rise 400 to that they disrupt the confining rocks and 1000 ft above the valley floor (Fig. 3). expel a large proportion of solid debris. Be- Rhyolite flows ranging in age from 120,000 cause of this disruptive action, hydrothermal to nearly 600,000 yrs (R. L. Christiansen and explosions do not have the short-term peri- J. D. Obradovich, 1969, written commun.) odicity of geysers. Successive explosions may crop out east of the basin and extend west- Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-pdf/82/3/723/3432828/i0016-7606-82-3-723.pdf by guest on 29 September 2021 726 MUFFLER AND OTHERS-HYDROTHERMAL EXPLOSION CRATERS ward under the basin. The rhyolite flow that yrs B.P., according to Table 2 of Richmond, partly encircles Lower Geyser Basin on the 1965) are predominantly kame gravel and north, west, and south is even younger, prob- sand, with minor till and lacustrine deposits, ably about 90,000 yrs.
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